Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Basic Track
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Basic Track
Joseph E. Riley P.E.
Metra
Chicago, IL 60661
jriley@metrarr.com
strongrrdes@aol.com
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Chapter
Basic Track
The engineer will frequently work from a set of standardized railway
or transit standards when making his or her selection of track
components for any given design project. However, a basic
understanding of elementary track componentry, geometry and
maintenance operations is necessary if intelligent decisions are to
be made within the options that are typically available.
e begin our study with the prime component of the track the rail.
3.1.1 Rail
Rail is the most expensive material in the track.1 Rail is steel that has been rolled into
an inverted "T" shape. The purpose of the rail is to:
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The rail section base dimension is important when choosing tie plates, rail anchors and
pre-drilled timber ties and concrete ties. The height of the rail and the width of the
head of the rail are important to determine the selection of joint bars. Next, the
method of hydrogen elimination is specified. CC indicates that the rail was controlled
cooled. Controlled cooling was first utilized in the late 1930's. Rail rolled prior to this
date has a proclivity to the formation of dangerous transverse defect type fissures.
Other methods used in new rail today to eliminate hydrogen bubbles, includes
controlled cooling of blooms (BC) and Vacuum Degassing (VT). Finally, the rail
manufacturer, the year rolled and the month rolled are also indicated. On the opposite
side of the web of the rail, additional information is hot stamped indicating whether the
rail has been end hardened (CH), the heat number, rail letter designation if not
continuous cast, indicating from what part of the ingot the rail is from and if of a
special metallurgy, the designation for special alloys.
The information provided by the rail branding and stamping provides valuable insight
to the suitability for reuse of second-hand rail in a variety of situations. For example,
many railways limit the use of rail stamped as an "A" rail within the ingot to slow speed
yards and sidings because of the potential for the creation of seams in the head and
web of the rail called pipe rail or the development of vertical split heads. This does not
mean that A rail cannot be used in main tracks, as rail chemistry is probably a better
indicator of the proclivity of the development of such defects.
In general, rail sections smaller than 90 lb. should not be utilized for new construction,
but is available second-hand for replacing rail in trackage utilizing the given section.
Ninety lb. and 100 lb. sections are adequate for many transit and light tonnage
industrial park trackage. New trackage, exposed to 100-ton or heavier cars, should not
utilize rail sections smaller than the 11525 RE. Second-hand 11025 and 11228 RE are
comparable to the 11525 RE section, but have a proclivity to head and web separations
due to the reduced radius in the fillet between the web and the head of the rail. Good
rail in these sections is becoming increasingly more difficult to find and the engineer
may wish to give serious thought about the possibility of securing usable replacement
rail in these sections for maintenance purposes in later years. The common 5-1/2"
base sections (11525 RE and 119 RE) are commonly specified for medium tonnage
and/or commuter/passenger/transit lines. For heavy tonnage trackage, the 6" base rail
sections are preferable. These include 13225 RE, 133 RE, 136 RE, 140 RE and the
new 141 RE sections. Various 130 and 131 lb. sections are available second-hand, but
many have head and web separation related problems.
The engineer wishing to utilize second-hand rail must take into consideration the
amount of tread (top of rail) and gage wear present on the rail. Rail ends bent, kinked
or badly battered may not be suitable for jointed rail relay use. The AREMA Manual
for Railway Engineering has recommended maximum wear and alignment tolerances
that are designated by the category of track usage. If the rail is to be welded into
continuous welded rail strings (CWR), end batter and bent ends can be cropped off,
but gage and tread wear, as well as surface defects such as engine burns or bad shells,
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may make a rail unsuitable for welding. If available, the engineer should attempt to
secure the rail's defect history. The engineer should not be afraid of utilizing secondhand rail. Indeed, rail exposed earlier in its life to nothing heavier than the 70-ton car
has often become work hardened. New rail today exposed to unit train tonnage is
abraded away before it ever becomes work hardened. On the other hand, today's rail
steels possess improved rail chemistries that permit life expectancies exceeding a billion
gross tons, whereas yesterdays rail rarely lasted more than 600 million gross tons.
Whenever possible, the engineer should specify the use of welded rail. The elimination
of the joint will reduce future maintenance costs by exponential factors. New rail is
rolled in lengths of either 39 or 80 feet in length. Construction is presently under way
to roll rail in even longer lengths. These rails are then welded in a controlled
environment into individual strings of up to 1600 feet in length for delivery to the field.
3.1.2 Ties
Ties are typically made of one of four materials:2
Timber
Concrete
Steel
Alternative materials
The purpose of the tie is to cushion and transmit the load of the train to the ballast
section as well as to maintain gage. Wood and even steel ties provide resiliency and
absorption of some impact through the tie itself. Concrete ties require pads between
the rail base and tie to provide a cushioning effect.
Timber Ties
It is recommended that all timber ties be pressure-treated with preservatives to protect
from insect and fungal attack.3 Hardwood ties are the predominate favorites for track
and switch ties. Bridge ties are often sawn from the softwood species. Hardwood ties
are designated as either track or switch ties.
Factors of first importance in the design and use of ties include durability and
resistance to crushing and abrasion. These depend, in turn, upon the type of wood,
Canadian National Railway Track Maintainers Course
1965 Roadmasters & Maintenance of Way Association Proceedings, Quality Track Maintenance Factors
Their Relative Importance, W. W. Hay
2
3
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Switch Ties
Switch ties (Figure 3-3) are commonly
hardwood species, usually provided in either
6" or 12" increments beginning at 9'-0" up
to 23'-0" in length. Nominal cross-section
dimensions are 7" x 9", although larger ties
are specified by some railways. The primary
use for switch ties is relegated to turnouts
(thus their name). However, they are also
used in bridge approaches, crossovers, at hot
box detectors and as transition ties. Some
railways use switch ties in heavily traveled Figure 3-3 Switch Timber Photo by Craig Kerner
road crossings and at insulated rail joints.
Switch ties ranging in length from 9'-0" to 12'-0" can also be used as "swamp" ties.
The extra length provides additional support for the track in swampy or poor-drained
areas. Some railways have utilized Azobe switch ties (an extremely dense African
wood) for high-speed turnouts. The benefits associated with reduced plate cutting and
fastener retention may be offset by the high import costs of this timber.
Softwood Ties
Softwood timber (Figure 3-4) is
more rot resistant than hardwoods,
but does not offer the resistance of
a hardwood tie to tie plate cutting,
gauge spreading and spike hole
enlargement
(spike
killing).
Softwood ties also are not as
effective in transmitting the loads to
the ballast section as the hardwood
tie. Softwood and hardwood ties
must not be mixed on the main
track except when changing from
one category to another.
Softwood ties are typically used in
open deck bridges.
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Concrete Ties
Concrete ties (Figure 3-5) are rapidly
gaining acceptance for heavy haul
mainline use, (both track and
turnouts), as well as for curvature
greater than 2. They can be supplied
as crossties (i.e. track ties) or as switch
ties. They are made of pre-stressed
concrete containing reinforcing steel
wires. The concrete crosstie weighs
about 600 lbs. vs. the 200 lb. timber
track tie. The concrete tie utilizes a Figure 3-5 Concrete Ties Photo by Kevin Keefe
specialized pad between the base of the
rail and the plate to cushion and absorb the load, as well as to better fasten the rail to
the tie. Failure to use this pad will cause the impact load to be transmitted directly to
the ballast section, which may cause rail and track surface defects to develop quickly.
An insulator is installed between the edge of the rail base and the shoulder of the plate
to isolate the tie (electrically). An insulator clip is also placed between the contact point
of the elastic fastener used to secure the rail to the tie and the contact point on the base
of the rail.
Steel Ties
Steel ties (Figure 3-6) are often
relegated to specialized plant
locations or areas not
favorable to the use of either
timber or concrete, such as
tunnels with limited headway
clearance. They have also
been utilized in heavy
curvature prone to gage
widening.
However, they
have not gained wide
acceptance due to problems
associated with shunting of
Figure 3-6 Steel Ties
signal current flow to ground.
Some lighter models have also experienced problems with fatigue cracking.
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1965 Roadmasters & Maintenance of Way Association Proceedings, Quality Track Maintenance Factors
Their Relative Importance, W. W. Hay
4
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highway rock gradations are available. The comparison chart found at the back of this
chapter cross-references various gradations.
