Importance of Reading

Learning to Read enables Reading to Learn

This summary of the Importance of Reading is based on the research
findings and reports of the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD).
For a general discussion of the NICHD's views on Reading and How Reading
Works along with links to other reports and references Click Here.
To read an article entitled "Why Children Succeed or Fail at Reading" Click
Here.
In my opinion and from reading the research and findings of the NICHD,
reading is the single most important skill necessary for a happy, productive
and successful life. A child that is an excellent reader is a confident child, has
a high level of self esteem and is able to easily make the transition from
learning to read to reading to learn.
It is instructive to think of the importance of reading by listing the
consequences of being a poor reader. The following is a list of stops on the
road ahead for children with reading difficulties.
For children with reading difficulties, reading aloud is a painful
experience. They stop and start frequently, mispronouncing some words and
skipping others.
The first casualty for poor readers is self esteem. They grow ashamed as
they struggle with a skill their classmates seem to master easily.
Poor readers are prevented from making the transition from learning to
read to reading to learn which keeps them from exploring science, history,
literature, mathematics and the wealth of information that is presented in
print.
Of the 10 million children with reading difficulties, from 10 to 15 percent
eventually drop out of high school.
Surveys of adolescents and young adults with criminal records show that
about half have reading difficulties.
About half of youths with a history of substance abuse have reading
problems.
In today's globalized, flat, Internet-information-driven world, children
that cannot read well will not be able to readily access the wealth of print
information available on the Internet on just about any subject of interest.

From reviewing the above list of the potential consequences of poor reading,
it is clear that learning to read well is an essential life skill that each parent
must ensure that their child acquires.
If you want to learn more about what the NICHD has documented as the
best way for Learning to Read Click Here to access our page on Teaching
Reading.
If you want to read our summary on Reading Problems, Reading Disorders
and Reading Disability Click Here.
If you want to better understand the foundation and approach we use in
the Reading Activities we provide and recommend on this website Click Here.
If you want to start your child down the road to improved reading Click
Here.

Why Reading is Important for Children

Children might frequently ask why reading is important and it is imperative that their questions
are answered. Children should be exposed to reading from the womb; however reading must be
more to children than a time of fun and enjoyment. They must have an appreciation for the fact
that reading is a skill that they should endeavor to master for the rest of their lives. Thought they
should never think that reading is boring, they should understand and accept the fact that reading
is a skill that will require practice and diligence. When asked why reading is important they
should have the understanding that reading is the key to unlocking their future success.
One of the best ways for children to understand why reading is important, is for them to see
those around them reading. Many adults have plenty of opportunities to ensure that children
have a respect for the written word. Every time an adult picks up a newspaper, magazine, or
reads a book in front of a child they are showing children that reading is important. In addition,
it is also important that children understand that reading comprehension, vocabulary and spelling
skills, and the ability to discern critically the information being read are important elements for
successful reading. Adults should never hesitate to explain to children the importance of reading,
building vocabulary skills, and increasing reading comprehension. When children see first hand
that adults are still learning it opens the door for them to accept learning as well. To help your
child learn to read find a great reading program or reading tutor.
Understanding why reading is important is paramount for building successful readers who dont
just have skills but also have a serious lifelong hunger for reading. To ensure that children grow
up with a passion for reading it is important to take the time and answer the question why
reading is important.

Importance of Reading to Children

Reading to Children: The Most Important Reading You Can Do
The importance of reading to children is obvious to every parent. Reading to children is one of the best ways to put them on the road
to success - academically and personally.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) "strongly recommends reading to children every day, starting after they are first born,"
because "reading stimulates the development of the brain, language and a closer emotional relationship with a child."
You can start reading to children right from the moment they are born. Infants love to hear the voices of their parents. It doesn't
matter what you read - just the togetherness of your baby and you - with you reading from Where the Wild Things Are, the sports
section, or a cookbook - is what counts.
As your child gets older and can understand the stories you read, take time to ask questions, e.g. What do you think will happen
next? Do you know what that word means? Which character is your favorite? You can have her retell the story or make up a new
one with the same characters.
Reading to children is so crucial that parents should find time to do it every day. You will be surprised at how creative you can be at
finding time to read aloud to your child. Read while waiting to see the pediatrician, having a treat at a restaurant, waiting in line at
the store, or cooking dinner. Instead of watching the news, turn off the TV and read aloud. You can read aloud in the morning before
school and, of course, at bedtime. Read a story aloud while waiting for the bus or train or once aboard. Make tapes of yourself or
another family member reading stories and play them in the car on the way to school or daycare.
Parents aren't alone in understanding the importance of reading to children. Good teachers read aloud in the classroom. Talk to your
child's teacher to get suggestions for books to read aloud and observe the class to get tips on reading aloud. Make sure that family
caregivers, like daycare providers and babysitters, also understand the importance of reading to children.
Older siblings, relatives, and friends may also enjoy reading aloud. When your child is ready, encourage her to read aloud to you
and the rest of the family. This will pave the way for a love of reading.

Swimming can be called a complete cardiovascular activity. The importance of swimming in our
day to day life cannot be emphasized enough. Besides the fact that it is

one of the most relaxing exercises possible, the importance

of swimming can also be seen from the fact that it is a low impact exercise while being equally
affective when compared with other high impact workouts. Swimming can be done in various
ways possible like freestyle, backstroke, butterfly stroke and underwater swimming to name a
few. The importance of swimming in different ways can be summarized as follows:
1. Freestyle Swimming

The importance of swimming in freestyle is probably the most significant. It is the most popular
stroke besides being the most effective. Freestyle swimming helps gain muscular strength like no
other stroke. It builds your upper body, shoulders and back in particular.
Freestyle helps in maintain the correct posture of the body even while walking. Hence the
importance of swimming in freestyle is much more than just when in water. A few weeks of
regular training in freestyle swimming will improve your posture and you will tend to walk with
your shoulder blades kept back and your chest protruding forward. It provides toning for the
shoulders as well as the chest. Freestyle swimming makes your legs and abdominal muscles
stronger proving a strong support to the core of your body.
2. Backstroke Swimming
Backstroke swimming is a lot like freestyle except that it is done in a way that the body is lying
with its back on the water and the arms are moving backwards unlike freestyle in which the body
is lying with its stomach on the water and the hands are moving in the forward direction. The
importance of swimming in backstroke can be seen from the fact that it helps build muscular
shoulders while being less strenuous when it comes to breathing because while doing the
backstroke one will never lack oxygen supply. Backstroke, like freestyle also helps to provide a
proper workout for the complete body but are especially good for the abdominals, shoulders and
back.
3. Breaststroke Swimming
The importance of swimming in the breaststroke is that it helps tone the muscles of the chest and
the legs. It is one of the most difficult strokes to master. It requires a lot of breathing training. It
is extremely strenuous on the arms and legs as they take most of the bodys weight in this form
of swimming.
1. Swimming helps in removing dirt, bacteria and other micro-organisms from your skin pores thus preventing the origin of acne
and pimples on your skin.
2. While doing stroke swimming breath is to be held for sometime which proves to be an excellent exercise for lungs as it
increases lung capacity further helping in prevention of disease like asthma.
3. Swimming requires much more workout of the body muscles burning about 8 calories per minute of our body resulting in
significant body weight loss.
4. Swimming is a great exercise for the whole body as it requires workout of each and every body muscle thus providing great
strength to the cardiovascular system of your body.
5. Regular swimming prevents your body from joint pains in later stages of life.Moreover it provides relaxation to your mind and
relief from stress.
6. Risk of any heart disease and stoke can be reduced by as it reduces the chorestrol levels and helps in lowering blood pressure
of the body.

7. Swimming also helps an athlete to maintain his/her fitness level. When an athlete is injured, He/She is often told to swim
because muscles have to work hard due to the resistance of the water without experiencing the pain being experienced on the
land.
Instead of only health benefits, many people use swimming for developing other qualities like time management , sportsmanship,
teamwork or team spirit, goal-setting etc. One should know that while swimming he/she should not consider the distance or the
speed, its the time you spend on swimming that matters. So start swimming regularly to gain profit of the lifetime health benefits
of swimming.

An Introduction to Airport-Related Air Pollution

Airports and aircraft cause many types of air pollution at many different elevations and at
considerable distances.
Of foremost concern to those living and working even as far as many miles from an airport or
under aircraft flight tracks are these: hazardous and toxic air emissions.
Aircraft fly over head emitting these toxic compounds in massive amounts and these emissions
are spread generally over an area 12 miles long, 12 miles wide on take-off, 12 - 6 miles on
landing, (per runway and/or flight track).
The area heavily contaminated by a light to medium traffic two runway airport is approximately
12 miles around the field and 20 miles or more downwind. A single runway equipped airport
with light to medium traffic contaminates an area about 6 miles around the field and 20
downwind. OHare Airport has seven runways; to date, an airport thoroughgoing study has never
been undertaken.
Newer aircraft, even though emissions go relatively unseen, could be at least as bad at polluting
as older aircraft for many reasons including production of smaller particulate matter, with
different combustion processes, different formulations in fuel, etc.
Thus, the number of people exposed to aviation pollutants and who are affected in an airports
vicinity can be immense. In Chicago, for instance, a medical doctor who teaches clinical
medicine at the University of Illinois-Chicago, School of Public Medicine, estimated that as
many as 5-million people's health could be affected as a result of just one airport, OHare. There
are four major airports located in the Chicago area. Similar conditions exist in other
communities, nationally.
The United Nations has released a report stating that aviation is responsible for over half of the
pollution caused by transportation. In comparison to ground transportation with its millions upon
millions of vehicles, there are surprisingly few aircraft (34,444 US-civil, 5,778 US-commercial).
Thus, one can only imagine the massive amounts of pollution they emit. A loaded jumbo 747, for
instance, uses tens of thousands of pounds of fuel on merely take-off.

Answer
An airplane creates exhaust and that is pollution.

Answer:
Aircraft create several types of air pollution. These occur both at the airport during fueling, takeoff and landing and
while the aircraft are in flight. These are:
Greenhouse gases
Aircraft burn hydrocarbon fuel. The principle emissions from this are carbon dioxide and water. There is also some
nitrogen oxide. The SAS airlines have developed a nice spreadsheet of airplanes vs. GHG emissions for travellers
who want to reduce their global warming footprint.
Particulate emissions
Aircraft fuels contain some sulfur compounds. These are emistted as particulate. These particulates act as nuclei
for cloud formation whichmay impact the ratio of light reaching the Earth from the sun. This may be seen as a
"good thing" as it might recuce global warming, but putting all your potential impacts in a pot and stirring them is
not good science
Noise
The familiar roar of aircraft can reduce the enjoyment of living under an approach route to a busy airports. Som
sites have designated quiet hours or alternatesapproach routes for use at night.
Hydrocarbon emissions
During fueling and reving up and taxiing (when engines exhaust composition changes) there can be an increase in
hydrocarbon emissions. Hydrocarbons and NOx, both components of air traffic, can contribute to photochemical
smog.
During emergencies, aircraft often dump fuel into the air to reduce fire hazards. While this is necessary for
passenger safety it stil contributed to hydrocarbon levels

Plane Exhaust Kills More People Than Plane Crashes

There's a new fear of flying: You're more likely to die from exposure to toxic pollutants in
plane exhaust than in a plane crash, a new study suggests.
In recent years, airplane crashes have killed about a thousand people annually, whereas plane
emissions kill about ten thousand people each year, researchers say.
Earlier studies had assumed that people were harmed only by the emissions from planes while
taking off and landing. The new research is the first to give a comprehensive estimate of the
number of premature deaths from all airline emissions.
"We found that unregulated emissions from [planes flying] above 3,000 feet [914 meters] were
responsible for most of the deaths," said study leader Steven Barrett, an aeronautical engineer at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge.
Airplane exhaust, like car exhaust, contains a variety of air pollutants, including sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides.

(Related: "Pollution Can Change Your DNA in 3 Days, Study Suggests.")

Many of these particles of pollution are tiny, about a hundred millionths of an inch wide, or
smaller than the width of a human hair.
So-called particulate matter that's especially small is the main culprit in human health effects,
especially since the particulates can become wedged deep in the lung and possibly enter the
bloodstream, scientists say.
Tracking Toxic Plane Pollution
Barrett and colleagues used a computer model that brought together records of flight paths, the
average amount of fuel burned during flights, and their estimated emissions.
The computer model, based on experimental data, has been shown to accurately capture
pollution's movement in the atmosphere as well as intercontinental transport of pollution,
especially from Asia to North America, Barrett said.
By comparing this data with another atmospheric model, the team was able to track how plane
pollutants are likely to move and where the pollutants are most likely to fall to the surface, where
people breathe them in.
The study also looked at how human populations are spread around the planet to estimate how
the patterns of airplane pollution might up the risk of death. (Test your knowledge of toxic
disasters.)
Globally, the team estimated that about 8,000 deaths a year result from pollution from planes at
cruising altitudeabout 35,000 feet (10,668 meters)whereas about 2,000 deaths result from
pollution emitted during takeoffs and landings.
The most common causes of death due to air pollution are cardiovascular and respiratory
diseases, including lung cancer, according to the UN's World Health Organization.
Not in Your Backyard
The locations with the most active airports aren't always the ones that suffer the biggest health
impacts, the study suggests.
When a plane flies at cruising altitude above the clouds, wind currents can whisk the pollution
far away so that prevailing winds cause the pollution to fall from the sky about 6,000 miles
(10,000 kilometers) to the east of the plane's route.

(Also see "Pollution From U.S., Europe, Others Speeding Arctic Warming, Study Says.")
The United States incurs about 450 deaths each year from airplane emissionsonly about oneseventh the number of deaths that would be expected if the pollution fell straight to the ground
from planes, the study said.
In India, on the other hand, there are an estimated 1,640 deaths per year from airplane emissions
about seven times more deaths than would be expected based on the number of flights that
start or finish in the country.
Most of these deaths are caused not by flights over India but from emissions in Europe and North
America at high altitude, which then blow across Asia, according to the study, published in the
October issue of Environmental Science & Technology.
Airplane Pollution Stoppable
Airplane pollution deaths still represent a small share of the toll from all kinds of air pollution.
Emissions from ships, for instance, kill an estimated 60,000 people a year, according to a 2007
study also published in Environmental Science & Technology.
And the annual total death toll from air pollution is about a million, according to the United
Nations Environment Programme.
However, Barrett said, "aviation is growing fast, so we need to start now" on curbing the death
rate.
"Regulators need to explicitly consider the impact of cruise emissions on human health," he
added.
Sulfur in jet fuel is a major killer, but for a small additional cost "on the order of [U.S.] five cents
a gallon, you can remove the vast majority of the sulfur," he said.
Junfeng Liu, an atmospheric chemist at Princeton University, said the "excellent" study delves
into "an important global environmental policy issue."
Airplane-pollution deaths account for about a tenth of all air-pollution deaths with cross-border
causes, Liu said. So airplane pollution could be an important focus for environmental regulations
in the future.
Indeed the findings may someday influence U.S. policy, according to Lourdes Maurice, the U.S.
Federal Aviation Administration's chief scientific and technical adviser for environment.

If the findings hold up during future studies, then the aviation agency will consider how to
regulate airplane emissions to cut their health impact, Maurice said.

The Economic and Social Impact of Tourism

Batir Mirbabayev, Malika Shagazatova

1. Introduction
Today, tourism is one of the largest and dynamically developing sectors of
external economic activities. Its high growth and development rates,
considerable
volumes of foreign currency inflows, infrastructure development, and
introduction
of new management and educational experience actively affect various
sectors
of economy, which positively contribute to the social and economic
development
of the country as a whole.
Most highly developed western countries, such as Switzerland, Austria,
and France have accumulated a big deal of their social and economic welfare
on
profits from tourism.
According to recent statistics, tourism provides about 10% of the worlds
income and employs almost one tenth of the worlds workforce. All
considered,
tourisms actual and potential economic impact is astounding. Many people
emphasize the positive aspects of tourism as a source of foreign exchange, a
way
to balance foreign trade, an industry without chimney in short, manna
from
heaven.
But there are also a number of other positive and negative sides of
tourisms economic boom for local communities, which not always
considered by
advocates of tourism perspectives. Therefore in this paper I will consider the
main
social and environment impacts of tourism at the country level.
2. The Positive and Negative Social and Environmental Impacts of
Tourism
Socially tourism has a great influence on the host societies. Tourism can be
both a source of international amity, peace and understanding and a
destroyer
and corrupter of indigenous cultures, a source of ecological destruction, an
assault of peoples privacy, dignity, and authenticity.
Here are possible positive effects of tourism:

Developing positive attitudes towards each other

Learning about each others culture and customs
Reducing negative perceptions and stereotypes
Developing friendships
Developing pride, appreciation, understanding, respect, and tolerance for
each others culture
Increasing self-esteem of hosts and tourists
Psychological satisfaction with interaction
So, social contacts between tourists and local people may result in mutual
appreciation, understanding, tolerance, awareness, learning, family bonding
respect, and liking. Residents are educated about the outside world without
leaving their homes, while their visitors significantly learn about a distinctive
culture. Local communities are benefited through contribution by tourism to
the
improvement of the social infrastructure like schools, libraries, health care
institutions, internet cafes, and so on. Besides, if local culture is the base for
attracting tourists to the region, it helps to preserve the local traditions and
handicrafts which maybe were on the link of the extinction.
For example in Uzbekistan, particularly in such famous regions as
Samarqand, Buhara, and Horezm tourists contribute significantly to the
preservation of traditional handcrafting wood carving, hammered copper
work,
handmade silk and carpets, and of course to preservation and maintenance
of
architectural and historical monuments.
Since Uzbekistan proclaimed its independence in 1991 many museums
and monuments were renovated or opened to promote the national culture
and
traditions. Growing interest in this culture makes the local people proud of
their
way of life.
On the other side tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion.
Claims of tourism as a vital force for peace are exaggerated. Indeed there is
little
evidence that tourism is drawing the world together (Robinson 1999). In this
context economic and social impacts on the local community depend on how
much of the incomes generated by tourists go to the host communities. In
most
all-inclusive package tours more than 80% of travellers fees go to the
airlines,
hotels and other international companies, not to local businessmen and
workers.
On the other hand large hotel chain restaurants often import food to satisfy
foreign visitors and rarely employ local staff for senior management
positions,

preventing local farmers and workers from reaping the benefit of their
presence.
Tourism has the power to affect cultural change. Successful development
of a resource can lead to numerous negative impacts. Among these are
overdevelopment, assimilation, conflict, and artificial reconstruction. While
presenting a culture to tourists may help preserve the culture, it can also
dilute or
even destroy it. The point is to promote tourism in the region so that it would
both
give incomes and create respect for the local tradition and culture.
There are also both negative and positive impacts of tourism on the local
ecology. Tourism often grows into mass-tourism. It leads to the over
consumption,
pollution, and lack of resources.
However, from the ecological point of view tourism is often more
acceptable and preferable than any other industrial production, as it is
environmentally friendlier. The problem is that it is not easy to change the
traditional way of life of the local communities. It often creates pseudo
conflicts.
Undoubtedly in some regions or countries the alternative industries are even
more
harmful to the environment than tourism.
Besides that in many countries of Asia and the Pacific, for example in Cook
Islands, Samoa and others, tourism is the main source of income or the
friendliest
to the environment. It is at least better than chopping down the forests or
destroying coral reefs.
3. Conclusion
Thus, the preceding paragraphs show that the impact of tourism on local
communities can be both positive and negative, whether it comes to
economic,
TOURISM

social, or environmental effects. It depends to which extent tourism is

developed
in a particular region. Every region has its bearing capacity, that is to say the
limit
of the incoming influence that does not harm the host community. If we
overcome
that limit negative impacts of tourism will follow.
Here is a figure which shows the dynamics between people, resources, and
tourism in successful tourism: each makes a positive contribution to the
others.
Fig. 2 The Ecotourism Paradigm
Integrated sustainable resource use

Environmental advocacy
Economic
Education;

Benefits;
Inter-cultural
Values Revenues for
Appreciation Protection
Source: Page and Dowling (2002:27).

