Michael Keating

December 1, 2007
Women in Islam/Ottoman History
Mon./Wed. 12:15-1:30; Thurs. 10:50-1:30
Dr. Blake
Research Paper
Email Address: michaeltkeating@comcast.net

Feminine Roles in the Ottoman Empire: The

Significance of Women during the Sultanate of
Women Period

2
Women and the roles they play in Islamic societies has always been a topic of
continuing discussion for historians. When considering women and their roles in Islamic
societies, many people view a sex that is oppressed, secluded, and considered inferior to
men. In addition to this, women are often viewed as having no voice in the political arena
and completely submissive to their husbands as well as to other men in their family. The
Sultanate of Women period in the Ottoman Empire sets the stage for a debate amongst
historians concerning women and what importance they had in this Islamic society.
The Sultanate of Women period, sometimes referred to as the Reign of Women
period, began in 1520 during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent and continued on
until 1656, ending during the reign of Turhan Sultan as valide sultan and her son,
Mehmed IV, as sultan.1 What happened during these 136 years is what historians have
been debating for a long time: were the roles these women of the harem played, the
valide sultans in particular, a positive contribution to the Ottoman Empire or a negative
contribution? Contemporary historians tended to argue that the participation of women in
the decision making of the empire was a negative contribution and thus hurt the empire,
eventually leading to its decline.
Mustafa Ali, an Ottoman bureaucrat and historian, fits this description of the
contemporary historians and their beliefs. His career blossomed during the reign of
Suleyman the Magnificent and he went on to serve three other sultans. Author Cornell H.
Fleischer examines the views of Mustafa Ali in the book Bureaucrat and Intellectual in
the Ottoman Empire: The Historian Mustafa Ali. When analyzing his writings, it is not
hard to see Alis negative view towards the women of the harem. He criticizes the
decision made by Suleyman to execute his son Mustafa, who was in line for the throne.
1

Nicole Pohl. Women, Space, Utopia, 1600-1800 (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2006), 141.

3
The blame for this execution is put on Suleymans wife Hurrem Sultan, also known as
Roxelana, and the grand vezir Rustem Pasa. These two individuals Ali notes as the ones
who plotted the execution.2 To put it another way, it was Hurrem Sultans influence over
Suleyman that made him follow through with the execution.
It is this exertion of power by Hurrem Sultan that bothered Ali and its
consequences were viewed by him as extremely negative to the Ottoman Empire. It is
this event that he marks as the beginning of the decline of the empire, believing that from
this point on that the empire was in disorder and that the moral character of the majority
of people was deteriorating. In addition, Ali believed that unworthy people were now
dominating the government.3 It is easy to make the assumption that these unworthy
people he refers to are the women of the harem in particular, Hurrem Sultan. As stated,
Mustafa Ali was not alone in his criticism of womens participation in affairs of the
empire. Many other historians also believed as he did; this consisted of both critics from
the Ottoman Empire as well as critics abroad who spoke in opposition to the meddling
of women in the politics of the empire.4
In much later times, this widely held view of women during the Sultanate of
Women period began to be contested by historians. One such historian is Leslie P. Peirce,
author of The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire. Peirce
examines the lives of these harem women, in particular the valide sultans, and argues that
these women played a significant role in the Ottoman Empire that had many positive
aspects. Another modern historian, Lucienne Thys-Senocak, shows similar views in her
2

Cornell H. Fleischer. Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The Historian Mustafa Ali
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 258.
3
Ibid.
4
Daniel Goffman. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2002), 124.