More important factors, probably, are the shape of the ballast particle, its degree of
sharpness, angularity, and surface texture or roughness. These factors have been shown
to have a significant effect upon the stability and compactability of aggregates in
general.
The ballast types most nearly meeting the ideal requirements, in order of preference,
are granite trap rock, hard limestone, open hearth and blast furnace slags, other
limestones, prepared gravels, chat, volcanic ash, pit-run gravel and coarse sand (as a last
resort). There are other materials of local deposition that may be usefully considered,
especially for light-traffic and industrial switching tracks.
Keeping ballast in a clean, free-draining condition begins with the selection of a ballast
material that is tough, durable, not subject to abrasion, and free of clays, silts, and soft
and friable pieces. Beyond that, maintaining adequate drainage and cleaning or renewal
should be performed as needed.
Shoulder and intertrack cleaning are satisfactory until the ballast becomes cemented,
too finely abraided, or until mud and dirt have collected under the ties and in the cribs.
At this point, undercutting and cleaning, or undercutting, wasting and replacing with
new ballast is in order. Undercutting may also be a necessary alternative to raising track
during the surfacing and re-ballasting program where overhead clearances are
restrictive. (See the Appendix Maintenance Processes for specific procedures used in
undercutting.)
The depth of ballast required is a function of the supporting capacity of the subgrade.
It should be sufficient to distribute the pressures to within the bearing capacity of the
subgrade. Uniform distribution of pressures is another factor that varies with depth.
Usually, a minimum depth of 18 to 24 inches is necessary to achieve uniform
distribution. This depth may be distributed between ballast and sub-ballast. The greater
the height of ballast around the tie, the greater is the resistance to vertical displacement.
The same holds true for shoulder and lateral displacement. A full crib of high-grade
ballast should be maintained for continuous welded rail with a ballast shoulder width of
10 to 12 in. beyond the ends of tie considered as ideal. Check individual railway
standards for designated ballast shoulder widths. Typically, 12 is required on the high
side of curves and some railways will specify as little as 6 on tangent shoulders and the
low side of curves. For jointed track, a minimum height of no more than two inches
below top of tie should be held with 6 to 8 in. of ballast shoulder outside the ends of
ties. For gravel, chat and other materials of lesser quality, the crib should be filled to the
top of tie and a 10- to 12-in. shoulder maintained beyond the tie end. The practice of
permitting the sloping of the ballast section downward at the tie ends rather than
maintaining a shoulder may reduce the lateral resistance needed for continuous welded
rail.
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Standard
Compromise
Insulated
Figure 3-8 Conventional Bar, Compromise Bar & Insulated Joint Bar
Photo by J. E. Riley
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Standard Joints
Standard joint bars connect two rails of
the same weight and section. (See Figure
3-9) They are typically 24" in length with
4-bolt holes for the smaller rail sections or
36" in length with 6-bolt holes for the
larger rail sections. Alternate holes are
elliptical in punching to accommodate the
oval necked track bolt. Temporary joints
in CWR require the use of the 36 bars in
order to permit drilling of only the two
outside holes and to comply with the FRA
Track Safety Standards requirement of
maintaining a minimum of two bolts in
each end of any joint in CWR.
Compromise Joints
Compromise bars connect two rails of
different weights or sections together.
(See Figure 3-10) They are constructed
such that the bars align the running
surface and gage sides of different rails
sections.
There are two kinds of
compromise joints:
Non-directional (Gage or Field Side) are used where the difference between
sections is only in the heights of the head or where the difference in width of rail
head is not more than 1/8" at the gage point. Gauge point is the spot on the gauge
side of the rail exactly 5/8" below the top of the rail.
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Insulated Joints
Insulated joints are used in tracks having track circuits. They prevent the electrical
current from flowing between the ends of two adjoining rails, thereby creating a track
circuit section. Insulated joints use an insulated end post between rail ends to prevent
the rail ends from shorting out.
There are three types of insulated joints:
Continuous
Non-continuous
Bonded
Continuous insulated joints (Figure 311) are called continuous because they
continuously support the rail base.
No metal contact exists between the
joint bars and the rails. Insulated fiber
bushings and washer plates are used to
isolate the bolts from the bars. The
joint bars are shaped to fit over the
base of the rail. This type of insulated
joint requires a special tie plate called
an "abrasion plates" to properly
support the joint.
Non-continuous insulated rail joints are called non-continuous because these joints
don't continuously support the rail base. A special insulating tie plate is required on the
center tie of a supported, non-continuous insulated joint. Metal washer plates are
placed on the outside of the joint bar to prevent the bolts from damaging the bar.
There are two common kinds of non-continuous insulated joints:
Glass fiber.
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The glass fiber insulated rail joint (See the bar to the right in Figure 3-8) replaces the
joint bar with a reinforced glass filament bar. Metal washer plates are placed on the
outside of the joint bar to prevent the bolts from damaging the bar.
The polyurethane encapsulated
insulated bar (Figure 3-12) is a steel
joint bar completely encapsulated in
polyurethane over the entire joint
bar surface. The Poly joint uses
insulating bushings to insure that
track bolts do not short out the
track.
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Drive-On
Spring-Type
Figure 3-16 Tru-Temper Channeloc Drive On Anchor; Adjacent Photo: Woodings-Verona Spring Anchor, Unit Spring Anchor,
Portec Improved Fair Drive-On Anchor Photos by J. E. Riley
3.1.7 Fasteners
There are many different types of fasteners commonly used.8 Fasteners can be
grouped by use as either connecting rail or track components together or to fasten rails
to ties. Fastenings and hold-down devices, with modern tie plate design, are aimed
primarily at reducing movement between the tie plate and the tie, both vertically and
laterally. As the track deflects under a wheel load, a reverse curve with upward bending
is formed immediately in front of and behind the wheel. Lateral restraint is necessary
to prevent wide gauge and plate cutting. Vertical restraint also reduces plate cutting.
The rail should be restrained within the tie plate shoulders. Its own weight is usually
sufficient without unduly restricting the wave action in the rail. The plate must be held
firmly to the tie by plate holding spikes to prevent any differential movement between
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plate and tie. The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering gives a recommended
spiking procedure. However, the Engineer should check to make sure that the railway
has adopted the AREMA spiking standard.
SPIKES
Track Spikes
The purpose of the track spike is to first maintain gage between the running rails and
to secondly secure the rail to the tie. The underside of spike head is sloped to fit the
top surface of the rail base (Figure 3-17).
Spikes come in different lengths to ensure an adequate length of spike penetrates into
the tie. The most common track spikes used are the 5/8" x 6" and the 9/16" x 5-1/2"
for smaller rail sections. Spikes can be commonly secured in either 200 lb. kegs or 50
lb. kegs (Figure 3-18).
Ship Spikes
Ship spikes, also commonly called line spikes, are used to secure timber crossing planks
and to secure shims used in frost heaved track. Ship spikes come in a variety of sizes.
Lag Screws
Lag screws are used to fasten elastic fastener plates as well as other specialty track
componentry to wood ties. The tie must be bored before installing the lag screw.
Drive Spikes
Drive spikes with quadruple threads are used to fasten crossing timbers or rubber/cast
crossing sections to the tie. They may be used in other locations where significant pullout resistance is required.
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BOLTS
Track bolts
The track bolt (Figure 3-19) is used to
connect rail ends together at a joint. Track
bolt sizes are determined by the section of
rail in use. Check the applicable railway
standard to determine the proper bolt
diameter and length. Track bolts are
normally supplied as oval neck to prevent
the bolt from turning when torqued. Track
bolts are heat-treated and will stretch a little,
thus they must be tightened after initial
application. Track bolts are used with
square nuts and spring washers. Overtorquing track bolts creates frozen joints,
which in most cases, is undesirable.
Derails
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Gauge rods
Sliding joints
Miter rails
Derails
The purpose of the derail is to keep tracks free of unsecured rolling stock. When
properly placed and in the derailing position, the derail will guide the wheels off the
track. This prevents unintentional movement of rolling stock from fouling the main
line.
The derail should be left in the derailing position
whether or not there are cars occupying the
track. Derails are designated as right hand or left
hand for derailing in the desired direction. The
engineer must select the appropriate model of
derail on the basis of the rail section to be
utilized. An under-sized derail will not properly
cover the rail head and may not derail the car as
intended. An over-sized derail may be damaged
because of inadequate support.