All the three elements in this model are in co-interaction. Local

communities use the natural resources but they also protect them. Tourists
come
to enjoy the nature and get knowledge about it, but they also can pollute and
destroy it, or on the other side help to protect it by drawing attention to
unique
natural resources in the area. Local communities affect tourists by giving
them
knowledge of their culture and way of life. Tourists impact on the local
populations
LOCAL
COMMUNITIES
BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY

can be first of all economic by generating income, developing resources,

sharing
knowledge and experience, etc. Whenever we develop a new tourist
destination
we should always bear in mind this co-interaction.
In order to decrease the negative effects on local societies we can check
the following points when arranging a tourism activity in a region or taking
part in
it (Fennell1999, lecture notes):
Are local people involved in the tourism industry as employees?
Does the organization cooperate with the local businesses?
Does it have a respectful attitude to the local culture?
Is there respect to nature and how is it protected?
How much economic benefit will the local population get from tourism?
Are tour operators concerned about ecological hotels, transport, and
restaurants?
We can see it is a great challenge to make a profitable business running
tourism in an area without some negative effect to the local communities. It
is
possible for the tourism industry to cooperate with other industries and bring
benefits to both the tourism organizations and local businesses. The first
step to
achieve it is to understand the needs and desires of both the host
community and
the tourists.

The effects of tourism on local communities

A Tour Operators Conundrum
By Kate Ward
April 15th, 2010 No Comments and 13 Reactions

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One travel veteran examines the impact of tourism on rural communities and asks: Are tour
operators adding further pressure to fragile environments or are they providing viable
opportunities for responsible development?
I am the Founder and Director of The Responsible Safari Company, a small travel company
based in Malawi, which strives to bridge the fields of development and tourism within Africa.
The core aim of our company is to ensure the benefits of tourism reach local communities, and
provides a platform for national residents to benefit as much as the international visitor.
My partner and I created the concept for our company while running high-end eco-lodges in
East Africa. At the time I was completing a Masters in Education and International Development,
deep in the bush with very limited resources and leopards hunting inches from our tent, it was a
far cry from the London University library. During our time in a lodge in Uganda I undertook a
research study into the effects of tourism on a community living adjacent to Lake Mburo
National Park and looked at the relationship between tourism and rural African communities.
Now living in Blantyre, and selling the Warm Heart of Africa we find ourselves constantly
questioning what the implications of tourism really are on rural communities? Can tourism truly
be eco and if so what are the actual impacts on rural communities? Are we trying to sell
something that exists only as a Western concept and if so what are the responsibilities in doing
that?
Since the Romans arrived in Egypt in 2000BC the African Continent has always attracted
tourists. From the first explorers through to the Big Game Hunters people have come to Africa
in search of undiscovered places and ancient cultures seemingly simpler than their own. Post
Independence and with pressure from ecologists, many governments set up tourism and wildlife
ministries and as wildlife reserves were gazetted, tourism boomed.

The first National Parks were heavily critiqued as a form of Fortress Conservation- a
playground for colonialists to hunt big game, where wildlife was confined, and local people
largely excluded. Package tours brought fresh criticism and the tourism industry began to realise
that they were destroying the very nature of what they were selling, the untouched wilderness
was becoming harder and harder to find. Local communities had often lost land with little
compensation or benefit from the tourists who passed daily to view the wildlife they had often
lived alongside for generations. The industry reacted and sustainable tourism initiatives began to
surface.
This new wave of tourism has attracted a new type of traveler. A traveler who demands more
knowledge and who asks more questions, in particular when traveling to developing countries.
Eco-tourism seems to be the buzzword amongst these travellers and is now often generalised as
good tourism, and mass tourism tends to be known as bad tourism. However eco-tourism
in particular is a term that can be misunderstood, possibly because it is used as an umbrella term
for various tourism activities. Unfortunately all to often it is used for marketing purposes rather
than genuinely sustainable tourism initiatives that have long term benefits for local communities.

The Eco Tourism Society definition of eco-tourism is

responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being
of local people. However conserving the environment and improving the well being of local
people would seem sometimes an unavoidable clash of interests. By conserving the environment,
are we always improving the well being of local people? For example, through the gazetting of
National Parks, is it more beneficial for a local community to have small permanent plots of land
and rely on donations from park entrance fees or use the land nomadically to graze their cattle
and trade with local communities? I am not being idealistic or questioning the need and worth of
conservation initiatives, I am merely trying to highlight that the question of dependency and the
true benefits of tourism and conservation for local communities should be considered.
We truly believe that tourism can bring sustainable development and a route out of the poverty
trap so many Africans live in. However, we are also aware that it is hard for all to benefit, so
when we get excited about finding another hidden gem in a remote corner of Malawi we try to
look around, establish who was there first and who will be affected by us brining visitors there.
The research I undertook in Uganda suggested that tourism can bring many developments within
a community and greatly increase its economy and infrastructure but it can also breed
dependence and a loss of community. Greater wealth often brings greed and without careful
handling this can lead to less reliance on one another and instead leave communities with greater
disparities of wealth and basic needs than was there before.

Travelers today demand to see more and more remote destinations, they want to travel to areas
other tourists have not been too. This is human nature and a wish to be an explorer but it is
important to recognise that this search without its pitfalls. When these undiscovered areas are
found and tourism moves in, we will surely keep moving away to find newer more remote areas,
the demand suggests we will always strive for more wilderness. Therefore we question, are tour
operators adding further pressure to fragile environments or are we providing opportunities for
development? If so, are we then providing the correct support for communities when tourism
comes knocking at the door?
We believe education is a key component to providing sustainable travel experiences both for the
visitor and the tour operators. During one of our driver-training sessions we were discussing
environmental sustainability and the importance of protecting our environment for future
generations. A few of our drivers struggled to link their future generations with our view of
protection of land and in particular conservation of wildlife. They appeared far more convinced
when we explained issues such as deforestation and depletion of Malawis natural resources and
how this would effect crop production and land use over the coming decades and within their
childrens lifetime. We would like to think that conservation efforts, in particular National Parks,
will be for the future generations of local people as well as international visitors. However, I
cant help worrying that potentially the conservation efforts of today will protect a wilderness
designed for the tourist and not for the local African. Is this an economical decision? Where the
tourist is able to bring valuable capital to the equation, a local Malawian farmer cannot and
therefore unknowingly becomes the lowest common denominator.
So what are the responsibilities of tour operators within Africa? Is promoting eco-tourism
enough? The sustainable tourism model is being criticised and dubbed as a new form of
colonialism, which imposes conservation on people living at the economic margin, but does it
lead to a new form of dependency or is it truly an opportunity to break the vicious cycle of
poverty? International models of community and tourism development, in particular in the
Dominican Republic and China, could provide ideas and useful policy suggestions to the travel
industry and governments. Within Malawi and in other areas of Africa the history of the land and
the people often dictates changes to lifestyle.
Therefore a tourism model, which allows for adjustment from situation to situation, may be the
way forward and perhaps that needs small operators to work side by side with communities to
ensure mutually beneficial initiatives. This would necessitate the travel company to be based
within the destination country to ensure that there was updated local knowledge and close links
with community projects.
Ecotourism is trying to link the tourism industry with the development movement through
ensuring benefits reach the host communities. It is not yet clear whether the tourism industry has
the ability to make a considerable impact on poverty alleviation. To achieve this there perhaps
needs to be a synergy between the differing stakeholders and the dictates of environmentalism.
There needs to be recognition that all forms of tourism leave footsteps and it is where and how
we tread that is perhaps important. We are very aware that the field of sustainable travel is yet to
be fully understood and we want to make sure we take it piece by piece.

Although it is a conundrum, we have moved forward knowing it is healthy to question, knowing

we are ourselves visitors and realising that education is surely the key to sustainable tourism.

An Easy Read Guide to The Future of Transport

a network for 2030
September 2004
What is in this paper
The future of transport 1
A transport plan or strategy for 2030 3
For motorists and lorries 6
For rail passengers 7
For people travelling locally 8
For ships, planes and travel by air and sea 9
For the goods or freight industry 10
For more effective decision making 11
For safety and security 12
For the environment 13
Further information 15
Credits 15

The future of transport

White Papers
One way for the Government to announce things
like possible changes in the laws or new
strategies is to write a White Paper. After a White
Paper is presented to Parliament, people can
look at it on the internet or order a copy by post.
This Paper
This paper is an easy to read guide to the White
Paper 'The Future of Transport: a network for
2030'. It is about the Government's strategy for
making transport better.
The Challenge

Transport is important for us all in every part of

our lives. For example, transport gets food to
shops, people to work, children to school and
tourists on their holidays.
Our research says that people will want to travel
more in future. This means the way they travel,
where they live and how they work are all
important things to think about.
1

But providing some types of transport has got

more expensive. The Government wants to make
sure that we do not spend more than we need to
get good transport services.
At the same time, the Government needs to think
about how the way we travel can cause pollution
and damage the world around us, and we want to
make sure that transport services do as little
harm as possible.
Making transport better needs to be done over a
long time, which is why the Government wants to
think ahead to the problems and opportunities
that might come up over the next 30 years.
2

Our strategy has 3 main parts to it.

1. More money from Government to
make transport better
The Department for Transport will spend more
money than we said in our original 10 Year Plan.
This includes an extra 1.7 billion for the
railways.
We will make sure that this extra money gets
results for tax payers.
2. Making transport management
better
We are changing the system for managing the

railways to make things better, and to help make

sure more trains run on time and without
problems. The changes will also help make sure
we get better value for the money that we spend
on railways.
Government Ministers will make a new law for
the railways so that the Sercretary of State for
transport can make policy and control spending.
Some new roads will be built, but only when they
are really needed, when the cost is reasonable
and if they do not do too much damage to the
environment.

A transport plan or strategy for 2030

3

Traffic will be better managed so that our roads do

not get too crowded.
This might include charging drivers to use new
roads, and having car-sharing lanes for people
who choose to share the same car.
We will support local authorities to reduce traffic
and improve transport services. We will make it
easier for local authorities to influence bus
companies in their areas. We might also give
extra money to authorities that take bold
decisions, like charging for road use, or getting
better value for money from the funding they give
rail and bus companies.
3. Planning Ahead
Everybody knows the problems we have got at the
moment with travel. We cannot just build more
roads. Doing nothing will only make matters
worse. So the Government wants to talk to the
public and organisations about road pricing. This
would mean charging people by how much and
when they use the roads. We will need to find out

how road pricing would work to give us less

crowded roads.
We will need to make sure that people who use
the roads have information that will help them get
the best out of the roads, and make choices about
other ways of travelling for some journeys.
4

Decisions on how to spend money on making

transport better need to be taken together with
local and regional authorities as well, to make
sure that they look at what different people think
is important, what can be done and what works
best and is good value for money.
All levels of government, local, regional or
national, need to take transport decisions
alongside other decisions they make about where
and how we live, as well as other things like
health and education.
Our new strategy will help make sure that we
meet people's need for safe, reliable and
affordable transport. We also want to be sure that
when changes are made, they are good for the
economy, society and the environment - for us,
for our children and for our grandchildren.
By doing this, we will help the UK deliver its
'Sustainable Development Strategy'. This means
improving transport while making sure that these
improvements also help protect the environment
now and for the future.
For example, we are working hard on
improvements in vehicle design and technology
so that new vehicles create less pollution and
greenhouse gases that cause changes in the
worlds climate.
5

We want roads that are reliable and not blocked

for cars, lorries or other people using the roads.
People and businesses should have good
information about the choices and costs so that
they can decide how and when they use our
transport system.
Some new roads will be built when
needed, as long as the costs and their effects on
the environment are reasonable.
When a road gets built we want the
benefits to last. This might include charging
money on new roads and having car-sharing
lanes where it makes sense, to make sure new
roadspace does not quickly fill up with extra cars.
The Government wants to talk about
road pricing, a charge for using the roads, and
how this can help car drivers make better choices
about when and how to travel.
Roads need to be managed better with
new technology that helps people avoid accidents
and jams, and helps the authorities get any
problems sorted out quickly.
We will use new technology to keep
people up to date about their journey before they
set off and during it.

For motorists and lorries

6

For rail passengers

Railways are a very important part of how the
country works. They carry a lot of travellers and
freight on some of the country's busiest routes.
As the country becomes better off people and
businesses want to travel more. Railways will be
important in meeting the need to offer ways of
travelling other than by car.

The Government is working with the

rail industry to get costs under control. The Office
of Rail Regulation will help make sure the
Government pays the proper price for rail
services provided.
The Government will change rail
industry so that it is clearer who is responsible for
making services better for travellers.
Local and regional organisations will be
involved in making decisions about using rail or
other types of transport.

For people travelling locally

Most journeys are short ones, and using the bus
is the most common type of public transport for
these journeys. But lots of people use their cars,
even for very short trips. We want to make it
more attractive to use buses and other local
public transport and to encourage more people to
walk and cycle more often.
By having freer flowing local roads
because of things like road charging.
We want more, and more reliable
buses enjoying more road space.
We want bus services that meet
people's needs, including in areas that cannot
support ordinary services.
We will look at ways to make the
services everybody needs easier to get to for
people who dont have access to a car.
We will support the use of school travel
plans, workplace travel plans and personal
journey planning to encourage people to think
about not using their cars for some trips.
We want to make cycling and walking

more attractive for short journeys, and especially

for children.
8

For ships, planes and travel by air and sea

We need planes and ships to connect
passengers and goods or freight to the rest of the
world. We use them for moving about in the UK
as well.
We want to support how well the UK is doing in
the world economy by helping people and goods
move easily in and out of the country by air or
sea. But we need to think about the effect on
people living near ports and airports as well as
protecting the environment.
We will work with everyone involved to
do the things we wrote in the Air Transport White
Paper, which was published in 2003.
We know that planes are noisy and
create a lot of pollution, including the greenhouse
gases that cause changes in the climate. So we
will make sure that in the future air transport
helps pay the costs of this.
We will make sure that the effect on
the environment and local communities is as little
as possible and people are given payments for
damages if necessary.
We are making decisions between now
and 2005 about whether some ports should be
allowed to get bigger. After these decisions have
been made we will look at how to make ports
planning better in future.
We are going to work with businesses
and international organisations to make sure UK
shipping stays successful and doesn't have too
big an effect on the environment. 9

For the goods or freight industry

Having a good way to transport goods or freight
is important to how well off we are. Being better
off means people want more goods. This means
more transport to get them where they are
wanted locally, around the UK or overseas.
These goods need to be moved as easily, quickly
and safely as possible while having as little effect
on the environment or other transport users as
possible.
We will concentrate on getting the best
for our economy, society and the environment.
10

For more effective decision making

There are a lot of choices to be made nationally,
regionally and locally about the planning, delivery
and management of our transport systems. We
need to make smarter choices, at the right level,
and with the right people involved.
We will give local and regional
organisations more of a say over how money for
transport is spent in their area.
We want to make sure that choices
about transport are made together with other
decisions that have an effect on transport,
especially housing and rebuilding run-down
areas, at the national, regional and local level;
and
We will make sure that the social,
economic and environmental costs and benefits
are thought about very carefully when we make
decisions.
11

For safety and security

We want to make sure that people are safe and

secure however they choose to travel.

We want to use new technologies that
can reduce the risk of accidents.
We want there to be safer vehicles that
will protect both passengers and pedestrians.
We will tell drivers about the risks of
dangerous driving and the legal penalties.
We will work with other countries to
make sure security is as good as it can be,
including using new technology.
12

For the environment

We need good transport to have a good economy
and be better off. We also need good transport to
get around more easily.
But we must think about the balance between the
increasing demand for travel and how we want to
protect the environment and get a better quality
of life for everyone.
We still prefer not to build new
schemes that have an effect on important rare
animals, plants or special land.
We will make sure the damage to the
environment by new and existing transport
schemes is as little as possible.
The Government has promised to
lower emissions and gases which pollute or
damage the environment. We will make sure that
the Department for Transport helps keep this
promise.
We want to encourage new types of
fuel and modern cars and engines so they do
less damage to the environment.
We will work to reduce noise problems
caused by transport.

