Professional Documents
Culture Documents
55
Second Edition
World Leaders in
Composite Solutions
High Strength
Lightweight
Non-corrosive
Easy Installation
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Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Concrete Society Technical Report No. 55
ISBN 1 904482 14 7
The Concrete Society 2004
First edition published 2000
Further copies and information about membership of The Concrete Society may be obtained from:
The Concrete Society
Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park
Station Approach, Blackwater
Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB, UK
E-mail: enquiries@concrete.org.uk; www.concrete.org.uk
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any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be addressed
to The Concrete Society.
The recommendations contained herein are intended only as a general guide and, before being used in connection
with any report or specification, they should be reviewed with regard to the full circumstances of such use.
Although every care has been taken in the preparation of this Report, no liability for negligence or otherwise can
be accepted by The Concrete Society, the members of its working parties, its servants or agents.
Concrete Society publications are subject to revision from time to time and readers should ensure that they are in
possession of the latest version.
Printed by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, Wiltshire
CONTENTS
viii
x
x
xi
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3
3
4
2.7
Principles of strengthening
Assessment of structures to be strengthened
Strengthening solutions
Advantages and disadvantages of fibre composite
strengthening
2.4.1 Advantages
2.4.2 Disadvantages
Design life
Economics
2.6.1 Installation
2.6.2 Whole-life costing
Level of strengthening
5
5
6
7
7
7
8
8
Introduction
Fibres
3.2.1 Types of fibre
3.2.2 Performance of different types of fibre
3.3 Fabrics
3.4 Plates
3.5 Rods and strips for near-surface-mounted (NSM)
reinforcement
3.6 Preformed shells for column confinement
3.7 Specials
3.8 Adhesives and laminating resins
3.9 Environmental aspects and Health and Safety
3.9.1 Environmental aspects
3.9.2 Health and Safety
3.10 Choice of materials for design
3.10.1 Plates versus wet lay-up sheet systems
3.10.2 NSM systems
3.10.3 Specific composite material
3.10.4 Stiffness issues
9
9
9
9
10
11
2.5
2.6
3.1
3.2
REVIEW OF APPLICATIONS
15
4.1
4.2
Introduction
Buildings
4.2.1 Beams and slabs
4.2.2 Columns
4.2.3 Connections
4.2.4 Walls
Bridges
4.3.1 Beams and slabs
4.3.2 Columns
4.3.3 Continuity
Other structures
4.4.1 Towers and chimneys
4.4.2 Tunnels
4.4.3 Marine/coastal structures
4.4.4 Miscellaneous structures
15
16
16
17
18
18
18
18
20
21
21
21
21
21
22
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF
STRENGTHENED MEMBERS
23
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Symbols
Overview of available design guidance
Basis of design
Mechanical properties of materials
5.4.1 Properties of concrete and steel
reinforcement
5.4.2 Properties of fibre-reinforced
polymers (FRP)
5.4.3 Properties of adhesives and laminating
resins
5.4.4 Stressstrain curves
Partial safety factors for loads
Design values for material properties
5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 Design strength of steel and concrete
5.6.3 Design elastic modulus of FRP
5.6.4 Design ultimate strain of FRP
5.6.5 Design ultimate strength of FRP
5.6.6 Steel stress
5.6.7 Deflection and cracking
5.6.8 Adhesive
4.3
4.4
11
11
12
12
13
13
13
13
13
13
14
14
5.5
5.6
23
24
24
25
25
25
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
27
27
27
28
28
Extreme loadings
5.7.1 Behaviour of structures in fire
5.7.2 Seismic loading
5.7.3 Impact loading
5.7.4 Blast loading
5.7.5 Vandalism
28
28
28
29
29
29
SHEAR STRENGTHENING
47
7.1
7.2
Introduction
Design procedure
7.2.1 Maximum shear capacity
7.2.2 FRP shear strengthening design
Spacing of FRP strips
Additional axial FRP
47
47
47
48
49
49
STRENGTHENING MEMBERS IN
FLEXURE
31
6.1
6.2
General
Moment capacity
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Requirements of the existing section
6.2.3 Preliminary design
6.2.4 Design resistance moment of FRPstrengthened beam
6.2.5 Example design method
FRP separation failure
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Bond failure
6.3.3 Design procedure
Flexural strengthening with NSM reinforcement
6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Design basis
6.4.3 Bond behaviour
6.4.4 Modes of failure
6.4.5 NSM separation failure design
6.4.6 Anchorage design
Flexural strengthening plate location
Thick and multi-layer laminates
Redistribution
Serviceability
6.8.1 Crack widths
6.8.2 Deflections and material stresses
6.8.3 Fatigue
6.8.4 Stress rupture
6.8.5 Strengthening under non-static live load
Strengthening prestressed structures
31
31
31
31
32
8.1
8.2
8.3
Introduction
Stressstrain model for FRP-confined concrete
Compression
8.3.1 Introduction
8.3.2 Tensile rupture of FRP
8.3.3 Lap joint failure
8.3.4 Shear
8.3.5 Serviceability
Flexure
8.4.1 Introduction
8.4.2 Moment capacity with axial load
8.4.3 Debonding
8.4.4 Anchorage
Ductility
Strengthening columns with non-circular crosssection
53
53
55
55
55
56
56
57
57
57
58
59
59
59
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
65
9.1
5.7
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
vi
32
32
33
33
34
34
36
36
37
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
40
40
41
41
41
42
7.3
7.4
8.4
8.5
8.6
9.2
60
65
65
67
67
68
68
68
68
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.5
10
68
68
69
69
69
69
69
69
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Evaluation of concrete condition
10.3 Concrete preparation
10.3.1 Concrete surface for plates and fabric
10.3.2 Slots in concrete surface for NSM
material
10.4 Material conformity
10.5 Storage of materials
10.6 Site conditions
10.7 Mixing and application of adhesive
10.7.1 General
10.7.2 Application to substrate prior to plate
installation
10.7.3 Application to FRP plates
10.7.4 Application to substrate prior to fabric
installation
10.7.5 Application to FRP fabrics
10.7.6 Inserting adhesive into slots for NSM
reinforcement
71
71
72
72
73
73
73
73
74
74
74
74
75
75
75
75
76
77
77
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
80
80
REFERENCES
81
APPENDICES
89
A
B
C
D
89
91
95
Glossary of terms
Systems available in the UK
Quality control of materials
Specialist suppliers, contractors, consultants,
universities/research organisations and owners
INDEX
97
99
75
vii
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS
Michael Johnston
Tony McNulty
Wendel Sebastian
David Tann
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work of preparing this Report was funded by the following organisations:
Degussa Construction Chemicals
Exchem Mining and Construction
Fyfe Co. LLC and Fyfe Asia Pte.
Highways Agency
London Underground Ltd
Network Rail
Sika
Toray Europe
weber building solutions
The Concrete Society is grateful to the following for providing photographs for inclusion in the Report:
Concrete Repairs Ltd (Figures 5, 6, 8, 11, 44 and 52)
Cornwall County Council (Figures 17, 37, 39, 45 and 50)
Halcrow Group Ltd (Figures 3, 40 and 43)
Highways Agency (Figure 9)
Makers UK Ltd (Figures 4, 13, 38 and 42)
Maunsell structural Plastics (Figures 12 and 48)
Parsons Brinckerhoff (Figure 15)
Sika Ltd (Figures 7, 14, 46 and 49)
weber building solutions (Figures 10, 41 and 47)
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Different types of structural strengthening,
applied to beams, slabs, walls and columns.
Figure 2: Flow chart of assessment process.
Figure 3: Installing fibre composite plates in a culvert.
Figure 4: Installing FRP plate, showing the flexibility of
the material.
Figure 5: FRP plate installed behind existing services.
Figure 6: Overlapped carbon FRP plates on Dudley Port
Bridge, West Midlands.
Figure 7: Coil of carbon FRP plate.
Figure 8: Cutting carbon FRP plate on site.
Figure 9: Shear reinforcement straps.
Figure 10: Strengthening around hole cut through slab.
Figure 11: Underpass, Great Missenden.
Figure 12: Applying carbon fibre sheet to Greenbridge
Subway, Swindon.
Figure 13: Strengthening Glade Bridge.
Figure 14: Strengthening the top surface of a bridge using
carbon fibre plates.
Figure 15: Column wrapping.
Figure 16: Machine for wrapping columns.
Figure 17: Bible Christian Bridge, Cornwall.
Figure 18: Assumed stressstrain curves.
Figure 19: Strengthening beams and slabs with FRP.
Figure 20: Stressstrain curve for reinforcing steel in the
design of strengthened beams in flexure.
Figure 21: Possible failure modes and locations for FRPstrengthened beam.
Figure 22: Variation in FRP separation strain with bonded
length, based on Denton et al.(112).
Figure 23: Characteristic bond failure force vs anchorage
length.
Figure 24: Shear reinforcement configurations.
Figure 25: General notation for shear strengthening.
Figure 26: Typical variation in ultimate strain capacity with
bonded length (after Neubauer and Rostasy(111)).
Figure 27: Experimental verification of design method
(after Denton et al.(112)).
Figure 28: Idealised stressstrain curve for FRP-confined
concrete.
Figure 29: Stressstrain model.
Figure 30: Laps in columns.
Figure 31: Stressstrain behaviour of variably confined
concrete.
Figure 32: Recommended stressstrain curves for combined flexure and axial load.
Figure 33: Assumed confined region for FRP-wrapped rectangular column.
Figure 34: Overlapping parabolas in confined region.
Figure 35: Dead-end prestressing system (left) and stressing anchorage (right).
Figure 36: Prestressing system used on Lauterbridge,
Gomadingen.
Figure 37: Use of pull-out test to determine concrete
strength.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1:
Table 2:
Table 3:
Table 4:
Table 5:
Table 6:
Table 7:
Table 8:
Table 9:
Table 10:
Table B1:
Table B2:
Table B3:
Table B4:
Table B5:
Table B6:
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Fibre composites (or fibre-reinforced polymers, generally known as FRPs) have been used successfully for many years in the
aerospace and automotive industries. They are used in construction, for example as structural elements and for cladding. This
Report does not consider such applications but deals only with a recent development, strengthening concrete structures by
bonding fibre composites to the surface.
Suitable fibres are made from carbon, aramids or glass. These may be used in the form of:
composite plates, made from fibres and epoxy resins which are fixed with epoxies to the soffits of beams and slabs
sheet materials, which are wrapped round columns and similar members
preformed shells, bonded round columns.
Advantages
The principal advantages of using composites over steel plates are their high strength and light weight; typical properties are
given for commercially available materials. This makes installation simple and quick and eliminates the need for temporary
support. The materials can be easily cut to length on site. The availability of long lengths and the flexibility of the materials
also simplify installation because:
These various factors in combination lead to a significantly simpler and quicker strengthening process than when using other
methods. This is particularly important for bridges because of the high costs of lane closures and possession times on major
highways and railway lines. An additional advantage of FRPs over some other types of strengthening is that the weight of the
structure and the dimensions of the member are not significantly increased. The latter may be particularly important for
bridges, tunnels and other structures with limited clearance.
Disadvantages
One disadvantage of FRP strengthening is the risk of fire, vandalism or accidental damage. For bridges over roads the risk of
soffit reinforcement being hit by over-height vehicles should be considered. In general, some form of protection will be
required.
Examples of FRP strengthening
There are many concrete structures around the world that have been externally strengthened with FRP. The Report concentrates on applications in the UK. The floors of various buildings have been strengthened to carry additional loads and FRP
has been used in structural alterations. Columns have been strengthened in several multi-storey car-parks by wrapping with
carbon fibre sheet.
