Characterizing Country Settings Development of A Base Document in The Backdrop of Climate Change Impacts - 2009

Characterizing Country Settings:
Development of a Base Document in the Backdrop of

Climate Change Impacts
June 2009
Climate Change Cell

Department of Environment

Development of a Base Document in the Backdrop of Climate Change Impacts

Development of a Base Document in the Backdrop of Climate Change Impacts
Published by
Climate Change Cell
Department of Environment, Ministry of Environment and Forests
Component 4b
Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme, Ministry of Food and Disaster Management
Bangladesh
Date of Publication
June 2009
The study has been conducted by Bureau of Research, Testing and Consultation of Bangladesh
University of Engineering & Technology, commissioned by the Climate Change Cell.
Members of the study team are:
Dr. Mashfiqus Salehin, Principal Investigator and Dr. Mohammad Asad Hussain (IWFM-BUET)
Citation
CCC, 2009. Characterizing Country Settings: Development of a Base Document in the Backdrop of
Climate Change Impacts. Climate Change Cell, DoE, MoEF; Component 4b, CDMP, MoFDM. June
2009, Dhaka.
Contact
Climate Change Cell
Room 514, Paribesh Bhabhan
E-16, Sher-E-Bangla Nagar, Agargaon, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh
Phone: (880-2) 9111379 Extension 147; 0666 2301 021
E-mail: info@climatechangecell-bd.com
Website: http://www.climatechangecell-bd.org
ISBN: 984 -300 - 003323 - 1
Acknowledgement
Climate Change Cell of the Department of Environment expresses gratitude to the collective
wisdom of all stakeholders including experts, professionals and practitioners dedicated to the
service of climate change risk management particularly in climate change adaptation and
modeling.
Mention of the research team, Bureau of Research, Testing and Consultation (BRTC) and
Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM) of Bangladesh University of Engineering
& Technology (BUET) is obvious.
Cell also likes to mention Ian Rector, CTA, CDMP, Khondaker Rashedul Haque, PhD,
former DG, DoE, Mohammad Reazuddin, former Director, DoE and Component Manager of
the Cell, and Ralf Ernst, former Technical Adviser, Climate Change Cell for their support and
inspiration provided during initial stages of the research programme.
Acknowledgement is due to Technical Advisory Group (TAG) of the Cell for their valuable
contribution in identification of concepts, evaluation of concept proposals, development of
methodology and finalizing the research reports.
Views of government officials, civil society members and development partners in several
stakeholders consultation workshops enriched the research outcome.
Special gratitude to the distinguished experts, Dr. M. Asaduzzaman, Research Director,
Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) and Professor Dr. Rezaur Rahman,
IWFM-BUET, who as peer-reviewers, provided valuable insight on research methodology,
analysis and findings.
Cell is grateful to the Department of Environment, Ministry of Environment and Forests for
the initiative for publication of the research paper. In this respect, Md. Nojibur Rahman,
former Director General, DoE supported the Cell throughout the initiative and provided much
needed directives for the publication.
Contribution of Dr. Fazle Rabbi Sadeque Ahmed, Director, DoE in finalizing the research
document is invaluable.
Mirza Shawkat Ali and Md. Ziaul Haque, Deputy Director, DoE extended their allout support
during whole period of the research programme.
Acknowledgement is due to the Department for International Development (DFID) and
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) for their continued support to the Climate
Change Cell in its effort to facilitate the climate change research programme.
Finally, Cell gratefully acknowledges the contribution of Abu M. Kamal Uddin, Programme
Manager and Mohammad Showkat Osman, Research Officer, Climate Change Cell who were
involved in the over all management of the research program; Md. Nasimul Haque,
Information and Communication Expert who provided valuable insight in development of the
research program and Md. Mezbanur Rahman, Research Officer who provided valuable
assistance in preparing the report for publication.
i
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Foreword
The impacts of global warming and climate change are worldwide. For Bangladesh they are
most critical because of its geographical location, high population density, high levels of
poverty, and the reliance of many livelihoods on climate-sensitive sectors, such as agriculture,
fisheries.
To address current impacts and manage future risks of climate change and variability towards
development of a climate resilient Bangladesh, the government has established the Climate
Change Cell (CCC) in the Department of Environment (DoE) under the Comprehensive
Disaster Management Programme (CDMP). Climate change research, covering modeling and
adaptation is one of the major activities of the Cell.
CCC in association with its Technical Advisory Group (TAG) and other stakeholders
identified a set of research activities related to climate change in Bangladesh through a
number of consultations. The activities have been prioritized and a number of projects have
been commissioned in last few years.
Bangladesh is recognized worldwide as one of the countries most vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change because of its geographical location and physiographic features, and low
capacity to adapt to change. The country is prone to a multitude of natural hazards (e.g.
floods, droughts, storm surge, salt water intrusion, river erosion, etc.) and vulnerable to the
adverse impacts of future climate change. Before addressing climate change adaptation in the
context of development, it is important to recognize that todays climate has already
influenced economic opportunities and development prospects, and the projected climate
change impacts would in fact reinforce many of these baseline stresses. It is important to
characterize existing vulnerabilities; the first task of defining the present risk environment is
to characterize the natural, physical, socio-economic and institutional settings of the country.
This study is an attempt to develop a base document describing the country settings including
natural settings, physical infrastructures and socio-economic conditions in the backdrop of
climate change. The report provides brief description of institutional settings, classification of
major livelihood groups and their vulnerabilities to climatic hazards.
Even though, the study is not a comprehensive one, it is expected that this will create
opportunity for the researchers, practitioners and other stakeholders to share the findings and
plan a more comprehensive study. Such initiatives will provide policy makers and planners
with useful information to formulate viable adaptation policies, strategies and action plan to
combat climate change.
Zafar Ahmed Khan, PhD

Director General
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iv
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AEZ
Agro Ecological Zone
BADC
Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation
BARC
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council
BARI
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute
BBS
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
BIWTA
Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority
BRAC
Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee
BWDB
Bangladesh Water Development Board
CBOs
Community Based Organizations
CEGIS
Centre for Environmental and Geographic Information System
CEP
Coastal Embankment Project
CRED
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
CRRAP
Community Risk Reduction Action Plan
DAE
Department of Agricultural Extension
DDCC
District Development Coordination Committee
DMB
Disaster Management Bureau
DoE
DoF
Department of Fisheries
DPHE
Department of Public Health Engineering
DTW
Deep Tube well
ECNEC
Executive Committee of National Economic Council
ECNWRC
Executive Committee of National Water Resources Council
EEZ
Exclusive Economic Zone
EPZ
Export Processing Zone
FAO
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
FC
Flood Control
FCD
Flood Control and Drainage
FCDI
Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation
GBM
Ganges Brahmaputra Basin
GDP
Gross Domestic Products
GIS
Geographic Information System

v
HYV
High Yielding Variety
IPCC
Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
ISPAN
Irrigation Support Project for Asia and the Near East
IWT
Inland Water Transport
LCA
Livelihood Capital Assets
LDC
Least Developed Country
LGED
Local Government Engineering Department
LGI
Local Government Institutions
LLP
Low Lift Pump
MSL
Mean Sea Level
NGOs
Non Government Organizations
NWMP
National Water Management Plan
NWRC
National Water Resources Council
OECD
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
ICZMP
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan
RVCC
Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change
SBCP
Sundarban Bio-diversity Conservation Project
STW
Shallow Tube well
UDCC
Upazila Development Coordination Committee
UNESCO
United Nation Education Science and Cultural Organization
UNFCC
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNICEF
United Nations Children's Fund
WARPO
Water Resources Planning Organization
vi
Table of Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations

Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Executive summary
v
vii
ix
x
xiii
1
1
2
3
4
Chapter 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Introduction
Background
Mainstreaming Climate Risk Assessment and Adaptation
Aim of the report
Methodology
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
Natural Setting
General
Location and topography
Climate
River network and flow regime
Physiography
Soils
Inundation land types
Aquifer
Land cover and land use
Fisheries
Flora and fauna
Water pollution
Char lands
Coastal zone
Marine resources
Areas of special environmental importance
5
5
5
6
8
13
16
18
20
21
25
26
26
28
28
32
32
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Physical Settings
General
Roads and Highways
Growth centers
Cyclone shelters
Ports and waterways
Irrigation infrastructure
Flood control infrastructure
40
40
40
43
45
46
49
53
vii
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
Socio-Economic Settings
General
Demography
Literacy rates
GDP
Incidence of poverty
Access to safe drinking water
Major livelihood groups
Industry
Tourism
Areas with special economic importance
55
55
55
57
59
62
64
65
66
69
69
Chapter 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Natural Hazards
General
Floods
Drought
River bank erosion
Salinity intrusion
Cyclonic storm surge
72
72
72
74
76
77
78
Chapter 6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Vulnerability to Natural Hazards

General
Vulnerability of people in different AEZs
Vulnerability to floods
Vulnerability to droughts
Vulnerability to cyclonic storm surge
80
80
80
82
87
92
Chapter 7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
Institutional Settings
General
Institutional coordination
National government institutions
Local government institutions
Private sector
NGOs and CBOs
Informal institutions
Networking
98
98
98
99
100
101
101
101
101
103
References
viii
List of Tables
Table 2.1
Area of Agro-Ecological Zones
15
Table 2.2
Classification of cultivable land by flood depth
18
Table 2.3
Regional distribution of inundation land types
19
Table 2.4
Inundation land types in agro-ecological regions
20
Table 2.5
Land cover distribution
21
Table 2.6
Cropped areas, irrigated areas and production in 2006-07
22
Table 2.7
Region distribution of cropped areas, cropping intensities and rice
23
cropped areas in 2006-07