13
In

2005 when we have presidency of

the European Union, we will be working to make
sure that air flights are included in the European
Union emissions trading scheme.
We will put money into public transport
to make sure that cars are not the only option.
We face real challenges over the next 30 years.
Our plans show the Government's long-term
commitment to transport. We are determined to
provide the money and leadership that will bring
about changes that will last.
Future Transportation
Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Past Trends and Uncertain Future
Where are the flying cars? Where are the supersonic passengers jets?

In 200 years of history since the beginning of mechanized transportation, the capacity, speed,
efficiency and geographical coverage of transport systems has improved dramatically. Modes,
terminals and networks alike have been subject to remarkable changes that come into two
functional nature:

Revolutionary changes. Concerns a completely new technology that

creates new markets and growth opportunities for transportation and the
economy as well. It often marks the obsolescence of an existing transport
mode as the new mode has substantial cost, capacity or time benefits.
Revolutionary changes tend to be rare but profound since they commonly
involve the setting of entirely new networks. They commonly cannot be
predicted, but once they occur it is possible to assess its potential impacts.

Incremental (evolutionary) changes. Concerns the stepwise improvement

of an existing transport technology and operations. This leads to increases in
productivity with more capacity, lower costs and better performance of the
involved mode or terminal. Incremental changes are possible to extrapolate
but the rate of change they bring is difficult to assess.

Considering those changes, the following observations can be made:

Each mode, due to its geographical and technical specificities, was

characterized by different technologies and different rates of innovation and
diffusion. A transport innovation can thus be an additive/competitive force

where a new technology expands or makes an existing mode more efficient

and competitive. It can also be a destructive force when a new technology
marks the obsolescence and the demise of an existing mode often through a
paradigm shift. Still, in many cases an older technology will endure because
of its wide level of adoption, utilization and accumulated capital investment.
Vested interests in an existing mode, particularly if publically owned, may
also delay or even prevent an innovation to take place.

Technological innovation was linked with faster and more efficient transport
systems. This process implied a space-time convergence where a greater
amount of space could be exchanged with lesser amount of time. The
comparative advantages of space could thus be more efficiently used.

Technological evolution in the transport sector has been linked with the
phases of economic development of the world economy. Transportation and
economic development are consequently interlinked as one cannot occur
without the other.

One of the pitfalls in discussing future trends resides at looking at the future as an extrapolation
of the past. It is assumed that the future will involve a technology that already exists, but simply
operating an extended scale beyond what is currently possible. It can be seen as an incremental
change bias. The parameters of such an extrapolation commonly involve a greater speed, mass
availability, a higher capacity and/or a better accessibility, all of which implying similar or lower
costs. Popular literature (such as Popular Mechanics or Popular Science) of the first half of the
20th century is abundant with extrapolations and speculations, some spectacular, about how
transportation technology would look like in the (their) "future". Looking at such perspectives is
labeled "paleo-futurology"; how the past was perceiving the future.
At start, the prediction of future outcomes must consider what is within the realm of forecasting,
scenario building or speculation. Forecasting tries to evaluated near term outcomes by
considering that parameters do not changes much, while scenario building tries to assess a series
of possible outcomes based upon expected fluctuation in parameters. A common failure about
predictions is their incapacity at anticipating paradigm shifts brought by new technologies as
well as economic and social conditions. Another failure relate to the expectation of a massive
diffusion of a new technology with profound economic and social impacts, and this over a short
period of time (the "silver bullet effect"). This rarely takes place as most innovations go through
a cycle of introduction, adoption, growth, peak and then obsolescence, which can take several
years, if not decades. Even in the telecommunication sector, which accounts for the fastest
diffusion levels, the adoption of a technology takes place over a decade.
Any discussion about the future of transportation must start with the realization that much of
what is being presented as plausible is unlikely to become a reality, more so if the extrapolation
goes several decades into the future. Thus, as much as someone would have been unable at the
beginning of the 20th century to even dream of what transportation would look like half a

century later (e.g. air transportation and the automobile), we may be facing the same limitations
at the beginning of the 21st century. However, since substantial technological innovations took
place in the 20th century and that the laws of physics are much better understood, we are likely
better placed to evaluate which technological trends will emerge in the near future.
2. Technological Trends

Since the introduction of commercial jet planes, high-speed train networks and the container in
the late 1960s, no significant technological change have impacted passengers and freight
transport systems, at least from a paradigm shift perspective. The early 21st century is an era of
car and truck dependency, which tends to constraint the development of alternative modes of
transportation, as most of the technical improvements aim at insuring the dominance of oil as a
source of energy. However, with dwindling oil reserves, the end of the dominance of the internal
combustion engine is approaching. As oil production is expected to peak by 2008-2010 and then
gradually decline, energy prices are expected to soar, triggering the most important technological
transition in transportation since the automobile. In such an environment the most promising
technologies are:

Automated/Intelligent transport systems. Refers to the development of

a set of information and communication technologies (ICT) to improve the
speed, efficiency, safety and reliability of movements, by relying upon
complete or partial automation of the vehicle, transshipment and control.
These systems could involve the improvement of existing modes such as
automated highway systems, or the creation of new modes and new
transshipment systems such as for public transit and freight transportation
(automated terminals). The goal of such initiatives is mainly to efficiently use
existing infrastructures through information technologies. Much gains still
remain to be achieved through the better management of existing
infrastructures and vehicles. Yet, the diffusion of ICT is influenced by the
business models of the transport sectors it takes place in.

Alternative modes. There is a range of modes that could replace but more
likely complement existing modes, particularly for passengers transportation.
Once such technology is maglev, short for magnetic levitation, has the
advantage of having no friction (except air friction) with its support and no
moving parts, enabling to reach operational speeds of 500-600 km per hour
(higher speeds are possible if the train circulates in a low pressure tube). This
represents an alternative for passengers and freight land movements in the
range of 75 to 1,000 km. Maglev improves from the existing technology of
high-speed train networks which are limited to speeds of 300 km per hour. In
fact, maglev is the first fundamental innovation in railway transportation
since the industrial revolution. The first commercial maglev system opened in
Shanghai in 2003 and has an operational speed of about 440 km per hour.

Alternative fuels. This mainly concerns existing mode but the sources of
fuel, or the engine technology, are modified. For instance, hybrid vehicles
involve the use of two types of motor technologies, commonly an internal

combustion engine and an electric motor. Simplistically, breaking is used to

recharge a battery, which then can be used to power the electric motor.
Although the gasoline appears to be the most prevalent fuel choice, diesel
has a high potential since it can also be made from coal or organic fuels.
Diesel can thus be a fuel part of a lower petroleum dependency energy
strategy. Hybrid engines have often been perceived as a transitional
technology to cope with higher energy prices. This is also a possibility of
greater reliance on biofuels as an additive (and possibly a supplement) to
petroleum, but their impacts on food production must be carefully assessed.
Far more reaching in terms of energy transition are fuel cells, which involve
an electric generator using the catalytic conversion of hydrogen and oxygen.
The electricity generated can be used for many purposes, such as supplying
an electric motor. Current technological prospects do not foresee high output
fuel cells, indicating they are applicable only to light vehicles, notably cars, or
to small power systems. Nevertheless, fuel cells represent a low
environmental impact alternative to generate energy and fuel cell cars are
expected to reach mass production by 2015. Additional challenges in the use
of fuel cells involve hydrogen storage (especially in a vehicle) as well as
establishing a distribution system to supply the consumers.

Still, anticipating future transport trends is very hazardous since technology is a factor that
historically created paradigm shifts and is likely to do so again in the future with unforeseen
consequences. For instance, one of the major concerns about future transportation for London,
England in the late 19th century, was that by the mid 20th century the amount of horse manure
generated by transport activities would become unmanageable...
3. Economic and Regulatory Trends

Through recent history, there are few, if any, cases where a revolutionary transport technology
was the outcome of a public endeavor. Still, the public sector came to play a growing role as
transport innovations became more complex and incited a concerted approach in infrastructure,
management or regulation. For instance, the massive diffusion of the automobile in the 20th
century was associated with regulations concerning operations (e.g. speed limits), safety (e.g.
seatbelts), emissions, as well as public investments in road infrastructures. While vehicle
production came to be dominantly private, road infrastructures were perceived as a public good
and provided as such. Similar processes took place for maritime transportation (port authorities),
air transportation (national carriers), rail (national carriers), public transit (transit agencies) and
telecommunications (frequencies). As it is expected in the future that the complexity of transport
systems, particularly with intermodalism, is likely to rise, will this complexity be linked with
additional public sector involvement?
Future transportation systems are also facing growing concerns related to energy, the
environment, safety and security. They are either going to be developed to accommodate
additional demands for mobility or to offer alternatives (or a transition) to existing demand. An
important challenge relies in the balance between market forces and public policy, as both have a
role to play in the transition. Since transportation is a derived demand, a core aspect of future

transportation pertains to the level of economic activity and to what extent this level will be
linked with specific passengers and freight volumes. In recent years, economic development and
globalization have been important factors behind the surge in mobility. It remains to be seen to
what extent this process will endure and if the global transportation system will become more
globalized or regionalized:

Globalization. Assumes affordable energy prices, growing accessibility and

an enduring openness to trade. The exploitation of comparative advantages
continues, leading to a more complex lattice of trade and transportation
systems. In addition to active networks of regional transportation are
superposed various transnational relations.

Regionalization. Assumes higher energy prices and a commercial

environment that is more prone to protectionism, all of which conveys more
friction to long distance interactions. The exploitation of comparative
advantages is thus done on a more regional foundation. This environment
does not forbid international trade, but the latter mostly concern goods and
services that cannot be effectively substituted. It is also prone to the setting
of more effective regional transport systems.

A fundamental component of future transport systems, freight and passengers alike, is that they
must provide increased flexibility and adaptability to changing market circumstances (origins,
destinations, costs, speed, etc.), some of which unforeseen, while complying to an array of
environmental, safety and security regulations. This cannot be effectively planned and
governments have consistently been poor managers and slow to understand technological
changes, often impeding them through regulations and preferences to specific modes or to
specific technologies. For instance, because of biofuel policies aiming at ethanol production
using corn, the unintended consequence was a surge on global food prices as more agricultural
land was devoted for energy production instead of food production. Also, if a new mode or
technology competes with a nationalized transport system, then it is likely that the government
will intervene to prevent its emergence with regulations (e.g. permits) and delays (e.g. public
safety hearings). Recent history indicates that it was when deregulation took place that the most
significant changes and innovation resulted for transportation. One of the most salient example is
the Staggers Act in American rail transportation, which was linked with substantial productivity
improvements and new investments.
It is thus likely that future transport systems will be the outcome of private initiatives with the
market (transport demand) the ultimate judge about the true potential of a new transport
technology. Economic history has shown that the market will always try to find and adopt the
most efficient form of transportation available. Some transport systems or technologies have
become obsolete and have been replaced by other that are more efficient and cost effective based
upon the prevailing input conditions such as labor, energy and commodities. This fundamental

behavior is likely to endure in the setting of future transportation systems, which will reflect the
level of scarcity of resources, energy, space and time.

Source: adapted from ICF International (2008), Long Range Strategic Issues Facing the
Transportation Industry, Final Future-focused Research Framework, National Cooperative
Highway Research Program, Project 20-80, Task 2.
Drivers of Change for Future Transportation

The drivers of change for the transportation system come in six major categories (Fig. 1); policy,
demography & society, energy & environment, technology, economics and finance. Each plays a
role individually and in conjunction. It is therefore virtually impossible to establish outcomes
accurately as there are too many interrelationships and uncertainties, particularly if a longer time
frame is considered. It is however possible to identify trends that may impact each driver
individually and try to assess how these trends will shape different components of the transport
system:

Policy. The inherent scale and complexity of transportation systems,

particularly when they span multiple jurisdictions, will require novel

approaches in governance. The role and impact of government policy is

commonly subject to cycles of increasing commitments followed by different
forms of retrenchment (e.g. privatization) as regulations lead to unproductive
practices and unintended consequences. In spite of deregulation, the
transportation is subject to many forms of regulations pertaining to safety,
security and the environment. These regulations as well as the taxation of
transport activities, add to the management complexity and the cost burden.

Demography and society. Population growth is expected to endure in

many parts of the world until the mid 21st century, a process which will be
linked with demands in mobility and increased consumption. Yet, in other
parts of the world, such and in Western Europe, North America and Japan, the
rapid aging of the population and more people in retirement age will be
associated with changes in mobility and lower levels of consumption per
capita. Urbanization is expected to continue in many developing countries,
underlining issues linked with the urban mobility of passengers and freight.
As a greater share of the global population lives in urban areas, additional
pressures are felt on terminal facilities, such as airports, rail yard and ports,
that find themselves with limited room for expansion. New sites are therefore
located further away from existing activity centers. It also remains to be seen
how changes in work patterns, such as a greater share of the population in
the service sector, will be reflected in mobility.

Energy and environment. Issues related to the availability of energy and

raw materials, particularly fossil fuels, are likely to endure and become more
acute. This will be reflected in higher energy prices and since each mode has
a different elasticity, the comparative advantages of modal options will
change towards the most energy efficient transport chains. A whole range of
alternative fuels will be brought forward and transportation activities will
increasingly be considered within a sustainability framework. Climate change
is also an issue that may add to the sustainability of transport systems,
particularly in terms of a more stringent regulatory framework.

Technology. Technological innovation is very difficult process to anticipate

and its impacts even more complex to assess. For transportation,
technological innovations either concern the management, the mode (or
infrastructure) or the motion (engine). It is expected that information
technologies (IT) are likely to transform mobility with an improved command
of flows and supply chain management practices. This is commonly linked
with a better utilization of existing assets and derived productivity gains. IT
also have a high potential to contribute to trade facilitation through more
efficient custom procedures as cargo information is standardized and
exchangeable. Improvements in materials and engines are also highly
possible with the expected benefits on modes and terminals, namely in terms
of performance.

Economics. Economic growth and global trade have been significant vectors
for the growth of mobility. Yet this process is subject to cycles of growth and
recession and limits in credit based consumption. The level of activity and the
structure of national economies, as well as their trade patterns, are important

influence on national and global transport systems. Economic integration is

likely to endure, which will favor more comprehensive and seamless regional
transport systems. The relative price of transportation is also linked with the
viability of several supply chains and the comparative advantages they
extract value from. As transportation costs are expected to rise on the
medium term, namely due to fossil fuels, transport demand, from commuting,
air travel to global supply chains, will be readjusted accordingly in volume but
also in location.

Finance. Transportation projects, due to their size and technological

complexity, are getting increasingly capital intensive. In several cases, only
the largest financial institutions, often in partnership with the public sector,
can provide an adequate level of capitalization. The value of transportation
assets and the revenue they generate are likely to be important factors
behind their financing. Thus, a transport innovation could not be adopted
effectively if financing cannot be secured. Financial considerations are also
linked with demographic issues, namely aging. An aging population tends to
more wealth consuming as opposed to wealth producing, which may
undermine the availability of capital.

Transit Cooperative Research Program

Sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration

RESEARCH RESULTS DIGEST

April 1998--Number 24

Subject Area: VI Public Transit Responsible Senior Program Officer: Dianne S. Schwager

Creating a New Future for Public Transportation:

TCRP's Strategic Road Map

This digest summarizes the findings from TCRP Project J-8A, "New Paradigms for Public Transportation:
A
Scoping Study. "A future-search conference was held May 12-14, 1997, to identify research that could lead
to new
paradigms for a better future for public transportation. The future search process, findings, and
recommendations
follow. The Eno Foundation was retained to conduct TCRP Project J-8A and organize the future search.
Richard
Daft of the Center for Change Leadership, Owen Graduate School of Management, Vanderbilt University,
and
Robert Lingual of the University of Texas served as the facilitators at the future search and are the authors
of this
digest along with Consultant, Glenn Perdue.
INTRODUCTION
The public transportation industry in the United
States is on the threshold of major change. In
response to the crisis of reduced ridership, declining
finances, and waning public support, the TCRP is
sponsoring innovative research initiatives to direct
fundamental change in transit organizations toward a
broader "mobility management" mindset. The road

map outlined in this report shows how TCRP's J-8

Task Group is generating momentum for transit
industry adaptation to the changing needs of its
public stakeholders.
PURPOSE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
The mission of public transportation in the
United States reflects its important position in a
complex transportation network. Public
transportation has the potential to provide low-cost
mobility to citizens, to facilitate a healthy
environment and strong metropolitan areas by
reducing traffic congestion and pollution, and to
support pedestrian-oriented communities. This
mission can be served via seamless integration
among transportation systems,
cooperation with other mobility providers, and broad
community support and access. The social mission is
both desirable and feasible, but the crisis facing the
public transportation industry suggests that the
mission is nowhere close to fulfilling its desired role
in a mobile society.
Crisis in Public Transportation
The crisis facing the public transportation
industry is well known and well documented.
Pressure has been building over several decades. One
framework for understanding the environmental
forces on public transit is illustrated in Figure 1. The
forces on public transit are organized by competition,
suppliers, buyers, and government. This type of
analysis is frequently undertaken in the corporate
world as a foundation for potential new strategies.
The transit industry is characterized by dramatic
trends in the potential population of buyers--riders
who are automobile-oriented, live and work in the
suburbs, have complex travel needs because of dual
careers, travel in patterns distributed around the
clock, and represent ever-changing demographics.
The suppliers to public transportation include
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