Several major highway bridges and a large number of small bridges have been strengthened using FRPs to increase their load
capacity. Most applications have been on soffits but some bridges have had FRP bonded to the upper surface or around the
columns. Other strengthening applications in the UK include lighthouses and cooling towers. Elsewhere in the world almost
every type of concrete structure, from chimneys to tunnels, has been strengthened.
Design approach
Fibre composites have a straight-line stressstrain response to ultimate with no yielding. Thus elastic methods of analysis
with no redistribution are appropriate. For members in bending, the traditional design assumptions are still valid. However,
further checks are required to avoid peeling failure at the ends of the laminate and debonding from the concrete. If failure
occurs, it will be in the outer layer of the concrete; the proposed, conservative, approach is to limit the longitudinal shear
stress in the concrete at ultimate to 0.8N/mm2. To minimise the risk of debonding, the strain in the FRP should not exceed
0.8% when the applied load is uniformly distributed and 0.6% if combined high shear forces and bending moments are present. A minimum anchorage length of 500mm is recommended.
xi
FRP strips may be used to strengthen members in shear. The material may be treated as an external stirrup, again using traditional design assumptions but the strain in the FRP should be limited to 0.4%.
Wrapping circular columns with FRP increases the axial load capacity as well as the bending and shear capacities. (Only limited increases are possible with square and rectangular columns.) Approaches are given which relate the enhanced ultimate
stress and strain in the concrete to the degree of confinement.
Workmanship and installation
The installation of FRP materials must carried out correctly, to ensure good long-term performance. Detailed guidance is
given, including the selection of the appropriate material and adhesive, adequate preparation of the concrete surface, application of the composite and correct curing of the adhesive. It is important that the work is carried out by a suitably qualified
contractor with suitably trained staff.
Inspection and maintenance
As strengthening with FRPs is a relatively new technique, regular inspection and maintenance regimes should be set up. This
is particularly important for buildings which, unlike bridges, are not generally subject to any form of routine inspection.
Where practical, additional material should be installed, which can be removed at a later stage for testing. Information on the
materials used, along with information on the actions to be taken in the event of damage to the FRP, should be included in the
Health and Safety File.
Changes and additions in the Second Edition of TR55
Since the publication of the First Edition of TR55 in December 2000 materials and techniques have developed rapidly, along
with the range of applications. Hence it was thought necessary to produce this Second Edition of TR55. A number of the
changes are matters of detail, brought about by additional research findings and further experience of the use of the materials.
However, significant changes or additions have been made in some areas, including:
modification of the treatment of partial safety factors in the design process; factors are now applied to the FRP strains rather
than the stresses
extreme loadings
design of members in shear, to provide a less empirical approach, allowing wider and more confident application of the
technique
column design, to provide a more unified approach for axial and combined axial and flexural strengthening; a more detailed
approach has been developed for the strengthening of rectangular columns
design guidance for the new technique of near-surface-mounted (NSM) reinforcement.
In addition, an overview of emerging technologies, such as the use of prestressed composites, mechanical anchorage systems
and alternatives to the adhesives currently used, has been included.
xii
INTRODUCTION
Flexural strengthening can be achieved by bonding pultruded strips or rods into slots cut in the cover region of the
concrete. This application is termed Near-Surface-Mounted
(NSM) reinforcement, and has benefits where the exposed
concrete surface is to be trafficked or otherwise exposed to
potential damage. In the UK this technique has been applied
to car park decks, and overseas to jetties and dock-side
structures that are subjected to loads from the movement of
shipping containers. The technique is also applicable where
the surface of the concrete is undulating, or if there is
excessive laitance or a thin layer of poor quality concrete
near the surface. Installation is more costly than for
externally bonded reinforcement, due to the need to cut the
slots and a slightly more complicated method for surface
preparation. Usually the technique would only be used where
externally bonded reinforcement is not a good technical
solution.
An appreciable number of structures in the UK and
elsewhere have been strengthened using FRP materials and
the rate at which the technique is being used is increasing
rapidly. It is estimated that several hundred structures have
been strengthened in the UK to date, with the amounts of
fibre composite material involved ranging from a few metres
(or m2) for a small job to several kilometres on a major one.
There was little independent guidance on how the design of
strengthening works should be carried out until the First
Edition of Technical Report 55 was published in December
2000(1). Subsequently, guidance documents have been
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
BACKGROUND
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Background
The lower weight makes handling and installation significantly easier than steel. This is particularly important when
installing material in cramped locations. Figure 3 shows
carbon fibre plates being installed in a culvert with limited
headroom.
2.4.1 Advantages
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Currently the properties of materials used in FRP strengthening schemes are not covered by British or International
Standards. However, the Classification and Assessment of
Composite Materials Systems for use in the Civil Infrastructure project, being led by Oxford Brookes University, is
developing a classification scheme for adhesives and laminating resins. Further information may be obtained from the
web site (www.compclass.org). In addition the British Board
of Agrment is developing approval for certain types of
strengthening materials used in bridges under the Highways
Authorities Product Approval Scheme (HAPAS).
Experience of the long-term durability of fibre composites is
limited, though some installations have been in service for
13 years. This may be a disadvantage for structures for which
Background
a very long design life is required (see Section 2.5) but can
be overcome by appropriate monitoring (see Chapter 11) and
as detailed in TR57(5).
2.6 ECONOMICS
2.6.1 Installation
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
In many cases, the basic data to permit reasonable assessments of the various elements that make up the whole-life
cost are not available. Nonetheless, it can be appreciated that
strengthening using fibre composites can be competitive in
whole-life cost comparisons because both installation and
maintenance costs are usually lower than those of competing
techniques and possession times are shorter.
Prolonging the useful life of structures that will still be
required for a long time into the future (e.g. road or rail
bridges) becomes an attractive proposition in whole-life cost
terms. This is because, if replacement can be delayed for
many years, the cost at present day value is considerably
reduced. For example, if a discount rate of 8% is assumed, a
cost of 1,000,000 at year 20 has a present day value of only
200,000. It can be more economic, in whole-life cost terms,
to strengthen now and replace in 20 years, than to replace now.
One factor which is difficult to take into account in wholelife costing is the time until the structure becomes obsolete.
This may happen for physical, economic, functional, technological, social or legal reasons. This uncertainty can lead to
the lowest initial cost option being favoured on the basis that
there is little to be gained from additional spending now, if
the structure is unlikely to be required in its present form in
ten years.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Fibre composites are formed from high performance fibres
combined with an appropriate resin. Epoxies are generally
used, but some development has been carried out on inorganic
cement-based matrices(18). For strengthening applications,
the composite may be preformed into plates or panels and
bonded to the concrete. The most common example is
composite plates bonded to the soffits of beams or slabs.
Alternatively, the fibres may be combined with the resin in
situ as part of the application process, such as in the wrapping of columns. The mechanical properties of fibre composites are chiefly controlled by the type, amount, orientation
and distribution of fibres in the cross-section. The role of the
resin is to transfer stresses to and from the fibres and also to
provide some protection from the environment. This Chapter
provides a general introduction to the fibres and resins used
for strengthening. For further information on the properties
and behaviour of composites, the reader should consult
standard textbooks, such as An introduction to composite
materials(19) and Composite materials: engineering and
science(20).
3.2 FIBRES
3.2.1 Types of fibre
The most suitable fibres for strengthening applications are
glass, carbon or aramid. (Aramids are better known by the
trade names Kevlar and Twaron.) Each is a family of fibre
types in general, with individual fibre types within the families that may vary. Typical values for the properties of fibres
are given in Table 1. It should be noted that these values are
for the plain fibres alone, not woven fabrics nor for the resulting fibre composites. The strength and modulus for manufactured composites will be significantly lower (see Sections
3.4 and 3.6). The values in Table 1 should only be taken as
indicative; where necessary, actual values should be obtained
from the manufacturer. The fibres all have a linear elastic
response up to ultimate load, with no significant yielding.
Details of some available materials are given in Table B1 of
Appendix B.
3.2.2 Performance of different types of fibre
The selection of the type of fibre to use in a particular
application will depend on many factors the type of structure, the expected loading, the environmental conditions, and
so on. Some information is given in this section; further
advice can be obtained from the suppliers of strengthening
materials. Throughout, the comments refer to the performance
of the fibre itself; in most situations this will be modified by
the resin or adhesive.
Chemical resistance
Carbon and aramid fibres are resistant to most forms of
chemical attack. Many types of glass fibre, including the
widely used E glass, are attacked by alkalies (pH greater than
about 11) but not by acids. Alkali-resistant (AR) glass fibres
are specially formulated for use in highly alkaline environments and are therefore suitable for strengthening concrete
structures. Aramids absorb much more water than either of
the other two fibres, which can cause problems with the
resinfibre interface. There is some evidence to suggest that,
in the presence of salts, fracture of all types of fibre can occur
due to the formation of angular crystals.
Fibre
Carbon: high strength*
Carbon: high modulus*
Carbon: ultra high modulus
Tensile strength
(N/mm2)
43004900
27405490
26004020
Modulus of elasticity
(kN/mm2)
230240
294329
540640
Elongation (%)
Specific density
1.92.1
0.71.9
0.40.8
1.8
1.781.81
1.912.12
124130
2.4
1.44
Glass
7085
3.54.7
2.6
24003500
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Stiffness
The elastic modulus of carbon fibre is similar to, or significantly greater than, that of steel. The stiffness of aramid is
lower and that of glass significantly lower.
Electrical conductivity
Aramid and glass fibres are non-conducting and hence are
suitable for use close to power lines, electrified railway lines
and communications facilities. As carbon fibres conduct electricity they should be electrically isolated from any steel to
prevent the establishment of a galvanic cell. In general the
resin will be sufficient for this, but where there is a particular
risk it is recommended that a glass fibre sheet be additionally
included as the outermost layer of the FRP strengthening
system.
Designers should also be alert to the possibility of carbon
fibres within an FRP attracting induced currents when placed
close to an AC electricity supply. While no experimental
work appears to have been carried out in this area, it is theoretically possible that induced currents within a carbon FRP
could lead to unacceptable heating of an ambient cure adhesive as it has been shown that the conducting properties of
carbon fibre can be used to pass an electric current to achieve
a higher adhesive cure temperature.
For UK railway applications it is a requirement that any
conducting material that could become live due to induced
currents or short circuits from traction power sources must be
electrically connected to the return conductor. For metallic
structures this is normally achieved by attaching an electrical
bond between the return conductor and the structure. Due to
the distributed nature of carbon fibres within the adhesive
matrix of a carbon FRP it is virtually impossible to guarantee
that every single fibre can be connected to the return conductor by an electrical bond. Hence Network Rail will only
permit the use of aramid FRP in close proximity to its AC
overhead electrification systems; however, carbon FRP is
permitted where DC electrification systems are present.
Care is needed when handling or cutting carbon FRP close to
electrical equipment due to the risk of short-circuit by airborne particles (see Section 3.9). In addition, when used close
to power lines etc., steps must be taken to ensure that, in the
unlikely event of adhesive failure, the composite does not
come into contact with the electrical source.
Compressive strength
The compressive strengths of carbon and glass fibres are close
to their tensile strengths; that of aramid is significantly lower.
10
Impact resistance
Performance of fibres during impact is highly dependent on
the elastic strain energy generated and absorbed. Fibres combining high strength with high elongation (tensile strength
greater than 3,500N/mm2 and elongation greater than 2%)
are most suitable for applications where impact resistance is
important. Selected grades of carbon, aramid and glass fibre
can meet these requirements.
Fire
Glass fibres retain strength up to their melting point (over
1000C) while carbon fibres oxidise in air above 650C.
Aramid fibres are not normally used above 200C. None of
the fibres will support combustion. In composites, the resin
behaviour will dominate performance; most generate toxic
smoke. Several composite systems have coatings that can
provide protection.