Table 2.8
Total catch and area productivities by sectors of fisheries for 2005-06
25
Table 2.9
Major polluting industries in Bangladesh
27
Table 2.10
Some basic statistics of the coastal zone
30
Table 2.11
Description of coastal islands and chars
33
Table 3.1
Road lengths and density
40
Table 3.2
Distribution of growth centers in Bangladesh
43
Table 3.3
Distribution of cyclone shelters in the coastal districts
45
Table 3.4
Distribution of ports and waterways
48
Table 3.5
Summary of irrigation by different modes
49
Table 3.6
Irrigation by different modes in different districts
50
Table 3.7
Distribution of industries in four major divisions
67
Table 3.8
Average annual employment by major industry groups
67
Table 3.9
Employment and production of major industries
67
Table 3.10
Tourism statistics of Bangladesh
69
Table 5.1
Surface and soil salinity levels
78
Table 6.1
Major hazards in different physiographic units
80
Table 6.2
District-wise distribution of flooding extent (%) by different types of

flood
District-wise distribution of population affected by flood
83
88
Table 6.5
Small farmers and rural wage labors vulnerable to very severe and
severe drought
Small farmers and rural wage labors vulnerable to moderate drought
Table 6.6
Population vulnerable to cyclone in high risk zones ( > 1 m surge)
94
Table 6.7
Population vulnerable to cyclone in risk zones (< 1 m surge)
95
Table 6.3
Table 6.4
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85
90
List of Figures
Figure 2.1
Administrative units of Bangladesh
Figure 2.2
Generalized relief contours
Figure 2.3
Spatial and temporal distribution of temperature (2002) in Bangladesh
Figure 2.4
Spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall in Bangladesh
Figure 2.5
Location of Bangladesh in the GBM basins
Figure 2.6
GBM basins and river systems of Bangladesh
10
Figure 2.7
Spatial distribution of annual maximum discharge of 2, 20 and 100 year

return period
Spatial distribution of average annual maximum, average annual and
average annual minimum discharge in major and medium rivers
Location of Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZs)
11
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
12
14
Figure 2.10 Map of general soil types
17
Figure 2.11 Inundation land types
19
Figure 2.12 Location of forests and water bodies
21
Figure 2.13 Occurrence of different cropping patterns by inundation land type
24
Figure 2.14 Distribution of major polluting industries among four divisions
27
Figure 2.15 Coastal zone of Bangladesh
29
Figure 2.16 Areas of special importance in the coastal zone
36
Figure 3.1
Density of roads in Bangladesh
42
Figure 3.2
Location of growth centers
43
Figure 3.3
Major navigation routes classified by BIWTA
47
Figure 3.4
Location map of flood control projects in Bangladesh
53
Figure 4.1
Distribution of population among districts
56
Figure 4.2
Distribution of population density (per km2) among districts
57
Figure 4.3
Distribution of adult literacy rates among districts
58
Figure 4.4
Change in sector-wise share of GDP
59
Figure 4.5
District-wise change in sectoral share of GDP
60
Figure 4.6
Distribution of GDP and growth rates among districts
61
Figure 4.7
Poverty incidences by region
63
Figure 4.8
Year-wise comparison of national poverty incidences
63
Figure 4.9
Poverty incidence by occupation in 2004
64
Figure 4.10 Access to safe drinking water (%)
64
Figure 4.11 District-wise population (per km2) of the four livelihood groups
65
Figure 4.12 District-wise percentage of four livelihood groups
66
Figure 4.13 Marine fishing zones of Bangladesh
70
Figure 5.1
Map of Flood prone areas
73
Figure 5.2
Growth of flood control projects and variability of annually flooded area
74
Figure 5.3
Drought prone areas in Bangladesh
75
Figure 5.4
Erosion prone areas in Bangladesh
76
Figure 5.5
Average dry season salinity zones in the coastal area
77
Figure 5.6
Cyclone risk zone of coastal area of Bangladesh
79
Figure 6.1
(a) Population vulnerable to severe and moderate floods (/km2)
82
Figure 6.1
(b) Population (four major livelihood) vulnerable to severe and moderate
83
floods (/km2)
Figure 6.2
(a) Population vulnerable to very severe and severe drought
87
Figure 6.2
(b) Population (four major livelihood) vulnerable to very severe and
88
severe drought
Figure 6.3
(a) Population vulnerable to high risk cyclone (/km2)
92
Figure 6.3
(b) Population per km2 (four major livelihood), vulnerable to high risk
93
cyclone (>1m surge height)

Figure 6.3
(c) Population per km2 (four major livelihood), vulnerable to risk
93
cyclone (<1m surge height)