3
unionized labor and employees who are often frustrated and
demoralized. Further, most new technology and
infrastructure purchases are large and expensive.
Competition comes in the form of private transportation,
including taxis, shuttles, jitneys, and private buses, as well
as transit substitutes, such as walking, biking, or the
increasing prevalence of telecommuting. Finally, the force
of government is significant, with its often politicized

funding; demand for balanced budgets; policy decisions to

pass funding to lower government levels; automobile
subsidies; unfunded mandates; and tolerance for lowdensity
development. These forces spell disaster for a
traditional industry that finds itself financially "broke,"
dependent on government subsidies, subject to declines in
ridership, focused on fixed-route services, and frequently
engaged in the cycle of service cuts and fare increases.
The industry analysis in Figure 1 suggests that radical
change is needed. The transit industry is under extreme
pressures that block it from achieving its higher social
mission. Indeed, critics can claim the industry is
deteriorating in its ability to serve the needs of its
stakeholders.
COMPARISON WITH OTHER INDUSTRIES
The crisis facing individual transit systems and the
industry as a whole is not the first of its kind. The public
transportation industry is not alone. In the last two decades,
several industries have faced intense pressures from
changing government regulation, globalization,
digitalization, and hyper-competition. The banking,
insurance, and financial services, and the airlines were all
thrust into intense competition. Software, electronics, retail,
and defense-related industries have grown, declined, or
restructured rapidly depending on specific circumstances.
Companies in these industries were forced to
acknowledge that the world needed speed, productivity,
capability, innovation, flexibility, and quality far beyond
their current abilities. Unrelenting pressure from the
environment combined with ever-increasing demand for
higher performance was met with a variety of responses,
including restructuring, reengineering, mergers,
acquisitions, joint ventures, and new strategic plans. Each
company and each industry adapted in its own unique way.
Within this diversity of change, one theme stood out-the shift in mindset required for renewal and revitalization.
Managers had to accept on a broad scale that the old way of
doing business was no longer
adequate. This general change in attitude and behavior can
be characterized as a "paradigm shift." A paradigm is an
industry's shared way of thinking, perceiving, and
understanding its world.
A paradigm is a set of habits, implicit rules, and
mental boundaries that make up the mental box within
which managers and stakeholders think, believe, and act.
People within a paradigm discount other perspectives as
mistaken good intentions.
In corporate America, the general paradigm shift can
be characterized as a move from Industrial Age thinking to
Information Age thinking. This transition in corporations,
and many not-for-profit organizations, is summarized in
Figure 2. Most organizations today were created under
assumptions that reflect Industrial Age values. The
Industrial Age was the advent of organizations based on
efficiency, hierarchy, and routinization of people and

resources. Scientific management provided an engineering

efficiency mindset that pervaded organizations of all kinds.
The goal was mass production with super-efficient
assembly lines. The dream was higher and higher
production at lower and lower cost.
Winston Churchill said that we shape our buildings:
and thereafter they shape us. In response to the Industrial
Age and mass production mindset, organization structures
were designed to divide things into small pieces (via
division of labor), direct people with command and control
authority structures, and value individual and organization
autonomy. This view also encourages conflict within and
between organizations over scarce resources, and shows a
preference for machines, buildings, and materials.
In corporate America, the Industrial Age paradigm
worked fine so long as the world remained orderly,
predictable, and stable. This paradigm assumed that
managers could understand, predict, and control things
through logic, data, and cost-efficiency. Managers and
employees alike were socialized into a system of rationality
and authority that solved operating problems of the day.
As the world became more chaotic and unpredictable
in industry after industry, many organizations and
companies took tentative steps toward a new paradigm,
called the Information Age paradigm. In this new view,
value was added through intangible services rather than
machines and buildings. Managers found they could gain
even greater productivity and effectiveness by focusing on
whole systems, and integrating system parts through
collaboration. Experiments in employee involvement and
empowerment were undertaken to soften

5
command and control hierarchies. Managers and
organization designers learned to focus on information and
people rather than buildings and materials. Companies
involved in the new paradigm, such as Hewlett-Packard,
Quad Graphics, Wal-Mart, Saturn, State Farm, IBM, or
Packard Electric, achieved astonishing revitalization or
production results in an increasingly hostile and
competitive world. Collaboration, partnerships, employee
involvement, and a systemic perspective enabled
companies to operate at higher levels of capacity and
output, often with fewer people.
WHY HASN'T THE PUBLIC TRANSIT INDUSTRY
CHANGED?
In face of the crisis summarized in Figure 1, and the
changes sweeping other industries, why hasn't the public
transportation industry changed? A valid criticism of the
transit industry is that despite the crisis it faces, it is not
making fundamental changes fast enough to deal with the
hostile forces acting on the industry. The real crisis is not
listed in Figure 1. The real crisis is the traditional mindset
held by public transportation operators, participants, and
stakeholders.

Changing the paradigm of the industry is a challenge.

A paradigm is not a single idea or silver bullet that will
instantly change everything and save the industry. A
paradigm change is in the assumptions, habits, and beliefs
that people within the industry take for granted.
Paradigm change in a company or industry needs four
ingredients to occur successfully. First is a crisis that
increases peoples' readiness to change. Second is a vision
for the future that is an attractive target toward which a
company or industry can move. Third is a defined method
or action steps to achieve the vision. Fourth is leadership,
which seizes the crisis as an opportunity to articulate the
vision, define the action steps, and provide necessary
support and facilitation to move forward.
Crisis x Vision x Action Steps x Leadership =
Overcome Resistance
The public transportation industry has not changed
because only two of the four ingredients are present. The
ingredient of crisis is certainly there, as was illustrated in
Figure 1. The second ingredient, vision, has been
developed by the American Public Transit Association's
Transit 2000 and Mobility 21 projects, and by the
exploratory work of TCRP
Projects H-15, "Projects to Support Mobility for the 21st
Century" and J-8A, "New Paradigms for Public
Transportation: A Scoping Study." The general outline of a
potential new paradigm for public transportation is
illustrated in Figure 3.
The traditional industry paradigm is labeled "Efficient
Transit Performance" in Figure 3. This is a mindset that
grows from subsidy dependence and the inability to
influence revenues. It also assumes that a transit system's
goal is to get the greatest efficiency from a fixed-route
service and physical infrastructure. The goal of
management is to control cost through a strong operational
orientation, and to build an organization characterized by
hierarchy, rigidity, and autonomy, which often produces
labor-management conflict.
The outline of a new public transportation paradigm,
on the right side of Figure 3, is labeled "Change, Growth,
and Mobility" mindset. In this mindset, operators would
think in terms of a broader revenue base, flexible routes,
and information as being the key resource. The primary
goal is to increase revenue via a customer service
orientation. In this new paradigm, a new kind of
organization is needed, in which partnerships and
connections replace autonomy and conflict, even to the
point of labor and management collaborating for the good
of the whole system.
Given the crisis and emerging vision of a new
paradigm, the public transportation industry remains stuck
because the two remaining critical ingredients have not
manifested themselves: action steps and leadership.
Changing the public transportation mindset is a huge
undertaking. The inability of the industry to move toward

its desired future is frustrating because the crisis is clear.

The new vision of the future, by itself, is not catalyzing
change. Leadership and doable action steps are urgently
needed to move the industry through a thicket of immediate
resistance, which has several branches.
The visioning efforts undertaken by APTA and TCRP
have identified five barriers:
1. A sense of overwhelming complexity and
fragmentation within the industry. The transit industry
is characterized by diverse stakeholders groups, each
with its own agenda and needs, as illustrated in Figure
4. To many operators, it seems impossible to make
substantive change when so many diverse stakeholders
are involved.
2. System change is perceived to involve massive change
The fragmented relationships in Figure 4 are

8
reinforced by the old paradigm and by competition for
funding. The scope of trying to change an entire
system or industry at once seems so large and
expensive as to be incomprehensible. The change
seems far too big, even by changing one transit system
at a time.
3. Cynicism about potential for change. Various
stakeholders are cynical, with good reason, about the
forces on the transit industry that limit its ability to
perform. These forces are outside of the industry's
control, and transit industry stakeholders have little
experience in facilitating change toward a new
paradigm. How can operators whose careers have been
in a traditional paradigm be expected to change their
systems to cope with urban sprawl, labor conflicts,
land use, telecommuting, and other uncontrollable
forces?
4. Low industry morale. Morale is low, because of
negative public image, continued financial problems,
the stress of low ridership, and poor public support.
5. Previous efforts at strategic planning. Previous plans
to create a more positive future for public
transportation have not led to action.
These impediments to change overwhelmed previous
initiatives for change.
Changes in the industry paradigm require more than a
vision and a crisis. Change in public transportation requires
a focus on leadership to move through the resistance listed
above. Leadership is needed to show the way. An
organized leadership thrust to facilitate change in public
transportation systems is clearly required.
TCRP'S J-8 INITIATIVE
In its short history, TCRP has funded research to
improve operational efficiency within transit systems. This
research was not designed to change the transit system

itself or its prevailing mindset for dealing with industry

pressures.
In recognition of the huge problems facing the
industry, the desire for a better future, the vision of a new
paradigm, and the belief that something could be done,
TCRP created the J-8 Task Group. The J-8 Project was
given a no-holds-barred mandate to break out of the box of
traditional transit industry thinking in an effort to facilitate
and implement real change. The J-8
Project involved a searching assessment of where the
industry was and where it could go. And it was free to use
whatever radical research method, topic, or approach would
generate change toward defining and moving the industry
into a new paradigm. The J-8 Task Group was to provide
open-minded research leadership and continuing support
that would create sustainable change.
The J-8 Task Group adopted a new paradigm for
applied research, which is illustrated in Figure 5.
Traditional TCRP topics were focused on incremental steps
that improved efficiency in operational systems using
engineering, economic, and social science research and
analysis that can be defined as "normal" applied science.
J-8's new approach was designed to be dramatically
different. Rather than funding research topics about
operational efficiency, the new research would focus on the
public transportation system itself, its paradigm, new
opportunities, and barriers to change. In this new paradigm
of J-8 research, the box within which the public
transportation had worked now becomes the subject of
research rather than a limiting boundary. This opens the
door to striking new research methods, which include
action research to directly involve transit systems in the
experience of change, bringing diverse constituents
together, conducting demonstration projects in the field,
and confronting the very barriers that inhibit change,
including the old mindset.
Research Step 1: A Future Search
After initial scoping studies to clarify its approach, the
J-8 Task Group decided to undertake a future search. The
future search is a social innovation designed to bring
disparate groups together to find common ground,
collaborate on shared problems, develop a joint vision of
the future, and define action steps to achieve the vision.
The future search was organized by the Eno Transportation
Foundation and facilitated by Richard Daft of Vanderbilt
University, and Robert Lengel of the University of Texas at
San Antonio, who are recognized in the area of group
dynamics and organizational change.
The future search was held May 12-14, 1997, and
included about 80 individuals representing public
transportation organizations as well as a broad array of
other interested parties. It included transit managers, local
leaders, riders, drivers, labor leaders, political leaders,
community residents, and almost every voice that has a
stake in the success of public transportation. Participants

also included experts in transportation

11
policy, local and federal government representatives, and
academicians.
The power of a future search is the commitment to
action and its ability to surmount the barriers inhibiting
change in the transit industry. The future search was an
experiment in assessing the potential for systemwide
change in public transportation. In response to the industry
barriers described above as complexity, fragmentation,
diverse interests, cynicism, low industry moral and lack of
leadership, the future search started by bringing elements of
the whole system together into a working microcosm, as
illustrated in Figure 6. The 80 people were brought together
from diverse stakeholder groups to achieve a working
microcosm of collaboration, problem solving, visioning,
and action. The future search was designed to identify
simplicity within complexity and to harness the motivation
of participant's dreams and hopes in addition to achieving
strategic objectives. The future search enabled people to
voice their cynicism and frustration, thereby lowering
emotional resistance to change. The future search provided
a mechanism to identify modest actions that constitute
"small wins" to start the change process moving, with
follow-up large-scale projects in line to maintain
momentum. The future search identified the desired future,
limitations of the past, and opened people's minds to ideas
and concepts that interpolate toward that future rather than
limiting themselves to the incremental steps of the past.
The future search involved 2-1/2 days of intense,
structured exercises. The first exercise examined the history
of participants, and the history of the transportation
industry, providing people with a sense of their common
past and common ground. Industry trends were identified
and mapped onto a huge "mindmap" that showed branches
and interconnections among major trends affecting public
transportation. The trends of greatest concern included
subsidy of automobiles, changing political environment,
suburbanization, applying new technologies, customer
focus, decreased funding, and lack of whole-system
thinking.
From this analysis of environmental trends, table
groups explored possible industry responses and barriers to
change. This analysis was followed by an in-depth
discussion and presentation of an industry vision 10 years
in the future. Eight groups of maximum diversity
developed and presented visions for the year 2007, which
described a transit industry characterized by bold
transformational change, that was customer-driven, used
advanced technology, implemented new institutional
structures to maximize mobility, and
developed new employee relationships. The final vision for

reinventing public transportation that emerged from the

future search conference is as follows:
Dramatic change will occur in the public
transportation industry. Public transportation will be a
dynamic force contributing to the growth and vitality of
America's communities through the provision of flexible,
responsible mobility services. The hallmarks of the
revitalized industry will be
New institutional structures that maximize mobility
opportunities in the region being served,
New employee relationships that foster high-quality,
customer-focused service,
Innovative services that are wide ranging and flexible
to meet changing market needs, and
Maximum use of technology to create real-time
customer information and new methods of operating
and delivering services.
Public transportation will be competitive and vital.
The final activity in the future search was to combine
the brain power and perspectives of the 80 participants to
develop specific action research projects that would lead
industry toward change in the vision. Literally hundreds of
projects were suggested, and these projects were clustered
into categories that included regulatory reform, technology,
welfare to work, pricing and payment, new age transit,
institutional reform, labor and management, survey
research, transit and land use, finance and lending,
customer service, mobility management, and internal
structure.
Research Step 2: The Road Map
The future search produced an unequivocal consensus
to fund action research that will provide leadership for the
industry to move away from what is tentatively called the
"Traditional Transit Paradigm," based on operational
efficiency, toward what can be called "Mobility
Management 2007," which reflects bold, transformational
change toward a customer-driven industry that uses
advanced technology, transforms its organizations, and
builds new employee relationships.
From the huge array of potential research projects,
four grand themes emerged, the funding of which will build
momentum for industry movement toward the

13
mobility management paradigm, as illustrated in Figure 7.
The four themes are:
Organizational Transformation includes the
investigation of new governance models, regional
partnerships, alternatives to public ownership, new labor
and management arrangements including a larger employee
voice, better system integration and partnering, and new
organization structures.
Market Positioning research projects include focusing on
customer service, including the design of flexible services,
and user-friendly technologies; developing a customeroriented

mindset among employees; designing transit

operating models for diverse (including rural)
environments; developing network alternatives to a
traditional radial system; linking public transportation to
quality of life issues; examining just-in-time services; and
exploring new marketing initiatives and welfare-to-work
options.
Customer Information research projects include
analyzing opportunities to use telecommunications to
improve customer information and transit operations
management tools such as vehicle tracking, customer
billing, and real-time paratransit design. Through increased
use of technology, transit can expand beyond fixed-route
scheduling to build service around ad hoc customer entry
and dramatically improve communication with its
customers.
Transit Technology research projects acknowledge the
need to maintain and improve extant operations with
research such as developing and testing service for low
density suburban areas, automating fare collection devices,
improving supply-chain relationships, automating
maintenance, using technology in planning and system
operations, adapting technologies from other industries, and
instituting new approaches to lending and financing
arrangements.
The J-8 Task Group has established fundamental new
research directions with the future search, out of which will
grow subsequent projects and events that will continue
progress toward a new industry paradigm. Research
funding in these four areas has the potential to expand the
mindset and paradigm of the industry to become the
Mobility Management industry of 2007, as illustrated in
Figure 7. This road map of action research should become
the catalyst for change.
Perhaps even more important than the new research
topics in Figure 7 is the change in research
method, which will involve action research and
demonstration projects for new technologies, new labor
management relations, new customer acceptance programs,
new organizational designs, new employee/management
collaboration, new organizational structures, and new
incentive programs. This "action research" approach
together with the four grand themes of new research topics
have extraordinary potential to provide the leadership to
move the transit industry forward toward its new vision.
In June 1997, TCRP immediately moved to fund
projects in two of the four research areas. The first research
project initiative focuses on organizational transformation,
and will involve developing the concept of mobility
management to its ideal, redesigning an existing public
transportation system to operate as a mobility manager, and
designing an ideal organization structure for guidance and
possible adoption by transit systems (TCRP Project J-8B,
"New Paradigms for Local Public Transportation Organizations").
The second research initiative is on the theme of

information technology, and has been funded specifically to

find ways to increase customer convenience using state-oftheart information technology (TCRP Project A-20A,
"Increase Customer Convenience Using State-of-the-Art
Technology").
In both of these research initiatives, the methods as
well as the topics fit in the new paradigm. The research will
involve action research in the field, demonstration projects,
and the engagement of ongoing systems in real-time
change.
WHAT WILL FUTURE RESEARCH PROVIDE?
A metaphor for the nature of change in a chaotic world
is the butterfly. A tiny butterfly flapping its wings in China
can affect weather patterns in France. A small change,
under the right conditions of system stress, can produce
monumental results in a relatively short time.
The butterfly in this case is TCRP's funding of the
Projects J-8 and H-15, which occurred in a time of industry
crisis and readiness for change. The ground for change is
fertile, based upon the groundwork of APTA's Transit 2000
and Mobility 21 initiatives. On the basis of the responses of
stakeholders during the future search, constituents in all
areas welcome change toward a new paradigm labeled here
as Mobility Management 2007. The future search was the
wind current to begin changing the weather pattern. The
funded projects in organizational transformation and

15
information technology will lead the arrival of a welcome
warm front.
But movement toward a new paradigm, like the
weather, cannot be stationary. Paradigms today and in the
future world are ever changing. The shift to a Mobility
Management paradigm is the key first step toward melting
a glacier of resistance in the public transportation industry.
As resistance thaws, change can become the norm rather
than the exception. The research leadership and action
research steps provided by TCRP are self-generative, which
will have results far beyond specific research projects,
setting precedents for new paradigms beyond 2007.
The image for this generative process is illustrated in
Figure 8, which shows further paradigm expansion beyond
2007 toward a hypothetical paradigm tentatively labeled
"Access Management 2017." In this distant future, the
paradigm may shift from mobility of people toward giving
people access to needed services. Access management
responds to the fundamental question, "Why do we travel?"
Three broadly defined possibilities emerge:
Access to work (commuting),
Access to health and education (quality of life), and
Access to commerce and entertainment
(consumption).
In considering these possibilities, the role of
transportation may be to help people gain access to
anything

they need or want. People do not travel for travel's sake

alone.
As technology advances, people could make broader
choices between physical and virtual access to information
and services. Technology is already providing a substitute
for physical travel as seen in telecommuting and
telemedicine. Research that will lead the continuing
evolution in paradigms might enable public transportation,
through partnership with other industries, to give people
freer access to needed services, both by moving people to
services and by moving services to people.
THE FUTURE IS IN THIS MOMENT
Structures of the past can be likened to a tree, and the
future is also like a tree. The tree of the past symbolizes the
organizations created in the past that exist today. The tree
of the future can either be the continuing structure of the
past or the growth of a new structure. The present moment
is the seed that contains the potential for a new tree. Future
research can prune the old tree, or it can provide the
leadership and action research to plant the seed of a new
tree for public transportation. The crisis and vision
necessary for transportation industry paradigm change is at
hand, and so is TCRP leadership and action research steps.
Will new research initiatives plant the seed to create this

new transit industry future?