3.3 FABRICS
Fabrics are available in two basic forms:
Sheet material. The fibres are generally in a unidirectional arrangement, though biaxial and triaxial arrangements are available. They may be on a removable backing
sheet or in the form of a woven or stitched cloth.
Prepreg material. This consists of fibres preimpregnated
with resin, which is cured once in place, by the application
of heat or by other means.
3.4 PLATES
Unidirectional plates are usually formed by the pultrusion
process. Fibres, in the form of continuous rovings, are drawn
off in a carefully controlled pattern through a resin bath,
which impregnates the fibre bundle. They are then pulled
through a die, which consolidates the fibreresin combination and forms the required shape. The die is heated which
sets and cures the resin, allowing the completed composite to
be drawn off by reciprocating clamps or a tension device.
The process enables a high proportion of fibres (generally
about 65%) to be incorporated in the cross-section. Hence, in
the longitudinal direction, relatively high strength and stiffness are achieved, approximately 65% of the relevant figures
in Table 1. Because most of, if not all, the fibres are in the
longitudinal direction, the transverse strength will be very low.
Plates formed by pultrusion are 14mm thick and are
supplied in a variety of widths, typically between 50 and
150mm. The sizes and properties of some available plates
are given in Table B3 of Appendix B. (It should be noted
that, while plate properties and dimensions of plates can be
tailored to suit the particular application, it will generally be
more economical to use stock sizes.) Carbon is the most
widely used fibre though glass is used in some applications.
As pultrusion is a continuous process, very long lengths of
material are available. Thinner material is provided in the
form of a coil, with a diameter of about 1m, as shown in
Figure 7. It can be easily cut to length on site using a simple
guillotine (see Figure 8).
11
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
3.7 SPECIALS
Plates formed into an L shape may be used as an external
link to provide shear reinforcement on beams, with the lower
leg of the L providing the anchorage for the vertical portion(21,22) (see Figure 9). The same type of unit could be used
to provide anchorage at the top of a beam, at the interface
with the slab or at beamcolumn connections. There have
been various applications of this type in Germany and
Denmark but only one in the UK.
Polyester adhesives have high curing shrinkage, high coefficient of thermal expansion, can be subject to alkaline
hydrolysis, and are difficult to bond to when hardened.
Vinyl ester adhesives are subject to curing shrinkage, and
the bond is badly affected by moisture.
Polyurethane adhesives have high curing shrinkage, can
be affected by moisture and are difficult to bond to.
12
high demand on longitudinal shear stress within the adhesive layer, particularly in short-span situations
poor quality substrate material, so that longitudinal shear
capacity is low
requirement for a special anchorage system, such as that
described in Section 9.1.2
strengthening around a corner
transportation of discrete plates difficult
shallow structure requiring low levels of strengthening
distributed over a large area.
13
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
14
Robustness and/or toughness of the material is a particularly important design criteria: under such circumstances,
aramid might be considered (although a protective layer
on carbon can be used, e.g. an abrasion-resistant layer on
a car park column).
Low-level strengthening required, so that relatively lowcost glass could be considered, placed in substantially
thicker layers than the equivalent carbon.
Wrapping of columns in the hoop direction to enhance
confinement in the event of seismic actions. Under such
circumstances, glass could be considered.
REVIEW OF APPLICATIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
It is estimated that to date (Summer 2004), approximately
150 structures in the UK have been strengthened with FRP.
Some examples are given in Tables 2 and 3, for buildings
and bridges, respectively. The tables give details of only
Location
Kings College Hospital, London
Date
1996
Details of strengthening
Soffit of slab to carry
additional storey
1996
1997
Soffits of beams
Carbon plate
Carbon plate
Carbon plate
Garden(33)
Soffits of beams
Carbon plate
Luke(34)
1997
Material
Carbon plate
Published reference
Parker(28), Hollaway and
Leeming(29)
2002
2002
Farmer(37)
2003
Near-surfacemounted rods
Near-surfacemounted rods
Farmer(38)
Location
Date
Details of strengthening
Material
Published reference
1996
Carbon plate
Soudain(39), Anon(40),
Luke(34), Taylor et al.(32)
1996
Soffit of slab
Carbon plate
Hollaway and
Leeming(29)
Soffit of slab
Carbon plate
Anon(41)
Edge of slab
Carbon plate
Wrapping of columns
Carbon sheet
Aramid sheet
Glass sheet
Parker(44)
Soffit of slab
Carbon sheet
Anon(45)
Soffit of beams
Carbon plate
Farmer(46)
1998
1998
15
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Location
Date
Details of strengthening
Material
Published reference
Soffit of slab
Carbon plate
Anon(47)
1998
Soffit of slab
Carbon plate
Anon(40)
1999
Soffit of slab
Carbon plate
Barton(48)
1999
Soffit of slab
Carbon plate
Sadka(49)
2000
Wrapping of columns
Aramid fabric
Denton et al.(50)
A19, Tyneside
2000
Wrapping of columns
2001
Chilthurst Bridge
2002
Denton(54)
2003
2003
Wrapping of columns
Aramid sheet
Richardson(56)
2002
Carbon plate
2003
Carbon plate
4.2 BUILDINGS
4.2.1 Beams and slabs
Additional load capacity
Carbon FRP plates were bonded to the soffit of the concrete
trough slab which formed the roof of Normanby College,
part of Kings College Hospital in London, to strengthen it
sufficiently to carry an additional floor(28). It was suggested
that the conventional strengthening approach using steel
plates would not have been possible because of the problems
of inserting bolts into the soffits of the thin ribs.
Drewett(55)
16
Review of applications
Fire damage
A number of prestressed concrete beams in a multi-storey
car park in Orpington were damaged due to a vehicle fire.
Following repairs to the concrete, the beams were
strengthened with carbon FRP plates. After strengthening the
beams were load tested and insulation boards fitted to
provide one-hour fire protection. Similar work was undertaken at a retail premises in Portsmouth, using a combination
of carbon FRP plate and wrapping.
Repair
The steelconcrete composite slab of a car park in Chicago
suffered severe corrosion damage, both to the steel decking
and the top continuity steel over the supports, because of deicing salts. As part of the repair, carbon fibre plates were
bonded to the top surface of the slab over the supports. As
some of the existing cracks were about 3mm wide, the plates
were debonded on either side of the support to reduce the
peak stresses(61).
Corrosion induced by de-icing salts had seriously weakened
the decks of a car park in Liverpool. After making good the
damaged concrete, the slabs were strengthened using NSM
carbon fibre composite rods(38).
4.2.2 Columns
Wrapping a column with fibre composite (glass, carbon or
aramid) significantly increases the structural capacity of the
column. This is most effective on circular columns, and is
significantly less effective for square or rectangular columns.
Much work has been carried out in Japan and the USA with
the aim of developing cost-effective retrofitting to increase
the seismic resistance of columns. A major programme on
the performance of concrete columns enclosed by composites was carried out at Southampton University(62).
Additional load capacity
Aramid fibre sheets were used to strengthen the main
columns of a seven-level car park in Manchester so that two
further storeys could be added, providing an additional 300
car parking spaces(35,36). The material was chosen in
preference to conventional approaches, such as casting an
additional layer of concrete round the columns, because of
the speed of installation and the minimal increase in the
column dimensions.
Insufficient reinforcement
Newly constructed circular columns for a multi-storey
building in Dublin were found to have insufficient links.
They were strengthened by wrapping with carbon fibre sheet.
This approach caused minimal disruption to the construction
programme.
17
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Incorrect detailing
4.3 BRIDGES
Incorrect design
Excessive ground movements and floor loadings led to the
shear failure of newly-constructed square columns in the
basement car park of a hotel in Dublin. After repairing the
shear failure, the columns were strengthened by wrapping
them with carbon fibre sheet. The approach was found to be
quicker than traditional strengthening methods.
4.2.4 Walls
In 1997, pultruded carbon fibre plates were installed for the
first time in an operating nuclear power station in the UK(33).
The plates, of only 1m length, were bonded in several locations across structural cracks in reinforced concrete walls.
The objective was to restore the original reinforcement
contribution of the embedded reinforcing bars, which had
yielded due to widening of the cracks. The length of the
composite plates, and their cross-sectional dimensions, were
tailored to suit the substrate material properties and
anticipated design loads in the walls.
Trials in the UK and the USA have demonstrated that aramid
fibres bonded to the faces of concrete walls can significantly
increase their blast resistance.
18
Review of applications
19
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
4.3.2 Columns
In this Section, the applications are grouped according to the
type of strengthening material used. The materials are
generally applied by hand (see Figure 15), though specialist
machines have been developed for large structures. These are
clamped around the column and a carrier head revolves
around the column, laying down a continuous fibre tape under
tension. The machine is gradually raised round the column, as
the required thickness of fibre is installed. Figure 16 shows
one such machine.
Wrapping with fabrics
Figure 14: Strengthening the top surface of a bridge using
carbon fibre plates.
20
Review of applications
4.4.2 Tunnels
Preformed shells
Various types of prefabricated glass fibre composite shell are
being developed in the USA, including the full height Hardcore system, as used on the Santa Monica Freeway in Los
Angeles and the segmental Clockspring system(76).
Preformed shells were used to strengthen columns on the
New Jersey Turnpike, which had heights between 3 and
4.5m(77). The shells were installed with a clearance of
50150mm from the concrete surface, which was later filled
with grout. In some locations the lower end of the shell was
21
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
22
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF
STRENGTHENED MEMBERS
5.1 SYMBOLS
fcu
ff
ffd
ffk
ffm
fr
fy
G
gs
h
Ics
Ae
Af
Afa
Afs
Ag
Aol
Asa
AsaF
a
b
ba
bbarperim
bf
bnotchperim
c
D
d
df
Ec
Efd
Efk
E0
E2
Es
e
fat
fcc
fccd
fc0
fctm
k
kb
lol
lnsm
lnsm,max
lt
lt,max
M
Madd
N
n
ne
Q
Rc
s
sf
Tk
Tk,max
Tnsm
Tnsm,ad
Tnsm,max
tf
V
Vadd
Vc
Vf
VR,max
Vs
Vu
23
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
vmax
x
z
e
f
ff
y
mA
mc
E
mE
mf
mm
ms
me
c0
cc
ccu
fd
fe
ff
fk
fse
t
y
24
Ultimate
Strength
Bending
Shear
Compression
Anchorage/plate separation
Fire
Serviceability
Deflection
Cracking
Steel stress
Fatigue
Creep
Stress rupture
Durability
The design of FRP strengthening systems is mainly concentrated on the ultimate limit state of strength (see Chapters
6 to 8). This includes checks for bending, shear and compression, conditions normally associated with reinforced concrete
design, as well as checks for plate separation that are peculiar
to FRP-strengthened structures. Since structural strengthening
invariably increases the stiffness of flexural members, which
in turn increases the risk of brittle failure, a check on ductility
will also be necessary (see Section 6.2.4). Since the proportional increase in stiffness will be less than the increase in
strength, it will also be necessary to check the deflection of
the strengthened structure against the appropriate limits.
Service loads should not adversely affect the appearance or
efficiency of strengthened structures. Generally, FRPstrengthened structures should experience closely spaced
narrow cracks provided that good bond exists between the
FRP and the concrete substrate. However, where problems
are anticipated the designer should take steps to ensure that
the design crack widths do not exceed the limits recommended in BS 8110 or BS 5400, as appropriate. The steel
reinforcement should not yield under the service load,
otherwise permanent deformations in the structure will result.
Fatigue and stress rupture are taken into account by using
lower design stresses determined in accordance with Section
6.8. Much of the testing work that has been carried out has
confirmed that carbon FRP retains its chemical and physical
properties when exposed to conditions typical of those
relevant to concrete construction. However, other materials
are less stable when exposed to moisture or ultraviolet
radiation, and consideration must therefore be given to the
use of protective coating systems (see also Section 10.11).