Figure 7.1
Institutional arrangement for mainstreaming climate risk management

and adaptation
xi
99
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Executive Summary
Bangladesh is considered to be one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change
because of its geographical location and physiographic features, and low capacity to adapt to
change. The country is prone to a multitude of natural hazards (e.g. floods, droughts, storm
surge, salt water intrusion, river erosion, etc.) and vulnerable to the adverse impacts of future
change in climatic conditions. Before addressing climate change adaptation in the context of
development, it is important to recognize that todays climate already influences economic
opportunities and development prospects, and that projected climate change impacts would in
fact reinforce many of these baseline stresses. It is important to characterize existing
vulnerabilities; future climate change will be superimposed on existing vulnerabilities. The
first task of defining the present risk environment is to characterize natural, physical, socioeconomic and institutional settings of the country.
Natural settings
Bangladesh is bounded by India in the west, north and east, Mayanmar in the south-east, and
the Bay of Bengal in the south. Most of the country is low-lying land comprising mainly the
floodplain delta of the three major rivers, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna,
which originate outside Bangladesh and meet inside Bangladesh before discharging to the
Bay of Bengal through a single outfall. Floodplains occupy 80% of the country. The land
elevation increases towards north-west and reaches an elevation of about 90 meters above the
MSL.
Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate. In general, the climate is characterized by high
temperature, heavy rainfall, often excessive humidity during monsoon and marked inter and
intra seasonal variation. Average annual rainfall for the country is about 2,200 mm. About
80% of the rainfall occurs during the months from May to September. There is also spatial
variability of rainfall; rainfall is the lowest (1400 mm) near the western border, and highest
(5500 mm) near the border in the north-east.
Flows in Bangladesh are principally controlled by how much flow is generated in the
upstream catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basins. The country is
crisscrossed with an intricate network of around 200 rivers, of which 57 are international
rivers originating outside the boundary of Bangladesh. The Brahmaputra has the largest
flood flow followed by the Ganges and the Meghna, with a flow ratio of 4.4:2.5:1. Unlike
other deltas, the seasonal variation in flow is highly skewed with abundant water during
monsoon while very small flow during dry season. The country, therefore, faces two major
hazards: floods during the wet season and scarcity of water during the dry season.
Bangladesh comprises three discernible broad physiographic regions: floodplains, terraces
(slightly uplifted fault blocks), and hills. The broad physiographic regions are further
categorized into 30 Agro-Ecological Zone (AEZ) units. Hill areas include the northern and
eastern hills and occupy about 12% of the country. Terrace areas include Madhupur Tract in
the center, Barind Tracts in the north-west., and Akhaura terrace in the east, occupying about
8% of the country. Floodplain areas include alluvial floodplain and estuarine areas and
occupy the remaining 80% of the country.
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Bangladesh has a wide diversity of soils between and within regions, within villages,
between neighboring fields and even within individual field. Broadly, the soil resource of
Bangladesh could be divided into three major groups: floodplain, hill and terrace soils. The
floodplain soils are alluvial deposits ranging from sandy soils deposited on higher ridges,
silty clay loams on the lower ridges, and silty clays and clays in the depressions. A diversity
of soils occurs in the terrace soils ranging from red to grey, deep to shallow, level to sloping,
well drained to poorly drained, and from calcareous to very strongly acidic. Most have a low
moisture-holding capacity, so they are easily prone to drought, and natural fertility generally
is low. Hills have mainly loamy soils of shallow depth, best suited for tree crops or forest
production, but not suited for the cultivation of shallow-rooted crops because of the poor
water-holding capacity.
There are chars (islands and accreted lands) along the banks of the Brahmaputra-Jamuna and
parts of the Ganges-Padma and the Lower Meghna. The active river floodplain occupies
roughly 6% of Bangladesh, of which 40% is island chars. The island chars are inhabited by
more than one million people, who are vulnerable to displacement due to river erosion.
Bangladesh has a total area of 14.7 Mha and a net cultivable area of around 8.64 Mha. The
topographic position of land in relation to the monsoon season inundation, i.e. inundation
land type, largely decides the land use type in the country. High land, medium high land,
medium low land, low land and very low land occupy 29%, 35%, 12%, 8% and 1% of the
total cultivable area, respectively. However, there are regional variations in proportions of
inundation land types.
Agricultural land dominates the land cover of the country, followed by forests (including
mangroves), urban and settlements and rivers and water bodies. Flood hydrology, soil and
seasonal distribution of rainfall largely determine the land use including types of crops to be
grown and intensity of its use. High rainfall and seasonal flooding make conditions
particularly suitable for paddy cultivation; rice (the staple cereal crop) occupied about 77% of
total cropped area of 13.73 Mha in 2006-07. Cropping intensity was 176% in 2005-06;
however, there are substantial district-wise variations in cropping intensities.
Bangladesh is the third among the top inland fish producing nations, and also the third in
inland aquaculture production. About 260 species of freshwater finfish, four species of
freshwater crabs, 10 species of freshwater shrimps/prawns and 20 species of turtles have been
recorded. The estuaries of Bangladesh are rich in biodiversity with 149 species of finfish,
and 19 species of shrimp/prawns. In marine water, there are 442 species of fish and 11
species of marine crabs. Fisheries sector in Bangladesh represents 5.1 per cent of total GDP,
but it fully employs 1.5 million rural people and provides partial employment to another 11
millions.
The coastal zone is a region of multiple vulnerabilities and opportunities. On the one hand, it
is prone to severe natural hazards (e.g. cyclones, storm surges, floods, and salt water
intrusion), which is compounded by high density population, with three-fourths of population
representing poor livelihood groups. On the other hand, the coastal zone is the source of
diversified biological (fisheries), mineral (sand, metals) and energy (wave energy) resources,
is endowed with Export Processing Zones, harbors, airports, land ports and tourism
complexes, sea ports (Chittagong and Mongla) and other industrial units, and contains several
ecosystems of conservation values, such as the Sundarban mangrove (a World Heritage Site)
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and coral ecosystem of St Martins Island. The Sundarban is the largest single tract of
mangrove ecosystem in the world, containing a considerably high floral (245 genera and 334
plant species) and faunal (453 species) diversity. The Sundarbans provides livelihood and
employment to wood cutters, fishermen, honey and wax collectors, shell collectors, timber
traders and workers, workers of fish drying industries, etc. The sundarbans is the major
producer of honey in the country and account for about 20 per cent of the total honey
production of Bangladesh.
There are many coastal islands and chars, both landward and seaward of the coastline. There
are in total 60 islands: 9 located in the sea, 49 in the estuary and 11 in the coastal rivers. In
addition, 65 charlands are identified. The size of the islands and chars varies between 2 and
77,000 ha; the three largest ones are Hatiya, Sandwip and Bhola. Only half of these islands
and chars are somewhat protected; 40% are populated by less than 5,000 people. Because of
the instability of the land, island dwellers are often forced to move from one place to another.
Families shifting 10-15 times over 10 years is not uncommon.
The country is rich in marine resources. The bulk of the countrys exploitable fisheries
extend largely to the 50 m mark (representing 37,000 km2) in the Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ). Marine capture fisheries is an important source of output, employment and livelihood
in the coastal regions. About 7.3 million people live in the coastal marine fishing villages of
which 22% have taken fishing as their major occupation.
Recognizing the gradual depletion of the ecosystems and the need for the protection of
natural system, Government of Bangladesh created and implemented laws and regulations to
declare Protected Areas at different locations. These include reserved forests in
sundarbans in the districts of Bagerhat, Khulna and Satkhira and non-mangrove forests in
Barguna, Bhola, Chittagong, Coxs Bazar, Feni, Lakshmipur, Noakhali, and Patuakhali
districts, 7 wildlife sanctuaries (five in the coastal zone and two in the non-coastal zone),
one game reserve in the coastal zone, 8 national parks (two in coastal zone and six in noncoastal zone), three Ramsar sites, 8 ECAs (ecologically critical areas), 3 world heritage
sites, 204 sq nautical mile of marine reserve, and one ecopark (with two others in the
pipeline).
Physical settings
Bangladesh is covered by a large road and highway network, most of it traversing through the
flood plains of the country. There were nearly 21,000 kilometers of national and regional
highways in 2000 and nearly 250,000 kilometers of upazila, union and village roads in the
whole country, the road density being as high as 1.85 km/km2. The coastal zone has a higher
density of roads (2.03 km/km2) than other areas (1.85 km/km2), indicating a good
development of road network in the coastal zone.
There are over 1700 growth centers, including hats and bazaars, in the country. On average,
there are 1.5 growth centers per 100 km2 centers. The highest density occurs in Chittagong
(5.87) followed by Naogaon (4.87). The other regions where the development of growth
centers has been high are Bogra, Maulvibazar, Pabna, Netrokona, Patuakhali and Habiganj.
Cyclone shelters are constructed to provide refuge to the exposed population during storm
floods, and also intended for multi-purpose use as school and community center. Presently
there are a little over 2,100 shelters in 15 of the 19 coastal districts that can accommodate
xv
only 27% of the people at risk. The National Water Management Plan (NWMP) proposes
775 multi-purpose shelters for 1.72 million people and 1,369 killas (raised earth mounds) for
livestock over the next 15 years. One of the planning issues is how to allocate shelters and
killas equitably among competing areas.
A dense network of rivers, canals and creeks serves large parts of the country and provides a
cheap means of transport. Based on plying on large (4 tons) boats, the total length of
waterways in the monsoon season exceed 6000 km, which shrink to about 3800 km at the end
of dry season. If small dingis and boats are considered, the total length in the monsoon
season may exceed 24,000 km. Country boats alone offer 60% of all employment in the
transport sector. Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority (BIWTA) classifies four
major navigation routes based on the level of service to be guaranteed taking into account the
economic importance of the river as well as the technical and financial capacity to maintain
the level of service. Over the years, BIWTA has developed 11 major inland river ports, 5
ferry terminals, and over 300 launch ghats at important locations. The inland ports and
landing ghats serve as feeder ports to the two seaports of the country. The Chittagong port is
the main sea port of Bangladesh, the second important sea port being at Mongla.
Irrigation in Bangladesh is divided into two categories: minor and major irrigation. The
common methods of minor irrigation technology are power pumps (LLPs) for pumping
irrigation water from surface source and pumping of groundwater using STWs and DTWs.
In some parts of the country, irrigation is carried out by gravitational flow through major
irrigation projects. Out of 8,64 Mha net cultivable area, 4.88 Mha was irrigated in rabi
season in 2007, of which 4.73 Mha was irrigated by DTWs, STWs and LLPs, 0.014 Mha by
traditional methods, and 0.137 Mha by gravity flow. Out of total irrigated area, groundwater
accounted for 80.60%, while surface water accounted for the remaining 19.40%. A total of
29,177 DTWs, 1,202,728 STWs and 1,072,936 LLPs were in operation in 2007 (BADC,
2007).
In order to protect agricultural floodplains, there has been a steady growth of flood control
and drainage projects in Bangladesh since mid 60s. Generally, flood control projects can be
classified into four major types: FC (Flood Control) projects; FCD (Flood Control and
Drainage) projects; FCDI (Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation) projects; and D (Drainage)
projects. Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) has developed 24 FC projects, 241
FCD projects, 82 FCDI projects and 104 D projects over the years covering benefitted areas
of 0.248, 2.36, 1.85 Mha, and 0.77 Mha, respectively. Besides, 46 submersible embankment
(FC) projects in the northeast region have been developed covering an area of 0.29 Mha. No
new schemes have commenced since 1995, other than partial flood protection schemes in the
northeast region.
Socio-economic settings
The total population of the country is 123.15 million, male population being 62.74 million
(51% of total) and female 60.41 million. Average population density of the whole country is
839 per km2, with the densest population areas centering on Dhaka district, where it averages
5,643 people per km2, followed by Comilla (3,988 /km2), Jamalpur (2,923 / km2), and
Naogaon (2467 / km2). The total population in the coastal region amounts to 35.08 million,
male population being 17.9 million and female 17.1 million. They are 28% of the total
population of the country. The average density of population per km2 is about 743, which is
xvi
well below the national average. About 1/3rd of the total coastal population live in the
exposed coasts.
Adult (15+ years) literacy rate is highest in Dhaka (59%) followed by Pirojpur (54%).
Districts of Sunamganj (24%), Kishoreganj (25%), Jamalpur (23%) and Coxs Bazar (23%)
have much lower literacy rates than the national average. The male literacy rate is higher
than the female literacy rate in all districts with national average of 43% and 24%,
respectively. The adult literacy rate in the coastal zone is higher than the national average
(both sexes 40%, male 49%, female 39.
Evolution of Bangladesh economy's structure since independence in 1971 has followed the
path typical of developing countries, with a progressive reduction in agriculture's share of
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from 50% in 1972-73 to 20% in 2006-07, an increase from
38% to 53% in the services sector share and an increase in the industrial sector's share, from
13% to 27%. For most of the period from independence in 1971 to the 1990s Bangladeshs
economic growth was modest, at about 4% per year (3.5% in the 1980s and 4.8% in the
1990s). Since the mid-1990s till mid-2000s, however, annual growth in GDP increased to an
average rate of 6% (5.3% in 2003, 6.3% in 2004, 5.96% in 2005 and 6.63% in 2006). The
total GDP of the country in the financial years 2004, 2005 and 2006 were 3330, 3707 and
4157 billion taka, respectively, at current market prices.
Poverty is the central socio-economic issue in Bangladesh. Overall, the rural poor tend to be
landless, live in remote areas, and have inadequate access to basic infrastructure and services.
Urban poverty is associated with limited employment opportunities, poor health, inadequate
water supply and sanitation facilities, and frequent eviction of squatters by the authorities.
Athough there has been considerable progress, as manifested in decrease in poverty incidence
by 10% during 1990-2000, one of the fastest rates of decline recorded worldwide, still about
42% of the population are stricken by poverty. The national average poverty incidence has
followed the previous decreasing trend, more significantly for urban population. The national
average poverty indices in 2004 were 0.379 and 0.433 for urban and rural population,
respectively, compared to 0.433 and 0.449 in 1999. In 2004 the highest poverty was
observed in Rajshahi division (0.616), a significant jump in poverty index in 5 years, and the
lowest in the Sylhet division (0.284), a further reduction from 1999. However, these figures
should not obscure the fact that the absolute numbers offer a more vivid picture of the scale
of the problem.
Bangladesh has made significant progress in extending access to water supplies, yet several
districts (especially Khulna, Barisal and Satkhira) in the coastal region lag behind national
averages. In the last decades, public health in the coastal regions had greatly benifitted from
the massive shift from surface to groundwater sources for domestic water supply. At present,
the situaton is reversing; in addition to reduced availability of safe drinking water because of