4
book Ottoman Women Builders: The Architectural Patronage of Hadice Turhan Sultan.
However, as the title suggests, she concentrates on the life and accomplishments of
Turhan Sultan, most notably through her architectural achievements.
A close examination of the lives of these women reveals the numerous
accomplishments of the harem women and the decisions they made as well as the
influence they possessed. The period known as the Sultanate of Women produced
numerous women who, in their own way, gained and exerted power which significantly
influenced decisions of the sultan and events in the Ottoman Empire. This significance of
the women can be shown in issues such as diplomacy, advisement to the sultan,
architecture, charity, and other issues as well.
It is a fact that Westerners often misinterpret the harem. When Westerners hear the
word harem, many will immediately connect the word with those such as veil and
polygamy, thus showing that they equate the harem with the oppression and seclusion
of women.5 While the harem does seclude women to a degree, it is also the institution that
provided women the opportunity to gain power and influence. The harem itself was very
precisely organized and was structured in a hierarchy of women. The lowest class was the
servants (cariyeler) and the highest class was the privileged ones (gedikiler). The women
were further broken down into sub-groups according to their skills; this system allowed
the women to climb up the harem social ladder to a higher position.6 Despite all of the
misinterpretations of the harem by outsiders, one commonly held view does hold true.
This is the belief that the harem is basically like its own little world, which is accurately
shown by the hierarchy of women in the harem and the manner in which affairs are
5

Leila Ahmed. Western Ethnocentrism and Perceptions of the Harem, Feminist Studies 8, no. 3 (1982),
http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed October 13, 2007), 522-523.
6
John Freely. Inside the Seraglio: Private Lives of the Sultans in Istanbul ( London: Penguin Books Ltd.,
1999), 72.

5
managed there by the harem women, excluding non-related men from access to the
harem.7
At the top of the harem ranks were the haseki and the valide sultan. The haseki
was the favorite concubine of the sultan and had considerable power and influence, as
with the case of Hurrem Sultan. However, the most powerful and influential woman of
the harem was not usually the sultans favorite concubine but rather the sultans mother,
the valide sultan (royal mother or queen mother).8 In some cases, the valide sultan
held extreme power and can be said to have ruled the empire indirectly through being a
regent for her son, the sultan. This was often the case when the new sultan coming to
power was either too young to rule alone or mentally incapable of ruling. It is important
to note, however, that some of the greatest valide sultans were first hasekis. This was the
case with Nurbanu, Safiye, and Kosem.9
Hurrem Sultan, also known as Roxelana to the Europeans, is the woman credited
with being the driving force that began the Sultanate of Women period. Unlike the other
major important women of the Sultanate of Women period, Hurrem Sultan exercised her
power and influence as haseki, not as valide sultan; she was not alive long enough to gain
the status of valide sultan. Perhaps one of her most important accomplishments had
actually occurred before her involvement with major political issues and matters of the
empire. This accomplishment is her successful cross-over from Suleyman the
Magnificents favorite concubine, the haseki, to becoming his wife. What makes this so

Fredrick Millingen. The Circassian Slaves and the Sultans Harem, Journal of the Anthropological
Society of London 8, (1870), http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed October 13, 2007), cxvii.
8
Leslie P. Peirce. The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1993), 188.
9
Ibid, 248.

6
amazing is the fact that this union is completely contrary to the practices of traditional
Ottoman sultans: the sultans did not ever marry their concubines.10
Once established as the sultans wife, Hurrem Sultan went on to exert her power
through various ways. One such way is through charity. Waqf (in Turkish: Vakif) is a
charitable endowment of some kind, be it money or property. These endowments have
been an important part of cities in the Ottoman Empire and after receiving the permission
of Suleyman, Hurrem founded her own waqf in Jerusalem in 1552. This newly built
complex catered to the needs of the poor Muslim population and included a dwelling
house for Muslim pilgrims, a mosque, and a soup kitchen.11 In addition, the complex also
had rooms available for students as well as a caravanserai. It is stated that the properties
used for the complex were modest, however the act of constructing this facility shows
Hurrem taking action and becoming involved to help out the Muslim population of the
empire.12
Hurrem Sultan was involved in many other activities that positively affected the
Ottoman Empire. Engaging in diplomatic relations is an important duty that she fulfilled.
Hurrem had contact with the Safivids as well as Poland. The peace maintained between
King Sigismund I of Poland and the Ottoman Empire is said to be greatly due to the
influence of Hurrem. She was responsible for making sure the sultans peaceful intentions
were known as well as the exchange of gifts.13 To some, these diplomatic relations of
Hurrem Sultan may not seem revolutionary or of particular importance; however,
10