For buildings, fire should also be included in the above limit
states as it will influence the properties of both the FRP and
the adhesive used to attach the FRP to the concrete (although
some fire-rated structural systems are available). This aspect
is discussed further in Section 5.7.1.
(Equation 1)
25
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
26
In most practical design situations the limiting factor governing the failure of an FRP-strengthened structure is the strain
in the FRP (e.g. anchorage, separation failure, etc.), although
rarely ultimate strain. It is therefore the stiffness of the FRP
that is of importance. Although durability tests in laboratory
conditions on unloaded glass and carbon FRP composites
have shown that there is little significant degradation of the
modulus of elasticity under long-term (10,000hr) environmental exposures such as salt water, high alkalinity, humidity
and freezethaw(98), the modulus of elasticity of FRP may
change with time under load and may vary according to the
method of manufacture and application. In particular, lack of
straightness of fibres can significantly affect the stiffness. In
addition, the accuracy with which the properties are obtained
from test samples is dependent upon the method of manufacture. Therefore, it is necessary to apply partial safety
factors relating to both material type and method of manufacture to the modulus of elasticity of FRP in arriving at the
design strength of structures strengthened with external
reinforcement:
Efd = Ef / mE
(Equation 2)
where
mE = E mm
(Equation 3)
Recommended partial safety factors for modulus of elasticity are given in Table 5 and partial safety factors for
method of manufacture and application can be taken from
Table 6.
Table 5: Partial safety factors for Youngs modulus at the ultimate
limit state.
Material
Carbon FRP
Aramid FRP
AR glass FRP
E glass FRP
Additional partial
safety factor, mm
1.05
1.1
1.2
(Equation 6)
mf = mE m = E (mm)2
(Equation 7)
1.05
1.1
1.2
1.5
ffd = ff / mf
(Equation 8)
ffk
Ef
ffd
Ef
(Equation 4)
Strain
where
m = mm
1.05
1.05
1.1
fd = fk / m
Material
Carbon FRP
Aramid FRP
AR glass FRP
E glass FRP
Factor of safety, E
1.1
1.1
1.6
1.8
Table 7: Partial safety factor for strain at the ultimate limit state.
(Equation 5)
27
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
grade 230 steel, which would otherwise be considered suitable for strengthening. Under these circumstances, designers
may consider increasing the allowable steel stress to 1.0 fy,
provided that other factors, e.g. crack widths and concrete
quality, do not preclude this approach to strengthening.
5.6.7 Deflection and cracking
The deflections and crack widths in structures being strengthened should be kept within values specified in current codes
and standards, such as BS 8110 or BS 5400. The calculations
should be based on the partial safety factors contained in
these documents.
5.6.8 Adhesive
In general, the ultimate behaviour of a strengthened section
will be governed by the strength of the concrete and not by
the strength of the adhesive, provided the following are
satisfied:
28
such as that given in BS 476: Part 20(99), for the required fire
endurance. A design approach, only for members in flexure,
is given in Section Four of BS 8110: Part 2, which gives
reduced values for the strengths of the steel and concrete at
elevated temperatures. However, as fire is considered as an
accidental load, the partial safety factors on the materials are
reduced and, more importantly, the partial safety factors on
the dead and live loads are also reduced. Thus in many cases,
the fibre composite strengthening could fail completely without risking failure of the structure. This may be illustrated by
the following simple example, which ignores any material
property changes due to the elevated temperatures:
1. Consider a floor slab with a dead load G and live load Q
2. Original design capacity = 1.4 G + 1.6 Q
3. The slab is strengthened to carry an additional 50% live
load
4. Hence modified design capacity = 1.4 G + 1.6 (1.5 Q)
5. Required design capacity in fire = 1.05 G + 1.0 (1.5 Q)
6. In a typical floor slab, G Q, so required design capacity
in fire = 2.55 G
7. Capacity of unstrengthened slab = 3.0 G which is greater
than the required capacity in fire.
If failure of the fibre composite strengthening in fire would
lead to the collapse of the structure, it will obviously be
necessary to consider the behaviour of the fibre composite
materials as well as the behaviour of the adhesive. The fibres
themselves are unlikely to be affected by the elevated temperature. However, it is likely that the adhesive will be affected
if the temperature exceeds the adhesives glass transition
temperature, which may be of the order of 50 to 60C for
conventional materials. If the glass transition temperature is
reached then the effectiveness of the FRP strengthening will
be reduced.
Specific advice on fire resistance of FRP materials should be
sought from the manufacturer. If necessary, options for increasing the fire resistance of FRPs may include providing a
layer of suitable insulating material over the fibre composite.
The carbon fibre mats used to strengthen the soffit of a bridge
over the A10 motorway in France were covered with a layer
of plaster and mortar for fire protection(100). Unless a rigorous
analysis is undertaken it is sensible to neglect the strengthening from FRP in fire situations. As shown above, such a
situation does not preclude the use of FRP strengthening.
In addition to concerns about the structural behaviour of
strengthened structures in fire, the emission of smoke and
toxic fumes will be a major consideration, particularly in
enclosed situations such as tunnels. Improved performance
can be achieved by the use of appropriate fillers and the use
of intumescent coatings or other high-temperature foam
insulation barriers.
5.7.2 Seismic loading
Seismic loading will not be a major loading case for most
UK structures. However, it may be important for strengthening work in connection with nuclear-related structures.
29
STRENGTHENING
MEMBERS IN FLEXURE
6.1 GENERAL
The flexural strength of reinforced concrete beams and slabs
can be increased by bonding FRP laminates to the tension
faces of the members, as shown in Figure 19. For members
strengthened in flexure the following should be considered:
maximum moment
risk of peeling failure at the ends of the FRP
risk of debonding of the FRP and the concrete substrate
shear capacity of the section
ductility of the strengthened member
compliance with relevant serviceability limit states, e.g.
cracking, deflection, fatigue, creep-rupture.
In addition, this design guidance is dependent on assumptions based on the installation methods and specification
detailed in Chapter 10.
31
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
(Equation 9)
where
fe
= the lesser of fk / m (the design ultimate strain of
FRP) and a strain of 0.008. Typically the value of
0.008, which would result in separation failure (see
Section 6.3.3) governs.
Efd = design modulus of elasticity of FRP, Efk /mE
z
= steel lever arm
This calculation becomes a less reliable predictor of the FRP
area required if the existing section is already heavily reinforced, or if the section is doubly reinforced. In any event, it
is always necessary to proceed with the detailed design
method rather than rely on this initial estimate.
6.2.4 Design resistance moment of FRP-strengthened
beam
When analysing a cross-section to determine its ultimate
moment of resistance the following assumptions should be
made:
32
stress
fy/ms
E=200 kN/mm2
strain
Figure 20: Stressstrain curve for reinforcing steel in the
design of strengthened beams in flexure.
fy
Es ms
(Equation 10)
(Equation 11)
where
V
= the shear force due to ultimate loads
ff = the final strain in the FRP at step (g)
Efd = Efk / mE
If the calculation described does not converge at a solution
that meets the criteria described, then the quantity of FRP to
be applied may need adjustment and the calculation repeated
until an adequate design is achieved.
Figure 21: Possible failure modes and locations for FRPstrengthened beam.
33
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
The bond behaviour of externally bonded FRP differs markedly from that of embedded steel reinforcement. Experiments have shown that the longitudinal shear stress that can
be transferred between the FRP and the concrete is not
independent of the bonded length, as typically assumed for
embedded steel reinforcement. Thus, while it is possible to
anchor steel reinforcement by providing an anchorage length
beyond which the full strength of the reinforcement can be
developed, this is not typically the case for externally bonded
FRP. This aspect of the behaviour of externally bonded FRP
greatly influences, and adds complexity to, the design of
strengthening schemes.
In tests on the anchorage of FRP externally bonded to concrete, it has been found that beyond a limiting bonded length,
of the order of 50300mm, there is no further increase in the
ultimate anchorage load-capacity with increased bonded
length. Furthermore, this ultimate anchorage capacity can be
very much less than the ultimate tensile capacity of the FRP.
E frp
frp
F ctm
Kb
1.4
1.2
= 230GPa
= 0.015
= 3MPa
=1
frp = frpu
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
frp = 0.004
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
tfrp (mm)
34
= Vaddf Af (h x) / Ics ba
(Equation 12)
where
Vadd = difference between the ultimate shear force and the
applied shear force when the strengthening is installed
f
= short-term modular ratio of FRP to concrete
= Efd /Ec
Af
= area of FRP plate
x
= depth of neutral axis of strengthened section
= second moment of area of strengthened concrete
Ics
equivalent cracked section
ba
= width of adhesive layer
h
= total depth of the section
The longitudinal shear stress should be checked near to the
plate ends, where the shear force acting on the strengthened
portion of the member will be at its greatest. Equation 12
may be used in this position provided both the concrete in
compression and steel reinforcement are still behaving
approximately elastically. The longitudinal shear stress need
not, however, be checked within lt,max of the end of the plate,
where lt.max is determined in accordance with Equation 15.
Additionally, the longitudinal shear stress must be checked
where any changes in section properties occur, at positions
where there are discontinuities in shear force, such as at the
position of point loads, and at the location along the span
where the steel reinforcement stressstrain behaviour goes
35
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
= tf
f f
y
(Equation 13)
(mm)
where
kb
= 1.06. [(2 bf /bw) / (1 + bf /400)] > 1.0
(Equation 16)
bf
= plate width (mm)
bw
= beam width or plate spacing for solid slab (mm)
tf
= plate thickness (mm)
Efd
fctm
(Equation 15)
(Equation 18)
The maximum ultimate bond force, Tk,max, and the corresponding maximum anchorage length, lt,max, needed to activate this bond force can be calculated using the following
expressions:
Tk,max = 0.5 kb bf (Efd tf fctm) (N)
36
(Equation 14)
Both pull-out tests and beam tests have indicated that the
ultimate load carried by NSM bars increases with increasing
bond length. As for surface-mounted strips, there is a limit to
this length beyond which any further length increase does
not enhance the bond strength(117). However, the strength
arising from this limit is a much higher proportion of the
FRP capacity than is the case for surface-mounted strips, and
is correspondingly less likely to be a limiting design factor.
37
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
These modes of failure are generally accompanied by pullout of the NSM bar along the interface where the failure is
initiated. Mixed mode failure involving a combination of the
two has also been reported(117120).
Adhesive splitting is predominantly governed by the thickness of the epoxy surrounding the NSM bar while concrete
splitting is governed by the groove size. By using adhesives
of high tensile strength, adhesive splitting failures, which
form with longitudinal cracking through the adhesive cover,
can be minimised(121). It is then possible to increase the
groove dimensions and minimise the induced tensile stresses
at the concreteadhesive interface thus preventing concrete
splitting failure.
38
where
Tnsm,ad
bbarperim
lnsm
fat
Efd Af
bnotchperim f ctm
(Equation 21)
(Equation 22)
where
Tnsm,max = maximum NSM anchorage force (N)
lnsm,max = anchorage length required to generate Tnsm,max
Efd
Af
= area of FRP
bnotchperim = effective perimeter of notch (mm) (making
allowance for surface preparation and/or weak
laitance layer)
= concrete tensile strength (N/mm2)
fctm
In situations where the maximum anchorage length is not
possible or necessary, the anchorage force generated by a
shorter length can be assessed from:
Tnsm = Tnsm, max
lnsm
l
2 nsm
lnsm, max
lnsm, max
(Equation 23)
where
Tnsm = characteristic anchorage force for NSM
lnsm = anchorage length provided for NSM.