Hinged derails, which are manually applied. The derail is rotated in a vertical
semicircle to move the derail on or off the rail.
Sliding derails (Figure 3-21) are mounted on two switch ties and are operated by a
switch stand.
Switch point derails are used at special locations such as steep gradients or where
the possibility of high-speed movement, for example at movable bridges, could
knock a hinged or sliding derail off the rail, rather than derailing the movement.
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either rigid, which bind securely to the rail or cast which are one-piece half moons that
are easy to install.
Bumping posts are used for heavier service. Some models actually engage the coupler.
Gauge Rods
The purpose of a gauge rod is to maintain track gauge. They are often used to
supplement the tie in preventing lateral movement of the rail in sharp curvature
locations. They can also be used as a temporary means of maintaining traffic in
defective tie conditions. They are not a permanent alternative to replacing a defective
tie. Most gauge rods are adjustable with a nut on one end.
Gauge rods are provided as either insulated for signaled territory or non-insulated,
where track circuits are not used.
Sliding (Conley) Joints
The purpose of a sliding joint (Figure 322) is to accommodate the longitudinal
expansion and contraction of the rail on
long open decked bridges. Rail anchors
are not typically used on open decked
bridges because of the damage done to the
softwood bridge ties. The sliding joint
accommodates the thermal expansion
produced by enabling the beveled rail ends
to move but yet still maintain the
continuity of the running rail.
Mitre Rail
Whenever track is to be opened and
closed at frequent intervals, it will be costly
and cumbersome to use regular joint bars.
Mitre rails (Figure 3-23) allow easy
opening of track at drawbridges and swing
spans. Each rail of a track is cut through
on a long angle and planed to make a neat
overlapping fit of the mitred ends. The
rail fits in a special shoe and is locked in
place. The rail on each side of the mitred
cut must be well enclosed to maintain a
very small gap between the mitred rail
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3.2 Turnouts
A turnout is a combination of a switch, a frog, the rails necessary to connect the switch
and the frog, two guard rails, unless the frog is self-guarded, and a switch stand or
switch machine for operating the switch.10 A turnout begins with the switch and ends
with the frog. The purpose of a turnout is to permit engines and cars to pass from one
track to another.
Lateral turnouts
Equilateral turnouts
Lap turnouts
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Point of switch (PS) is the location where the diverging or straight route is
determined.
Heel of switch (HS) is the location at which the switch point pivots about.
Toe of frog (TF) is the joint location ahead of the frog point connected to the
closure rails.
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One-half inch point of frog (PF) is the location behind theoretical point of frog,
where the gauge spread is .
Heel of frog (HF) is the joint location behind the point of frog.
The true definition of a turnout is the portion of the track assembly from PS to HF.
But we commonly refer to all of the track structure resting on switch ties as the
turnout.
Each turnout is identified as a number
(e.g. # 10). The number of the turnout is
determined by the angle of the frog
(discussed later).
Every turnout consists of the following
components:
3.2.2 Switch
A switch is a device to deflect, at will, the wheels of a train from the track upon which
they are running.11 A switch refers to portion of turnout from Point of Switch (PS) to
Heel of Switch (HS).
The split switch (Figure 3-28) is the most common switch used, although the tongue
switch may be used on transit properties operating within pavement. The split switch
consists of two switch or point rails connected by switch rods and operated as a unit.
The switch rails are of full section at one end, and are tapered to a 1/4-in. or 1/8-in.
point at the other end. The tapered end is called the point of switch and the other end
is called the heel of switch. The switch rails rest upon metal plates fastened to the ties.
The heel of each switch rail is connected to its lead rail by means of special joint bars,
or in some cases is continuous, and the switch as a unit pivots about these connections.
The point of switch moves through a distance of about 5 inches, which is called the
throw. The movement of the switch rails is controlled by a switch stand placed outside
the track on the head block ties. The distance between the gage lines of the main track
and of the turnout at the heel of the switch rails is called the heel spread and varies
from 5-1/2 to 6-1/4 in. The angle between the gage lines of the switch rail and of the
main track rail is called the switch angle, s, and is computed from the equation found
in Figure 3-29:
11
Route Surveying Chapter 7 Turnouts, Pickels & Wiley, 1947, John Wiley & Sons
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Switch rails vary in length from 11 to 39 ft. and even longer for high turnout numbers,
depending on the weight of the rail and the curvature of the turnout.
Hand operated switching mechanisms can be rigid (See Figure 3-30) or spring switch
type. A spring switch has special components enabling points to close automatically
after being trailed through from the diverging side. There are also dual-control power
switches (See Figure 3-31) that can be operated either by hand (using the hand throw
lever) or power operated remotely by the dispatcher.
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3.2.5 Frog
A frog is a device at the intersection of two running rails to permit the flange of a
wheel moving along one rail to cross the other rail.13 Turnout frogs may be classified
as rigid frogs or spring-rail frogs. Both types of frogs are made with straight gage lines,
except those used on street railways. The point is finished with a blunt point about 1/2
in. wide. The distance P between the actual frog point and the theoretical point
(intersection of gage lines) equals the width of the blunt point multiplied by the frog
number (i.e., 1/2 N).
Rail Bound Manganese (RBM)
This is a heavy-duty frog used on mainlines
because of its durability.14 The insert is
made of a one-piece manganese casting.
Lengths of machined rail (binder rails) are
bolted to the insert. (See Figure 3-33)
13
14
Route Surveying Chapter 7 Turnouts, Pickels & Wiley, 1947, John Wiley & Sons
Canadian National Railway Track Maintainers Course
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Spring Frog
The spring frog (Figure 3-34) provides
continuous support for the wheel as it
transits through the frog flangeway. This
frog has a moveable wing rail. The wing rail
is held closed by a spring assembly. It also
has an anchor block, thimble and a bent
joint bar at the toe end to allow the wing rail
to pivot. The guardrail pulls the wheels
over, forcing the wing to open on the
diverging side. The wing rail springs closed
again after the wheels are through. Spring Figure 3-34 Spring Frog - Courtesy of the Union Pacific
frogs are supplied as either right or left hand. Railroad
To determine the hand of a spring frog,
stand at the rigid wing end, facing the frog. The side the moveable wing is on indicates
left or right.
The spring frog is used for trackage with predominate main line traffic, especially high
speed movements, because there is less pounding and a smoother ride. The
disadvantage is that it requires more maintenance than conventional frogs. Recent
advancements in spring frog design have eliminated some of the rigorous maintenance
needed to keep a spring frog functional.
Solid Manganese Self-guarded Frog
The solid manganese self-guarded frog, also
called SMSG (Figure 3-35) has a built-in guard
rail to prevent wheels from mis-routing. Thus,
conventional guard rails are not required.
SMSG frogs are supplied either with plates as
part of the casting or utilize hook plates to
secure the frog to the switch ties. SMSG frogs
are normally limited to yard use primarily
because of the resultant impact that the
guarding face would suffer at higher speeds.
AREMA does not recommend their use in
main line trackage with speeds over 30 mph.
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The point of the frog is machined off from the true (theoretical) point to where the
spread is 1/2". This is referred to as the actual point of frog. To find the number of
the frog:
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Utilizing a tape measure, find the location behind the point of frog where the
spread between the gauge lines equals an even increment of inches.
Starting at that point, measure along the gauge line to the location where the spread
between gauge lines equals one inch more than that previously measured.
The distance in inches between the two locations where the gauge spread differed
by one-inch equals the frog number.
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Tip
Heel
Reinforcing bar
Switch clips
Stop blocks
The switch points are machined from rails, so that the middle of
the rail becomes the middle of the actual point, to give it
structural support. The switch points are planed at an angle for
about 1/2 of their length down to approximately 1/8 in. wide at
the tip. This permits a snug fit against the stock rail. (See Figure
3-42) As the point begins to move away from the planed
supporting portion, it loses its horizontal support against flexing.
A stop block is mounted on the switch point between the planed
portion and the heel block. The block bears against the stock rail
when the point is in the closed portion, thereby providing
support as the lateral forces from the wheel pushes outward.