Planning Policy Guidance 17:

Planning for
open space, sport and
recreation

On 5th May 2006 the responsibilities of the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) transferred to the
Department for
Communities and Local Government.
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Contents

Planning Objectives
National Planning Policies
Assessments of Needs and Opportunities
Setting Local Standards
Maintaining An Adequate Supply Of Open Space And Sports And Recreational
Facilities
Playing Fields
Development Within Open Spaces
Enhancing Existing Open Space and Sports and Recreational Facilities
Planning for New Open Space and Sports and Recreational Facilities
General Principles
Mixed-use Sport, Recreation and Leisure Facilities
Stadia and Major Developments
Local Facilities
Open Spaces
Urban Fringe Areas
Rural Areas
Sports and Recreation Provision in Designated Areas
Sports and Recreation Requiring Natural Features and Water
Recreational Rights of Way
Planning Obligations
Annex : Definitions

Foreword
Planning Objectives

Open spaces, sport and recreation all underpin people's quality of life. Well
designed and
implemented planning policies for open space, sport and recreation are therefore
fundamental to delivering broader Government objectives. These include:
supporting an urban renaissance - local networks of high quality and well
managed and
maintained open spaces, sports and recreational facilities help create urban
environments

that are attractive, clean and safe. Green spaces in urban areas perform vital
functions as
areas for nature conservation and biodiversity and by acting as 'green lungs' can
assist in
meeting objectives to improve air quality.
supporting a rural renewal - the countryside can provide opportunities for
recreation and
visitors can play an important role in the regeneration of the economies of rural
areas.
Open spaces within rural settlements and accessibility to local sports and
recreational
facilities contribute to the quality of life and well being of people who live in rural
areas.
promotion of social inclusion and community cohesion - well planned and
maintained
open spaces and good quality sports and recreational facilities can play a major
part in
improving people's sense of well being in the place they live. As a focal point for
community activities, they can bring together members of deprived communities
and
provide opportunities for people for social interaction.
health and well being - open spaces, sports and recreational facilities have a
vital role to
play in promoting healthy living and preventing illness, and in the social
development of
children of all ages through play, sporting activities and interaction with others.
promoting more sustainable development - by ensuring that open space,
sports and
recreational facilities (particularly in urban areas) are easily accessible by walking
and
cycling and that more heavily used or intensive sports and recreational facilities
are
planned for locations well served by public transport.
National Planning Policies
Assessments Of Needs And Opportunities
1. To ensure effective planning for open space, sport and recreation it is essential
that the
needs of local communities are known. Local authorities should undertake robust
assessments of the existing and future needs of their communities for open
space, sports
and recreational facilities. Assessments will normally be undertaken at district
level,

although assessments of strategic facilities should be undertaken at regional or

subregional
levels.
2. As a minimum, assessments of need should cover the differing and distinctive
needs of
the population for open space and built sports and recreational facilities (as
outlined in the
annex). The needs of those working in and visiting areas, as well as residents
should also
be included.
3. Local authorities should also undertake audits of existing open space, sports
and
recreational facilities, the use made of existing facilities, access in terms of
location and
costs (such as charges) and opportunities for new open space and facilities (see
endnote
1). Audits should consider both the quantitative and the qualitative elements of
open space,
sports and recreational facilities . Audits of quality will be particularly important as
they will
allow local authorities to identify potential for increased use through better
design,
management and maintenance.
4. Assessments and audits will allow local authorities to identify specific needs
and
quantitative or qualitative deficits or surpluses of open space, sports and
recreational
facilities in their areas. They form the starting point for establishing an effective
strategy for
open space, sport and recreation at the local level (tied into the local authority's
Community
Strategy), and for effective planning through the development of appropriate
policies in
plans.
5. Good quality assessments and audits, leading to clear strategies supported by
effective
planning policies, will provide vital tools for resolving the potential conflicts that
arise
between different uses and users of open space, sports and recreational
facilities. The
Government expects all local authorities to carry out assessments of needs and
audits of

open space and sports and recreational facilities in accordance with the
paragraphs above.
Good practice guidance (see endnote 2) being published in tandem with this
PPG provides
more detailed advice on how to undertake these assessments and audits.
Setting Local Standards
6. The Government believes that open space standards are best set locally.
National
standards cannot cater for local circumstances, such as differing demographic
profiles and
the extent of existing built development in an area.
7. Local authorities should use the information gained from their assessments of
needs and
opportunities to set locally derived standards for the provision of open space,
sports and
recreational facilities in their areas. Local standards should include:
i. quantitative elements (how much new provision may be needed);
ii. a qualitative component (against which to measure the need for enhancement
of existing
facilities); and
iii. accessibility (including distance thresholds and consideration of the cost of
using a
facility).
8. Setting robust local standards based on assessments of need and audits of
existing
facilities will form the basis for redressing quantitative and qualitative deficiencies
through
the planning process. Standards should be included in development plans.
9. Assessing needs and opportunities: A companion guide to PPG17 provides
further
guidance on setting local standards for open space, sport and recreation.
Maintaining An Adequate Supply Of Open Space And Sports And
Recreational
Facilities
10. Existing open space, sports and recreational buildings and land should not be
built on
unless an assessment has been undertaken which has clearly shown the open
space or
the buildings and land to be surplus to requirements. For open space, 'surplus to
requirements' should include consideration of all the functions that open space
can
perform. Not all open space, sport and recreational land and buildings are of
equal merit

and some may be available for alternative uses. In the absence of a robust and
up-to-date
assessment by a local authority, an applicant for planning permission may seek
to
demonstrate through an independent assessment that the land or buildings are
surplus to
requirements. Developers will need to consult the local community and
demonstrate that
their proposals are widely supported by them. Paragraph 15 below applies in
respect of
any planning applications involving playing fields.
11. Open space and sports and recreational facilities that are of high quality, or of
particular
value to a local community, should be recognised and given protection by local
authorities
through appropriate policies in plans. Areas of particular quality may include:
i. small areas of open space in urban areas that provide an important local
amenity and
offer recreational and play opportunities;
ii. areas of open space that provide a community resource and can be used for
informal or
formal events such as religious and cultural festivals, agricultural shows and
travelling fairs.
Travelling fairs may also require suitable winter quarters (DoE Circular 22/91
refers); and
iii. areas of open space that particularly benefit wildlife and biodiversity.
12. Development of open space, sports or recreational facilities may provide an
opportunity
for local authorities to remedy deficiencies in provision. For example, where a
local
authority has identified a surplus in one type of open space or sports and
recreational
facility but a deficit in another type, planning conditions or obligations may be
used to
secure part of the development site for the type of open space or sports and
recreational
facility that is in deficit.
13. Equally, development may provide the opportunity to exchange the use of
one site for
another to substitute for any loss of open space, or sports or recreational facility.
The new
land and facility should be at least as accessible to current and potential new
users, and at

least equivalent in terms of size, usefulness, attractiveness and quality. Wherever

possible,
the aim should be to achieve qualitative improvements to open spaces, sports
and
recreational facilities. Local authorities should use planning obligations or
conditions to
secure the exchange land, ensure any necessary works are undertaken and that
the new
facilities are capable of being maintained adequately through management and
maintenance agreements.
14. Parks, recreation grounds, playing fields and allotments must not be
regarded as
'previously-developed land', as defined in annex C of PPG3. Even where land
does fall
within the definition of 'previously-developed', its existing and potential value for
recreation
and other purposes should be properly assessed before development is
considered.
Playing Fields
15. In advance of an assessment of need, local authorities should give very
careful
consideration to any planning applications involving development on playing
fields (see
endnote 3). Where a robust assessment of need in accordance with this
guidance has not
been undertaken, planning permission for such developments should not be
allowed
unless:
i. the proposed development is ancillary to the use of the site as a playing field
(eg new
changing rooms) and does not adversely affect the quantity or quality of pitches
and their
use;
ii. the proposed development only affects land which is incapable of forming a
playing pitch
(or part of one);
iii. the playing fields that would be lost as a result of the proposed development
would be
replaced by a playing field or fields of equivalent or better quantity and quality
and in a
suitable location - see paragraph 13 above; or
iv. the proposed development is for an outdoor or indoor sports facility of
sufficient benefit

to the development of sport to outweigh the loss of the playing field

Developments within Open Spaces
16. The recreational quality of open spaces can be eroded by insensitive
development or
incremental loss of the site. In considering planning applications - either within or
adjoining
open space - local authorities should weigh any benefits being offered to the
community
against the loss of open space that will occur. Planning authorities may wish to
allow smallscale
structures where these would support the existing recreational uses (for example,
interpretation centres, toilets, and refreshment facilities), or would provide
facilities for new
recreational uses. They should seek to ensure that all proposed development
takes
account of, and is sensitive to, the local context.
17. Local authorities should:
i. avoid any erosion of recreational function and maintain or enhance the
character of open
spaces;
ii. ensure that open spaces do not suffer from increased overlooking, traffic flows
or other
encroachment;
iii. protect and enhance those parts of the rights of way network that might benefit
open
space; and
iv. consider the impact of any development on biodiversity and nature
conservation.
Enhancing Existing Open Space and Sport and Recreational Facilities
18. Where recreational land and facilities are of poor quality or under-used, this
should not
be taken as necessarily indicating an absence of need in the area. Local
authorities should
seek opportunities to improve the value of existing facilities. Usage might be
improved by
better management or by capital investment to secure improvements. Planning
obligations
may be used where improvements are required to meet identified needs (see
paragraph
33). In looking to improve existing open space and facilities, local authorities
should:
i. promote the compatibility of the uses made of open spaces and sport and
recreational

facilities with adjoining land uses;

ii. encourage better accessibility of existing open spaces and sports and
recreational
facilities, taking account of the mobility needs in the local population; and
iii. promote better use of open spaces and sports and recreational facilities, by
the use of
good design to reduce crime.
19. In considering applications for floodlighting, local authorities should ensure
that local
amenity is protected. The impact on the openness of the Green Belt, or on the
character of
the countryside, of floodlight towers or pylons should be a key factor in
determining
whether planning permission should be granted. Further guidance is contained in
the
companion document to this PPG.
Planning For New Open Space And Sports And Recreational Facilities
General principles
20. In identifying where to locate new areas of open space, sports and
recreational
facilities, local authorities should:
i. promote accessibility by walking, cycling and public transport, and ensure that
facilities
are accessible for people with disabilities;
ii. locate more intensive recreational uses in sites where they can contribute to
town centre
vitality and viability;
iii. avoid any significant loss of amenity to residents, neighbouring uses or
biodiversity;
iv. improve the quality of the public realm through good design;
v. look to provide areas of open space in commercial and industrial areas;
vi. add to and enhance the range and quality of existing facilities;
vii. carefully consider security and personal safety, especially for children;
viii. meet the regeneration needs of areas, using brownfield in preference to
greenfield
sites;
ix. consider the scope for using any surplus land for open space, sport or
recreational use,
weighing this against alternative uses;
x. assess the impact of new facilities on social inclusion; and
xi. consider the recreational needs of visitors and tourists.

In addition to these general principles, paragraphs 21-32 below apply in respect

of specific
types of facilities or areas.
Mixed-use Sport, Recreation and Leisure Facilities
21. Many sporting and recreational facilities will be similar in their land use
characteristics
to some forms of leisure - by making intensive use of land and attracting a large
number of
visits. Indeed, some will be mixed with significant elements of entertainment,
retail or
leisure uses and will function for many hours of the day. Planning permission for
such
developments should only be granted where they are to be located in highly
accessible
locations in or adjacent to town centres, or in district or neighbourhood centres.
Planning
permission should not be granted for a location outside such a town centre if the
resulting
development would undermine the centre. Sites in central locations should be
allocated
where there is a high level of demand for such mixed use facilities. The guidance
in PPG6
explains the principles that should be applied to the location of town centre uses.
Stadia and Major Developments
22. Planning permission for stadia and major sports developments which will
accommodate
large numbers of spectators, or which will also function as a facility for
community based
sports and recreation, should only be granted when they are to be located in
areas with
good access to public transport. Planning permission for additional facilities (such
as retail
and leisure uses) should not be granted for any out-of-centre developments
unless they
comply with the policy set out in PPG6.
Local Facilities
23. Local authorities should ensure that provision is made for local sports and
recreational
facilities (either through an increase in the number of facilities or through
improvements to
existing facilities) where planning permission is granted for new developments
(especially
housing). Planning obligations (see paragraph 33 below) should be used where

appropriate to seek increased provision of open spaces and local sports and
recreational
facilities, and the enhancement of existing facilities. Where local facilities will
attract people
from a wider catchment, especially in urban areas, planning permission should
not be
granted unless they are located where they will be well served by public
transport.
Open Spaces
24. In planning for new open spaces and in assessing planning applications for
development, local authorities should seek opportunities to improve the local
open space
network, to create public open space from vacant land, and to incorporate open
space
within new development on previously-used land. They should also consider
whether use
can be made of land which is otherwise unsuitable for development, or procure
public use
of privately owned areas of land or sports facilities.
Urban Fringe Areas
25. The countryside around towns provides a valuable resource for the provision
of sport
and recreation, particularly in situations where there is an absence of land in
urban areas
to meet provision. Subject to paragraphs 27-30 below, local authorities should
encourage
the creation of sports and recreational facilities in such areas and the
development of areas
of managed countryside, such as country parks, community forests, and
agricultural
showgrounds. Where planning permission is to be granted for such land uses,
local
planning authorities should ensure that facilities are accessible by walking,
cycling and
public transport as alternatives to the use of the car.
Rural Areas
26. In rural areas those sports and recreational facilities which are likely to attract
significant numbers of participants or spectators should be located in, or on the
edge of,
country towns. Smaller scale facilities will be acceptable where they are located
in, or
adjacent to villages to meet the needs of the local community. Developments will
require

special justification if they are to be located in open countryside, although

proposals for
farm diversification involving sports and recreational activities should be given
favourable
consideration. All development in rural areas should be designed and sited with
great care
and sensitivity to its rural location.
Sports and Recreation Provision in Designated Areas
27. Designation of areas as National Parks or Areas of Outstanding Natural
Beauty does
not preclude the use of land for sporting and recreational activities, but noisy or
other
intrusive activities should be restricted to locations where they will have minimal
or no
impact on residents or other recreational users. National Park Authorities should
work with
other local authorities and with sports and recreational bodies with a view to
securing new
sports and recreational facilities in appropriate locations within National Parks.
28. In Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty local planning authorities should look
to meet
the demands for sporting and recreational activities where the proposals are
consistent
with the primary objective of conservation of the natural beauty of the landscape,
and the
needs of agriculture, forestry and other uses.
29. Planning permission for development in or near a Site of Special Scientific
Interest
(SSSI) for temporary or permanent sporting and recreational activities, should be
granted
only if the permission is subject to conditions that will prevent damaging impacts
on the
SSSI, or if other material factors are sufficient to override nature conservation
considerations.
30. Planning permission should be granted in Green Belts for proposals to
establish or to
modernise essential facilities for outdoor sport and recreation where the
openness of the
Green Belt is maintained. Development should be the minimum necessary and
nonessential
facilities (eg additional function rooms or indoor leisure) should be treated as
inappropriate development. Very special circumstances which outweigh the harm
to the