While the use of NSM strips, rather than rods, appears to be
an efficient strengthening technique, there is at present insufficient information available for specific design guidelines
for such situations to be included and specialist advice
should be sought.
39
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
advice should be sought. For stacks formed by the manufacturer under factory conditions, higher stacks may be
possible. Testing may be necessary to demonstrate the performance of the stack, but it is unlikely that greater than 5mm
thickness will be useful, due to the limits of the bond
strength to the concrete.
When fabrics are used, multiple plies can be overlaid to
achieve the necessary strength of the FRP component. The
same overall limitations apply, but these limits will normally
be reached when many plies are installed. If large numbers
of plies are overlaid, it is likely to be the achievable quality
of workmanship that limits the design, and a trial installation
should be considered in order to demonstrate that a void-free
laminate can be produced under the site conditions relevant
to the particular project.
6.7 REDISTRIBUTION
where
=
creep coefficient.
6.8 SERVICEABILITY
40
6.8.3 Fatigue
For bridges, the designer should consider the effect of
repeated live loading on the fatigue strength of the steel
reinforcement and the FRP. Checks for fatigue failure should
be carried out in accordance with the recommendations in
Clause 4.7 of BS 5400: Part 4. The stress range in the FRP
should be limited to the appropriate value given in Table 8.
The failure mode for fatigue is typically yield of the steel
followed by spalling at the concrete soffit and debonding of
the FRP.
Highways Agency Advice Note BA 30(9) controls the fatigue
behaviour of steel plate bonding applications by limiting the
cyclic stresses that may be applied to the steel plate.
Table 8: Maximum stress ranges as a proportion of the design
ultimate strength (%).
Material
Carbon FRP
80
Aramid FRP
70
Glass FRP
30
Material
Carbon FRP
Aramid FRP
Glass FRP
41
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Live-load strains at
FRPconcrete interface
during curing (106)
20
50
100
150
200
Reduction in strength of
adhesive (%)
10
12
16
22
32
42
ability issues govern prestressed design whereas these guidelines focus predominantly upon ultimate limit state. There are,
therefore, a number of factors to consider when strengthening a prestressed structure such as:
43
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
44
45
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
46
SHEAR STRENGTHENING
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Externally bonded FRP laminates and fabrics can be used to
increase the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams and
columns. FRP may be bonded to the concrete in various
configurations. Ideally FRP should be wrapped around the
whole perimeter of the member (fully wrapped). Alternatively, it can be applied only to the sides of the member
(side-only) or to the sides and the tension face of the member
(U-wrapped). Figure 24 shows examples of possible FRP
shear strengthening configurations. This Chapter focuses on
rectangular beams and columns. Guidance on strengthening
of circular columns in shear is included in Section 8.3.4.
Side Only
U-Wrapped
Fully Wrapped
(n=2)
(n=1)
(n=0)
47
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
(Equation 26)
where
b
= width of section
d
= effective depth of section
vmax = maximum concrete shear stress
(determined from the appropriate Standard)
Tests on FRP-strengthened beam and slab structures have
indicated that the shear capacity of such structures can be
limited by the longitudinal shear capacity at the interface
between the beam and slab. This interface should therefore
be checked to ensure its adequacy, using conventional design
or assessment Standards.
7.2.2 FRP shear strengthening design
The ultimate shear capacity of an FRP strengthened beam
can be expressed as:
Vu = Vc + Vs + Vf
(Equation 27)
where
Vc = contribution from the concrete to the shear capacity
(N)
Vf = contribution from the FRP to the shear capacity (N)
Vs = contribution from the steel to the shear capacity (N)
Vu = ultimate shear capacity of FRP strengthened section
(N).
Vc and Vs can be determined from conventional design standards, such as Clauses 3.4.5.3 and 3.4.5.4 of BS 8110: Part 1:
1997. For structures designed to the 1985 edition of BS
8110, it would be more appropriate to assume a steel stress
of 0.87fy, rather than 0.95fy, as in the 1997 edition. Alternatively, equivalent criteria are included in BS 5400 Part 4.
Assuming a 45 shear crack, it follows from equilibrium that
the contribution of the FRP to the shear capacity is given by:
n
d f lt ,max
3
where
n
= 0 for a fully wrapped beam, 1.0 when FRP is bonded
continuously to the sides and bottom of a beam and
2.0 when it is bonded to only the sides of a beam
48
Afs = 2bf tf
h
sf
bf
The effective strain in the FRP, fse, accounts for the variation in strain in the FRP along the shear crack when the ultimate limit state is reached. It should be taken as the minimum
of:
(i) fd / 2
(ii) 0.64
f ctm
Efdt f
(iii) 0.004
where
fctm = tensile strength of the concrete (N/mm2)
fd = design ultimate strain capacity of FRP (see Section
5.6.4)
The first strain limit of half the ultimate strain capacity
represents the average FRP strain when fracture of the FRP
occurs. Alternative limits have been suggested for this condition. Chen and Teng(134) propose half the ultimate strain capacity, while Tljsten(92) proposes 0.6 times the ultimate strain
Shear strengthening
Vf (Design Method)
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.25
0.2
t f = 0.5mm
Parabolic Curve
0.15
t f = 1mm
100
200
300
400
500
600
V f (Experimental)
0.8df
df (n/3)lt,max
bf + df /4
0.1
t f = 1.5mm
0.05
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
49
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
(Equation 29)
where
Vs = shear force due to ultimate loads
= stress in the FRP at the same location determined
ff
from a flexural analysis.
50
(Equation 30)
where
ne = total number of effective axial reinforcing bars
between the tension face and the mid-depth of the
section.
Any shortfall in bending capacity should be compensated for
by providing axial FRP reinforcement.
Shear strengthening
51
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
52
STRENGTHENING AXIALLY
LOADED MEMBERS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete columns in existing structures such as bridges and
buildings may require upgrading to enhance the following
properties:
53
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
(Equation 31)
54
for t <
cc < ccu
(Equation 33)
where
t
= position of transition region between parabola and
straight line
= 2fc0 /(Ec E2)
(Equation 34)
E2 = slope of linear portion of confined stressstrain
curve
= (fccd fc0)/ ccu
(Equation 35)
Ec = initial modulus of elasticity of concrete
cc
fcc
ccu
fccd
5.5(fcu/mc) (kN/mm2)
confined concrete axial strain
confined concrete axial compressive stress
confined concrete ultimate axial strain, given by
Equation 40
= confined concrete ultimate strength, given by
Equation 39.
=
=
=
=
2tf Efd
> 0.183
Df c02
(mm2/N)
(Equation 36)
where
tf =
Efd =
D =
(Equation 37)
fccd
Confined concrete
fr = 2ffd tf / D
E2
(Equation 38)
1
fc0
and
k = confinement effectiveness factor.
Unconfined concrete
Ec
t
0.0035
ccu
cc
8.3 COMPRESSION
8.3.1 Introduction
As previously mentioned, providing hoop FRP around the
perimeter of the column can increase the compressive strength
of circular columns. All members strengthened in compression should meet the following conditions:
(Equation 39)
55
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
2E t
ccu
= 1.75 + 12 fd f
c0
E0 D
1.45
0.6 fd
c0
(Equation 40)
where
E0 = secant modulus of concrete = 0.67fcu/(mc c0)
c0 = axial strain in unconfined concrete at peak stress =
2.4104(fcu/mc)
fd = design ultimate strain of FRP.
It should be noted, however, that at concrete compressive
strains of over approximately 0.01, the concrete will have
been crushed and have lost all cohesion. It is therefore
recommended that if the ultimate strain, ccu, is greater than
0.01, then the failure stress should be taken as the value for
fccd corresponding to the value of cc=0.01 from the
stressstrain curve, rather than the failure stress at rupture of
the FRP.
8.3.3 Lap joint failure
Failure of the FRP jacket can occur at lap joints due to
debonding, if the lap length is inadequate. This type of
failure is brittle and can be avoided simply by providing an
adequate lap length. The actual length of overlap required is
likely to vary between strengthening systems and so it is
recommended that individual manufacturers are consulted.
Where necessary, independent testing should be carried out.
When two or more plies of FRP are applied to a column, the
lap joints should be arranged so they are staggered evenly
around the column perimeter, as shown in Figure 30. The
minimum overlap for fabric materials, in the direction of the
fibres, should be in accordance with the manufacturers
recommendations, but not less than 200mm.
column
column
8.3.4 Shear
The presence of hoop FRP can increase the shear strength of
concrete columns. Guidance on shear-strengthening of
square or rectangular beams and columns is included in
Chapter 7. The guidelines included in this Section relate to
circular columns.
The maximum shear strength of the section should be
determined in accordance with Section 7.2.1. This capacity
gives the upper limit on the degree of strengthening that can
be achieved.
The ultimate shear capacity of an FRP strengthened column
can be expressed as:
Vu = Vc + Vs + Vf
where
Vc =
Vf =
Vs =
Vu =
(Equation 41)
56
Lap to be
determined
(Equation 42)
fd / 2
0.004
and
fd = design ultimate strain capacity of FRP
d
= effective depth (distance from the extreme compression fibre to the centroid of the tension reinforcement)
Efd = design tensile modulus of the FRP
tf
= thickness of the FRP.
As discussed in Section 7.4, additional axial reinforcement
may be required when strengthening for shear. Section 7.4
also outlines how this area of reinforcement can be determined.
8.3.5 Serviceability
Axial shortening/lateral deformation and loss of strengthening effectiveness
Axial shortening due to projected load increases will give
rise to lateral deformation of compression members. This
deformation, if excessive, may cause problems of appearance, damage to brittle finishes and/or loss of structural
efficiency. Also, at service loads the maximum compressive
strain in the concrete should not be excessive otherwise loss
of confining pressure due to accidental damage, fire,
vandalism, etc., may result in brittle collapse, because the
concrete is fissured. To prevent the possibility of either
problem arising, it is recommended that the axial compressive strain of the concrete should not exceed 0.0035 under
working loads.
Fatigue
For bridges, the designer should consider the effect of
repeated live loading on the fatigue strength of the FRP.
Checks for fatigue should be carried out in accordance with
the recommendations in BS 5400: Part 4. The stress range in
the FRP should be limited to the appropriate values given in
Table 8 of this Report.
Stress rupture
Rupture of the FRP may occur at service loads due to the
sustained stresses that exist in the material. This type of
failure can be avoided simply by limiting the stress level in
the FRP. It is therefore recommended that the stress in the
FRP should not exceed the values given in Table 9 of this
Report.
8.4 FLEXURE
8.4.1 Introduction
Bonding axial FRP over-wrapped with hoop FRP to column
surfaces can enhance the flexural strength of columns. The
main benefit of the axial FRP is to increase the flexural
strength of the member, and the problem in design is to determine the thickness of axial FRP fibre required to resist the
combined design axial load and moment. The hoop wrapping confines the concrete, increasing its compressive
strength and strain to failure. This can significantly improve
the efficiency of the strengthening design by increasing the
strain that can develop in the FRP. Hoop wrapping also
enhances the shear capacity of columns and prevents buckling of the axial fibres, enabling them to contribute in
compression. This contribution will be small since FRP
materials are weaker in compression than tension.
To calculate the required thickness of axial FRP, the effect of
hoop wrapping on compressive strength and strain to failure
of the concrete must be known. As discussed in Section 8.2,
the stressstrain behaviour of confined concrete is rather
different to that of unconfined concrete. It is perhaps worth
comparing the stressstrain response of the two types of
behaviour.