The turnout number or the angle of the frog normally
determines the length of the point required, as well as
whether the switch is a curved switch or straight. All
switch points are either standard or Samson. (Figure 3-43)
The smaller rail section turnouts (under 100 lb.) typically
utilize standard points and are straight switches. Larger,
newer rail sections and turnouts located in main line use
are typically Samson points and frequently curved switches.
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If switch clips are on the right side of the point, the point is a left hand switch
point (and vice versa).
If it looks like an "L" when viewed from the point end, then it is left hand:
Switch Clips
The switch clips connect the switch rods to the
points. There are different styles such as the
horizontal transit type vs. the vertical MJ type.
(See Figure 3-45)
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Switch Rods
The switch rods hold the switch points together at a fixed distance.16 They restrict the
up and down movement of the points. The number of rods used depends on the
length and type of switch point. The longer the point, the more rods are required
(from 1 to 7). The rods are spaced from the tip of the point to 1/2 or 2/3 the point
length (depending on the type of point). Switch point rods may be supplied as either
insulated or non-insulated type.
The first rod is called the front or head rod. The last rod is called the back rod and the
others are called intermediate rods.
Types of Switch Rods
There are a variety of available switch rods including:
Horizontal, non-adjustable switch rods (Figure 346) typically are used in conjunction with multiplehole switch clips to provide adjustment. The rod
bolts can be used in various holes when adjusting,
but they must be in corresponding holes in the
clips, i.e. the same on each side. The rod must be
able to move inside the clips as the points are lined
back and forth. The rod bolts must be installed
with the nut up and cotter pin installed.
Figure 3-46 Horizontal Non-Adjustable Switch
Rod - Photo by J. E. Riley
16
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Connecting Rod
Connecting rods are also called the operating or
throw rod. The connecting rod connects the
front switch rod to the switch stand. It may be
attached by an adjustable connection (called a
clevis) to the crank eye bolt in the switch stand
and (by a rigid connection) to the front switch
rod. There are different types of connecting
rods. Some are adjustable, some are not. They
come in a variety of lengths depending on their
use and the type of switch stand being used. Figure 3-48 Connecting Rods - Photo by J. E. Riley
(Figure 3-48) On a power switch, the throw
(operating) rod is attached to a barrel shaped basket (Figure 3-47), which is connected
to the No. 1 switch rod. Adjustment of the lock nuts to either side of the basket
enables adjustment of the switch throw.
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Switch Plates
At the point of switch, the point is beveled back such that it is below the top of the
stock rail. (See Figure 3-44) However, the base of the point is elevated above the base
of the stock rail. Switch or slide plates are used under the switch points. (Figure 3-50)
Depending on the turnout, they are either of the graduated riser style or the uniform
style. Slide plates maintain the required elevation of the switch points above the top of
the stock rail as one moves back to the heel of switch and presents a smooth surface,
upon which the points may move right or left. (Figure 3-51) The graduated riser plate
has a riser that decreases in thickness, such that at the heel, the elevation of the stock
rail and point are the same. The uniform riser plate is the same thickness all the way
back to the heel, such that the switch point is above the stock rail at the heel. Specialty
turnout plates then lower the raised rail behind the heel back down to the elevation of
the closure rail. In both slide plate types, the riser provides a shoulder to prevent
inward lateral movement of the stock rail. The stock rail is secured against outward
movement by spiking to the ties and by rail braces. One cannot mix the type of switch
plates being used.
Rail Braces
A rail brace is used to resist the lateral
thrust on the point and stock rails. Rail
braces bear against the outside of the stock
rails. They are secured to the gauge and
switch plates. There are two general types
in use with many variations of each.
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Turnout Plates
Turnout plates are used immediately beyond
the heel block assembly. These plates raise the
switch end of the closure rail to the level of the
heel of the switch point, where uniform riser
plates were used under the switch. (Figure 355)
Figure 3-55 Turnout Plates Through the Closure
Rails - Courtesy of Union Pacific Railroad
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The hook on the plate always goes on the field side of the rail. There are a variety of
hook twin tie plates. They are typically numbered to correspond on the turnout
drawing with the location that they are to be used (Figure 3-56).
Frog Plates
Hook twin tie plates are often used at
the frog. (Figure 3-57) Spring frogs use
special slide plates to allow the wing rail
to move on it. Some RBM frogs use toe
plates to support wheel loads in this
area. Newer style turnouts will often use
full-length base plates under the frog.
The non-adjustable guard rail is secured directly to the running rail with fixed castings.
On the adjustable guard rail, end castings are located at each end of the guard rail,
which are designated as right or left hand (by standing between the rails and facing the
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guard rail). An adjustable separator block along with the end castings are used to space
the flangeway opening initially at 1-7/8 inches. As the outside flange of the wheel
abrades away the gage face of the guard rail, this dimension will increase. The FRA
sets limits defined by the guard face and guard check dimensions to ensure that the
wheel is properly contained through the frog flangeway.
Guard rails are supplied in different lengths as specified by the railways standard plan.
They use a variety of plates, which must be spiked on each end, plus spiked between
running rail and guard rail.
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20
Route Surveying Chapter 7 Turnouts, Pickels & Wiley, 1947, John Wiley & Sons
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The length along each gage line from one gage line intersection (theoretical P.F.) to
the nearest rail joint.
The height, weight and style of rail of which the crossing is to be made.
The height, weight, and style of rail in the intersecting track if offset or
compromise joints are to be furnished.
This information can best be given by means of a small sketch. Field dimensions
should he taken to the nearest 1/8 in. (0.01 ft.). Occasionally, the field engineer is
called on to compute the dimensions of a crossing. The values required are the frog
angles F1, F2, F3, F4, the length of sides along the gage lines, and the two diagonals.
The computations should be made with sufficient accuracy to give results correct to
the nearest 1/16 in., which is the working limit of the manufacturers.
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Road Crossings are where roads, streets or highways intersect the track at grade.21
Road crossings, or grade crossings as they are sometimes called, result in increased
maintenance requirements of the track and the road itself. In addition to the
maintenance requirements, public safety is obviously of serious concern at road
crossings.
There are many different types of road crossing materials that are commonly
found throughout North America. These include: unsurfaced, timber, asphalt,
asphalt with timber headers, concrete (both cast in place and precast) and
pre-manufactured rubber. Some transit and light rail systems utilize specialty rail
chairs to support an inner rail, thereby creating a proper flangeway in highway
crossings. The type of crossing material used is determined primarily by the
amount of vehicular traffic that uses the crossing.
Unsurfaced crossings are typically used at temporary crossing locations such as
shoe-flys or where construction traffic is required to cross the railway. These
crossings may consist of ballast backfilled to the top of rail. Where unsurfaced
crossings are used, care must be taken to maintain a sufficient flangeway for the
train wheels.
Timber crossings may be constructed
of either treated wooden planks (often
used in farm or private crossings)
(Figure 3-64) or full gumwood
crossings,
which
have
been
successfully used for many years. This
type of crossing can be used for all
types of traffic levels from light to
heavy. Figure 3-65 presents a typical
cross section for a full-depth timber
crossing.
Figure 3-64 Plank Crossing - Photo by J. E. Riley
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3.4.1 Crossing
Construction and
Reconstruction
The following comments are Figure 3-68 Rubber Crossing - Photo by Robert Schuster
independent of the type of
crossing surface that is used. When crossings are built or rebuilt, it is
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recommended that all of the ties in the crossing itself, and for 20 feet beyond each
end of the crossing, should be replaced with new high-quality, properly treated, 7
X 9 hardwood ties. Each tie should be tie plated and double spiked with 4 railholding spikes per plate. Box anchor all ties through the crossing. For crossings
having heavy volumes of rail and highway traffic, it may be desirable to install tie
pads beneath the tie plates in the crossing area. The presence of bolted rail joints
in a road crossing compounds the maintenance problems normally associated with
joints. All of the joints in the crossing area and for 20 feet to either side of the
crossing should be welded to prevent these problems.
When a crossing is constructed, care must be taken to insure that the track
structure is sound and durable prior to placing the crossing cover. The rail, tie
plates, spikes and ties should be new. Once the crossing cover is on, track
material replacement become difficult and costly. The track geometry (gage,
surface and alignment) should be near perfection prior to placing the crossing
cover. The ballast in and around all of the ties should be well compacted. It is
important that fouled ballast materials be removed during crossing reconstruction
for a distance of at least 20 feet off the ends of the crossing. However, it is equally
important that excavation not penetrate the hardpan found below the ballast/subballast section. Whenever possible, full closure of a highway crossing from
vehicular traffic is desirable for the longest period possible. This ensures that the
entire crossing can be raised to an elevation that permits surface water drainage
away from the crossing and that provides the greatest amount of train traffic over
the crossing prior to sealing it up. This helps to prevent settlement and other
movement of the crossing that would be difficult to adjust later. Close
communication with local and state/province authorities, arranged well in
advance, can do much towards mitigating problems associated with temporary
crossing closures.