arsenic pollution, people now have to deal with saline groundwater, especially at the end of
dry season. The highland population in the eastern hills region is subject to severe scarcity of
domestic water.
Four major livelihood groups in Bangladesh who account for large shares of the poor
population are small farmers, fishermen, rural wage labor and urban wage labor. Rural wage
labors (mainly agricultural laborers) constitute the largest livelihood group in the country in
terms of density as well as number. Small farmers stand second. Among the non-farmers
xvii
(whose principal occupation is not agriculture), fishers are the single largest group. In the
coastal zone, the districts of Bhola, Satkhira, Khulna and Jessore have higher concentrations
of agriculture laborers than other districts.
Industry is a major economic sector in Bangladesh. Among the industries that have been setup, ready-made garments, cotton textile, food and beverages, sugar, leather, pharmaceuticals,
fertilizer, wood product, iron and steel, ceramic cement, rubber and plastic product and
chemicals are important. About 47% of the industries are located in Dhaka division,
followed by 20% in Rajshahi division, 17% in Khulna division and 16% in Chittagong
division. The major industries employed about 2.46 million in 2001-02. The garments
industries (manufacturing of textiles and wearing apparels) provide the largest share of
employment (74.5% of total) and the largest share of the production value (50% of total).
Manufacturing sector contributes about 17% of the GDP. Growth rate of manufacturing
sector is dominated by ready-made garments.
Bangladesh is bestowed with the bounties of nature, and hence tourism is another important
economic sector. Bangladesh earns substantial foreign currency from tourism; the foreign
currency earned in 2007 was more than 5 billion taka.
Some areas that offer special services and maintain core socioeconomic functionality such as
sea ports, land ports, air ports and export processing zones, have provided a special status to
facilitate economic activities under various laws and regulations. The countrys Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ) stretches 714 km along the coastline and comprises 164,000 km2. The
bulk of the countrys exploitable fisheries extend to 50 m mark, representing 37,000 km,
while the industrial trawl fishery exploits fishery resources to a depth of 100 m. Besides,
marine fishing zones have been demarcated according to fishing possibilities. The two sea
ports at Chittagong and Mongla are also among the areas of special economic importance.
There are 14 land ports, 10 airports (of which 3 are international), and 8 eight Export
Procesing Zones (EPZs) in the country.
Natural hazards
In Bangladesh, principal natural hazards that have occurred in Bangladesh over centuries
include floods, droughts, cyclones, river erosion, and salt water intrusion. Cyclones have the
most dramatic consequences. Riverbank erosion is in second place, not in terms of deaths, but
in terms of the process of impoverishment and landlessness of the many people affected. The
number of deaths during monsoon floods, even during extraordinary events, is comparatively
small. Drought is a "creeping phenomenon"; the effects of drought accumulate slowly over a
considerable period of time, and may linger for years after the termination of the event.
Flood in Bangladesh is an annual phenomenon; about 20% of its area is inundated by
overflowing rivers during monsoon in a normal flood year, about 35% in a moderate flood
year, and more than 60% in a major flood year. The principal sources of floods are the river
floods from the major river systems, the Brahmaputra, the Ganges, and the Meghna, local
rainfall floods resulting from runoff of high intensity and long duration rainfalls that can not
be drained because of high outfall water levels, flash floods from the adjacent hills in India in
the pre-monsoon months of April and May, tidal floods in areas adjacent to estuaries and tidal
rivers in the southwest and southcentral parts of the country twice a day due to astronomical
tide from the Bay of Bengal, and occasional cyclonic storm-surge floods due to tropical
cyclones in the Bay of Bengal during April to June and September to November. River and
xviii
rainfall flood are frequently aggravated by the backwater effect from the sea and the timing
(synchronization) of peak flows in the major rivers.
Drought is a common hazard for the rainfed cultivation in Bangladesh. Past droughts have
typically affected about 47% area of the country and 53% of the population. Bangladesh
experience long spells of dry weather and moderate to severe droughts are spread over a
region of 5.46 million ha in the districts of Rajshahi, Natore, Chapai Nawabganj, Rangpur,
Dinajpur, Bogra, Kushtia, Jessore and Dhaka. Aman cultivation suffers from periodic
drought conditions from long spells of rainless days ranging upwards from two weeks.
Drought conditions are also observed in early pre-Kharif months, affecting Boro and wheat
cultivation.
Important secondary consequences of climatic hazards include riverbank, char (river and
deltaic islands), and coastal erosion. Erosional processes along the rivers render some
millions of people landless. Out of the 462 administrative units in the country, 100 are
subject to some form of riverbank erosion, of which 35 are serious, and affect about 1 million
people on a yearly basis. The towns of Sirajganj and Chandpur are under constant threat
from the Jamuna and the Lower Meghna, respectively. The Meghna estuary is a highly
dynamic place of erosion and accretion. Erosion is also a problem in inland coastal rivers in
Barisal, Patuakhali, Bhola, Barguna, Jhalakathi and Pirojpur districts of the Barisal division,
resulting in hundreds of families homeless and shelterless.
Water and soil salinity are normal hazards in many parts of the coastal area. In the southwest
region, surface water salinity has been aggravated by the reduction in dry-season flows
entering the Gorai distributaries, following the diversion of the Ganges flow upstream of the
border. Salinity now reaches as far as Khulna, creating problems to normal agricultural
practices and affecting the supply of clean water for industrial use. River water salinity has
also important implications for the natural environment, such as functioning of the Sundarban
ecosystem, sedimentation rates in tidal rivers, and human health. A total of 1.65 million ha of
land (70%) out of 2.34 million is affected by different degrees of soil salinity within Khulna
and Barisal divisions. It traditionally restricted the cultivation of Aus, Boro (HYV) and dry
season rabi crops. There is a seasonally salinty interface, with the threshold limit for
agriculture moving inland in May in the southern part of the coastal region.
Tropical cyclones accompanied by storm surges are one of the major disasters in Bangladesh.
The Bay of Bengal is a favourable breeding ground of these cyclones. When minimum death
tolls over 5000 are considered, it turns out that Bangladesh is the worst sufferer of all
cyclonic casualties in the world, with a death toll of about 53% of the global. The high
number of casualties in Bangladesh is due to the fact that cyclones are always associated with
storm surges. Storm surge amplifications on the Bangladesh coast are facilitated by a number
of factors, including the shallow water in the north Bay, the northward-converging nature of
the Bay, and high astronomical tides.
Vulnerability to natural hazards
Severe and moderate river flood prone areas are mainly located in the floodplains of the
major rivers (e.g. Brahmaputra-Jamuna, Meghna estuarine and low Ganges river floodplains),
the Haor basin and the lower Atrai basin, and areas prone to severe and moderate flash floods
include mainly the northern and eastern piedmont plains and Chittagong coastal plains.
Drought prone areas are mainly located in the western part of Bangladesh, with very severe
xix
areas concentrated in the Barind Tract and adjacent high Ganges river floodplain areas.
Active floodplains of the major rivers, the Teesta, the Brahmaputra and the Ganges, and
middle and young estuarine floodplains of the Meghna are the major areas prone to river
erosion. High risk and risk areas for cyclone are located within the exposed areas of the
coastal zone (Ganges tidal plain, Meghna estuarine floodplain and Chittagong coastal plain).
Major salinity intrusion takes place in the Ganges tidal plain, with the salinity front extending
into the high Ganges river floodplain and Gopalganj-Khulna Beels in some dry months.
Salinity intrusion is limited to much shorter distances from the coastline in young Meghna
estuarine floodplain and Chittagong coastal plain.
About 45.5 million people are estimated to be exposed to severe and moderate floods
(including river flood, flash flood and tidal flood), of which 22 millions are male and 23.5
millions are female. Districts with higher population vulnerable to flood are Chittagong,
Comilla, Sylhet, Sirajganj, Khulna, Noakhali, Faridpur, Pabna, Patuakhali, Bogra, Bagerhat,
Satkhira, Sunamganj, Bhola, Dhaka, Kurigram and Pirojpur, with population varying from
0.1 to 3.4 millions. Floods affect about 8 million small farmers, espcially in the districts of
Khulna, Munshiganj, Faridpur, Bogra, Sirajganj, Noakhali, Bagerhat, Satkhira, Jhalokathi,
Rajbari, Patuakhali, Chittagong, Lakshmipur, Sylhet and Barguna, about 10 million rural
wage laborers, especially in the districts of Sylhet, Sirajganj, Chittagong, Khulna, Sunamganj,
Satkhira, Noakhali, Faridpur, Munshiganj, Bhola and Bagerhat, about 0.95 million fishermen,
mainly in the districts of Bhola, Bagerhat, Sylhet, Satlhira, Chittagong, Coxs Bazar,
Sunamganj, Bargguna and Patuakhali, and about 0.83 million urban wage laborers, mostly
concentrated in the districts of Bogra, Chittagong, Sylhet, Faridpur, Dhaka, Narail and
Khulna.
As far as per centage of area in each district is concerned, very severe and severe drought are
prominent in the districts of Joypurhat, Nawabganj, Naogaon, Rajshahi and Dinajpur, with
area varying from 91 to 55% of respective district areas. The major districts under the
influence of moderate drought are Chuadanga, Meherpur, Jhenaidah, Panchagarh and Jessore,
with area varying from 88 to 78% of respective district areas. About 2 million small farmers
and 2.4 million rural wage laborers are vulnerable to very severe to severe Kharif drought,
majority of whom live in the districts of Joypurhat, Nawabganj, Naogaon, Rajshahi and
Dinajpur. Small farmers and rural wage laborers exposed to moderate drought total 6 and 6.6
millions. Majority of small farmers live in the districts of Chuadanga, Jessore, Tangail,
Bogra and Gazipur. Majority of rural wage laborers live in the districts of Chuadanga,
Satkhira, Dinajpur, Bogra and Jessore.
About 6.2 million people in 12 districts (Bhola, Coxs Bazar, Barguna, Patuakhali, Noakhali,
Bagerhat, Khulna, Lakshmipur, Feni, Pirojpur and Barisal) are estimated to be at High Risk
from cyclonic surges. Addition of a further 2.3 million in 14 districts (Barguna, Lakshmipur,
Pirojpur, Patuakhali, Bagerhat, Barisal, Khulna, Coxs Bazar, Satkhira, Chittagong, Feni,
Noakhali, Bhola and Bandarban) at Risk results in a total at-risk population of 8.5 million.
In terms of area under high risk, Bhola, Coxs Bazar, Barguna, Patuakhali and Noakhali rank
first, second, third and fourth, fifth, respectively. However, in terms of population exposed
to High Risk, Bhola, Chitatgong, Noakhali, Coxs Bazar and Patuakhali rank first, second,
third, fourth and fifth, respectively.
xx
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Bangladesh, one of the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), is struggling to cope with current
climatic conditions and the impacts of extreme climatic events on livelihoods and food
security. To make matters worse, the country is considered to be one of the most vulnerable
countries to climate change because of its geographical location and physiographic features,
and low capacity to adapt to change. A setting in the tropics, in the floodplain delta of the
three major river basins - the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Meghna, and extensive low
floodplain topography with a low lying coast line, has rendered the country prone to a
multitude of natural hazards (e.g. floods, droughts, storm surge, salt water intrusion, river
erosion, etc.) and vulnerable to the adverse impacts of future change in climatic conditions.
With an economy highly dependent on agriculture, the lives and livelihoods of people are
always under threat. The societal exposure to such risks is further enhanced by Bangladeshs
very high population and population density. With a population of about 140 million,
Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries of the world (BBS, 2006).
Global warming induced changes in precipitation and temperature is already happening in
different geographical regions, influencing patterns and intensities of the natural hazards.
Changes in the climate are likely to take place more rapidly over the next few decades, as
predicted by different climate model simulation (IPCC, 2007). It is anticipated that increased
rainfall will result in increased flooding during monsoon, increase in temperature and less
rainfall during the dry period will create more drought conditions, and magnitude, intensity
and frequency of natural disasters (e.g. droughts, floods and storm surges) will increase. The
impact of any change in the length of the monsoon would be significant. If the monsoon is
shortened, soil moisture deficits in some areas might get worse, while prolonged monsoons
might cause frequent flooding and increase inundation depths. Besides, the anticipated sea
level rise in the Bay of Bengal would further compound the problem in Bangladesh through
coastal submergence, enhanced drainage congestion in the floodplain and increased salt water
intrusion.
Such changes in climate will ultimately affect the life and livelihoods of the people. By and
large, any change in the availability of water resources as a consequence of climate change
could have a substantial effect on freshwater resources, coastal zone, agriculture, fishery,
ecosystem, biodiversity, navigation, salinity control and safe drinking water supply. The
coping ability or adaptive capacity of people to the effects of anticipated climate change
depends on a variety of economic, social and technological factors such as infrastructure,
access to and the distribution of resources and management capabilities. Poor countries and
people tend to be particularly vulnerable to deviations from average climatic conditions and
climatic extremes (OFDA/CRED, 2006). In Bangladesh, the vulnerability to climate change
increases manifolds since the country has low adaptive capacity to climate change because of
the widespread poverty, with 34% of the people living below the national poverty line (World
Bank, 2003) and about 77% of the high density population living in the rural areas (BBS,
2003). High population density increases vulnerability to climate change because more
people are exposed to risk and opportunities for migration within a country are limited.
Many developing countries are already experiencing increasing stresses from climate
variability and extremes, and will continue to experience the same increasingly in the future
1
as climate change progresses. Many sectors providing basic livelihood services to the poor
are not able to cope even with todays climate variability and stresses (Sperling, 2003).
Many projected climate change impacts (including sea level rise, higher temperatures, evapotranspiration losses, enhanced monsoon precipitation and run-off, potentially reduced dry
season precipitation, and increase in cyclone intensity) would in fact reinforce many of these
baseline stresses that already pose a serious impediment to the economic development of
Bangladesh (Agrawala et al., 2003). Before addressing climate change adaptation in the
context of development, it is important to recognize that todays climate influences economic
opportunities and development prospects. It is important to characterize existing
vulnerabilities because the impacts of climate change, and the vulnerability of poor
communities to climate change, vary greatly.
1.2 Mainstreaming Climate Risk Assessment and Adaptation
Responding to climate change is a necessity for all countries prone to climate hazards. The
climate change impacts are exerting pressure on the development process, putting the
interventions to risk on one hand and threatening the production system on the other. As
climate change impacts development, it has to be dealt while pursuing development through
national development planning. In line with this understanding, a country framework was
formulated to mainstream climate risk management and adaptation in development (DoE,
2006). The framework will be operationalized by establishing a mechanism that will
facilitate a systematic interweaving of national development planning and implementation
with adaptation to climate change and climate risk management over time. This will help
ensure that national development is resilient to climate change and its impacts in such a way
that the lives, livelihood and well being of its people are sustained in the long run.
The basic components of the proposed country framework are:
(i) Defining risk environment. The first task is to define and determine the risk environment
for both current and future climate risks. The definition of climate risk environment need to
encompass the following:
Natural setting: A thorough knowledge-based characterization of natural conditions