Ibid, 63.
Oded Peri. Waqf and Ottoman Welfare Policy: The Poor Kitchen of Hasseki Sultan in Eighteenth
Century Jerusalem, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 35, no. 2 (1992),
http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed November 24, 2007), 169-170.
12
Amy Singer. The Mulknames of Hurrem Sultans Waqf in Jerusalem, Muqarnas 14, (1997),
http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed October 13, 2007)97.
13
Peirce, 221.
11

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Hurrems participation in diplomacy helped to pave the way for the valide sultans
diplomatic relations in later years, such as with Safiye Sultan and her relations with
Elizabeth I.14
Another area in which Hurrem Sultan exerted her power and influence was in her
advisement of the sultan. While Suleyman was out on campaign, Hurrem performed two
important tasks: one, she was the communications link, informing him on such matters
as, for example, the status of an illness in the city. Secondly, Hurrem was left to manage
affairs in Istanbul while the grand vezir and other important officials were absent as
well.15 This is obviously a very important and powerful position to be in, and only a
powerful woman possessing strength, authority, and intelligence could handle managing
matters of the empire for the sultan. These qualities Hurrem showed she had and
Suleyman must have noticed, considering he left her with such important responsibilities.
Hurrem Sultans influence and advisement of the sultan has even been credited
with saving a life. The prince Bayezit was ordered to be executed by the sultan; however,
once again Hurrems influence proved to change the course of events. She stepped in and
used her savvy ways of influence to convince Suleyman to spare him. As a result, Bayezit
was indeed spared his life and was appointed as governor of Kutahya.16 Incidents such as
this show the enormous amount of influence Hurrem had over the sultan which in turn
affected the empire. To further show the power women had in the empire and the sway
they held with the sultan, it is interesting to note that Hurrems influence was passed
down in a sense. Her daughter, Mihrimah, became the new advisor to Suleyman upon
the death of Hurrem, thus furthering the increasingly powerful female voice in the
14

Pohl, 141.
Peirce, 63-65.
16
Stanford Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1976), 109.
15

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Ottoman Empire.17 This fact is also intriguing because Mihrimah was neither a haseki nor
a valide sultan. It is obvious to see how Mihrimah could not obtain one of these titles
considering she was the daughter of the sultan, however despite not having either one of
these high ranking and important positions, she still was able to have her voice heard and
express her views on issues regarding the empire.
In 1574, the next powerful woman in the Sultanate of Women period came into
office. This woman is Nurbanu Sultan, the mother of Murad III. She is the first to act
politically as valide sultan and was very involved with bringing Murad III to the throne
considered her first duty.18 Nurbanu went to great lengths to assure that her son would
become sultan. In what can be considered a rather odd yet clever idea, Nurbanu hid the
death of Selim the Sot by packing his body in ice. By doing so, this allowed Murad
plenty of time to come from Manisa to be named sultan.19 This act shows that Nurbanu
was a determined woman, even before becoming valide sultan. She knew what she
wanted accomplished and she made it happen she took action and executed a plan that
gained the throne for her son.
Murad III surely recognized his mothers great leadership abilities. In fact, Murad
relied on his mother for advice more than anyone else in the empire. Nurbanus advice to
Murad was the basis on which he made many of his decisions, believing that he could
have no other advice as loving and loyal as hers. . .20 The authoritative nature and
strength of Nurbanu was not only recognized but also admired by her son and this was
the reason why he held his mother in such high regard.