In multiple track territory, it is desirable that the top of the rails for all tracks be in
the same plane (See Figure 3-69). The highway surface should match the plane of
the tracks for at least 24 to either side of the outside rails of the crossing.
Connect this plane to the grade line of the highway each way by vertical curves
sufficiently long enough to provide adequate sight distance and a smooth riding
condition for approaching highway traffic (See Figure 3-70).
AREMA
recommends that the highway elevation at 30 feet from the nearest rail be not
more than 3 higher or 6 lower than the top of rail unless track superelevation
dictates otherwise. Tractor trailer rigs can get hung up on a humped crossing.
The engineer should verify that the vertical curve gradients utilized are within local
ordinance or Commerce Commission statutes. Some states require that the
railway assume the responsibility of repaving the approaches if the resultant
crossing reconstruction will raise the approach grade by more than 1%.
Proper drainage away from the road crossing of surface water is essential to the
satisfactory long-term performance of the track and the highway. Inadequate
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drainage leads to water ponding in the crossing area. Water should not be allowed
to pond anywhere on or near the track. Drainage facilities such as ditches, gutters,
catch basins, subdrains and culverts should be in-place, free of debris and working
properly. The use of geotextile fabrics and/or perforated CMP between the
subgrade and the sub-ballast/ballast section is highly recommended to carry away
water trapped within the crossing proper.
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warn vehicles of the train. Gates are sometimes used in conjunction with this type
of signal. Automatic warning devices must be inspected and tested monthly to
insure that they are in proper working order. All inspections and tests conducted
on these automatic signals must be documented and kept on file per FRA
requirement. This provides valuable information in the event of an accident or
other sources of litigation. (See Chapter 7 of the Practical Guide To Railway
Engineering for a complete explanation of how highway crossing warning devices
are activated by the track circuits.)
22
Railroad Track Design Manual, Prepared for the Parsons Transportation Group by James Strong, PE
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the cost of capital required to achieve a cycle based program. It is not desirable to replace
1200 to 1400 ties per mile (out of the normal 3,200 ties found per mile) just so that one
meets the minimum safety standards required to operate at the speeds desired.
Now let's look at how each of the criteria mentioned are utilized. Safe operation at track
speeds and On-Time Performance (reliability) are for the most part speed related. The
FRA (Federal Railroad Administration) Track Safety Standards defines minimum
requirements to which the track structure must be maintained for a given range of speeds.
The following table defines the permissible speed ranges for the Class of Track for freight
trains running up to 80 mph and passenger trains running up to 90 mph.
Over track that meets all of
the requirements prescribed
in this part for
Excepted
1
2
3
4
5
The maximum
allowable speed for
freight trains is
10
10
25
40
60
80
The maximum
allowable speed for
passenger trains is
N/A
15
30
60
80
90
An additional table for passenger trains defines the class of track for speeds between 91
mph and 200 mph (FRA Class 6 9). It must be understood that the FRA Track Safety
Standards set the minimum requirements for safe operation of trains. Maintenance
standards must be much more rigorous in order to continue to operate at a given speed.
Design and new construction standards require significantly tighter tolerances than that
employed by maintenance standards i.e., it may not be cost effective to maintain the
railway at the same level of design/new construction standards if safety and service
reliability are not compromised.
In general, track is dynamic. Other than timber ties, it does not degrade under the absence
of train operations. It, however, degrades exponentially as train speeds are increased.
Thus, as speeds go up, the variance or acceptable tolerances from desired parameters
must become tighter. These parameters are broken down into:
-
Roadbed
Geometry
Track Structure
Track Appliances
Inspection Requirements
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3.6.1 Gage
Consider the parameters making up geometry. The first parameter is gage, which is the
right angle distance between rails measured 5/8" down from the top of the rail on the
gage (inside) corner (Figure 3-71).
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3.6.2 Alignment
Another parameter of geometry already
mentioned is alignment. Alignment is
the position of the track or rail in the
horizontal plane. It is expressed as being
tangent or curved. (See Figure 3-72)
Alignment is measured in straight track
by stretching a 62' string between two
points along the gage corner of the rail.
The offset measurement between the
string and the gage corner of the rail is
Figure 3-72 Curved Alignment - Photo by Bill Ross
taken at the midordinate (center of the
string (31')). If the track is perfectly
straight, the offset should be zero (i.e., the string touches the gage corner of the rail
along the entire 62' chord). Again, the FRA has set maximum permissible amounts of
alignment deviation (difference between 0 offset and the measured offset in inches),
which become more restrictive as speeds increase. In a curve, alignment is also
measured by the use of a 62' chord and for classes 3 5 track, a 31' chord as well. To
understand how alignment is measured in a curve, one needs to first examine the
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components of a curve. There are three specific elements of a curve that must be
considered:
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used to also transition in the increase in elevation until at the end of the spiral when full
elevation is reached. At the end of the full body of the curve, a spiral is used to
transition the full elevation back to zero when the tangent section is again reached. (See
Chapter 6 Railway Track Design for a complete discussion on the use of the spiral curve to transition in
full superelevation.) Thus, both lateral and vertical increase in acceleration of the car body
occurs at a constant rate without feeling an abrupt change. The weight of the train,
deviation in gage and alignment, as well as resultant surface track problems, make it
difficult to maintain these elements in the desired state. Deterioration of other track
components further exacerbates the maintenance of curves and tangent track. The
correction of alignment, surface and how these two relate to curves is called surfacing.
It is a key component in the renewal or rehabilitation of the track structure.
3.6.3 Surface
The next primary element of geometry is surface. Surface describes the vertical
relationship of the track structure and is comprised of run-off, profile, crosslevel,
reverse elevation in curves and warp or twist (difference in crosslevel).
Each category of surface affects the train's response to the track and must be
considered in performing all track construction and repair tasks. Speed-sensitive
maximum tolerances have been established
for all of the elements of surface.
The top of rail elevation of newly worked
track must be blended into the elevation of
the existing track during surfacing
operations, where the track is raised, when
renewing the deck of a bridge or performing
work on other track structure elements
changing the top of rail elevation. If not
careful in blending the new elevation of the Figure 3-76 Run-off Between Bridge Segments - Photo
track, a car traversing over the blended track by James Bertrand
section will get a severe bounce, which in
some cases may uncouple the train. We call this abrupt change in elevation run-off.
(See Figure 3-76) The greater the speed, the greater the bounce, if the run-off is too
abrupt. Run-off allowable limits are determined by stretching a string along the top of
the rail and by measuring the change in elevation of either rail in 31'.
The profile of each rail is the mid-offset in inches measured from the midordinate of a
62' string stretched along the top of the rail. Profile problems look like sags or humps in
the track. (Figure 3-77)
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Surface also includes crosslevel (Figure 3-78), which is the difference in elevation
between two rails at any given point. In tangent track, the crosslevel should be zero.
Both rails should be at the same elevation.
In curved track in the full body of the
curve, the crosslevel should be at
whatever
is
the
designated
superelevation.
In the spiral, the
crosslevel should be whatever the
incremental amount of elevation is
between zero and full elevation for that
point in the transition curve. The
difference between what the crosslevel is
and what it should be at that point is
known as the deviation in crosslevel.
Specific limits are also set on the amount Figure 3-79 Difference in Crosslevel (Warp) Within 62'
of reverse elevation permissible in curves (i.e., the outside rail in a curve is lower than
the inside rail at a given spot).
Difference in crosslevel or warp (Figure 3-79), the fourth category of surface, can cause
the front of the car to lean in one direction and the rear of the car to lean in the other
simultaneously. The resultant wracking action on the car may cause a wheel to lift.
Warp is also the cause of the famous rock-n-roll phenomena, whereby successive low
joints at critical speeds will cause certain types of cars to go into resonance (reach their
natural frequency). They will literally rock themselves off of the track from the wheel
lift produced.