or setting will enable people to understand the dynamics of impacts of climate
change over time and help identify appropriate measures to manage climate risks
(McCarthy et al., 2001).
Physical setting: Mapping and characterizing physical infrastructure are necessary
to understand the exposure to climate induced phenomena, performance capability
under changed conditions, and overall risks of these infrastructures to climatic
hazards.
Socio-economic setting: Socio-economic conditions of an individual, a household,
a community, and a society (or even the whole country) determine how the contexts
of vulnerability will change underlying risks due to change in exposure to any
hazard.
Institutional setting: Institutions, including the current policy regime, help identify
part of the social and financial strengths of a vulnerable society
(community/households/ individuals). The interactions of institutions with the
livelihood capital assets (LCAs) and climate driven vulnerability contexts provide
information on livelihood outcomes of the society.
2
When the present day risk elements are overlaid on climate perturbations in any point in
future, it would portray future risks under climate change. However, future conditions will
be a function of changed conditions in all four of the above mentioned settings. If there is
any significant change, it may need to be flagged based on trends, projections and expert
judgments. Defining future risks would involve analysis of future (perceived or model based)
climatic scenarios. Additional risks to livelihood conditions as a result of the changed
scenario need to be assessed through a participatory approach; only the vulnerable themselves
know how differently their risk perception will change under a defined change in climate
system (Ahmed, 2004).
(ii) Responding to climate change: enabling processes and actions. Responses do not
necessarily depend on specific planning or firm actions, but also on enhancing human and
institutional capacity, preparing communities through social communication of risks and
responses and demonstration and propagation of good practices (DoE, 2006). It will
involve formulation of micro-level risk reduction action plans following participatory
processes (the same processes which have been carried out for identification of risks) as well
as integration across sectors and scales, ideally at community levels, identification of climaterelated risks in development plans mostly applicable at meso- and regional scales, social
communication of micro-level climate risks such that every member of the community are
well aware of them, capacity building at various tiers and across sectors through different
means (e.g. raising awareness through information, providing orientation, formal and
informal training, continued education, etc.), demonstration of good practices for adaptation
that could be replicated at other places of the country having similar settings, and
implementation of the adaptive responses.
(iii) Institutional facilitation. Adaptation measures, after thorough processes of participatory
analysis and subsequent identification, can be implemented with an appropriate institutional
enabling environment. Institutional architecture should encompass both local through to the
national scale institutions as well as national to global scale institutions. Global response to
adaptation has to be taken into consideration and benefit from the global response in terms of
policy guideline, technology, knowledge and information and all other instruments developed
so far to support adaptation. In absence of an effective global institutional architecture for
adaptation, each country should focus on creating its own enabling policy environment to
advance adaptation. Realizing the fact that adaptation measures should be complementary to
development strategies of the country, each adaptation strategy or option should ideally be
previewed within development-oriented policy regime prevailing over the country. Three
important aspects in the process of creating enabling policy regime are policy analysis,
identification of policy gaps, and policy adjustment.
1.3 Aim of the Report
This report is an attempt to develop a base document characterizing the country settings,
including natural setting, physical infrastructure there in, socio-economic conditions and
prevailing environment, and hence is expected to serve as a base document to locate, identify
and characterize climate risk environment in the backdrop of climate change and variability.
In essence, this addresses the first task of the effort on mainstreaming climate change and
adaptation, which is defining the present day risk environment.
The hazards and vulnerability maps presented in the report are expected to be very useful to
the users and stakeholders. Data and information available in the report can be used to
develop climate change/ composite climate change hazard and risk maps in the next phase,
which will provide a better understanding regarding the overall vulnerability of a group of
people under climate change in a given location, and in turn will help identify what needs to
be done in order to reduce peoples vulnerability and which specific context of vulnerability
needs to be addressed on a priority basis in order to approach towards adaptation.
1.4 Methodology
The report draws data, information and maps from a good number of published documents
and different organizational sources. A number of elements are presented that help define the
natural setting of the country. A number of physical/infrastructural settings are characterized
and mapped. Some important socio-economic indicator maps are presented. Based on
published secondary data, major vulnerable livelihood groups in each district are classified
and results of an analysis of the vulnerabilities of different groups of population to various
climatic hazards are presented.
2. Natural Setting
2.1 General
Understanding the dynamics of the impacts of climate change over time and identifying
appropriate measures to manage climate risks require a thorough knowledge-based
characterization of natural condition/setting (McCarthy et al., 2001). There may be a large
number of elements which help define natural conditions. The following are most common
indicators that describe natural conditions: physiology, proximity to the sea, landscape and
terrain, watersheds, land type characteristics, land elevations, land cover, land use, state of
land degradation; soil quality, major crops and cropping patterns, forest cover, ecosystems
and ecosystem health, river network and flow regime, tidal dynamics, erosion and accretion
(morphological) processes, humidity, temperature regime, surface and groundwater
(availability and quality), precipitation pattern, etc. (DOE, 2006). This chapter includes
characterization of several elements deemed important in the context of Bangladesh.
2.2 Location and Topography
Bangladesh stretches between 20034N and 26033N latitudes and 88001E and 92041E
longitudes. The tropic of the cancer passes over Bangladesh. It has an area of approximately
144,900 km2 bounded by
India in the west, north and
east, Mayanmar in the southeast, and the Bay of Bengal in
the south. The Himalayas is
close to the northern border of
Bangladesh. Three major
rivers- the Ganges, the
Brahmaputra and the Meghna
meet
inside
Bangladesh
before discharging to the Bay
of Bengal through a single
outfall. Most of the country is
low-lying land comprising
mainly the floodplain delta of
these
mighty
rivers.
Administratively, the country
is divided into 6 divisions, 64
districts and 490 thanas. There
are four metropolitan areas
including the capital city:
Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna
and Rajshahi. Administrative
regions (Sixty-four Districts)
of Bangladesh are shown in
Figure 2.1. This figure will
serve as the index map in this
Figure 2.1 Administrative units of Bangladesh
report to indicate an area.
5
A generalized relief contour map is shown in Figure 2.2. It is seen that most of Bangladesh
consists of extremely low and flat land. Dhaka, the capital city (about 225 km from the
coast) is within 8 meters
above the Mean Sea
Level (MSL). The land
elevation
increases
towards north-west and
reaches an elevation of
about 90 meters above
the MSL. The lowest part
is the coastal tidal land
while the highest areas
are the hill tracts in the
eastern and Chittagong
regions. The floodplains
occupy 80% of the
country. Mean elevations
range from less than one
meter on tidal floodplains,
1 to 3 meters on the main
river
and
estuarine
floodplains, and up to 6
meters in the Sylhet basin
in the north-east (Rashid
1991). Only in the
extreme northwest are
elevations greater than 30
meters above the mean
sea level. The northeast
and southeast portions of
the country are hilly, with
some tertiary hills over
Figure 2.2 Generalized relief contours (Source: Harza, 1986)
1000 meters above MSL.
2.3 Climate
Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate. In general, the climate is characterized by high
temperature, heavy rainfall, often excessive humidity during monsoon (June to September)
and marked inter and intra seasonal variation.
Temperature: The mean annual temperature is about 250C within the country. Mean monthly
temperatures range between 180C in January and 300C in the months from April to May. The
highest and lowest temperatures throughout the year range between 430C and 40C with the
exception in the areas near the coast where the range is narrower. The temporal and spatial
distribution of temperature is presented in Figure 2.3.
Sunshine hours: Except a little variation in the bordering areas in the east and the coastal
fringe, day-length and sunshine hours throughout the whole country are in general almost the
6
Sylhet
Sylhet
40
30
20
10
0
Rajshahi
40
30
20
10
0
Rajshahi
40
30
20
10
0
Dhaka
40
30
20
10
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Dhaka
40
30
20
10
0
40
30
20
10
0
Comilla
J F M AM J J A S OND
Comilla
40
30
20
10
0
40
30
20
10
0
Chittagong
40
30
20
10
0
20
10
0
Chittagong
40
30
20
10
0
40
30
20
10
0
40
30
Barisal
Khulna
Barisal
Khulna
40
30
20
10
0
40
30
20
10
0
J FM AM J J A S OND
(b) Average monthy minimum temperature
(a) Average monthly maximum temperature
Figure 2.3 Spatial and temporal distribution of temperature (2002) in Bangladesh (BMD data)
same. Day length at Dhaka varies from 10.7 hours in December to 13.6 hours in June.
Sunshine at Dhaka ranges from 5.4-5.8 hours/day in the monsoon season and 8.9-9.1
hours/day in the winter (from December to February) and pre-monsoon (from March to May)
seasons.
Wind: The wind direction is mainly south-west and south-east during the pre-monsoon and
monsoon seasons and from between north-west and north-east during the post-monsoon
(from October to November) and winter seasons. The advent of occasional Norwesters with
velocity of 50-100 km/hr changes the wind direction in the pre-monsoon season. Tropical
cyclones from the Bay of Bengal with high velocity of more than 115 km/hr are liable to hit
the coastal areas in the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons.
Humidity: The humidity is relatively high throughout the year. It is over 80% during the
months from June to September, i.e., the monsoon months. The humidity is around 58% in
most of the western areas of Bangladesh in March and April and in the eastern areas in
January, February and March.
Evaporation: Evaporation rates range from about 50-70 mm per month in the dry season to
100-175 mm per month in the pre-monsoon season. In the monsoon, they are generally
about 100-125 mm. Annual potential evapo-transpiration rates (modified Penman) range
from about 1,180 mm in the north-east to 1,285 mm in the centre-west. Rainfall everywhere
exceeds evapo-transpiration rates in the monsoon season and for the year as a whole, even in
dry years. However, evapo-transpiration rates exceed rainfall during winter and in the first
part of the pre-monsoon season. Evapo-transpiration rates also exceed rainfall, of course,
during droughts, most significantly during the pre-monsoon season when temperatures and
evaporation rates are highest (Brammer, 2002).
7
Rainfall: Rainfall within the country is mainly caused by the South-Westerly-Trades known
as the monsoon, during the months of June to September. The two other sources of rainfall
are the western depressions of winter which cause rainfall mainly from the end of January to
the end of the February, and the Norwesters (the early summer thunderstorms), which cause
rains mainly within the first week of May. Average annual rainfall for the country is about
2,200 mm. About 80% of the rainfall occurs during the months from May to September.
The isohyetal pattern of the average annual rainfall is shown in Figure 2.4. The mean annual
rainfall is the lowest (1,400 mm) in Rajshahi zone near the western border. The advancement
of isohyets is towards the north, east and south reaching more than 2,500 mm in the extreme
north-west, near and within the northern and eastern hills and near the coasts, and exceeding
5,500 mm near the border in the north-east. There is a wide variability of rainfall from year to
year. Again, distribution of rainfall within the year is highly skewed (Figure 2.4). Rainfall
during the dry season is negligible.
Sylhet
30
20
Rajshahi
10
30
20
F M A M J J A S O N D
10
Dhaka
0
30
20
10
0
Comilla
30
20
10
0
Khulna
Barisal
30
30
20
20
Chittagong
30
20
10
10
10
0
0
(a) Isohyetal pattern of average annual rainfall
(b) Average monthy rainfall distribution