17

Peirce, 65.
Ibid, 261.
19
Freely, 79.
20
Ibid, 82.
18

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Like Hurrem before her, Nurbanu Sultan was active in diplomatic matters. She
had contact with the regent for Frances King Henry III, Catherine de Medici. Through
establishing correspondence such as these, Nurbanu helped to maintain good relations
with France, an obvious goal for someone with influence in the government.21 In addition
to France, Nurbanu also had diplomatic relations with Venice. She greatly supported the
Republic of Venice; part of this reason may be because she came from a Venetian
background. Whatever the reason, she had interests with Venice and her particular
attention to them was awarded with a two thousand sequins gift to her for her good
services to the republic.22
Perhaps Nurbanus most significant contribution to Venice came towards the end
of her time as valide sultan. Given the fact that Crete was a possession of Venice,
Nurbanu was alarmed when she was informed of a planned invasion of Crete by Admiral
Kilic Ali Pasa. Desiring the safety of her homeland and seeking to maintain peace, she
sprung into action and sent a message to the admiral warning that the invasion should not
be carried out and stated that such actions would be harmful to the sultan. It is stated that
Kilic Ali Pasa tore up the proposal, stating that . . . it was no longer of any use since the
valide sultan opposed its contents.23 The fact that a military officer abandoned all plans
for an invasion because of the demands of Nurbanu is an excellent example of the power
the valide sultan now possessed.
As will be shown in greater frequency with later valide sultans, Nurbanu Sultan
was also involved with charity and architecture. She was responsible for the construction
of the Atik Valide mosque. Built in Uskudar, this was a large mosque complex and was
21

Ibid, 76-77.
Peirce, 222.
23
Ibid, 223.
22

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described as being an impressive sight to see. A portal inscription is a testament to her
great work: Nurbanu, that person full of purity, resolved to perform charitable works.
She built this charming place of worship . . . this peerless work of charity is an imperial
foundation.24 Nurbanu took the beginning steps for later valide sultans to take on even
more architectural activities.
After the death of Nurbanu, Safiye Sultan came into office as the next valide
sultan in 1595. She was the mother of Mehmed III and was said to have dominated his
reign. Safiye must truly have been an authoritative woman because it is said that Mehmed
most often times would give in to his mother.25 This is supported by the account of an
Englishman who once said that Safiye Sultan was ever in favor and wholly ruled her son
. . .26
Safiye Sultan continued to participate in architectural projects for charity and for
the betterment of the empire. She was first a haseki and during this time she had
waterworks constructed along the pilgrimage route to Mecca. In her later years as a
valide sultan, she began work on the Yeni Valide mosque complex (later finished by
Turhan Sultan). Like the other valide sultans, Safiye accomplished the major architectural
feats the construction of the mosque complexes once she became a valide sultan.
Such incredible projects could not be undertaken until the highest position of the harem
was obtained. Once the position of valide sultan was gained, she had the financial means
to go about these massive building projects.27 These structures stand as a great tribute to
the influence and power of the valide sultans.
24

Lucienne Thys-Senocak. Ottoman Women Builders: The Architectural Patronage of Hadice Turhan
Sultan ( Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2006), 85.
25
Peirce, 242.
26
Goffman, 124.
27
Thys-Senocak, 85-87.

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Safiye was also involved with diplomatic matters. She had relations with Queen
Elizabeth I and letters as well as gifts were exchanged between the two women, many
being extravagant offerings of jewels and other luxury items that seemed to increase in
value as the correspondence continued. What is surprising is the amount of freedom
exercised here by Safiye; such open and frequent relations with foreign powers were
pretty much unthinkable in earlier times. Maintaining good relations was a main goal
here, and Safiye wrote to Queen Elizabeth I constantly admonish my son . . . to act
according to the treaty. I do not neglect to speak to him in this manner.28 Here, Safiye
shows her strong influence over her son and in doing so has helped to promote good
relations between the two powers.
Like Nurbanu, Safiye had strong diplomatic relations with Venice. On several
occasions she had helped in matters regarding the Venetians, which ambassador Bernardo
realized and appreciated. He once stated I always consider it wise to retain her good will
by presenting her on occasion with some pretty thing that might invite her gratitude.29
Others have commented on Safiyes importance and support and the statement by
Bernardo shows that he recognized Safiye as an important woman in the Ottoman Empire
with significant power and influence a woman that he should treat well and attempt to
stay on good terms with.
The death of Safiyes son Mehmed III led to her removal from office in 1603,
being replaced by Handan Sultan as the new valide sultan. Despite her retirement from
office, it can be argued that her power continued on, at least for a period of time. This is
because of the stipend that she received. The new valide sultan, Handan, received a 1,000

28
29

Ibid, 59.
Peirce, 223.