Green Belt will need to be demonstrated if such inappropriate development is to

be
permitted.
Sport and Recreation Requiring Natural Features and Water
31. Some activities (eg climbing, potholing) rely on particular natural features.
Where these
features exist, local authorities should recognise their actual and potential
recreational
value, possibly to more than the local population. Planning permission should be
granted
but only where the impact of sports and recreational activities on natural features
can be
minimised. Facilities should be planned carefully to ensure that conflicts between
sport and
recreational activities and other interests do not arise. In considering planning
applications
for development near water, local authorities should ensure that access for sport
and
recreation purposes is not restricted and should, where possible, be enhanced.
The visual
amenity, heritage and nature conservation value of water resources should also
be
protected.
Recreational Rights of Way
32. Rights of way are an important recreational facility, which local authorities
should
protect and enhance. Local authorities should seek opportunities to provide
better facilities
for walkers, cyclists and horse-riders, for example by adding links to existing
rights of way
networks.
Planning Obligations
33. Planning obligations should be used as a means to remedy local deficiencies
in the
quantity or quality of open space, sports and recreational provision. Local
authorities will be
justified in seeking planning obligations where the quantity or quality of provision
is
inadequate or under threat, or where new development increases local needs. It
is
essential that local authorities have undertaken detailed assessments of needs
and audits

of existing facilities, and set appropriate local standards in order to justify

planning
obligations. Further advice to authorities on seeking planning obligations for open
space,
sports and recreational facilities is contained in the good practice guide
associated with this
guidance (see endnote 4).
Annex : Definitions
Open Space
1. Open space is defined in the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 as land laid
out as a
public garden, or used for the purposes of public recreation, or land which is a
disused
burial ground. However, in applying the policies in this Guidance, open space
should be
taken to mean all open space of public value, including not just land, but also
areas of
water such as rivers, canals, lakes and reservoirs which offer important
opportunities for
sport and recreation and can also act as a visual amenity (see paragraph 3(vi)
below).
2. The following typology illustrates the broad range of open spaces that may be
of public
value:
i. parks and gardens - including urban parks, country parks and formal gardens;
ii. natural and semi-natural urban greenspaces - including woodlands, urban
forestry,
scrub, grasslands (eg downlands, commons and meadows) wetlands, open and
running
water, wastelands and derelict open land and rock areas (eg cliffs, quarries and
pits);
iii. green corridors - including river and canal banks, cycleways, and rights of
way;
iv. outdoor sports facilities (with natural or artificial surfaces and either publicly or
privately
owned) - including tennis courts, bowling greens, sports pitches, golf courses,
athletics
tracks, school and other institutional playing fields, and other outdoor sports
areas;
v. amenity greenspace (most commonly, but not exclusively in housing areas) including
informal recreation spaces, greenspaces in and around housing, domestic
gardens and

village greens;
vi. provision for children and teenagers - including play areas, skateboard parks,
outdoor
basketball hoops, and other more informal areas (eg 'hanging out' areas,
teenage
shelters);
vii. allotments, community gardens, and city (urban) farms;
viii. cemeteries and churchyards;
ix. accessible countryside in urban fringe areas; and
x. civic spaces, including civic and market squares, and other hard surfaced
areas
designed for pedestrians;
This typology, or variations of it, should be used by local authorities when
preparing
assessments of need and audits of existing open space and recreational
facilities.
3. Local authorities should also recognise that most areas of open space can
perform
multiple functions. They should take account of the various functions of open
space when
applying the policies in this document. These include:
i. strategic functions: defining and separating urban areas; better linking of town
and
country; and providing for recreational needs over a wide area;
ii. urban quality: helping to support regeneration and improving quality of life for
communities by providing visually attractive green spaces close to where people
live;
iii. promoting health and well-being: providing opportunities to people of all ages
for
informal recreation, or to walk, cycle or ride within parks and open spaces or
along paths,
bridleways and canal banks. Allotments may provide physical exercise and other
health
benefits;
iv. havens and habitats for flora and fauna: sites may also have potential to be
corridors or
stepping stones from one habitat to another and may contribute towards
achieving
objectives set out in local biodiversity action plans;
v. as a community resource: as a place for congregating and for holding
community events,
religious festivals, ftes and travelling fairs; and,

vi. as a visual amenity: even without public access, people enjoy having open
space near
to them to provide an outlook, variety in the urban scene, or as a positive
element in the
landscape.
Sport And Recreation
4. Sport and recreation is not formally defined for the purposes of this PPG. With
the
exception of limited cases where the policies are specific to sporting activities (eg
those for
location of stadia), policies are generic and should be applied to all forms of sport
and
recreational activities.
5. For the purposes of assessments of need and audits of existing built facilities
for sport
and recreation, local authorities should use a typology which includes swimming
pools,
indoor sports halls and leisure centres, indoor bowls centres, indoor tennis
centres, ice
rinks, community centres, and village halls.
Endnotes
1. The Annex to this statement provides further guidance on the use of these
terms
2. ODPM: Assessing needs and opportunities: A companion guide to PPG17
3. As defined in Statutory Instrument 1996 No.1817 which amends the Town and
Country
Planning (General Development Procedure) Order 1995(b). This amendment
requires local
planning authorities to consult Sport England about developments that affect land
used as
playing fields.

4. ODPM: Assessing needs and opportunities: A companion guide to PPG17

Sports Facilities:
From Multipurpose Stadia to Mixed Use Developments
presented at
American Real Estate Society Conference
San Francisco, CA
April 14, 2007

by
Susan Logan Nelson, Ph.D.
Professor and Director of Sport Business

Department of Finance
Box 7096
University of North Dakota
Grand Forks, ND 58202
701-777-4213
susan.nelson@mail.business.und.edu

Please do not quote without permission.

Sports Facilities: From Multipurpose Stadia to Mixed-Use

Developments

INTRODUCTION
Distribution decisions have the most long-term, far-reaching implications of all marketing
related
business decisions. (Stern & Sturdivant, 1987) Once commitments are made, changes
are
difficult to implement. Distribution decisions made in a sports context, particularly those
related
to facility location, design, and financing, are no different from other enterprises more
traditionally considered business endeavors. These decisions have long-term
implications not
only for the viability of the facility itself, but also the resident team=s success. This study
first
reviews the historical evolution of these highly integrated facets of facilities built for Major
League Baseball (MLB) as presented in Baseball in America: From AThe House That
Ruth
Built@ to AThe House That Ted Built (Nelson, 1997). That paper concentrated on
historical
developments and trends in MLB parks with a focus on factors that have had an impact
on
where MLB stadia were constructed and how their construction was financed. The
balance of
power and responsibility in financing arrangements for MLB ballparks has shifted over
the years
among three major stakeholder groups: baseball owners, municipalities, and, to a lesser
extent,
corporate sponsors.
Recently, however, a new participant group has entered the mix. Real estate developers
have
recognized the opportunities inherent in having a sports facility integrated into a mixeduse
development. These developments, either initially or retroactively, incorporate properties
such
as retail, office, and housing options into a sports facility complex. This trend involves all
manner of sports facility, not just baseball parks, and reflects ever-growing expectations
of fans
with regard to the amenities incorporated into the facilities where sporting events are
held. One

explanation of this evolution can be traced to increased competition for the publics
discretionary
time and money. Also, fans have more viewing options for sporting events via television
and
Internet broadcasts, so there are increased demands on the live event to provide
entertainment
options that make attendance, with its attendant cost, preferable to broadcast options.
Once a commitment to a sport facility is made, changes are difficult to implement.
Understanding cultural changes which influence the way people live and play is
necessary in
making sound facility design, location, and financing decisions. During the super stadium
era of
baseball park construction in the 1960s and 1970s, multipurpose stadia, which housed
football
and baseball teams, were built in the suburbs with a surrounding sea of parking. The
intent was
to contain the overall cost of construction by building one facility for two sports and by
buying
cheap land on the outskirts of town, which was easily accessed by car. This was justified
by the
massive relocation of the typical American city=s population to the suburbs. In
retrospect,
however, this decision was found to be myopic.
Historically, team owners and municipalities have bargained with each other over these
decisions. However, the mindsets of corporate sponsors and real estate developers
have
imbued these decisions with a better understanding of the publics perception of sports
in
relation to other forms of entertainment and lifestyle decisions. In the relatively new
regenerated
classic baseball parks, old-fashioned facades house baseball-only playing fields with
numerous
technological and entertainment amenities. These regenerated classic parks can be
considered
multipurpose as well, but not in the same sense as the super stadiums. The emphasis in
these
parks is on entertainment rather than accommodating multiple sports franchises.

Many studies prepared by teams, their consultants, and government agencies show that
the
economic development benefits enjoyed by cities that build new stadiums, or allow their
construction, are in the millions annually. These new stadia are supposed to provide
revitalization in downtown areas and spur development in more rural and suburban
settings. As
the mass exodus of stadia to the suburbs paralleled a movement in retail operations
from
downtown areas to suburbs in the 1960s and 1970s, recent sport facility location
parallels the
urban renewal trend. However, there is growing disagreement and dissent regarding
whether

new stadia actually achieve economic development goals. Arguments over whether
public
money should be used to achieve these nebulous goals are becoming somewhat abated
by the
influx of private money to develop mixed use complexes which, if successful, will
accomplish
what detractors believe public money should not be used to do.
With government entities becoming increasingly hesitant to fund sports facilities, the role
of
corporate America is likely to expand. Corporate sponsors and advertisers were the first
to
enter the mix, not surprisingly given the virtual playgrounds that the regenerated classic
ballparks have become. More recently, and rather quietly, real estate developers have
also
stepped into the fray. Financial and design assistance from these entities, who are
positioned
to understand the consumer mindset better than team owners and local politicians do,
seems to
be a step in the right direction.
Therefore, the evolution of the of baseball parks is reviewed and the more recent influx
of
mixed-use developments incorporating all manner of sports facilities is further explored
in this
paper. Conclusions, including projections of future directions, are also offered.
MLB STADIUM ERAS
According to Dale Swearingen, the Anew and different wants@ of baseball fans can be
traced
through three stadium eras: the classic ballpark, the super stadium, and the regenerated
classic ballpark. (Lowry, 1992, p. xi) These three eras are delineated in Table 1. Table 1
also
provides a summary of cost and baseball seating capacity for existing and proposed
MLB
ballparks.
The total integration of classic ballparks into their neighborhoods created a little known
but
crucial design benefit, the asymmetrical form dictated by the property lines of the site.
(Lowry,
1992, p. xiii) Land constraints were not the only contributing factor to these decisions. As
the
story goes, Jacob Ruppert, one of the New York Yankee owners in 1920, wanted a short
right
field fence to accommodate his newly acquired slugger, Babe Ruth. (Lowry, 1992, p. xiii)
Apparently, AThe House that Ruth Built@ is in reference to more than the Babe=s
popularity with
fans.
The charming, quirky character of these ballparks contributed to, rather than detracted
from,
their popularity. Only three ballparks from the classic ballparks era remain and two of
these

are seriously being considered for replacement. Nevertheless, the influence of these four
ballparks on the regenerated classic era is unmistakable. For example, asymmetry is
replicated
in the regenerated classic ballparks, regardless of whether the site demands it.
The massive relocation of the typical American city=s population to the suburbs helped
usher in
the super stadium era. It no longer made sense to nestle a stadium amidst an urban
neighborhood. A greater dependence on the automobile and its attendant parking
requirements
fostered the Astand-aloneA stadium concept. Also, given the popular modernist
school=s

dictate that form followed function, and function was symmetry, playing fields became
symmetrical. (Lowry, 1992, p. xiv)
The regenerated classic ballpark era arrived in response to all that was considered
wrong
with the super stadiums. While more charitable critics liken them to Acookie cutters@
(Munsey &
Suppes, 1997), Aconcrete donuts,@ and Adrab multi-use bowls@ (McGraw, 1996, p.
46), others
(Lowry, 1992, p. 2) refer to the stadiums built during the sixties and seventies as Asterile
ugly
ashtrays.@ Even the word stadium has been abandoned in the new ballparks, giving
way to
quainter, traditional terms such as park or field.
In the regenerated classic parks, old-fashioned facades house baseball-only, natural
grass,
asymmetrical playing fields. These facility designs harken back to the classic ballpark
era while
masking a multitude of technological wonders, modern day amenities, and entertainment
options. Regenerated classic parks can be considered multipurpose as well, but not in
the
same sense as the super stadiums. The emphasis is now on entertainment rather than
accommodating two, or more, sports franchises. Furthermore, some of these parks are
taking
on mythological characteristics of their own. For example, archaeologists at the 85-acre
site of
Oriole Park at Camden Yards in downtown Baltimore claim to have unearthed the
remains of
the George Ruth, Sr. saloon, the enterprise of Babe Ruth=s father. (Lowry, 1992, p. 21)
LOCATION DECISIONS DURING THE MLB STADIUM ERAS
One key factor in the location decision is access. Thus, urban infrastructure has always
played
an integral part in ballpark location decisions. When the classic ballparks were built,
traffic
jams and long delays were unheard of because most fans could walk or trolley to the
ballpark.
(Lowry, 1992, p. xiii). Quite logically, Comiskey Park, Fenway Park, and Ebbetts Field
were all

linked to the paths of the new trolley lines in their respective cities. (Lipsitz, 1984; Riess,
1980)
In the early years of professional baseball, it was not uncommon for streetcar companies
(traction firms) to own baseball fields and amusement parks so these facilities could be
located
near their routes. If fact, some companies supported sports franchises at a loss because
of
anticipated profits from the increased use of their streetcars. (Riess, 1980, p. 51)
So-called traction magnates either owned or had significant financial interests in early
teams
both in Atlanta and New York. (Riess, 1980, pp. 71,88,91,92) The naming of the
Brooklyn
ATrolley@ Dodgers was no accident. Furthermore, Turner Field has a mural of Ponce De
Leon
Park, a wooden baseball park with an eventual capacity of 8,000. Ponce De Leon Park
was
built in 1907, at a cost of $60,000, for the Georgia Crackers by its team owner, the
Georgia
Railway and Electric Company. It was destroyed by fire in 1923. (Riess, 1980, p. 92)
Apparently, Ted Turner appreciates the ingenuity shown by the early transportation
barons with
their support of professional baseball.
However, for the last five decades, fans have demanded auto access, causing problems
in the
1980s for urban parks that are located amid decaying infrastructures. (Mullin, Hardy, &
Sutton,
2000, p. 285) Therefore, convenient highway access has become a crucial component
of the
ballpark location decision.
Although Walter O=Malley, owner of the Dodgers, characterized the eventual location for
Dodger Stadium in Chavez Ravine as Atwo hundred and ten taxable acres of hill ground
that
would be of interest only to goats,@ it was, in fact, a choice location near downtown and
at the
4

intersection of three major freeways. (Lipsitz, 1984, pp. 8-9) During the Super Stadium
era,
ballparks were built in the suburbs surrounded by a sea of parking.

DESIGN AMENITIES IN THE NEW BALLPARKS

The designs of the regenerated classic ballparks reflect the understanding that, while
access is
important, it is not the only consideration for fans attending games. The experience while
at the
ballpark was also of critical importance. Not only are these ballparks more inviting
architecturally, the also incorporate many technological and entertainment amenities.
Examples abound of the efforts made in the design of the new ballparks to ensure a
more
entertaining and pleasurable experience for the fans --- and more revenue generated for
the

team. Concession stands in the concourse of Coors Field are laid out so that fans can
walk
completely around the stadium and never lose sight of the field. The Rangers Ballpark in
Arlington has a 17,000 square-foot baseball museum and a children=s learning center,
open
year-round. Toronto=s Rogers Centre offers dinner views of the park, hotel rooms with
views
of the diamond, and a Hard Rock Cafe in right field. (Munsey & Suppes, 1997) Turner
Field
houses interactive games in Scout=s Alley to test fans= hitting and pitching skills as well
as
baseball trivia, electronic kiosks with touch screens and data banks with scouting reports
on 300
past and present Braves, and a Braves Museum and Hall of Fame with more than 200
artifacts.
Furthermore, Tooner Field is an indoor romper room for kids, with Cartoon Network
characters,
picnic tables and television monitors. (Lieber, 1997) Jacobs Field has many amenities
including
the Davey Tree Backyard Picnic Area beyond centerfield, the Miller Lite Patio Area, an
Indians
Team Store, Wahoo World where fans can challenge their Major League arm at the
Speed Pitch
Machine, swing for the fences at the virtual Home Run Derby or use the bats at the Bat
Attack
cage. (ballparksofbaseball.com)
Innovations in the design of ballparks make them multipurpose, as opposed to dual
sport,
facilities, because they have integrated the notion that a ballgame experience is part of a
full
entertainment package. This phase of ballpark evolution appears to be considering the
fan
experience as part of the design and development for the first time. Today=s ballparks
have
ATM machines, virtual shopping malls, amusement parks, museums, restaurant, and
hotels.
Interest from corporate sponsors and advertisers is not surprising given the virtual
playgrounds
that the regenerated classic ballparks have become. This marketing perspective led to
selling
ballpark naming rights to corporate sponsors who wanted to appeal to their customers.
This
trend has met with mixed success and is covered in the next section.
BALLPARK NAMES
Table 2 identifies the various name changes for MLBs current ballparks. The trend of
selling
naming rights to generate revenue has caused several ballparks to change names more
than

once. BankOne bought the naming rights to the Arizona Diamondbacks ballpark for $2.2
million
per year through 2028. However, the parks name was changed to Chase Field in 2006
as a
result of bank mergers. Naming rights for the ballpark built for the San Francisco Giants
were
sold to Pacific Bell for $2.1 million per year through 2024. After the 2003 season, Pacific
Bell
Park was renamed SBC Park after SBC Communications Inc. acquired Pacific Bell.
Then, in
2006, the ballpark was renamed once again after SBC Communications changed its
named
after being acquired by AT&T. Perhaps the most notorious name change is Enron Field
built for
the Houston Astros in 2000. After Enrons fall, the ballpark briefly reverted to Astros Field
in
2001 before Coca Cola agreed to pay $6 million per year through 2030 for the name
Minute
Maid Park. One example of a corporate ballpark name that has been maintained since
the
ballpark was built is Miller Park. Miller Brewing Company is paying $2.1 million per year
through
6

2020 for the naming rights for Milwaukee Brewers ballpark.1

(www.ballparksofbaseball.com,
2007)
Problems associated with the lack of consistency and, as a result, fan confusion and
annoyance, are a growing concern. In 2003, the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim
renamed its
facility Angel Stadium after seven years as Edison International Field of Anaheim.
(Sullivan,
2007) More recently, even though Ameriquest Mortgage Company bought the naming
rights to
the Texas Rangers ballpark in May 2004 for $75 million over 30 years, the team recently
negotiated its way out of the deal. In March 2007, the team announced that effective
immediately, the ballpark will be called Rangers Ballpark in Arlington. "I feel great,"
Rangers
owner Tom Hicks said. "We're getting our brand back. Based on our research with our
fans, the prevailing feeling is that our ballpark is our biggest asset and we needed to
have our brand on it." (Sullivan, 2007)
This development in the naming rights debate seems to validate the long-standing
positions of
detractors who adamantly argue that corporate names do not belong in sports--that the
best
stadium names involve a personality. Yankee Stadium is known as The House That Ruth
Built.
Shea Stadium inspires the memory of the attorney whose crusade returned National
League
baseball to New York after the Dodgers and Giants departed for California. (Anderson,
1997)