For unconfined concrete BS 8110 approximates the behaviour
as a parabola reaching a plateau at a value of 0.67fcu/mc with
strain terminating at 0.0035. However, while the initial
parabolic behaviour is reasonable, tests show that this is
normally followed by a descending stressstrain response,
shown by the solid line in Figure 31. The model in BS 8110
is a convenient approximation used for design purposes. For
confined concrete, the stressstain behaviour is again initially
parabolic, until sufficient concrete dilation occurs for the
hoop reinforcement to start confining the concrete. Provided
sufficiently stiff hoop FRP is used (i.e. the condition in
Equation 36 from Section 8.2 is met), this results in an
approximately linear ascending stressstrain branch, shown
by the dashed line in Figure 31. The additional confinement
also greatly increases the maximum achievable concrete
strain to failure (this can be taken conservatively as 0.01 and
is usually limited by rupture of the FRP). Equations 32 and
33 approximate this stressstrain behaviour, while Equations
39 and 40 correspond to the ultimate confined compressive
stress and strain, respectively, of the concrete. For a lightly
confined section (i.e. low stiffness hoop wrapping) the initial
parabolic stressstrain response may be followed by a branch
that initially descends, as shown by the dotted line in Figure
31. It is evident from Figure 31 that the three types of
behaviour are quite different. While it is not unreasonable to
assume a rectangular stress block approximation for unconfined concrete since the centre of pressure remains in approximately the same place, for the confined concrete this would
be conservative since, depending on the exact shape of the
stressstrain curve to failure, the centre of pressure of the
stress block may move considerably to the right, compared
with the relative shape of the unconfined stress block.
57
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
fcc
fcc
fccd
Fully confined
Partially confined
fc0
Unconfined
In axially loaded columns subject to moment, the confinement of the concrete varies. Rather than full mobilisation of
the confining hoop FRP due to dilation of the full crosssection, as would occur under concentric loading, when
moment is applied the dilation varies around the section in
proportion to the axial strain at any given point. Therefore,
the achievable level of confinement will vary. Fam et al.(145)
have proposed a variable confinement method where the
fully confined stressstrain relationship is reduced in
accordance with the eccentricity of the load (where the axial
force, N, and the moment, M, are related by the eccentricity,
e, i.e. e=M/N). While the general method seems rational,
although conservative, the procedure is rather complicated.
However, based upon their test results, there is little difference between using the fully confined stressstrain model
and a reduced confinement model provided that the position,
x, of the neutral axis from the outermost compression fibre is
greater than the radius of the column (i.e. the area of
concrete in compression is no less than half the total crosssectional area of the column):
58
0.01
ccu
cc
(Equation 43)
cc
x > D/2
E2
8.5 DUCTILITY
Lack of ductility is largely an issue for compression
members that are located in seismic regions. Upgrading
normally involves confining the concrete at column ends
(where bending moments are greatest) with hoop FRP. To
ensure that column bar buckling does not control the flexural
failure mode, additional checks on the transverse reinforcement ratio need to be performed, particularly for slender
columns where M/VD > 4, in which M and V are the
maximum column moment and shear, respectively (see
Priestley et al.(101)). Ductility enhancement may increase the
risk of shear failure both at column ends and column centres,
and the risk of flexural failure due to lap splice debonding at
the junction between the footing and column base(102).
As noted in Section 5.7.2, seismic loading is not a major
loading case for most UK structures and will therefore not be
discussed further.
59
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
60
Ae 1 (h 2 Rc ) + (b 2 Rc ) 3 Aol / (3 Ag ) sc
(Equation 44)
=
Ag
1 sc
2
where
sc =
b =
h =
Rc =
Ae =
Ag =
=
Aol =
=
bh (4-)Rc2
area of overlap of the parabolas
0
4lol3
+ lol (2b (h 2 Rc ) )
3(h 2 Rc )
=
where
lol =
if 2b >
(h 2Rc)
if 2b < (h 2Rc)
(h 2 Rc ) 2 b(h 2 Rc )
4
2
effectively
confined
region, Ae
Rc
45o
h
lol
effectively
confined
region, Ae
b
Aol
45o
c
gs =
a
fr =
b Ae
h Ag
(Equation 45)
2 f fd tf
(Equation 46)
b2 + h2
where
fc0 =
(Equation 48)
gs =
(Equation 47)
[1.5(a + c)
2ac
ac f fd tf
(Equation 49)
0.67 fcu / mc
To summarise the information currently available:
61
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
62
63
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
64
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
65
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
The relaxation loss for prestressed FRP composite in comparison to high strength steel is generally small.
The losses in prestress in the long term are essentially the
same as those for post-tensioning with low-relaxation steel,
due to the reduction in elastic modulus of the concrete and
shrinkage in the long term.
The ultimate load capacity of concrete members posttensioned with FRP composites can be analysed based on
conventional theory for reinforced-concrete structures(29,155),
but only if flexural failure is the dominant failure mode. The
failure mode may be either concrete crushing or FRP
composite rupture, depending on the degree of prestress
applied to the FRP.
Design checks are also required at the serviceability limit
state. The level of prestress should be such that the following
conditions are acceptable:
66
Emerging technologies
Figure 35: Dead-end prestressing system (left) and stressing anchorage (right).
67
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
The results of their tests indicate that the use of bolts within
the shear span of the beam significantly postpones debonding.
Following debonding, they are still capable of anchoring the
ends of the FRP so that it acts as an unbonded tension member,
resulting in a less brittle mode of failure at the ultimate
condition. The load capacity of the beam following debonding
is reported to be at least equal to the capacity of the beam
with the bond intact, although greater deflections occur.
Because NSM bars offer potentially superior bond performance over plates or sheets, their use for shear strengthening
has been attempted, with success. It has been found that the
use of either glass or carbon FRP NSM bars increases shear
68
Emerging technologies
inspection
cleaning
repair
partial substitution
total substitution.
A database is being developed on a range of FRP-strengthening schemes throughout the world. By categorising performance levels and long-term mechanical properties of the
constituent materials, it is hoped that this research will lead
to a rational approach to life-expectancy predictions, one of
the most important pieces of information in any design.
9.2.10 Inorganic adhesives
Because of concerns over the performance of organic
adhesives at elevated temperatures, there are moves to
develop inorganic adhesives, more akin to cement-based
materials. Toutanji and Deng(173) have reported tests on beams
strengthened using Geopolymer adhesives consisting of
alumino-silicate with a water-based activator. These perform
significantly better at high temperatures and, being waterbased, are somewhat easier to use on site.
69
10 WORKMANSHIP AND
INSTALLATION
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The design guidance in Chapters 5 to 8 is only valid if the
component materials used are in accordance with the specification and the installation is carried out correctly. This
Chapter is not intended to be a specification for strengthening with composites but gives background information on
the standards of workmanship and the installation procedures required. Further information on the requirements for
inspection during the installation process, along with advice
on the necessary records that need to be maintained, is given
in Chapter 4 of TR57(5), which should be read in parallel
with this Chapter.
The Client should be satisfied as to the competency of the
contractor. All installations should comply with the requirements of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act(174), the
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations(27)
and the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations(26). In addition, all materials must be used in accordance with the manufacturers requirements.
Only limited post-application inspection is possible, so the
success of the application relies heavily on the quality of the
workmanship. It is therefore crucial to the success of the
installation that an experienced contractor, with suitably
trained and supervised staff experienced in the technique, is
appointed. The contractor should have quality assurance
procedures in place, accredited and audited in accordance
with ISO 9002(175). In the UK, the contractor should have a
proven track record in the installation of composites and
preferably be a member of the Concrete Repair Association.
The contractor must be able to demonstrate competency and
be approved for the application of the system. This approval
may be obtained by providing evidence of the training of the
operatives who will undertake the work and by documentary
evidence of experience on similar projects.
It is strongly recommended that the following issues be
taken into account when selecting a contractor:
71
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
72
73
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
74
75
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
76
1504(17)
BS EN
will be a product standard for materials for
the repair and protection of concrete. (Currently some parts
have yet to be published as British Standards.) It will detail
the required properties of the materials and the tests that are
required to demonstrate conformity.
77
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
10.13 RECORDS
Detailed records should be kept of the work carried out, as
required under the CDM Regulations(26), and added to the
Health and Safety File, which should include details of any
future inspection and testing regime that is considered appropriate. Details of the records that should be kept, along with
suggested proformas and check lists, are given in TR57(5).
Figure 53: Example of warning printed on carbon fibre plate.
78
11 LONG-TERM INSPECTION,
MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE
Every year
Every year
Depends on the use of the structure
but ideally every year.
Other structures
79
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
80
11.5 MAINTENANCE
The nature of FRP materials means that they should need
little or no maintenance while in service. However, as indicated in Section 2.3 of TR57, moisture is one of the most
damaging elements and so all gutters, drains, etc., must be
kept clear of debris, so that rainwater is carried off the
structure and away from the FRP. If any cleaning is carried
out near the FRP, it must be checked that any solvents used
will not cause damage. Cleaning techniques such as waterjetting or grit-blasting are not appropriate as they are likely
to cause damage to the FRP.
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Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
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1994.
87
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
88
APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
As many readers of this Report may be unfamiliar with fibre
composites and with adhesive technology, many of the terms
used are defined below. A more extensive glossary of adhesive terms is given in BS EN 923(178) and ASTM D 907(179).
Adhesive A polymeric material which is capable of holding
two materials together by surface attachment.
Aramid A manufactured fibre in which the fibre- forming
substance consists of a long-chain synthetic aromatic polyamide.
Bond The adhesion of one surface to another, with the use
of an adhesive or bonding agent.
Carbon fibre Fibres produced by the pyrolysis of organic
precursor fibres such as rayon, polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or
pitch in an inert atmosphere. The term is often used interchangeably with graphite. However, carbon fibres and graphite fibres differ in the temperature at which the fibres are
made and heat-treated, and the carbon content.
Composite or composite material A combination of highmodulus, high-strength and high-aspect-ratio fibre reinforcing material encapsulated by and acting in concert with a
polymeric matrix.
Cure To change the properties of an adhesive irreversibly
by chemical reaction into a more stable condition and to
develop the desired properties.
Epoxy resins Resins which may be of widely different
structures but which are characterised by the reaction of the
epoxy group to form a cross-linked hard resin.
Fabric Non-woven A textile structure produced by
bonding or interlocking of fibres, or both, accomplished by
mechanical, chemical, thermal or solvent means and combinations thereof.
Fabric Woven A generic material construction consisting of interlaced yarns or fibres, usually a planar structure.
Filament winding A reinforced plastics process that employs a series of continuous resin-impregnated fibres applied
to a mandrel in a predetermined geometrical relationship
under controlled tension.
Filler A relatively inert substance added to an adhesive to
alter its physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical or other
properties or to lower the cost.
FRP Fibre-Reinforced Plastics (or Polymers)
Glass fibre A fibre spun from an inorganic product of fusion
which has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallising.
Glass transition temperature (Tg) The approximate midpoint of the temperature range over which a polymeric adhesive changes from a relatively stiff and brittle material to a
viscous material.
Hand lay-up A process in which resin and reinforcement
are applied either to a mould or to a working surface and
successive layers built up by hand.
Hardener The curing agent or catalyst, which promotes
chemical cross-linking with the resin in two-component
adhesive systems.
Laminate A layer of fibre composite, either preformed or
formed in situ.
NSM Near-surface-mounted reinforcement.
Peel ply The outside layer of a reinforced plastic material,
which is removed to aid bonding.
Plate Preformed prismatic FRP plate, formed by pultrusion or manufacturing process, generally with all the fibres
arranged in the longitudinal direction.
Polymeric Adjective describing a material (most commonly organic) composed of molecules characterised by the
repetition of one or more types of monomeric units.