12
asper stipend daily. This figure looks extremely low and insufficient when compared to
Safiyes stipend, which remained at 3,000 aspers even after she had officially left
office. Handans low stipend reflects her lack of accomplishments in office and shows
how more powerful and dominate valide sultans, such as Safiye, were arguably better
treated and more respected.30
Handan Sultan seems to get a reputation as a lame valide sultan by many
historians. However, she must be given some credit due to the circumstances she was
faced with. She died by being poisoned less than two years after her son Ahmet I became
sultan, a death that some have attributed to his doing. Ahmet did not care for his mother,
but many historians believe he did not order Handans murder but rather someone in the
harem conducted the deed. Interestingly, Ahmets dislike of his mother shows the power
that the valide sultans had. This is because Ahmet saw the power and influence that
Safiye had and he did not want to be controlled in the same manner by Handan. His fear
of her power displays the fact that the valide sultans indeed have some real authority,
given that in some cases such as this, the sultan feared what the valide sultan could be
capable of accomplishing.31
Arguably the most well known valide sultan, Kosem Sultan, came into power in
1623. As Hurrem Sultan is most known by Westerners, Kosem Sultan is most known with
the Turks. She has been described to be extremely politically savvy, and such intelligence
shows in her case. She did not have the longest time in office (she is beaten by Turhan
Sultan who was in office for thirty two years) but she was the power behind five sultans.
Kosems time in office under not only her sons such as Murad IV but also under her

30
31

Ibid, 126-127.
Godfrey Goodwin. The Private World of Ottoman Women (London: Saqi Books, 1997), 133.

13
grandson Mehmed IV shows she was an authoritative and powerful figure in the Ottoman
Empire. Her politically savvy nature and intelligence makes some historians to refer to
Kosem as the . . . central figure and dominating personality of the Womens
Sultanate . . .32
Murad IV was only twelve when he became sultan. It is obvious to see from his
age that he was much too young to rule alone, which this is why Kosem Sultan served as
regent for the young sultan. This power was shared with the grand vezir, who Kosem
aided in providing supplies for the military. Due to Kosem possessing such power, many
historians have viewed Murad IV as simply a puppet of his mother, for the most part
being only a figure head while Kosem was calling the shots.33
After the reign of Murad IV, Kosems extreme power and influence continued on
with the next sultan, Ibrahim (Ibrahim the Mad). He was twenty four when he came to the
throne, sufficiently old enough to be the sole ruler, however this was not possible. It is
said that Ibrahim was mentally ill and in addition to that, he spent many years in the
gilded cages, furthering his mental incapability. The combination of these two factors
made him an inadequate ruler by himself.34 Once again, Kosem saw the ability to assert
her authority over this incompetent sultan as well, and again she had indirect rule over the
empire through acting as regent to Ibrahim, just as she had done with Murad IV before
him.
The power that Kosem possessed can be seen in the amount of wealth she
acquired. Just as with the previous valide sultans, Kosem put these funds to good use
through charity work. Orphaned girls who could not marry due to insufficient or non32

Lewis V Thomas. A Study of Naima (New York: New York University Press, 1972), 15.
Ibid.
34
Freely, 145-146.
33