Many feel that this is the way ballparks should be named C that the corporate world has
no
legitimate claim to being identified with ballparks.
The prospect of ballparks contributing to economic development, in conjunction with this
recognition of the importance of the spectator experience to financial success, logically
lead to
the next step in the evolution of ballparks. The role of ballparks in economic
development and
the realization that a sport facility can contribute to mixed-use real estate development in
general are addressed in the following sections.
BALLPARKS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Extensive studies prepared by teams, their consultants, and government agencies show
that the
economic development benefits enjoyed by cities that build new stadiums, or allow their
construction, are in the millions annually. Stadiums are supposed to provide revitalization
in
downtown areas and spur development in more rural and suburban settings. Early
examples of
successful regenerated classic ballparks that are living up to these claims include the
following:
a. Oriole Park at Camden Yards, built in 1992, was financed by lotteries and a bond
issue. Just a short walk from the waterfront, this facility is a classic addition to a game
and a city that have a century-old relationship. Baltimore=s downtown renaissance
continues with this facility. (Lowry, 1992, p. 21) The ballpark is nestled on the edge of
downtown Baltimore. The Eutaw Street entrance is now a bustling place at the ballpark
between the seating areas and the B&O Warehouse. It is a place where fans can enjoy
ribs and barbeques, see plaques of great Oriole Hall of Famers, shop, and enjoy the
sights and sounds of the ballpark. From Eutaw Street fans see a sea of green seats in
1 When

he bought the stadium from the Browns in 1953, Cardinals owner Gussie Busch wanted to name the
park Budweiser Stadium, but changed the name to Busch Stadium, after his family, because of league
pressure not
to name a ballpark after a brand of beer. (Lowry, 1992, p. 231) Not to be outdone, Busch then proceeded to
have the
brewery introduce a new product, Busch Beer. (Lipsitz, 1984, p. 4) Interestingly, Miller Park, built for the
Milwaukee
Brewers in 2001, generated no such criticism.

the main grandstand. Large open-air concourses allow people to easily move around
Camden Yards. (www.ballparksofbaseball.com, 2007)
b. Jacobs Field was built in 1994 in the middle of downtown Cleveland. It was
financed with a combination of public and private support, including a 15-year county sin
tax, tax-exempt bonds and prepaid leasing on luxury boxes. The name was sold to the
Indians owner Richard E. Jacobs. (Munsey & Suppes, 1997) It was built as part of an
urban renewal project that also includes Quicken Loans Arena (NBA), parking garages
and landscaped plazas. Jacobs Field was built so it would blend in with downtown
Cleveland; from its exposed steel design, that matches many bridges on the North coast
and the vertical light towers, that match the smoke stacks of Cleveland's industrial zone
and the high-rise office buildings in downtown Cleveland. (www.ballparksofbaseball.com,
2007)
c. Coors Field, built in 1995, has spurred what is billed as a remarkable

transformation of the once derelict neighborhood that it occupies. It created a new

historic district believed to have the potential to rival lower downtown. The area
attracted developers who have worked in lower downtown (LoDo) and were looking for a
district with similar potential. (Steers, 1995) Coors Field combines the nostalgic feel of a
1920s urban ballpark with 21st century technology and conveniences. To prevent the
ballpark from being imposing on nearby neighborhood buildings, the field is located 21
feet below street level. Its old-fashioned brick facade allows the ballpark to blend into
downtown Denver. (www.ballparksofbaseball.com, 2007) Even detractors of the belief
that sports stadia may spur economic development acknowledge the success of Coors
Field. As Jon Talton (2006) of the Arizona Republic states Coors Field became
the centerpiece of the reclamation of what had been the citys skid row. Now, downtown
Denver is booming, and all four of its big-league teams play downtown.
Disagreement and dissent regarding whether new stadiums actually achieve economic
development goals is not new. (Schlossberg, 1996, pp. 173-4) George Lipsitz was an
early
critic of promises that widely dispersed benefits are associated with using public money
for
private profit-making MLB ventures. He concluded that stadium backers often claim their
projects will bring revenues into a city, but such claims usually amount to no more than
public
relations attempts to attract tax dollars. (Lipsitz, 1984, p. 15) However, he did allow that
the St.
Louis tax abatement for Busch Stadium did revitalize part of the downtown area and, in
Los
Angeles, modest grants of land and capital helped create the tax generating property,
Dodger
Stadium. (Lipsitz, 1984, p. 12)
More recently Mark Rosentraub has said that pro sports teams are hoodwinking local
governments into handing over tens of millions of dollars to get each new stadium built.
Team
owners inflate the economic importance of sports, underestimate the costs of their
projects, and
play on voters= emotional ties to favorite teams. (Leonhardt, 1997) Roger Noll, a
Stanford
University economist who is one of the top experts on the economics of baseball and
other
professional sports, almost always counsels cities to not build stadiums for the purpose
of
attracting sports franchises. He argues that, as job and business creators, stadiums are
poor
civic investments being vastly oversold by politicians. It is his contention that large
stadiums
should be viewed as consumption, not investment. According to Noll=s estimates,
stadiums
can expect to lose $20 to $75 million a year. (Jacobson, 1996)
One economic rationale behind taxpayer funding of stadiums is that the public
investment will
spur economic growth and create jobs. Although stadiums alone do generate some
investment

in a community and employment, the bulk of the jobs are seasonal and low paying.
Furthermore, the money fans spend on pro sports is mostly discretionary entertainment

spending, which would take place even if the teams were not around. (McGraw, 1996)
John
Dyson, New York=s deputy mayor for finance and economic development, notes that the
typical
funding structure has been to get 80 percent from the public and 20 percent from the
team; he
thinks those numbers should be reversed. (McGraw, 1996)
With government entities becoming increasingly hesitant to fund sports facilities, the role
of
corporate America is likely to expand. Naming rights have not delivered the boost
necessary for
long-term success. Recent growth in mixed-use developments seems much more
promising.
Rather than simply relying on general market forces to encourage suburban
development or
urban renewal to follow a newly built stadium, a more organized, structured approach is
necessary.
THE ROLE OF MIXED-USE DEVELOPMENTS IN BASEBALL AND BEYOND
Developers and city officials are banking on new sports venues that are supported by
the
economic engines of mixed-use projects. It is now understood that sports and
entertainment
districts where people also live demand more that an impressive stadium. As the
President of
Nationwide Realty Investors said, You cant plunk a sports facility down and it magically
fixes
an area. The sports facility has to be paired with other economic generators to work.
(Game
Day, 2005)
With the decision to incorporate the team name into the stadium name, representatives
of the
Texas Rangers recognized that the change was made in time for major developments
coming to
the neighborhood. The Dallas Cowboys are building a new stadium just southwest of
Rangers
Ballpark, which is expected to open in 2009. Glorypark, a major retail and residential
development between the two facilities, is also on the way, as well as major
improvements to
the surrounding highway and street infrastructure. (Sullivan, 2007) Other mixed-use
developments associated with baseball parks, which are either being planned or are
underway,
include the following:
a. New Fenway Park for the Boston Red Sox: A Boston developer has been talking
with local community groups about a possible mixed-use development project which
includes a 200-room hotel, an apartment complex, and up to 70,00 square feet of retail
space which would be situated at one end of the proposed ballpark. At the other end of

the ballpark, city officials have been looking at development ideas for the five acres that
would remain after Fenway Park is demolished. On idea includes a new hotel, retail
space, restaurants, and office and research space. (Vaillancourt, 2000)
b. Busch Stadium for the St. Louis Cardinals: The Cardinals organization has hired a
developer for the new Ballpark Village, a $300 million, mixed-use development which
promises restaurants, entertainment venues, residential units and office spaces, all with
a unique flavor that is strictly St. Louis. (Norris, 2005)
c. Nationals Park for the Washington Nationals: The D.C. Sports Entertainment
Commission is planning for a mixed-use development with condominiums, retail, and
underground parking to accompany Nationals Park which is already under construction.
(Neibauer, 2006)
d. Cisco Field for the Oakland Athletics: The owner of the Oakland As, Lew Wolff,
wants a new $500 million, 35,000-seat ballpark for his team. He also wants to build
2,900 housing units, mostly townhomes, near the park and add a tony shopping district
to the mix. Under his plan, profits from selling the housing and retail space will help
cover the cost of the ballpark. (Young, 2007)

Confidence in the potential success of this trend extends not only beyond baseball, but
also
beyond professional sports, and even beyond the United States. Selected examples
include:
a. Wembley Stadium in North London, England: The stadium itself will contain
90,000 seats and, in terms of space, will be the largest stadium in the world. The
neighboring mixed-use development contains 19 blocks in total, including 678,000
square feet of office space and 3700 homes. (www.skyscrapernews.com, 2001)
b. Arsenals Stadium Development in London, England: Arsenal FCs decision to
build a new stadium at Ashburton Grove has been a catalyst for a larger redevelopment
plan that includes housing and community projects. (www.londonmet.ac.uk, 2007)
c. Stadium for D.C. United in Washington, D.C.: A San Francisco real estate
developer, a former Duke basketball star, and at least two other investors have
partnered to purchase D.C. Uniteds operating rights, build the teams stadium in
Anacostia, and develop the land around it. The group is more interested in the proposed
27,000-seat soccer stadium and the mixed-use development that would surround it than
it is in the team, according to unnamed sources. (Goff and Nakamura, 2007)
d. American Airlines Center in Dallas, Texas: When Ross Perot, Jr. bought the
Dallas Mavericks, he persuaded city leaders to help finance a new arena on some of the
60 acres of blighted land he had amassed on the edge of downtown. What was different
about this deal was that Perots idea involved an urban district built from scratch with the
American Airlines Center as its hub. The plan includes 850 apartments and
condominiums with a total of 12 million square feet of office, hotel, residential and retail
space. (Herrick, 2006)
e. Engelstad Arena in Grand Forks, North Dakota: The Bronson Property, on which
the Ralph Engelstad (hockey) and Betty Engelstad (basketball) Arenas sit, continues to
be developed on the University of North Dakota campus. Additions include a student
Wellness Center, a townhouse complex, retail shops, a restaurant, a bank, and a gas
station. (Widdel, 2004)
f. The Renaissance Center in Fargo, North Dakota: The Renaissance Center is a
multiuse arena and events center proposed for downtown Fargo, ND. The public portion
of the facility would cost $40 million, while Cityscapes Development would build a $60

million privately funded office, retail, and condominium project on the same block.
(Renaissance Center, 2005)
g. The Ultimate Sports Resort in Las Vegas, Nevada: This $5 billion project covering
17 million square feet promised to be the total sports experience. It will include 10
sports venues, a casino, a hotel, and 500 luxury condominiums. (Ultimate Sports
Entertainment, 2007)
CONCLUSION
Baseball has played a substantive role in the cultural history of the United States. Its rich
history has taken a backseat to criticism in the last few years of players, owners, and
MLB in
general. This criticism has centered on an apparent preoccupation with financial matters.
From
its inception, professional baseball was not dominated by benevolent entrepreneurs, but,
instead, was ruled by men deeply involved in urban politics, often with close ties to the
big city
political machines. Perhaps they were baseball fans, but their primary concern was
making a
profit. (Riess, 1980, p. 49) The difference seems to lie in the fact that their machinations
took
place in smoke filled rooms rather than in public forums. Today=s team owners have
been
quite vocal about needing concessions from cities, including new ballparks, or they will
leave,
relocating in the city with the highest bid.

10

Fans have lost much of their strong affinity for the hometown team. The sterile
atmosphere
created by the super stadiums did not help. Distance from players is both emotional and
physical. The construction of regenerated classic ballparks has helped create a
connection
between teams and their fans that had been missing. New designs bring fans closer to
the field
while also offering additional amenities that should attract young fans who have been
lured
away by other sporting and entertainment options. The facilities of the super stadium
era,
designed and financed primarily by team owners and municipal governments, appear to
have
failed miserably. Furthermore, selling naming rights to corporate sponsors has not
contributed
as much financially as had been hoped. Plus, this trend appears to have created
problems with
team branding strategies. Commitment to mixed-use developments seems to be a very
positive
step. However, patchwork landholdings and planning restrictions make development
difficult.
Therefore, more cities are experimenting with stadium-anchored urban districts built from
the

ground up. (Herrick, 2006) This requires the cooperation of all parties involved, including
team
owners, architects, real estate developers, and city planners.

Life During the Middle Ages

Daily life during the Middle Ages is sometimes hard to fathom. Pop culture loves to focus
on exciting medieval moments-heroic knights charging into battle; romantic liaisons
between royalty and commoner; breakthroughs and discoveries made. But life for your
average person during the Dark Ages was very routine, and activities revolved around an
agrarian calendar.

Most of the time was spent working the land, and trying to grow enough food to survive
another year. Church feasts marked sowing and reaping days, and occasions when
peasant and lord could rest from their labors.

Social activities were important, and every citizen in a medieval town would be expected
to attend. Fairs with troubadours and acrobats performing in the streetsmerchants
selling goods in the town squaregames of chance held at the local taverntournaments
featuring knights from near and abroadthese were just some of the ways medieval
peasants spent their leisure time. Medieval weddings were cause for the entire town to
celebrate.

Medieval superstitions held sway over science, but traveling merchants and returning
crusaders told of cultures in Asia, the Middle East and Africa that had advanced learning
of the earth and the human body. Middle Age food found new flavor courtesy of rare
spices that were imported from the East. Schools and universities were forming across
Western Europe that would help medieval society evolve from the Dark Ages on its way
to a Renaissance of art and learning.

Village Life

Medieval villages consisted of a population comprised of mostly of farmers. Houses,

barns sheds, and animal pens clustered around the center of the village, which was
surrounded by plowed fields and pastures. Medieval society depended on the village for
protection and a majority of people during these centuries called a village home. Most
were born, toiled, married, had children and later died within the village, rarely venturing
beyond its boundaries.

Common enterprise was the key to a village's survival. Some villages were temporary,
and the society would move on if the land proved infertile or weather made life too
difficult. Other villages continued to exist for centuries. Every village had a lord, even if

he didn't make it his permanent residence, and after the 1100's castles often dominated
the village landscape. Medieval Europeans may have been unclear of their country's
boundaries, but they knew every stone, tree, road and stream of their village. Neighboring
villages would parley to set boundaries that would be set out in village charters.

Medieval peasants were either classified as free men or as "villeins," those who owed
heavy labor service to a lord, were bound to the land, and subject to feudal dues. Village
life was busy for both classes, and for women as well as men. Much of this harsh life was
lived outdoors, wearing simple dress and subsisting on a meager diet.

Village life would change from outside influences with market pressures and new
landlords. As the centuries passed, more and more found themselves drawn to larger
cities. Yet modern Europe owes much to these early medieval villages.

Life During the Middle Ages

Daily life during the Middle Ages is sometimes hard to fathom. Pop culture loves to focus
on exciting medieval moments-heroic knights charging into battle; romantic liaisons
between royalty and commoner; breakthroughs and discoveries made. But life for your
average person during the Dark Ages was very routine, and activities revolved around an
agrarian calendar.

Most of the time was spent working the land, and trying to grow enough food to survive
another year. Church feasts marked sowing and reaping days, and occasions when
peasant and lord could rest from their labors.

Social activities were important, and every citizen in a medieval town would be expected
to attend. Fairs with troubadours and acrobats performing in the streetsmerchants
selling goods in the town squaregames of chance held at the local taverntournaments
featuring knights from near and abroadthese were just some of the ways medieval
peasants spent their leisure time. Medieval weddings were cause for the entire town to
celebrate.

Medieval superstitions held sway over science, but traveling merchants and returning
crusaders told of cultures in Asia, the Middle East and Africa that had advanced learning
of the earth and the human body. Middle Age food found new flavor courtesy of rare
spices that were imported from the East. Schools and universities were forming across
Western Europe that would help medieval society evolve from the Dark Ages on its way
to a Renaissance of art and learning

Medieval Clothing

From the 11th through the 13th centuries, medieval clothing varied according to the
social standing of the people. The clothing worn by nobility and upper classes was clearly
different than that of the lower class.

The clothing of peasants during the Middle Ages was very simple, while the clothing of
nobility was fitted with a distinct emphasis on the sleeves of the garments. Knights
adorned themselves with sleeveless "surcoats" covered with a coat of arms. Barbarian
nomads wore clothing made of fur, wool, and leather. They wore long trousers, some of
which had attached feet. Fine leather shoes were also worn. Imports such as turbans and
silks from the East were common for the more fortunate of society.

As with today, clothing styles of medieval men changed periodically. At the end of the
13th century, the once loose and flowing tunics became tighter fitting. Besides tunics, the
men also wore undershirts and briefs covered by a sleeveless jacket and an additional
tunic. Stockings completed the ensemble. Men's medieval clothing also consisted of
cloaks with a round opening that was slipped over the man's head. Such cloaks were
worn over other clothing as a type of "jacket".

Early medieval women's clothing consisted of "kirtles", which were tunics worn to their
ankles. These tunics were often worn over a shirt. When the women were in public, they
often topped the tunics with an even shorter "kirtle." Of course the more affluent women
wore more luxurious clothing than those of the less affluent lifestyle. Women, especially
those who were married, wore tight-fitting caps and nets over their hair, which was
wound in a "bun" on their heads. Other women wore veils over their hair, which was left
either hanging loosely, or braided tightly.

Medieval education was often conducted under the auspices of the Church. During the
800s, French ruler Charlemagne realized his empire needed educated people if it was to
survive, and he turned to the Catholic Church as the source of such education. His decree
commanded that every cathedral and monastery was to establish a school to provide a
free education to every boy who had the intelligence and the perseverance to follow a
demanding course of study.