Warp is defined as the change in crosslevel between any two points less than 62 feet
apart. The change between the highest and lowest crosslevel reading in any 62'
determines the speed that can be operated. Warp in a spiral curve can often be
dangerous. Because of the lateral and vertical changes the car is undergoing in the spiral,
a low spot or even reverse elevation in the spiral may require a speed reduction perhaps to 10 mph until the problem can be corrected. Allowable warp in a spiral for
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Class 4 is 1", but just a 2" difference in crosslevel requires one to reduce speeds down to
Class 1 track.
Surface problems are often directly related to tie condition. If a significant number of
ties are no longer capable of providing support (i.e., they're split, broken, plate cut or just
abraded away from the bottom) surface problems will result. Out-of-face tie renewal, at
that point, is the only permanent option to correct the resultant surface problems.
If the free draining characteristics of the ballast are disrupted, i.e., it becomes plugged
with mud or fines, surface will be impossible to maintain. Because the mud does not
have the bearing support of clean rock, the track structure will compress under each
passing wheel. A siphoning effect much like a toliet plunger will only bring more water
and fines up into the ballast section. Undercutting, shoulder cleaning or in some cases a
full out-of-face ballast raise (2" to 3"), are about the only options available to alleviate
this condition. If rail condition has deteriorated to the point that secondary batter or
bent ends cause the wheel to pound every time it goes over a joint - surface will be
impossible to maintain. Inadequate drainage because of fouled ballast or other related
factor may be considered an FRA non-class specific defect under certain situations.
3.7 Safety
The importance of safety on the ROW was highlighted in Chapter 2, Industry
Overview. Indeed, the first rule in virtually every railway safety rule book is Safety is
the most important element in the discharge of duties. The cardinal rule of
railroading is Expect a train on any track, at any time and in any direction. Never step
in the foul without looking both ways. These rules are key to staying out of harms
way any time one is out on the ROW.
Within the United States, the Federal Railroad Administration has set very strict
requirements regarding the protection required for roadway workers (individuals
inspecting, constructing, maintaining or repairing track, bridges, signal and
communication systems, roadway, roadway related facilities, electric traction systems or
anyone operating roadway equipment in the foul of the track or with the potential of
fouling the track). These regulations are known as the On-Track Safety or Roadway
Worker regulations. Each railway has developed an On-Track Safety Policy that
defines how protection will be provided to roadway workers from trains or roadway
maintenance equipment any time they are in the foul of the track. Contractors,
consultants, manufacturer equipment personnel and railway employees meeting the
criteria of a roadway worker are bound to comply with these requirements by federal
law, and there are severe corporate and personal financial penalties for failure to
observe these requirements. Per the FRA, one is in the foul any time one occupies the
track or is within four feet of the near running rail or is within the envelope where
he/she could be struck by a projection from a piece of on-track roadway maintenance
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machinery. Railways may have more stringent requirements than that posed by the
FRA.
Each railway On-Track Safety policy will mandate but is not limited to the following:
Every roadway worker must have a daily job briefing that defines the qualified
employee-in-charge of his on-track safety and the type of on-track safety that will
be provided him on the track from which he is fouling and/or on adjacent tracks
as well. The physical and time limits of the protection must be provided if
appropriate.
No roadway worker may foul the track unless an appropriate form of on-track
safety is provided him at all times.
A roadway worker may challenge the on-track safety protection provided him if he,
in good faith, believes that the on-track safety protection provided is inadequate or
is in violation of the railways On-Track Safety policy or the FRA regulation,
without fear of retribution.
Roadway workers can provide protection for themselves utilizing several different
methods of protection. However, they must be a qualified employee-in-charge in
order to do so. To be qualified, one must:
In all but the most rare cases, railways typically do not qualify other than employees to
be employees-in-charge. This means that anyone coming onto the property in a
consultant/contractor mode must be accompanied by a qualified employee-in-charge
any time he/she is within the envelope defined as foul FRA or railway, no matter
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how short the period. Some railways further restrict this to any time one comes onto
railway property.
Roadway workers must receive annual roadway worker training prior to fouling the
track. Some railways utilize the job briefing in order to satisfy the training requirements
for infrequent contractors/consultants. However, a number of railways require
contractors or consultants to be roadway worker trained prior to receiving permission
to come onto the property. There are a number of qualified entities that can provide
this training, including AREMA.
The On-Track Safety regulation is complex and there are a number of other very
significant requirements. The engineer must have a clear understanding of it. One can
download the regulation and explanation from WWW.FRA.DOT.GOV.
The FRA requires the use of fall protection when working on a railway bridge:
Outside the running rails of any bridge structure not equipped with a handrail on
the side from which one is working,
With a height greater than 12 feet or more from the working surface to the surface
below, and
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to relay rail in a track segment plagued with defective ties incapable of supporting the
wheel loads unless the tie problem first is corrected. A full out-of-face tie renewal,
bringing the track structure up to Class 4 or Class 5 tie condition, will quickly deteriorate
if the ballast section consists of mudcaps, poor alignment and surface problems.
Alleviation or attention provided one aspect of the track structure will not correct other
problems, both from the integrity of the track structure, but also from a regulatory
perspective as well.
On the other hand, a well-planned rehabilitation program, that minimizes disturbance of
the track structure, but that also includes coordination and consideration of all phases of
track maintenance, will often yield life cycles that will go well beyond the life expectancy
guaranteed.
Coupled with on-going cycle based rehabilitation programs, is the need for consistent
operating dollar-based maintenance programs. Spot replacement of ties, correction of
gage deficiencies, smoothing, elimination of joints, adjustment of CWR, turnout
maintenance, repair of battered or chipped rail ends, grinding of rail to maintain
optimum rail profile, are all essential to keeping the track structure in equilibrium until
capital component replacement occurs. The industry must never let deferred
maintenance become a way of life again. As older, more experienced workforce retire,
as new regulations add restrictions to the way maintenance activities are performed with
resultant loss of efficiencies, and as train traffic increases and work windows decrease,
railways are going to need more sophisticated and productive equipment for their
maintenance forces to counter these problems.
The reader is encouraged to turn to the Appendix for a synopsis by the Canadian
National Railway of procedural steps used in performing various maintenance activities
including:
Ballast Unloading
Switch Tie, Yard and Siding Ties & Programmed Maintenance Tie Renewal
Track Abandonment
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Track Sledding
Note: These practices are provided only as a guideline and may be in significant variance with the
procedures and practices of other railways.
Maintenance has always been performed, more or less, on a cyclic basis.23 Cyclic
maintenance, in its modern connotation, must therefore mean more than mere
repetitive programming. Quality does not wait until the entire service life of a tie has
been consumed before renewing that tie. An almost worn-out tie is not giving full and
uniform support to the track. Neither does quality maintenance wait until alignment
and surface have deteriorated before performing the necessary lining and surfacing
operations. These work activities must be established on a cycle that does not permit
significant deterioration to set in. Additional cost may seem to be involved. This may
well be since one often has to pay more for a product of higher quality. The actual
over-all-cost effects may not be as adverse as one might anticipate, because it is easier
to keep up than to catch up.
Cyclic maintenance is a desirable feature of standardization of methods. Tie renewals
and surfacing are related operations. Surfacing should follow tie renewals to insure a
final quality surface after the track has been disturbed by the tie renewals. Because the
two operations frequently move at different speeds (depending on the number of tie
renewals per mile), the one operation should not be permitted to hold back the other.
23
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of inertia or resistance to buckling of the track structure is increased by adding solid fully
spiked ties, providing a full ballast section between the ties and on the shoulder, and by
applying anchors.
But thermal forces are not the only forces that are applied to the track structure. Train
braking and acceleration, locomotive nosing back and forth, truck hunting, line kinks,
centrifugal force on curves, etc., all add additional forces to promote buckling. There's a
limit to how much the track structure can resist. In most cases, the only force that can
be controlled is thermal expansion. North American railways lay the rail at an elevated
temperature (80F - 120F depending on the expected temperature range), and then
lock the rail in place by applying enough anchors. Theoretically, the rail is not thermally
stressed (no compressive or tensile forces imposed) anytime the rail temperature is at
the temperature the rail was laid. We call this as laid temperature, the neutral
temperature. Unfortunately, over time, the neutral temperature tends to drop
significantly from the inadvertent adding of rail when changing out rail or making welds,
lining curves in during cold weather and natural microscopic creeping of the rail through
the anchors.