Pot life The period of time during which a multi-part adhesive can be used after mixing the components. (Note: The
pot life varies with the volume and temperature of the mixed
adhesive and the ambient temperature. The term pot life is
also used for the application of hot-melt adhesives for the
period for which an adhesive, ready for use, remains usable
when kept at normal operating temperature.)
Prepreg Reinforcing fibres in sheet or roll form impregnated with resin and stored for use.
Primer Material used to protect a surface prior to the
application of the adhesive, improve adhesion and/or
improve the durability or to stabilise/protect the substrate.
Pultrusion A continuous process for the manufacture of
composite profiles by pulling layers of fibres, impregnated
with a thermoset resin, through a heated die, thus forming
the ultimate shape of the profile.
Resin The reactive polymer base in adhesive and prepreg
matrix systems.
Substrate The material of the adherend adjacent to the
adhesive layer.
Thermoset A resin that is substantially infusible and
insoluble after being cured.
UHM Ultra high modulus.
Wet lay-up A method of making a reinforced product by
applying a liquid resin system while the reinforcement is put
in place, layer by layer.
89
APPENDIX B
Supplier
Exchem
Trade name
Selfix Carbofibe
Degussa
(formerly MBT Feb)
MBrace
MBrace
MBrace
MBrace
Kevlar*
MBar
Tyfo Fibrwrap Systems
Fyfe
Sika
Sika CarboDur
Sika CarboDur DML
SikaWrap Hex 230C
SikaWrap Hex 100G
Enforce
Torayca UT70
Type of material
Carbon FRP plates
Carbon fibre rods
Carbon fibre sheet
Aramid fibre sheet
Glass fibre sheet
Carbon fibre sheet
Carbon FRP plates
Ultra high modulus carbon plates
Glass fibre sheet
Aramid fibre tape and sheet
Carbon fibre rods
Carbon fibre sheet
Carbon FRP plates
Carbon/aramid hybrid fibre sheet
Carbon bi-directional fibre sheet
Glass fibre sheet
Glass FRP plates
Glass/aramid hybrid fibre sheet
Glass bi-directional fibre sheet
Aramid fibre sheet
FRP anchors
Carbon FRP plates
UHM bespoke carbon fibre plates
Carbon fibre sheet
Glass fibre sheet
Carbon FRP plates
Carbon fibre sheet
Glass fibre sheet
Aramid fibre sheet
Ultra high modulus carbon FRP plates
Carbon fibre sheet
91
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Trade name
Enforce
Carbon
Carbon
Glass
Aramid
Strength
(N/mm2)
3800
2650
1700
2400
MBrace C130
MBrace C530
MBrace*
MBrace*
MBrace AR55
MBrace Kevlar
AK40, 60, 90
Selfix Carbofibe E
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Glass
Aramid
3550
3000
3800
2650
1550
2100
235
390
240
640
74
120
Areal weight
(g/m2)
200
400
350
290, 420, 650,
850
300
300
200
400
915
320, 450, 650
Glass
3450
73
432
Effective
thickness (mm)
0.117
0.190
0.135
0.2, 0.29, 0.45,
0.59
0.11, 0.165
0.165
0.117
0.190
0.118
0.193, 0.286,
0.430
0.167
Selfix Carbofibe C
Carbon
4900
230
300
0.167
Selfix Carbofibe AR
Aramid
2900
100
240
0.167
SikaWrap 230C
SikaWrap 103C
SikaWrap 100G
SikaWrap 450A
SikaWrap 300A
Torayca UT70-20
Carbon
Carbon
Glass
Aramid
Aramid
Carbon
4100
3900
2300
2880
2880
4090
230
230
76
100
100
230
220
610
935
450
300
200
0.12
0.34
0.36
0.31
0.21
0.111
Torayca UT70-30
Carbon
4220
235
300
0.167
Fibre
Modulus
(kN/mm2)
240
640
65
120
Width
(mm)
300
300
680
300
300, 500
300, 500
300
300
500, 1000
100, 300, 500
150, 300
& bespoke
150, 300
& bespoke
150, 300
& bespoke
300, 600
600
600
300
300
100, 250, 500,
1000
100, 250, 500,
1000
1372
Glass/Aramid
3238
72
915
0.36
hybrid
Tyfo SEH-51A
Glass
3238
72
915
0.36
1372
Tyfo SEH-25A
Glass
3238
72
505
0.19
1372
Tyfo WEB
Bidirectional
3238
72
295
0.116
1270
glass
Tyfo BC
Bidirectional
3238
72
813
0.32
1372
45 glass
Tyfo SCH-41
Carbon
3789
230
644
0.28
610
Tyfo SCH-41s
Carbon/Aramid
3789
230
644
0.28
610
glass
Tyfo SCH-11UP
Carbon
3789
230
298
0.127
610
Tyfo SCH-7UP
Carbon
3789
230
200
0.08
610
Tyfo CWEB
Bidirectional
3445
228
162
0.116
1270
carbon
Tyfo WAB
Aramid
3098
114
176
0.116
1270
Tyfo SAH-41
Aramid
3098
114
650
0.36
300
Notes: The properties are for dry fibres. The values should be treated as indicative only. See also note to Table B3.
*Available in Europe and the Middle East; not available in the UK.
The effective thickness is the total cross-sectional area of the fibres divided by the width of the sheet or tape.
92
Appendix B
Trade name
Fibre
Enforce
Carbon
MBrace LM
MBrace MM
MBrace HM
MBrace UHM
MBrace 150*
MBrace 200*
Selfix Carbofibe S
Selfix Carbofibe M
Selfix Carbofibe H
Sika CarboDur S
Sika CarboDur M
Sika CarboDur DML
Tyfo UC
Tyfo UG
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
E-glass
Strength
(N/mm2)
28003000
24002600
Bespoke plates
1800
3100
2400
4500
28003000
24002600
2800
3200
1600
3100
3100
1110
2790
890
Modulus
(kN/mm2)
165
210
>300
140
170
250
150
165
210
150
200
280
165
210
360
230
41
Thickness
(mm)
1.2, 1.4
1.2, 1.4
Bespoke up to 50mm
1.2, 1.4
1.4
1.2, 1.4
Bespoke up to 48mm
1.2, 1.4
1.2, 1.4
1.2, 1.4 & bespoke
1.2, 1.4 & bespoke
1.2, 1.4 & bespoke
1.2, 1.4
1.4
Bespoke
1.2, 1.4, bespoke
1.2, 1.4, bespoke
Width
(mm)
10, 50, 80, 90, 100, 120
50, 80, 90, 100, 120
Bespoke up to 1m
50, 80, 100, 120
50, 80, 100, 120, 150
50, 80, 100, 120, 150
50, 100, 150, 200
10, 50, 80, 100, 120
10, 50, 80, 100, 120
50, 80, 120
50, 80, 120
50, 80, 120
50, 60, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150
50, 60, 90, 100
Bespoke
50, 100, bespoke
50, 100, bespoke
Note: These properties are taken from manufacturers data sheets and are thought to be correct at the time of publication
(2004). For design purposes, actual properties must be obtained from the manufacturer. As test methods vary, the information
should detail the basis for the information (e.g. frequency of testing, standard deviation).
*Available in Europe and the Middle East; not available in the UK.
Supplier
Trade name
Degussa
Mbar Galileo
Mbar Leonardo
Aslan
Enforce
Hughes Brothers
weber building solutions
Dimensions
(mm)
7.5 dia.
7.5 dia.
2 x 16
1.4 x 10
Strength
N/mm2
2300
2000
2070
2800
Stiffness
kN/mm2
130
200
130
165
93
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Property
Degussa
(N/mm2)
MBrace
laminate
adhesive
Resifix 31
32
24
23
51
47
19
>35
55
50
86
80
35
22
Currently
under test
6.5
Currently
under test
3.8
Currently
under test
Currently
under test
(N/mm2)
10
65
60
Selfix
Tyfo WS Tyfo TC
Carbofibe
Adhesive
weber building
Sika
solutions
Epoxy Plus SikaDur
30
18
15
2.2
2.1
9.8
12.8
93
82
60, 120
82
Property
weber
building
solutions
Supplier
Fyfe Tyfo S
Exchem
SikaDur
330
SikaDur
300
30
45
3.8
53
3
60
50
17
72
60
(N/mm2)
120
28
123
100
(kN/mm2)
3
55
5
60, 120
3
93
3
64
Flexural modulus
Glass transition temperature, Tg, (C)
Notes: See note to Table B3.
94
MBT
APPENDIX C
Pultruded plates
Strengthening materials
General
Fabric materials
Prepreg plates
Shells
95
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Plates
Site requirements
As detailed in Chapter 10 and TR57, some site testing will
be required. The following points should be included in any
specification.
96
Visual checks should be carried out on mats, unidirectional tapes/fabrics, woven rovings and multi-axial fabrics
to ensure uniformity and conformity.
The completed laminate should be checked visually for
defects.
When required by the contract, trial pieces should be
made at the same time and by the same process. Care
should be taken to ensure that the trial pieces are representative of the material in the finished unit.
The frequency of testing should be as agreed with the
Client.
The samples should be tested to determine the elastic
modulus and the tensile strength.