Grammar, rhetoric, logic, Latin, astronomy, philosophy and mathematics formed the core
of most curriculums. During the Dark Ages, the only natural science learned came from
popular encyclopedias based on ancient writings of Pliny and other Roman sources. The
medieval student might learn that hyenas can change their sex at will and that an
elephant's only fear is of dragons. Students learned more when they ventured out into the
countryside to talk with trappers, hunters, furriers and poachers, who spent their time
observing wildlife.

Medieval students often sat together on the floor, scrawling notes from lessons using a
bone or ivory stylus on wooden tablets coated with green or black wax. Knights were also
educated and looked down upon if they could not read and write. Girls were virtually
ignored when it came to education. Only daughters of the very rich and powerful were
allowed to attend select courses.

At 14 or 15, some scholars would continue education at a university. These were a

creation of the Middle Ages and could be found in larger European cities. Wars and
invasions often halted studies, but these universities would reemerge during the later
Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The cap and gown that college graduates wear today
have their roots in medieval academic garments.

Bathing during the Middle Ages

Medieval society may have liked to bathe more than one might expect, however, this was
not always an easy process. Medieval castle residents used wooden tubs with water
heated from the fire in the great hall. In good weather, the tub might be placed out in the
garden. Lords often employed a person whose sole responsibility was preparing baths for
the family. This person would often travel with the family.

Hot baths were very popular and most towns, as late as the mid-1200s had public
bathhouses. Wood fires heated the water, but this posed two problems. First, out of
control fires could consume several blocks of buildings. And as the forests were depleted,
firewood became expensive and the rising costs of heating the water forced most of the
bathhouses to close. Some tried burning coal to heat water, but the fumes proved to be
unhealthy.

By the mid-1300s, only the very wealthy could afford firewood for hot water in the
winter. The rest of the population was forced to be dirty most of the time. Barrels were
often used as baths, with entire families sharing the same water.

Medieval Games and Recreation

Medieval society indulged in a number of games and recreation, when the often harsh
daily life permitted a break. Chess was widely popular and often a source of gambling
entertainment; both in the traditional format and in a simpler version played with dice.
Dice were easy to carry and were played in all ranks of society, even among the clergy.
Some games played during the Middle Ages, including bowling, prisoner's base, blind
man's bluff (also called hoodman's blind), and simple "horseplay" are still played today.
Checkers were a popular pastime, as was backgammon. Children wrestled, swam, fished

and played a game that was a cross between tennis and handball. Medieval knights would
incorporate training in recreation, performing gymnastics and running foot races.
Spectators in the Middle Ages were often drawn to cockfights and bullbaiting. The
preferred recreation for most adults was drinking in the local tavern. At harvest time,
villagers would bob for apples and go on hunts in the surrounding forests, if the castle
lord permitted. Hawks were trained to hunt game birds and every medieval castle had a
falconer, assigned to train young birds for this sport.
Medieval Christmas games included "King of the Bean," where a small bean would be
baked inside bread or cake, and the one who found it in their portion would be crowned
king of the holiday feast.

Medieval Music

Medieval music was an integral part of everyday life for the people of that time period.
Music of the Middle Ages was especially popular during times of celebration and
festivities.

Music was often played during holidays and special parties. During weddings and
birthdays, the music was especially uplifting. For weddings and on Valentine's Day,
lovers' music was played that was sure to evoke a romantic atmosphere. This type of
music was called "chivaree." The musicians would play buoyant and cheery music with
crescendos. Many a different Medieval music instrument was played, including,
recorders, horns, trumpets, whistles, bells, and drums.

On Mayday, dancers would dance to specially-prepared, high-pitched music. It was

believed that by doing so, the hibernating spirits would be awakened and forewarned that
spring had arrived.

During Christmas, the sound of bells brought the good news of Jesus' birth to the
listeners.

People during the Middle Ages also ate to the sound of traditional music during and
between meal courses. They would also, at times play from a specially-built platform or
stage at the end of the Great Hall. It was believed in those days that medieval music was
not only delightful to the ears, but it also helped in the digestion of food, hence the reason
for music at mealtimes.

The music of Medieval times was very important to the listeners of that era, whether it be
for special celebrations, holidays, or for something as simple as eating a meal.

Business and Commerce

Stone roads, buildings, churches and marketplaces left little room for orchards, fields, and
grazing, and these new cities soon lost rural roots and became more and more urbanized.
Animal traffic made congested roads filthy, and water supplies were limited. Some
women spent the entire day drawing water from wells.

Merchants began trading with those of other cities and treaties were formed to protect
those carrying goods from one city to another, with these caravans often protected by
government troops. Within a city, merchants often swore association to protect each other
within the walls.

Medieval towns held markets at least once a week in the square, where stalls were set up
and local merchants would sell their wares. Nearby towns may have also sent any surplus
goods they could to be sold.

Fairs might be held once or twice a year that attracted foreign merchants from distant
lands brining fine woolens, silks, carpets and other items not available from local shops.
These fairs would attract strolling minstrels, performing tumblers and acrobats, and
animal acts with trained bears and horses. Medieval fairs could last for several days.

The medieval business world became dominated by the Guilds. When merchants found
they could accomplish more as a group rather than through individual effort, they banded
together to form guilds. Guilds formed for bakers, butchers, grocers, millers, smiths,
carpenters, weavers, mason, shoemakers, in fact, nearly every trade had its own guild.
Standards such as just weights and measures evolved from the guilds, and searchers
would inspect shops to ensure rules were being followed. Guilds would help members
that were sick, or in trouble, and would sometimes take care of families after the member
died.

Apprenticeship was how most started in a particular trade, which they would follow the
rest of their lives. Apprentices were often also the master's domestic servant and helper,
and his workday was long indeed. After completing an apprenticeship, the appropriate
guild would examine his work and see if he could be elevated to journeyman status. This
was taken quite literally, as the worker would journey from town to town to learn more
about the trade. Journeymen were required to create a "masterpiece" in the presence of
judges to be elevated to master status. At this point, the journeyman would place his hand
on a Bible and swear allegiance to the guild and his craft.

Holidays and Celebrations

Medieval celebrations revolved around feast days that had pagan origins and were based
on ancient agricultural celebrations that marked when certain crops should be planted or
harvested.

Wheat and rye were sown from Michaelmas (September 29) to Christmas. Spring crops
would be planted from the end of Christmas through Easter. Christmas, Easter, Pentecost
(or Whitsunday) would be celebrated with a feast of the Church, and would be followed
by
a
week
of
vacation.
Lesser
celebrations
such
as:
Candlemas
(February
2),
Hocktide
(end
of
the
Easter
week),
Mayday,
the
Rogation
Days,
Ascension
(all
in
May),
Midsummer,
or
St.
John's
Day
(June
24),
and
the
Lammas,
or
Feast
of
St.
Peter,
-would all be marked with feasts. Michaelmas marked the beginning of winter and the
start of the fiscal year for tradesmen.

By November, feed was often too scarce to keep animals through the winter, and became
known as the "blood month" when meat was smoked, salted and cured for consumption
during the long winter ahead. The month began with All Hallows (later, All Saints) Day,
followed by St. Martin's Day (November 11).

Medieval society celebrated the grandest feast during the dreariest time of year. The twoweek period from Christmas Eve to Twelfth Day (January 6) transformed into the longest
vacation for workers. The Lord of the manor or castle often gave bonuses of food,
clothing, drink and firewood to servants. Houses were decked with holly and ivy, and
giant Yule logs were brought in and burned throughout the two-week celebration. New
Year's took place during this time and added to the festivities, and "First Gifts" were often
exchanged on this day.

"Plow Monday" took place the day after Epiphany, and freemen of the village would
participate in a plow race, to begin cultivation of the town's common plot of land. Each
man would try and furrow as many lines as possible, as he would be able to sow those
lines during the coming year. Children would play the role of "Fool Plow" and go from
house to house asking for pennies. Those who refuse would find the ground in front of
their door plowed up.

Easter, as Christmas, was a day for exchanging gifts. The castle lord would receive eggs
from the villagers and in return, provide servants with dinner. May saw celebrations of
love, especially on the 1st. Villagers would venture into the woods to cut wildflowers and
other greenery for their homes to usher in May and hope for a fertile season.

City Life during the Middle Ages

Medieval roots can be found in all of today's major European cities. When Julius Caesar
set to conquer Western Europe, there were few places that could have been called cities.
Lutetia, which would become Paris, was probably the largest of the early cities. By the
13th century, however, cities were flourishing from the Mediterranean to northwest
Europe.

Viking invasions were a major factor in the development of cities during the early Middle
Ages. These invaders often plundered more than they could carry, sold surplus goods to
surrounding villages and created base camps to be used for trading. Dublin, Ireland's
roots began as a Viking base camp. To protect themselves, villages began erecting walls
and fortifying their positions. This lead to the great medieval walled cities that can still be
seen in modern Europe.

These walled cities became known as "bourgs," "burghs," and later, bouroughs.
Inhabitants were known as bourgeois. By the mid-900s, these fortified towns dotted the
European landscape from the Mediterranean as far north as Hamburg, Germany.

Medieval Homes

Medieval city homes between the rich and poor differed little form the outside, each
being made of the same stone brought in from nearby quarries. But the inside
accommodations were far more telling. A poor family might be cramped into one room,
faring little better than peasants in the country, while rich "burger" families might occupy
four floors, from cellar to attic, complete with servant quarters.

Comfort was not always easy to find, even in the wealthiest of households. Heating was
always a problem with stone floors, ceiling and walls. Little light came in from narrow
windows, and oil and fat-based candles often produced a pungent aroma. Furniture
consisted of wooden benches, long tables, cupboards and pantries. Linen, when afforded,
might be glued or nailed to benches to provide some comfort. Beds, though made of the
softest materials, were often rife with bedbugs, lice and other biting insects. Some tried to
counter this by tucking in sheets at nighttime in hopes of smothering the pests, while
others rubbed oily liniments on their skin before retiring.

Medieval European History

The Dark Ages. That's one of the terms used to describe nearly 1000 years of history-a
history that is often hard to understand due to a lack of surviving documents, and often is

clouded by myth and legends. Western Europe was under the rule of hundreds of feudal
lords and kings. Castles dominated the landscape, and entire cities were built behind
protective walls.

The Roman Empire formally legalized Christianity during the 4th century, and soon
afterward, the zeal and evangelism of practitioners spread this faith throughout Western
Europe as far west as Ireland. The Church would be one of the most powerful medieval
institutions, controlling publication of books and the making of laws. Much of medieval
Europe's art and architecture has a direct connection to the Christian church.

Knights, soldiers, peasants and pilgrims marched along European roads and trails during
the Crusades and brought back with them stories of differing cultures, and began to adopt
their architecture, tales of Romance, and advances in medicine. Trade was both a blessing
and curse. Merchants began importing silks, cottons and rare spices from all over the
known world. But these ships would also bring the horror that became known as the
Black Death. The disease ravaged Asia, before wiping out nearly one-third of Western
Europe.

Wars took their toll, from William the Conqueror's invasion of England in 1066, to the
Hundred Year's War that ended in 1453, there were few years that didn't see battles raging
in some part of Europe. This was an era of siege warfare-catapults, trebuchets, battering
rams, and towers. Men fought hand-to-hand in the thousands in bloody conflicts using
swords, axes, longbows, crossbows, stones and daggers. Medieval Europe saw some
humanity-changing developments, such as Gutenberg's moveable types press in the
middle of the 15th century. This would bring printed material to the masses, and improve
communication between societies. Marco Polo would popularize the account of his
voyage to the Orient, and intrigue Europeans about this exotic land.

Through these centuries, Europe was slowly waking from a harsh slumber, and begin to
sow the seeds of a Renaissance

Famines during the Middle Ages

Medieval societies always feared having a lack of food. Crop surpluses were rarely enough to
create viable storage systems and even the greatest lord could not keep enough grain to
outlast a famine. By the beginning of the 1300s the population had grown to such an extent
that adequate amounts of food could only be grown under the best of conditions. There was
no margin of failure for crops. The problem this century saw was a changing climate, with
cooler and wetter summers and earlier autumn storms.
Malnutrition had always been present, but few actually died. But the cold and wet springs and

summers of 1315-17 decimated crops and all classes of society suffered. People resorted to killing their draft animals
and eating seed grain for food. Dogs and cats disappeared there were even rumors of cannibalism in some villages.
Oddly enough, it was the Black Death that alleviated some concerns over famine, as the survivors found they had more
food available.
Rumors of a famine usually preceded the actual crisis. Hoarding would begin and black markets for food would find
plenty of customers. Bakers may try and fill bread loaves with fillers other than grain to match required weights and
shapes. The elderly often voluntarily stopped eating
so younger
members of the family could survive, and there were
Medieval
Food
Medieval foods and diets depended much on the class of the individual. For those living in the
manor house, there was a wide range of foods available. Fowl such as capons, geese, larks, and
chickens were usually available to the lord and his family. They would also dine on other meats;
beef, bacon, lamb, and those living close to water may have regularly dined on salmon, herring,
eels ands other fresh water fish. Fish would either be sold fresh or smoked and salted. Wealthy
society could afford large quantities of milled flour and other meals made from grain. Dairy
products such as cheese and butter could be seen on the manor table.
Medieval peasants, on the other hand, had a much simpler diet available to them. Most of the
wheat they harvested went exclusively to the market, and peasant breads were made from barley
and rye, baked into dark heavy loaves. Ales made from barley would quaff the thirst, as would
water drawn from the well, sweetened with honey. Peasant society got what little proteins they
could from peas and beans that would be added to bread and pottage.
Pottage was often favored over bread, because it did not require the grains that the miller
guarded closely. Onions, cabbage, garlic, nuts, berries, leeks, spinach, parsley were some of the
foods that would combined to make thick soup. Raw vegetables were considered unhealthy and
rarely eaten, but anything that could grown, with the exception of known poisonous plants, were
added to the mix. Lucky families may have added salt pork or fatty bacon for flavor and protein.
Poorer society depended on these simple foods for survival. It was ironic that after the Black
Death ravaged societies, even the poor could find wheat available.
Medieval diets lacked vitamins A, C and D and were not high in calories, making the regular
drinking of ale a necessity for most. The only positive part of these diets, were that they were

somewhat "heart-smart;" low in fat and high in fiber. But the medieval world was usually a very
hungry one.

Medieval Health
Superstition and ignorance reigned during the Middle Ages, a time when characters we now
consider to be simply from fairy tales; pixies, trolls, hobgoblins and so on, were thought to truly
exist. Health was controlled by the stars, and affliction was a sign of impurity of the soul-a curse
from God.
Disease was a constant concern, as was infection from injuries. Hygiene was not always a
priority and medieval diets were lacking in vital nutrition. Barbers doubled as surgeons, and a
good bleeding was often the cure prescribed.
Medieval science progressed slowly, and treatments for the sick were quite often out of reach,
especially for the poor. But little by little, doctors were learning information that led to better
cures, and understandings of how diseases were transmitted.
Hospitals began to be constructed, and schools established for those wishing to practice
medicine. Superstition remained, and medieval science certainly did not have all the answers.
Information lost from the burning of the library at Alexandria by Christian zealots was slowly
being rediscovered.

Medieval Literature
The Middle Ages saw the beginnings of a rebirth in literature. Early medieval books were
painstakingly hand-copied and illustrated by monks. Paper was a rarity, with vellum, made from
calf's skin, and parchment, made from lamb's skin, were the media of choice for writing.
Students learning to write used wooden tablets covered in green or black wax. The greatest
number of books during this era were bound with plain wooden boards, or with simple tooled
leather for more expensive volumes.
Wandering scholars and poets traveling to the Crusades learned of new writing styles. Courtly
Love spawned a new interest in romantic prose. Troubadours sang in medieval courtyards about
epic battles involving Roland, Arthur, and Charlemagne. Literature exploded from the
universities as scholars began to question convention and write social commentary, as well as
poetic fiction.
Language saw further development during the Middle Ages. Capital and lowercase letters were
developed with rules for each. Books were treasures, rarely shown openly in a library, but rather,
kept safely under lock and key. Finding someone who might loan you a book was a true friend.

Some might rent out their books, while others, desperate for cash, might turn to the book as a
valuable item to be pawned.

Medieval Chivalry
Chivalry is the generic term for the knightly system of the Middle Ages and for virtues and
qualities it inspired in its followers. The word evolved from terms such as chevalier (French),
caballero (Spanish), and cavaliere (Italian), all meaning a warrior who fought on horseback. The
term came to mean so much more during medieval times.
Chivalric orders first appeared with military activities against non-Christian states. During the
Middle Ages, Western Europe aggressively sought to expand its area of control. The first orders
of chivalry were very similar to the monastic orders of the era. Both sought the sanctification of
their members through combat against "infidels" and protection of religious pilgrims, and both
had commitments that involved the taking of vows and submitting to a regulation of activities.
13th Century conventions of chivalry directed that men should honor, serve, and do nothing to
displease ladies and maidens. Knights were members of the noble class socially as bearers of
arms, economically as owners of horse and armor, and officially through religious-oriented
ceremony. While some were knighted on the battlefield, most spent long years as a squire,
practicing the art of war while serving his master. People during the Middle Ages heard of the
exploits of knights both mythical and real in epics like La Chanson de Roland and Le Morte
D'Arthur.
After the Crusades, knights continued to show their prowess and skills in medieval tournaments.

Medieval Romance
Medieval times often evoke images of knights battling on muddy fields, dank and dreary castles,
hunger,
plagues-in
general,
a
lot
of
rather
depressing
scenes
but these Dark Ages also witnessed the birth of a romantic movement.
Women in the Middle Ages were usually treated as property. While medieval country marriages
were often the result of love, marriage among the noble class was more a business transaction
than the culmination of ardent feelings. But knights returning from the crusades had learned a
few things from their adversaries, who revered their women. Passion was considered sinful to
11th and 12th century moralists, but these ideals were slowly being worn away with the rituals of
courtly love.
Secret rituals of Romance developed where women-long the loser in a double standard of
adultery condoned among men-found champions who would fight in their honor. Courtly love

became the subject of some of the most famous medieval poems, and where we get today's word,
"Courtesy."
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