(in cm) (BMD data: 1982-2001)
Figure 2.4 Spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall in Bangladesh

2.4 River Network and Flow Regime
Being a lower riparian country surrounded by hills on its three sides (Figure 2.5), flows in
Bangladesh are principally controlled by how much flow is generated in the upstream
catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basins (Figure 2.6a) from
orographic rainfalls coupled with snowmelt in the Himalayas. The total catchment area stands
at 1.75 million km2 of which about 93% are located outside the country. According to Rashid
(1991), about 1.18 million cubic meters of water flow annually to the sea, of which 1.07
million cubic meters or 91 per cent enters Bangladesh from India. The country is
8
crisscrossed with an intricate

network of around 200 rivers,
of which 57 are international
rivers originating outside the
boundary of Bangladesh as
shown in Figure 2.6b.
Among them 54 rivers bring
inflows from India including
the three major ones, the
Ganges, the Brahmaputra
and the Meghna. For water
management purposes, the Figure 2.5: Location of Bangladesh in the GBM basins
(Source: World image layer, ArcGlobal data, ESRI)
entire country has been
divided into eight hydrological regions (WARPO, 2001a).
A remarkable aspect of the river system is that all the rivers, except those in the Chittagong
sub-region, are hydraulically linked to each other, all rivers being either tributaries or
distributaries of the three major river systems. Hence, the flow hydraulics is dominated by
these three major rivers. This is also illustrated in Figure 2.7, which shows the spatial
distribution of annual maximum flood discharge of 2, 20 and 100 year return periods in major
and medium rivers. The river systems carry enough water from outside the country each year
to inundate the catchment inside the country with 6 meters of water (Chowdhury et al., 1997).
The Brahmaputra has the largest flood flow followed by the Ganges and the Meghna, with a
flow ratio of 4.4:2.5:1. Around 54 per cent (598.908 km) is contributed by the Brahmaputra,
31 per cent (343.932 km) by the Ganges and nearly 15 per cent (162.772 km) by the
tributaries of the Meghna and other minor rivers. The combined discharge of the three main
rivers is among the highest in the world. Peak discharges are of the order of 100000 m/s in
the Brahmaputra, 75000 m/s from the Ganges, 20000 m/s in the upper Meghna and 160000
m/s in the lower Meghna. The major river systems discharge about 1,42,000 m3/s into the
Bay of Bengal at peak periods (Rahman et al., 1990).
Figure 2.8 shows the spatial distribution of average values of annual maximum, annual
average and annual minimum discharges. This illustrates that unlike other deltas, the seasonal
variation in flow is highly skewed with abundant water during monsoon while very small
flow during dry season. It is estimated that the ratio between the discharges of the dry and
monsoon for the Ganges River is 1:6 (Mirza and Dixit, 1997). Approximately 85% of the
mean dry season stream flow is found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) rivers.
Smaller regional rivers carry the remaining 15%. The country, therefore, faces two major
hazards: floods during the wet season and scarcity of water during the dry season. The
hydrodynamic characteristics during flood flow in alluvial rivers in Bangladesh are quite
different from that during low flow (Chowdhury et al., 1997; Salehin et al., 2007).
Because of the great disparity between the monsoon floods and the low flow during the dry
season, the manageable surface water resources are considered as equal to 80 per cent of the
dependable flow in March. In terms of water availability, March is the critical month in
Bangladesh. Surface water resources are used extensively for dry season irrigation.
a. GBM basins
China
Nepa
l
Brahmaputra Basin
Bhutan
Ganges Basin
India
Meghna Basin
Bangladesh
b. River systems of Bangladesh
15
16
21
17
14
18
20
19
23
22
24
13
Border river
12
9
25
26
Ga
ng
es
Ri
ve
r
31
30
29
28
SW
33
32
34
35
36
37
NE
38
39
40
NC
Pa
Dhaka
dm
a
Ri
ve
r
42
44
46
45
47
Me
27
R iv
er
NW
Brahmaputra River
na
10
gh
11
43
48
49
SE
50
54
51
52
rM
we
Lo
SC
53
EH
a
hn
eg
er
R iv
RE
NW: Northwest
NC: Northcentral
NE: Northeast
SW: Southwest
SC: Southcentral
SE: Southeast
EH: Eastern Hills
RH: Rivers and Estuaries
56
55
57
Figure 2.6: GBM basins and river systems of Bangladesh