APPENDIX D
Specialist contractors
Concrete Repair Association
(Secretary Mr J Fairley)
Association House
99 West Street
Farnham
Surrey GU9 7EN
Tel: +44(0)1252 739145
Fax: +44(0)1252 739140
e-mail: info@associationhouse.org.uk
www.concreterepair.org.uk
Concrete Repairs Limited
Cathite House
23a Willow Lane
Mitcham
Surrey CR4 4TU
Tel: +44(0)20 8288 4848
Fax: +44(0)20 8288 4847
Email: mail@concrete-repairs.co.uk
www.concrete-repairs.co.uk
Specialist consultants
Arup Research & Development
13 Fitzroy Street
London W1T 4BQ
Tel: +44(0)20 7636 1531
Fax: +44(0)20 7755 3669
Email: RandD@arup.com
www.arup.com
Mouchel Parkman
West Hall
Parvis Road
West Byfleet KT14 6EX
Tel: +44(0)1932 337000
Fax: +44(0)1932 356122
www.mouchelparkman.com
97
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
University of Bristol
Dept of Civil Engineering
Queens Building
University Walk
Bristol BS8 1TR
Tel: +44(0)117 928 7707
Fax: +44(0)177 928 7783
www.cen.bris.ac.uk
University of Glamorgan
School of Technology
Division of Built Environment
Pontypridd CF37 1DL
Tel: +44(0)1443 482121
Fax: +44(0)1443 482169
e.mail: dbtann@glam.ac.uk
www.glam.ac.uk/sot
Universities
Owners
University of Bath
Department of Architecture & Civil
Engineering
Bath BA2 7AY
Tel: +44(0)1225 386908/6
Fax: +44(0)1255 386691
email: A.P.Darby@bath.ac.uk or
T.J.Ibell@bath.ac.uk
www.bath.ac.uk/ace
98
Network Rail
Civil Engineering
40 Melton Street
London NW1 2EE
Tel: +44(0)20 7557 8000
Fax: +44(0)20 7557 9000
www.networkrail.co.uk
Oxfordshire County Council
Speedwell House
Speedwell Street
Oxford OX1 1NE
Tel: +44(0)1865 815 641
INDEX
adhesives 12-13, 69
curing 28, 41-2, 66, 73
definition 89
delamination 41
design considerations 28
design life 7
electrical currents and 10
flexural strengthening 31, 41-2
health and safety 12, 13
NSM reinforcement 37, 38, 73, 75, 77
prestressed FRP composites and 65, 66
properties 26, 28, 94
storage and site conditions 73
surface preparation 72, 73
temperature 10, 12, 28, 65, 73
testing 77, 80
thickness 72, 74, 75
workmanship and installation 12, 74-5,
76
alkali-resistant glass fibre 9, 27
anchorages
axial FRP 59
flexural strengthening 34, 36, 37, 67
material selection 13
maximum capacity 34, 47, 49
NSM reinforcement 37, 38-9, 41
prestressed FRP composites 65, 66-7
specials 12
tendons and U-wraps 67
wet lay-up laminates 67
see also bolted plate anchors; glass fibre
anchorages; mechanical fastening
aramid fibre, definition 89
aramid fibres and composites 9-10
application examples 17, 18, 20, 21, 22
blast protection 18
health and safety 13
impact loading 29
NSM reinforcement 21
partial safety factors 27
prestressing 65
ropes 67
shear strengthening 47
stress rupture 65, 66
suitability 14
assessment, structures 3-4, 24, 31-2, 71
axial FRP 49-50, 53, 57-9, 61
axial shortening 57
axially loaded members 53-64
99
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
consultants 97-8
contractors 71, 97
control samples see samples
corrosion 1, 4, 17, 21, 80
costs 4, 7-8
carbon systems 14, 18, 19
NSM reinforcement 1, 14, 37
preformed shells 12
cracks and cracking
application examples 18, 19, 21, 67
crack widths 25, 28, 40, 67
design considerations 28
flexural strengthening 40
inspection 80
NSM reinforcement 37, 38
prestressed carbon FRP straps 69
separation failure 34, 38
shear strengthening 49
curing
adhesives 28, 41-2, 66, 73
see also temperature
concrete repairs 71
definition 89
D
debonding
application example 17
bolted plate anchors and 67, 68
flexural strengthening 31, 39
inspection for 80
lap joints 56, 59
NSM reinforcement 37
shear strengthening 49, 56
surface preparation 72
wall strengthening 68
wrapped columns 59
deep embedded bars 69
deflection 17, 25, 28, 40-1
deformation 25, 27, 29, 40, 53, 57
delamination 41, 77, 80
design life 7
design modulus of elasticity 26-7
see also stiffness
design resistance moment, beams 32
design strain 27, 35
design strength 26, 27, 55
docks see marine structures
double-lap shear test 77
ductility 25, 40, 54
ductility enhancement 53, 54, 59, 61, 68
durability 6-7, 26, 27, 65
see also corrosion
E
earthquake damage
application examples 17, 18, 21, 22
protection against 14, 20, 28-9, 53
repair 18
economics see costs
electrical hazards 10, 14
electricity transmission poles 22
environmental aspects 6, 13, 73-4
see also health and safety
epoxy adhesives see adhesives
100
epoxy resins
definition 89
see also resins
extreme loadings 28-9
F
fabrics 10
adhesive application 75, 76
advantages 1
application examples 18, 19, 20-1
column strengthening 53
concrete preparation 72-3
installation 76
lap joints 56
properties 25
quality control 95
surface regularity and 35
see also multi-layer plates and fabrics;
woven fabrics
failure
design consideration 8
ductility enhancement and 59
FRP response 26
NSM reinforcement 37-8
post-tensioning systems 66
thick and multi-layer plates 39
see also brittle failure; deflection;
deformation; fatigue; fire protection;
lap joints; separation failure; shear
stress; splitting failure; stress rupture;
tensile rupture; vandalism
fan anchors 68
fatigue 25, 41, 57, 65
fibre composites
advantages/disadvantages 1, 5-7, 41
definition 89
health and safety 13
partial safety factors 27
post-tensioning 65
prestressed 65-7, 68, 69
properties 5, 9, 25, 92
shear strengthening 47
sheets 7, 8, 13, 27, 65, 92
strips 17, 18, 20, 49
tapes 21, 27, 69
tendons 65, 67
wet lay-up systems 13
see also aramid fibres and composites;
carbon fibres and composites; glass
fibres and composites; NSM (nearsurface-mounted) reinforcement
fibres 9-10, 13
filament winding 11, 27, 55, 89
fire damage 17
fire protection
adhesive selection 12
design considerations 10, 25, 26, 28
FRP advantages/disadvantages 6
over-coatings 77
flexural strengthening 31-46
anchorages 67
application examples 16, 17, 18, 20, 21
axial FRP 57-9, 61
beam-column connections 58
bridges 8, 41, 53
columns 53, 57-9, 61
materials 13
walls 68
see also NSM (near-surface-mounted)
reinforcement
full wrapping 47, 49, 69, 72
G
glass fibre, definition 89
glass fibre anchorages 68
glass fibres and composites 9-10
application examples 18, 20, 21
durability 26, 27
fabrics 20, 21
health and safety 13
NSM reinforcement 37, 68
partial safety factors 27
plates 21
preformed shells 18, 21, 53
prestressing 65
shear strengthening 47, 68
stress rupture 65, 66
suitability 14
see also filament winding
glass transition temperature (Tg) 12, 28, 89
glossary 89
grooves see slots
grouts 12, 21, 37, 68
H
hand lay-up 11, 27, 89
health and safety 10, 12, 13, 28, 71, 72
records 78, 79
see also environmental aspects; fire
protection
HM (high modulus) carbon systems 9, 14
hoop wrapping
application examples 20
columns 53, 55, 56-7, 58, 59, 61
earthquake damage protection 14
rectangular columns 29
I
identification 73, 78, 80
impact damage 6, 19, 26, 29
impact resistance 10, 20, 55
inorganic adhesives 69
inorganic resins 9
inspection 2, 7, 29, 71, 77, 79-80
see also maintenance; visual inspection
installation 5-6, 71-8
costs 7-8
NSM reinforcement 1, 37, 77
prestressed FRP composites and 65
surface regularity 34-5
see also quality control; workmanship
instrumentation 77, 79, 80
J
jetties see marine structures
joints
bridges 21
see also connections; lap joints
Index
oval columns 61
over-coatings 10, 12, 25, 77-8, 80
overlaps see lap joints
M
maintenance 7, 8, 80
see also inspection
marine structures 1, 21-2
masonry see walls
materials 9-14
compatibility 80
design values 26-8
properties 6, 9, 25-6, 92-4
quality control 73, 95-6
storage 73
suppliers 91
testing 77
see also adhesives; concrete; fibre
composites; fibres; resins; SRP (steelreinforced polymer) materials
mechanical fastening 34, 66, 68, 69
moment capacity 3, 31-3, 58-9
see also beams and slabs; columns
moment redistribution 31, 40, 67
monitoring 2, 7, 29, 79-80
mortars see grouts
multi-layer plates and fabrics 39-40, 76
N
non-destructive tests 77
non-woven fabrics 10, 89
NSM (near-surface-mounted) reinforcement
1, 36-9
adhesives 37, 38, 73, 75, 77
anchorages 37, 38-9, 41
application examples 17, 19, 21
aramid fibres and composites 21
beams and slabs 68
carbon fibre and composites 11, 17, 19,
37, 68
costs 1, 14, 37
glass fibres and composites 37, 68
inspection 77
installation 1, 37, 77
post-tensioning 65
prestressed 68
shear strengthening 68
sizes and properties 11, 93
slots for 13, 38, 73, 77
suitability 13-14
vandalism and 29
wall strengthening 68
wet lay-up laminates 67
see also deep embedded bars
nuclear structures 7, 18, 28
P
paints see over-coatings
partial safety factors 26-7, 28
existing sections 24, 25, 32
stress-strain 58
tensile rupture 56
peel ply 19, 39, 74, 89
piers see marine structures
plates 5, 9, 11
application examples 8, 16-22
definition 89
fatigue 41
flexural strengthening 39-40
lap splices 41
partial safety factors 27
post-tensioning 65
prestressed FRP composites 66-7, 68
properties 11, 25, 38, 93
quality control 13, 95, 96
resins 11
stacking 39-40
suitability 1, 13
surface irregularities 35
tolerances 73
workmanship and installation 6, 13, 72-3,
74, 75-6
see also separation failure; specials;
warning plates
polyester/polyurethane adhesives 12
post-tensioning 65-6
preformed shells 11-12, 18, 21
columns 11-12, 53, 61
installation 71
partial safety factors 27
quality control 95-6
prepreg, definition 89
prepreg fabric 10, 21, 53
prepreg plates 11, 27, 95
prestressed FRP composites 65-7, 68, 69
prestressed structures 42
protective coatings see over-coatings
pull-off tests see testing
pultrusion 11, 89
see also plates
Q
quality control 13, 25, 71, 73, 95-6
R
railway structures 7, 10, 14, 19, 21, 22
see also tunnels
records 71, 73, 78, 79, 96
rectangular columns 53, 60-1
application examples 17, 18
impact loading 29
shear strengthening 47-52, 61
wrapping 29, 73
S
safety see health and safety; partial safety
factors
samples 7, 25, 28, 77, 79, 80
see also testing
seismic loading see earthquake damage
separation failure 31, 33-6, 38, 45-6, 47
serviceability 40-2, 57
serviceability limit states 24-5, 26, 42, 65,
66
shape factor 60-1
shear capacity 31, 34, 47-8, 56, 65
see also beams and slabs; columns; shear
strengthening; shear stress
shear-crack-induced FRP separation 34, 38
shear strengthening 3, 5, 47-52
application examples 17, 18, 19, 20, 21
axial FRP 49-50, 57
beams and slabs 12, 17, 47-52, 67-8
bridges 7-8, 69
carbon fibre and composites 17, 19, 20,
47, 68
circular columns 53-9
debonding 49, 56
deep embedded bars 69
glass fibres and composites 47, 68
NSM reinforcement 68
prestressed carbon FRP straps 69
rectangular columns 47-52, 61
specials 12
ultimate limit states 48-9, 50, 56-7
walls 68
wet lay-up systems 13
wrapping 13, 47, 49, 56, 57, 67
shear stress 35-6, 47-8
bond failure 34
NSM reinforcement 38
prestressed FRP composites 66, 68
thick and multi-layer laminates 39
wet lay-up systems 13
see also shear capacity
shells see preformed shells
side-only wrapping 47, 49
site requirements 73-4, 96
101
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
102
T
tapes 21, 27, 69
see also straps; strips
temperature, adhesives 10, 12, 28, 65, 73
tendons 65, 67
tensile rupture 55-6
testing 7, 77, 79, 80
quality control 95
surface quality 73
wet lay-up systems 25
see also samples
thick plates 39-40
torsional strengthening 69
towers 8, 21, 22
tunnels 6, 12, 21, 28
U
U-wrapping 13, 47, 49, 67
UHM (ultra high modulus) carbon systems
9
ultimate limit states 24-5, 26, 27
flexural strengthening 31-2
NSM reinforcement 37
post-tensioning 66
separation failure 34, 35, 38
shear strengthening 48-9, 50, 56-7
stress-strain model 54, 56
tensile rupture 56
ultraviolet radiation 10, 12, 25, 77
underpasses 18
V
vandalism 6, 26, 29, 65, 77
vinyl ester adhesives 12
visual inspection 71, 74, 75-7, 79, 80, 96
W
walls 18, 29, 68
warning plates 29, 78, 80
water-cured glass fabric 21
wet lay-up, definition 89
wet lay-up systems
anchorages 67, 68
concrete durability 40
partial safety factors 27
quality control 96
suitability 13
testing 25
wrapping 13, 76
whole-life costing 4, 8
see also costs
workmanship 6, 12, 35, 40, 71-8
see also installation; quality control
worst credible strength 24, 25, 26
woven fabrics 10, 19, 26, 89
wrapping 3, 9
application examples 17, 18, 20-1, 22
beams and slabs 67, 73
bridges 21
impact loading 29
rectangular columns 29, 73
shear strengthening 13, 47, 49, 56, 57,
67
torsional strengthening 69
wet lay-up systems 13, 76
see also columns; concrete confinement;
fabrics; filament winding; full
wrapping; hoop wrapping; Uwrapping