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existent dowries were aided by Kosem, which in turn allowed these girls to get married.
Kosem was not to be left out of the architectural arena, either; she established Cinili
Camii, a mosque located in Uskudar. In addition to the mosque she also constructed
Valide Hani, a caravanserai in Istanbul.35
Forming alliances with organizations that would support you is a key component
to a successful term in office. This Kosem must have realized, for she established a firm
ally with the Janissary Corps as well as others of importance in the empire. Trouble was
rising, however, with Turhan Sultans son Mehmed IV taking the throne. Kosem had been
a powerful figure for decades now, and the young Turhan resented all of the power
possessed by Kosem. To further her envy of Kosem, Turhan was given a stipend that was
1,000 aspers less than Kosem, a fact that Turhan was obviously very dissatisfied with.36
Turhan Sultans assertion of power exploded with the permanent ousting of
Kosem. This she accomplished by assassination. Turhan was obviously infuriated when
she was informed by Meleki Khatun that Kosem was planning to displace her son
Mehmed IV and have another eligible prince appointed to take his place. With the news
of this plot, Turhan decided it was time to assert her authority as Mehmed IVs mother
and have Kosem killed. Suleyman Agha, Turhans chief black eunuch, carried out the
execution in a palace coup on September 2, 1651.37 This shows a very surprising display
of power: often times in history it is the men of an empire or country that use violence
and sanction coups to retain power and eliminate the competition. With the assassination
of Kosem, Turhan shockingly proved that she was a woman of power who would do
anything, even commit murder, to obtain power in the empire.
35

Ibid.
Thys-Senocak, 27.
37
Peirce, 252.
36

15
Kosems life may have ended, but the display of her power and influence
continued in the aftermath of her assassination. Upon hearing of Kosems death, the city
of Istanbul reacted with an intense feeling of sadness. Markets, mosques, and other public
buildings closed for three days to observe the passing of the valide sultan.38 Turhan
succeeded of ridding herself of Kosem; however the reaction of the people of the city
shows that eradicating the memory and influence of her would not be such an easy task to
accomplish.
Turhan Sultan carried on what Kosem had done for Mehmed IV that is, act as
his regent. During meetings of the imperial assembly, Turhan would sit behind a curtain
next to young Mehmed and whisper advice to him from behind her covering.39 This
example shows the symbolism in the power of the valide sultan: it can be argued that the
valide sultan had almost complete power over the empire, but in an indirect way. At these
meetings of the imperial assembly, Turhan was invisible physically, that is. However
her power and her authoritative voice echoed loudly over any of the men present in the
room, including the sultan. As stated before, Mehmed IV was merely a puppet of his
mother, a puppet in which Turhan pulled the strings of from behind the curtain, bending
the young sultan to her wishes.
The reign of Turhan Sultan was marked by many accomplishments and displays
of power, but arguably her most important achievement came in the form of architecture.
She was responsible for the construction of the New Valide Mosque, also called the Yeni
Valide Mosque. This mosque was located in Eminonu and was the first imperial mosque
that was built by a woman. The origins of this building actually date back to Safiye;

38
39

Ibid.
Ibid, 253.

16
however she was unable to complete the project. What had been started on the mosque
laid abandoned for nearly six decades, eventually being started again under Turhan. The
Yeni Valide Mosque included a water distribution building, a school, market, a tomb, and
a royal pavilion. The location of the complex, Eminonu, had commercial advantages, and
therefore this is one of the reasons that this site was chosen; both Safiye and Turhan
realized the sites importance.40
Another architectural feat of Turhan was her construction of the Seddulbahir and
Kumkale fortresses. These two forts stood at the entrance to the Dardanelles and in
addition to building these two fortresses, Turhan also made repairs to two other fortresses
constructed by Mehmed the Conqueror Kilitbahir and Kale-I Sultaniye.41 Most often
times the construction of fortresses and other projects related to defense and war are
associated with powerful men of an empire. Here, Turhan shows that women can be a
powerful figure in government and can manage affairs concerning the military and
defense of the empire. The building of Turhan Sultan, in particular the two fortresses of
Seddulbahir and Kumkale, are a stunning tribute to her and are symbolic of the power,
authority, and control of the valide sultan.
Despite the stunning and impressive feats of architecture of Turhan and her
violent assertion of power, her reign also marks an unfortunate event: the end of the
Sultanate of Women period. Historians claim 1656 as the official end to the Sultanate of
Women and the ushering in of the new period known as the Koprulu Era.42 During this
time, the men start to regain power as the chief authority in the empire in particular, the
40

Lucienne Thys-Senocak,. The Yeni Valide Mosque Complex at Eminonu, Muqarnas 15, (1998),
http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed October 29, 2007), 58-59.
41
Lucienne Thys-Senocak. Ottoman Women Builders: The Architectural Patronage of Hadice Turhan
Sultan, 107-109.
42
Pohl, 141.