10
Figure 2.7: Spatial distribution of annual maximum discharge of 2, 20 and 100 year
return period (Source: Chowdhury et al., 1997)
11
Figure 2.8: Spatial distribution of average annual maximum, average annual and
average annual minimum discharge in major and medium rivers (Source:
Chowdhury et al., 1997)
12
2.5 Physiography
Bangladesh comprises three discernible broad physiographic regions: floodplains, terraces
(slightly uplifted fault blocks), and hills. Each of these regions exhibits its own geomorphological characteristics. The broad physiographic regions are further categorized into
30 Agro-Ecological Zone (AEZ) units as shown in Figure 2.9. The area of the individual
units is shown in Table 2.1.
Hill areas include the northern and eastern hills and occupy about 12% of the country. These
are underlain by Tertiary and Quaternary sediments which have been folded, faulted and
uplifted, then deeply dissected by rivers and streams. There is an overall pattern of long,
linear ridges running approximately north-northwest to south-southeast with the highest
elevation as high as 900 m above the MSL.
Terrace areas include Madhupur Tract in the center, Barind Tracts in the north-west., and
Akhaura terrace in the east. Terraces occupy about 8% of the country. These areas are not
true alluvial terraces but are almost flat surfaces appearing above the recent deposits. The
Madhupur Tract and the Akhaura terrace are closely dissected and broken by faults. The
Barind Tract is composed of an uplifted and locally tilted series of fault blocks interrupted by
a few major river valleys occupying fault troughs (Brammer, 1996).
Floodplain areas include alluvial floodplain and estuarine areas and occupy the remaining
80% of the country. They are composed of predominantly recent alluvial deposits
transported from the hills by the rivers. There are numerous natural depressions some of
which are abandoned channels formed as a result of change in river courses, and some have
been formed in the process of delta building and as a result of tectonic movements of earth.
Five main kinds of landscape can be recognized (Brammer, 2002) in the floodplain areas,
which are briefly described below.
(i)
Active river floodplain (AEZs 2, 7, 10, 16, 17): These are the youngest alluvial land
within and alongside the main rivers which is subject to alternate deposition of new
sediments and erosion by shifting channels within the main river course.
The
temporary alluvial formations (known as chars in Bangladesh) have an irregular relief
with stratified sandy and silty deposits.
(ii)
Meander floodplains (AEZs 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 20; parts of 21, 23): These
floodplains have been formed by the big meandering rivers. Meander floodplains
cover the relatively older parts of the Teesta, Atrai, Brahmaputra-Jamuna, KaratoaBangali, Ganges and Surma-Kushiyara river floodplains, away from the present main
river channels. They have relatively stable landscapes with complex patterns of
curved ridges (former river banks), basins (back swamps) and cut-off channels,
crossed by a few active river channels (tributary or distributary channels of the main
rivers). Most older floodplain land receives regular additions of new alluvium from
the rivers, but some young floodplain land near to active channels (especially on the
Jamuna floodplain) receives new deposits during high floods.
(iii)
Piedmont plains (AEZs 1, 22; parts of 23): These are characterized by gently sloping
land at the foot of the hills composed of colluvial and alluvial sediments (deposited by
rivers and streams subject to flash floods) and a drainage pattern of a braided river.
13
They include the Old Himalayan Piedmont plain at the foot of the Himalayas and
active alluvial fans at the foot of the Northern and Eastern Hills (including parts of the
Chittagong Coastal Plain).
Figure 2.9: Location of Agro-Ecological Zones (Source: BARC-GIS Project-2000)

14
(iv)
Estuarine floodplains (AEZs 18, 19): They are characterized by smooth, almost
horizontal levels underlain by silts deposited uniformly both in the lateral and vertical
directions under estuarine conditions. These floodplains are divided into the young
part (AEZ 18) adjoining the Meghna estuary which is still subject to tidal flooding
(where not embanked) and to new accretion and erosion by shifting estuarine channels,
and the stable, old part (AEZ 19) which no longer receives new alluvial sediments and
is no longer flooded by the tidal water.
(v)
Tidal floodplains (AEZs 13; parts of 23): These are characterized by a distinctive,
almost-level landscape crossed by innumerable, interconnecting tidal rivers and
creeks following a zigzag pattern and flood levels lower than on meander plains.
Under natural conditions, the land is subject to flooding with silty water at high tides
during at least a part of the year, but many areas have been embanked and thus are
cutoff from tidal flooding and sedimentation. On the Ganges tidal Floodplain, tidal
water is saline throughout the year in the south-west and fresh throughout the year in
the north-east; in between is a zone where floodwater is fresh in the monsoon season
and saline for part or all of the dry season.
Table 2.1: Area of Agro-Ecological Zones (Source: FAO, 1988; Brammer, 2002)
% of
AEZ No.
Area
Agro-Ecological Zone
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Old Himalayan Piedmont Plain

Active Teesta Floodplain
Teesta Meander Floodplain
Karatoa-Bangali Floodplain
Lower Atrai Basin
Lower Punarbhaba Floodplain
Active Brahmaputra-Jamuna Floodplain
Young Brahmaputra and Jamuna Floodplains
Old Brahmaputra Floodplain
Active Ganges Floodplain
High Ganges River Floodplain
Low Ganges River Floodplain
Ganges Tidal Floodplain
Gopalganj-Khulna Beels
Ariel Beel
Middle Meghna River Floodplain
Lower Meghna River Floodplain
Young Meghna Estuarine Floodplain
Old Meghna Estuarine Floodplain
Eastern Surma-Kushiyara Floodplain
Sylhet Basin
Northern and Eastern Piedmont Plains
Chittagong Coastal Plains
St. Martin's Coral Island
15
sq.miles
1549
323
3658
994
329
50
1233
2289
2794
1288
5103
3079
6594
867
56
600
351
3581
2991
1786
1767
1560
1437
3
country
Km2
4008
2.77
836
0.58
9468
6.54
2572
1.78
851
0.59
129
0.09
3190
2.20
5924
4.09
7230
4.99
3334
2.30
13205
9.12
7968
5.50
17066
11.78
2247
1.55
144
0.10
1555
1.07
909
0.63
9269
6.40
7740
5.34
4622
3.19
4573
3.16
4038
2.79
3720
2.57
8
0.01
25
26
27
28
29
30
Level Barind Tract

High Barind Tract
North-eastern Barind Tract
Madhupur Tract
Northern and Eastern Hills
Akhaura Terrace
Total area
1591
618
417
1640
7021
44
55913
5049
1600
1079
4244
18171
113
144836
3.49
1.10
0.74
2.93
12.55
0.08
100.00
2.6 Soils
Bangladesh has a wide diversity of soils between and within regions, within villages,
between neighboring fields and even within individual field. They often occur in complex
patterns. This results in diverse and complex patterns of land use, crop suitability, soil
fertility and agronomic practices in many parts of Bangladesh. The diversity and complexity
have important implications for land use planning, agricultural research, agricultural
extension and the collection of crop statistics. They also mean that the impact of natural
disasters can vary considerably between regions, within different regions, and on different
land and soil types within a village (Brammer, 2002). In many areas soil resources are being
degraded due to improper use of land, fertilizer, irrigation, intensive cropping and some other
activities.
Broadly, the soil resource of Bangladesh could be divided into three major groups: floodplain,
hill and terrace soils. Figure 2.10 presents the highly generalized soil map of Bangladesh
showing the overall distribution of 18 principal soil types of floodplain, hill and terrace soils.
The soils of the two terraces covering 8 per cent of the total area are diverse, ranging from
deep, reddish brown friable well drained clay loams to grey, poorly drained silty top soils
over clay on level highlands. The hilly areas spreading over 12 per cent of the total land
surface have mainly loamy soils of shallow depth, not suited for the cultivation of shallowrooted crops because of the poor water-holding capacity.
Floodplain Soils. The floodplain soils are alluvial deposits ranging from sandy soils
deposited on higher ridges, silty clay loams on the lower ridges, and silty clays and clays in
the depressions occupying 80 per cent of the country's land area. Fresh alluvium is
extensively deposited closer to the rivers, while the older deposits further away from the river
are conducive to plant growth. There are 12 general soil types under the floodplain soils.
These are: (1a) Calcareous Alluvium (non-saline), (1b) Calcareous Alluvium (seasonally
saline), (2) Non-calcareous Alluvium, (3) Calcareous Grey Floodplain Soils, (4) Calcareous
Dark Grey Floodplain Soils, (5a) Non-calcareous Grey Floodplain Soils (non-saline), (5b)
Non-calcareous Grey Floodplain Soils (seasonally saline), (6) Noncalcareous Brown
Floodplain Soils, (7) Non-calcareous Dark Grey Floodplain Soils, (8) Noncalcareous Dark
Grey Floodplain Soils and Peat, (9) Black Terai Soils, (10) Acid Basin Clays, (11) Acid
Sulphate Soils, and (12) Grey Piedmont Soils. The Gangetic alluvium is rich in calcium,
magnesium and potassium, and also contains free calcium carbonate.
The soils are
characterized by nitrogen and phosphate deficiency and locally by strong alkalinity. The pH
range is 7.0 to 8.5. The Teesta silt tract soils are sandy to sandy loam in texture, without any
profile development. They are flooded every year and as a result are replenished by fresh
deposits every year. The pH varies from 5.5 to 6.8. The coastal floodplain is subject to
16
flooding by saline water at high tides. The soil is saline and in general neutral but tends to be
on the alkaline side, with pH from 6.9 to 7.5 (Rahman et al., 1990).
The seasonal flooding characteristics have an important influence on physical and biological
properties of soil, and therefore have an important bearing on the land use and agricultural
potential. The agro-ecological zones are separated on the basis of important differences
between them in physiography, soils and flooding characteristics (FAO, 1988).
Terrace Soils. Considering that they have all developed over or from the uniform Madhupur
Clay, a surprising diversity of soils occurs on the Madhupur and Barind Tracts and on the
Figure 2.10: Map of general soil types [Source: BARC/FAO/UNDP GIS