Where does this all lead? Although excessive rail can be cut out and stretched with big
hydraulic jacks to raise the neutral temperature, this is not a realistic approach every time
maintenance functions are performed and the track is disturbed.
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Thus the goal when performing track work of any kind is to minimize disturbance.
But when disturbance does occur, appropriate measures must be instituted until
the track is again stable while still safely keeping train delays to the minimum
possible.
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noxious weed seeds and provide unfavorable publicity and exposure to the railway
from surrounding communities.
Vegetation is controlled through the use of either herbicide application or mechanical
cutting. There are a number of successful formulations developed by the chemical
industry for the control of vegetation. The specific weed or tree species, climatic
conditions and the neighboring environment will dictate which formulations or
combination of formulations are recommended. The Environmental Protection
Agency in the United States regulates the application of herbicides. Herbicide
application rates and type of usage are very clearly spelled out. Failure to comply can
bring severe penalties. Licensing of applicators and operators is done by the states and
is required of anyone applying herbicides to railway property.
Herbicide formulations can be broken down into two categories:
Pre-emergent
Post-emergent
Pre-emergent herbicides are applied before germination of the seeds or very early in
the plants juvenile stage of life. They typically possess residual characteristics that carry
on some time after their application and prevent seed germination. Timing of
application is obviously critical as is the need for moisture some time after application
to move the herbicide into the soil. Post-emergent herbicides are applied after the
plant has sprouted. They typically have no or little residual characteristics. They are
applied to the foliage and translocate to the root structure to kill the plant. Some postemergent herbicides are classified as contact herbicides. They cause the plant to drop
or damage the foliage on which the herbicide came into contact. This results in the
disruption of the plant's ability to utilize photosynthesis and may stunt or kill the weed
or tree.
Herbicides are applied through the use of backpack sprayers, hi-rail truck-equipped
booms or hoses, or through the use of spray trains. Some states and providences have
very strict notification regulations prior to the application of herbicides. Check before
initiating a program.
Mechanical cutting of vegetation can be broken down into localized mowing or chain
saw removal of brush and tree species, a very labor intensive and expensive endeavor,
or the use of on-track based production cutting machines. Many of these machines are
not suitable for use in urban areas because of the debris thrown and the splintered
remains of the tree that is left behind. However, in more remote locations they are an
effective means of clearing the ROW. Other on-track based equipment may not have
the production rates, but are more urban environment friendly and enable the judicious
employment of tree trimming. Chipping or removal of the cut material is almost
always a requirement in urban areas.
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each car. More conventional equipment includes the use of Jordan ditchers, which
have powerful cylinder, equipped wings that will blade the ditch through the toughest
of terrain. It is important that any ditch created be trapezoidal in shape to minimize
future plugging with debris. Avoid V-shaped ditches.
3.8.10 Welding
The most common track welding functions are electric arc, thermite and flash butt.
Standard arc welding processes such as SMAW, GMAW and FCAW are used to weld
manganese and carbon steel track components. However, thermite and flash butt are
used for joining continuous welded rail. The flash butt method is used in the plant to
create quarter-mile ribbon rails, which are then transported by a rail train to the
location where they will be installed. Both flash butt (portable In-Track welding)
(Figure 3-88) and thermite (sometimes known as alumino-thermic) are then used in the
field, to join the longer lengths of rail together into continuous welded rail. They are
also used in maintenance welding for replacing defective rail and for light construction.
Thermite welding (See Figure 3-87) is a process
that joins rail ends by melting them with
superheated liquid metal from a chemical reaction
between finely divided aluminum and iron oxide.
Filler metal is obtained from a combination of the
liquid metal produced by the reaction and
pre-alloyed shot in the mixture.
Flash butt welding (Figure 3-88) is a resistance
welding process that produces a weld at the
closely-fit surfaces of a butt joint by a flashing
action, followed by the application of pressure
after heating is substantially completed. Very high
current densities at small contact points between
the rail ends cause the
flashing action, which
forcibly expels the material
from the joint as the rail
ends are moved together
slowly. A rapid upsetting of
the two work pieces
completes the weld.
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Electric Welding refers to the standard arc welding processes used elsewhere,
particularly shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or "stick welding, gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), with or without additional gas
shielding. These processes are used on frogs and crossing diamonds (both manganese
and carbon steel), for carbon steel rail ends, switch points and wheel burns, and for
joining carbon steel rails.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding is now primarily limited to the build-up of rail ends that will
later be thermit welded.
Rail Gangs
Tie Gangs
Undercutting Gangs
Surfacing Gangs
Turnout Gangs
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The end of the string is then secured once it is on the ground. The rail is either pulled
or pushed out from under the train as the train progresses down the track. As the
trailing end of the string approaches the beginning end of the remainder of the strings,
it is temporarily connected to the next string and the process begins anew. Rail can be
unloaded simultaneously on both sides of the train. Unloading of CWR or picking up
of CWR that has been relayed is a potentially dangerous operation and great care must
be exercised so that workers are not pinned by a string of rail that for any reason does
not successfully line up with its corresponding roller rack. At crossings, a trench is
either excavated through the crossing into which the rail can be inserted, or the rail is
torch cut and the crossing is jumped. Should rail be required to renew the crossing, it
may also be unloaded at the crossing ends. Jointed rail will also be unloaded by rail
cranes onto the shoulder of the track ready for installation. See the article entitled
Unloading Continuous Welded Rail in the Appendix for further information on this
topic.
Tie plates are distributed ahead as well. In some cases, the existing plates will be used
for the rail to be relayed (curve patching or relays utilizing the same rail section). Other
material, depending on railway procedures, such as tie plugs, spikes or anchors, are
distributed just ahead of the gang to discourage theft. Depending on the equipment
consist, these materials may be carried with the machines. CWR is threaded by the use
of a specialized crane ball (head) up into the center of the track so that it is in position
to be threaded into the tie plate. (See Figures 3-91 and 3-92)
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Although rail gangs vary significantly in their make-up and sequence of operation, in
general, they follow the activities listed in the Appendix article entitled CWR Rail Relay
on Wood or Concrete Ties.
When laying CWR, frequent rail temperature and gage measurements must be taken.
Gage measurements are performed between base to base rather than the customary
ball to ball measurements. The base to base measurements will vary according to the
rail's base width. This ensures that the rail will be at the proper gage once the first train
is operated over it and the rail has had a chance to set in the tie plate. Match marking
of the strings of rail and tie plates are performed at the string quarter points to ensure
that adequate expansion is secured when the rail is heated artificially.
As with all maintenance activities, compliance with FRA 214 Roadway Worker
provisions is mandatory. It is particularly important with a rail gang, that all activities
cease and that personnel get in the clear prior to clearing trains by the gang on an
adjacent track because of the spread out nature of a rail gang and the noise and sight
obstructions that are present.
Although virtually every rail gang operation has become mechanized, frequent machine
breakdowns necessitate that personnel are present and equipped to perform the task
manually. Rail gang productivity can range from a partial string per day on transit
properties up to 9 to 10 strings per day on large highly mechanized gangs. An
acceptable average is three strings per day with an 8-hour track window.
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prohibitive to do so. The problem of what to do with scrap ties will only get worse as
acceptable disposal sites become fewer in number.
Production renewal of ties begins with a tie inspector marking the ties. Selection of ties
to be renewed is done by examining the joint area to ensure adequate support and then
to the location of weak ties in relation to solid ties. Weak ties include:
Spike killed
Plate cut
Decayed
Burnt
End broke
Center split
Derailment damaged
The presence of such ties does not automatically lead to replacement, particularly if
there are a number of solid bearing, non-spike killed ties around it. On the other hand,
one might skip a few of these ties and select several marginal ties in a nest of marginal
but still serviceable ties. The inspector has to make his decision on not only what is the
tie condition today, but what will it be over the ensuing years, until another tie gang is
in this segment. Finally, the FRA Track Safety Standards dictates the minimum number
of non-defective ties permissible in a 39 ft segment. This requirement can be waived if
the railway operates a GRMS (Gauge Restraint Measuring System) car at stipulated
frequencies. Through the use of a sliding axle, the car applies both a designated lateral
and vertical load and measures the resultant movement. However, good ride quality
mandates a significantly greater number of non-defective ties than that required by the
FRA.