17
grand vezirs. In 1656, Koprulu Mehmed Pasha was awarded more significant power,
almost unlimited power, a decision that Turhan Sultan voluntarily agreed upon.43 It is
important to note that the end of the Sultanate of Women did not mark the end of the
reign of Turhan Sultan; she remained in office until 1683. Her power may have been
changed, but it did not disappear. After all, Turhan was responsible for the success of
Koprulu Mehmed Pasha; without Turhan, he would not have acquired the position that he
did and if Turhan or the sultan saw fit, either one could have relieved him from his
position.44
As noted before, traditional historians like to criticize the women of the Sultanate
of Women period and blame them for the decline of the Ottoman Empire. However, these
historians do not take into consideration the circumstances that these women faced;
taking on the responsibilities of an entire empire is a complicated ordeal, and these
women proved that they possessed the skills and political know-how to manage affairs of
the government.
What these traditional historians really need to take into consideration is the
alternative: what would have happened if the women during the Sultanate of Women
period had not taken control? How would a seven year old or twelve year old sultan have
managed an empire on his own? Furthermore, in Ibrahims case, how would a mentally ill
and incompetent sultan have fared in the handling of political affairs? Considering these
alternatives, it can be argued that the women did an incredible job keeping the empire
together as well as contributing in many various ways to the betterment of the empire.

43
44

Freely, 191.
Peirce, 256-257.

18
In examining works of other historians, they seem to place the blame on the
sultans themselves a seemingly more appropriate group to blame. The first ten sultans
of the Ottoman Empire were exceptional rulers, and the sultans during the Sultanate of
Women period could not even come close in comparison, with many historians referring
to them as an . . . . astonishing series of incompetents, degenerates, and misfits.45 The
names of the sultans during this period seem to sum up the lack of good leadership and
inferiority present in these sultans: Selim the Sot, Ibrahim the Mad, and Mehmed the
Hunter, to mention a few certainly these names do not hold the positive notion of
sultans names from the past, such as Suleyman the Magnificent and Selim the
Determined.46
Some other reflections on Ottoman decline do not even mention the Sultanate of
Women period as a factor as well. An example would be some historians view on the
Ottoman military and conquests. During the times of the earlier sultans, many great
victories had been won, expanding the empire significantly. However, with the
emergence of the sixteenth century, some historians suggest that the Ottoman Empire has
expanded as much as it could possibly do so and the new barriers it encountered were
basically impassable. Some of these same historians also note the change of warfare
techniques gone were the days of the great importance of the sipahis and now
professional armies were needed. These new professional armies were paid with money,
were extremely large, and they became an absolute necessity in these times of greater

45

Bernard Lewis. Some Reflections on the Decline of the Ottoman Empire, Studia Islamica no. 9 (1958),
http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed December 1, 2007), 113.
46
Rhodes Murphy. Continuity and Discontinuity in Ottoman Administrative Theory and Practice during
the Late Seventeenth Century, Poetics Today 14, no. 2, (1993), http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed November
24, 2007), 420-421.

19
need for artillery as well as firearms.47 Factors such as these proved too much for the
Ottoman Empire to endure and thus it was these issues that led to decline.
Taking into consideration the circumstances that the hasekis and valide sultans
had to face, it can be argued that these women did a good job in handling the affairs of
the empire to make up for the lack of leadership from a succession of poor sultans.
Certainly the incompetent sultans were not politically savvy like Kosem, have the
diplomatic intelligence of Hurrem, Nurbanu, and Safiye or the architectural know-how of
Turhan. Each of these women during the Sultanate of Women period had their own
unique intelligence to contribute to the empire. By using their intelligence, asserting their
authority and taking command to manage affairs, these women managed to maintain a
stable government in a time of difficulty in the Ottoman Empire.

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