Ties are distributed to the ROW by a number of methods including the use of selfpropelled rail cranes to peddle ties with a tie grapple bucket from loaded gondolas, to
the use of a specialized backhoe equipped with clamps and projecting travel beams that
permit the grabbing of the top sill of cars and the cantilevering of the backhoe from car
to car, thereby unloading the ties as it proceeds through the work train. As with the rail
gang, tie gang consists and procedures vary widely from railway to railway, but in
general follow the procedures noted in the Appendix article, Mechanized Tie Renewal.
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Tie gangs have also become highly mechanized (See Figures 3-93 and 3-94), but as with
rail gangs, the machines are subject to frequent breakdowns. Thus, every operation can
be performed manually.
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Smaller, less productive undercutters are used for switch undercutting and even smaller
units, called gophers, waste all material and are ideal for spot undercutting through
bridges, platforms, etc.
Shoulder cleaning performs the same operation with a large digging wheel, but only in
the shoulder area. It is ideal for locations where the track is mildly fouled. Removal of
fouled materials from the shoulder creates a natural siphoning action that will draw the
fouled soil particles out of the center of the track to the shoulder, thus opening up the
drainage required. Obviously, ballast requirements are not as heavy with shoulder
cleaning, but the results are not as effective either.
In plowing, a plow is inserted under the track structure and pulled ahead by either a
crawler cat or a locomotive. The ballast material is then plowed out to the shoulders,
leaving the track structure setting at whatever the depth the plow was set out. Ballast is
dumped to restore cribs and shoulders and the track is lined and surfaced. Sledding is
similar to plowing, except that the track structure is left atop the ballast section.
(See an article entitled Track Sledding in the Appendix.)
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the track cannot be thrown, thereby reducing the danger of creating a line swing into
the bridge. Other improvements include keyboard entry of data (Figure 3-99) with
sophisticated software that presents menu options to the operator, thereby greatly
increasing his/her efficiency and the quality of work performed.
Other machines included within the surfacing gang may include a tamper not equipped
with jacks, that tamps every other tie behind the production tamper, thereby increasing
hourly production rates. One or more ballast regulators are used to transfer or recover
ballast where needed for tamping or filling the cribs and shoulders. The regulator is
equipped with a power broom that sweeps excess ballast off the top of the tie and
provides that completed look. The surfacing gang may include a dynamic stabilizer.
This machine imparts vibrations of a given frequency into the rail to secure
consolidation of the ballast structure. This restores lateral stability after the track
disturbance created by surfacing and minimizes the placement of necessary slow
orders.
Production surfacing typically will entail the operations noted in the Appendix article
entitled Mechanical Surfacing of the Track.
It is interesting to note that in an article from the 1934 Roadmasters Maintenance of
Way Association Annual Proceedings, William Shea, General Roadmaster of the
Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, bragged about his high speed surfacing and
lining gang that could surface a mile per day. It consisted of 300 men tamping and
raising the track, 100 men lining the track and 100 men following up two weeks later as
a touch-up gang. Today with a foreman, 4 5 machine operators and possibly 1
laborer, 2-1/2 or more miles can be surfaced with a far greater degree of quality in the
work performed. Indeed today, there are machines that combine all of the operations
noted above in the typical surfacing gang into one machine, which can travel out to the
work site at near train speeds.
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be determined. After the crossing panels are installed and prior to welding the end of
the panel to the existing track, the distance between reference marks must again be
measured. The rail must be shortened by any dimensional quantity greater than that
previously recorded. The rail is closed either hydraulically or through the use of
applied artificial heat, and after shortening the rail an additional 1 for each weld made,
the rail is welded.
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The
most
common
installation method calls for
the use of either rail bound
or mobile cranes to handle
individual turnout panel
sections loaded on special
cars (Figure 3-103), which
are set in place and
connected to the existing
trackage.
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jobs. More typical for siding construction is the placement of pre-plated ties by hand
and the threading of rail onto the ties. Spikes are set and driven home by pneumatic
spike drivers. Pre-built panels may also be used. However, this requires the staggering
of joints after the panels are laid.
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Railway cutovers, unlike their highway counterpart, are accomplished very quickly with
the completed connection often being made in several hours. In the case of track
shifts, the roadbed, where the new alignment is to lay and the shift is to occur, is
graded. A ballast regulator will blade out the shoulder on the side of the existing track
where the shift is to be made. A tamper equipped with rail jacks is operated through
the segment and the track is placed on top of the ballast section, or the ballast will be
cribbed by hand between the ties. Utilizing cranes, Speed Swings, dozers, rubber-tired
endloaders or crawler loaders, the track section is lined over so that it is in the new
alignment location. After placing ties and rail required to make the physical
connection, the connection is made, ballast dumped and the track surfaced and lined.
Of greater concern is the signal work to be performed in signalized territory. In cutovers to new connections, extensive shunt tests must be made. In interlockings,
extensive route and traffic locking tests must be made duplicating every possible
movement that could occur. Additional tests have to be made on all searchlight and
color light signals. These tests are very time consuming and must be figured in when
planning a cut-over involving an interlocking.
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References:
1. AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
2. Railway Engineering, W. W. Hay, John Wiley & Sons.
3. AREMA Roadmasters & Maintenance of Way Association Proceedings 1930
1997 (CD-ROM).
4. "Modern Railway Track," Coenraad Esveld, MRT Productions, 2nd Edition, P.O.
Box 331, NL-5300, AH Zaltbommel, The Netherlands, Tel: +31 418 516369,
mrt@esveld.com.
5. Talbots Railway Transition Spirals, Edward H. Roth, J. P. Bell, Inc.
6. Railroad Curves & Earthwork, C. Frank Allen, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
7. Route Surveying and Design, Carl F. Meyer, International Textbook Company.
8. Route Surveying, Pickels & Wiley, John Wiley & Sons.
9. Introduction to Transportation Engineering, W. W. Hay, John Wiley & Sons.
10. Railroad Technical Manual, C. R. Kaelin, Atcheson Topeka & Santa Fe Railway
(BNSF).
11. Federal Railroad Administration, CFR 213 Track Safety Standards, A-E.
12. Federal Railroad Administration, CFR 213 Track Safety Standards, G.
13. Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, TCRP Report 57,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Sponsored by The
Federal Transit Administration.
14. Dictionary of Railway Track Terms, Christopher Schulte, Simmons-Boardman
Books, Omaha, NE.
15. The Railroad/What It Is, What It Does, John Armstrong, Simmons-Boardman
Books, Omaha, NE.
16. US Department of Transportation Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
for Streets and Highways, USDOT, Washington, DC.
17. The Economic Theory of Railway Location, Arthur M. Wellington, 1887, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
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Use
Mainline
Mainline
Mainline
Mainline
Mainline
Mainline
Mainline
Mainline
Yard/Side Track
Yard/Side Track
Yard/Side Track
Yard/Side Track
Yard/Side Track
Standard
AREMA
AASHTO
AREMA
AREMA
AASHTO and ASTM
AREMA
AREMA
AASHTO and ASTM
AASHTO and ASTM
AREMA
AASHTO and ASTM
AREMA
AASHTO and ASTM
Gradation #
24
24
25
3
3
4A
4
4
5
5
56
57
57
Sub-Ballast
Generic
DGA/ABC
to
3"
2 1/2"
100
100
100
90-100
90-100
80-100
100
100
100
2"
60-85
95-100
90-100
90-100
100
100
Sieve Size
Size of Opening
Number of Openings/sq. in.
1 1/2"
1"
3/4"
1/2"
3/8"
#4
#8
#30
# 200
Percent Passing Through Sieve Size (min.-max.)
25-60
0-10
0-5
25-60
0-10
0-5
50-70
25-50
5-20
0-10
0-3
35-70
0-15
0-5
35-70
0-15
0-5
60-90
10-35
0-10
0-3
90-100 20-55
0-15
0-5
90-100 20-55
0-15
0-5
100
90-100 20-55
0-10
0-5
100
90-100 40-75
15-35
0-15
0-5
100
90-100 40-75
15-35
0-15
0-5
100
95-100
25-60
0-10
0-5
100
95-100
25-60
0-10
0-5
#200
100
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2003 AREMA
90-100
60-90
30-60
10-40
4-13