Project BGD/95/006]
17
related Akhaura Terrace. They range from red to grey, deep to shallow, level to sloping, well
drained to poorly drained, and from calcareous to very strongly acid. Most have a low
moisture-holding capacity, so they are easily prone to drought, and natural fertility generally
is low. The proportions in which the different soils occur vary greatly between the three
tracts.
Hilly soils. These include a wide range of soils developed over consolidated and
unconsolidated sandstones, siltstones and shales which underlie the Northern and Eastern
Hills (and their outliers in neighboring physiographic units). They are mainly excessively to
moderately well drained, strong brown or yellow-brown, friable, sandy loams to sandy clay
loams occurring on steep slopes. The majority is deep over soft or fragmented rock, but
shallow soils over hard rock or ironpan (laterite) occur locally. Almost all hill soils are
strongly to extremely acidic, moderately to rapidly permeable, low in moisture holding
capacity and low in natural fertility with very limited agricultural potential. They are best
suited for tree crops or forest production.
2.7 Inundation land types
Bangladesh has a total area of 14.7 Mha and a net cultivable area of around 8.64 Mha (BADC,
2007). On most floodplain and valley land, cropping patterns are primarily determined by the
seasonal flooding regime, i.e. the dates when inundation begins and ends, the depth of
inundation at peak levels and the risk of damage to crops by early, high or late floods. The
depth of flooding is a key factor in the choice of cropping patterns. For example, in deeply
flooded areas rice is broadcast as deepwater Aman. In less flooded areas the rice is
transplanted, and farmers can grow HYV aman where the flood risk is low (F0 and some F1).
With slightly deeper flooding local T.Aman is preferred to HYV T.Aman, because the latter
is shorter strawed and more vulnerable to floods. So the topographic position of land in
relation to the monsoon season inundation, i.e. inundation land type, will largely decide the
land use type in the country.
Table 2.2 shows the classification of land types depending on the inundation depth. The
classification has been standardized from Bangladeshi farmers own classification of land
types in relation to normal seasonal flooding (Brammer, 2002). This classification is used
in water resources planning. The distribution of inundation land types across the country is
shown in Figure 2.11, while the regional distribution as per hydrologic zones and agroecological zones are presented in Tables 2.3 and 2.4, respectively.
Table 2.2: Classification of cultivable land by flood depth (Source: Harza, 1984)
Land
type
F0
F1
F2
F3
F4
Flood
depth (cm)
0-30
30-90
90-180
180-300
Over 300
Description of
land
High land
Medium high land
Medium low land
Lowland
Very lowland
Area
(Mha)
4.20
5.04
1.18
1.10
0.19
Note: Settlements and water bodies cover 15%
18
Suitability of land to rice

cultivation
29
35
12
8
1
HYV rice in wet season

Local varieties of Aus and T. Aman
B. Aman in wet season
B. Aman can be grown
Depth, duration and/ or time of
flooding do not permit growing of
B. Aman
Table 2.3: Regional distribution of inundation land types (Source: Chowdhury et al.,
1997; WARPO, 2001b)
Region
NW
NC
NE
SW
SC
SE
Net Cultivable Area

(NCA) (x 1000 ha)
2353
1056
1408
1378
931
743
% of regional cultivable area

F1
F2
F3
33
8
6
29
18
19
18
22
30
43
17
7
58
13
3
36
23
10
F0
53
34
29
33
23
29
Land type
H ig h lan d
M e d iu m H igh la n d
Me d iu m Lo w la nd
Low land
V ery L o w la n d
No DEM
Sundarbans
Figure 2.11: Inundation land types

19
F4
0
0
1
0
3
2
Table 2.4: Inundation land types in agroecological regions (Source: FAO, 1988;
Brammer, 2002)
AEZ
Region
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Bangladesh
Highland
Medium
Medium
Low land Very Lowland Settlement +
(%)
Highland (%) Lowland (%)
(%)
(%)
water (%)
58
34
1
7
2
72
26
35
51
4
1
9
23
44
14
4
1
14
2
8
21
65
4
10
60
*
30
5
37
20
8
30
18
42
19
9
12
28
35
20
7
10
12
33
18
4
33
43
32
12
2
11
13
29
31
14
2
11
2
78
2
18
3
13
41
28
11
4
13
73
*
14
8
29
25
11
27
14
28
31
27
<1
451
7
47
2
24
33
21
3
17
5
25
20
36
<1
14
<1
4
19
43
23
11
33
31
17
9
1
10
17
43
13
27
33
63
2
2
30
55
4
2
9
93
1
<1
<1
6
36
56
1
7
56
18
7
9
10
92
2
<1
<1
<1
5
55
11
10
15
3
6
29
35
12
8
1
15
Notes: Very lowland = Low land flooded > 300 cm + bottom land (depression) which remains wet throughout
the year; * Very Lowland and Lowland not differentiated
2.8 Aquifer
The Bengal delta formed by alluvial deposit constitutes a huge aquifer. The aquifer system
which underlies most of the floodplain, normally consists of three lithological units: (1) an
upper silty clay/silt layer, (2) a middle layer of fine to very fine sand, and (3) a lower layer of
fine to coarse sand, constituting the main aquifer. Though there are significant regional
variations in much of the floodplain area, the aquifer occurs at usually 30 to 60 m depths;
exceptions are the up-faulted blocks of the Barind and Madhupur tracts, part of the Sylhet
Basin and the entire south, where fine deposits can be considerably thicker. In contrast, in
Dinajpur and Rangpur districts, the main aquifer extends almost to ground surface. The
middle layer of aquifer is often 20 m thick. Deep aquifers are present in much of Bangladesh,
20
but occur at depths between 300 and 2,500 m. Present day groundwater development is
confined to the very recent shallow sediments with wells seldom exceeding 150 m depth. In
absolute terms, transmissivity of the alluvial aquifer is mainly in the range of 500 to 3,000
cubic meters per day per meter width of aquifer and storage coefficient (or specific yield for
water table aquifer) varies from about 1 to 15%.
2.9 Land cover and land use
The distribution of land cover is illustrated in Table 2.5. Agricultural land dominates the land
cover of the country. Arable land occupies about 59%, forests (including mangroves) about
19%, urban and settlements about 13%, and rivers and water bodies about 9% of the total
area. Location of forests and water bodies are shown in Figure 2.12.
Table 2.5: Land cover distribution (Source: WARPO, 2001b)
Classification
River
Water bodies
Mangrove
Forest
Urban
Rural
Agriculture
Other
Total
Area
(km2)
4626
7584
4957
21058
8697
6734
82784
3373
Proportion
139,813
100%
3.3%
5.4%
3.5%
15.1%
6.2%
4.8%
59.2%
2.4%
Summary
classification
River and water
bodies
Area (km2)
Proportion
12210
8.7%
Forest and mangrove
26015
18.6%
Urban and rural
15431
11.0%
Agriculture
Other
82784
3373
59.2%
2.4%
139,813
100%
Note: The above figures were provisional estimates; WARPO is in the process of updating the land use using
more refined data bases; Land area is excluding estuarine rivers.
Forests and mangroves. Most of the forests of

Bangladesh are located in the Greater districts
of Chittagong, Chittagong Hill tracts, Sylhet,
Khulna, Dhaka, Mymensingh, and Tangail.
The forests of Bangladesh are tropical in nature
and could be classified into tropical wet
evergreen, tropical semi-evergreen, tropical
moist deciduous and tropical littoral and
swamp forest. Of them present in the coastal
zone are tropical evergreen, tropical semievergreen and tropical littoral forests
(mangroves). It has been estimated that they
represent around 43% of the total forest cover
of the country (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a). Tropical
evergreen, tropical semi-evergreen forests are
located in the Chittagong and Coxs Bazar
districts of the coastal zone.
Waterbodies. Bangladesh is rich in water
bodies that include rivers, estuaries, lakes, and
21
Figure 2.12: Location of forests (green

areas) and water bodies (blue
areas, and black dots)
(Source: CEGIS)
ponds. The water bodies provide habitat for fish. They are sources of many unique species of
plants and animals. They support bio-diversity and provide resort to migratory birds. Major
floodplain depressions are concentrated in the northeast region and in the southern part of the
northwest region. These water bodies are known as haors in the northeast region and beel in
the northwest region. Oxbow lakes (known as baors in the South West and South Central
regions) in the floodplain are the abandoned reaches of meandering rivers. Ponds are dug in
rural areas with size varying from 0.1 to 0.5 acres. They are important sources of domestic
water supply, are extensively used for fish culture, and have been very successful in
alleviating drought in rainfed rice lands (Saleh et al., 1996).
Agricultural land use. Bangladeshs climate with a warm wet summer and cool dry winter
provides conditions suitable for growing a wide range of annual and perennial crops: tropical
(e.g. rice and jute) in summer; temperate (e.g. wheat, potato) in winter; and subtropical (e.g.
sugarcane, banana) throughout the year. Flood hydrology, soil and seasonal distribution of
rainfall largely determine the land use including types of crops to be grown and intensity of
its use. High rainfall and seasonal flooding make conditions particularly suitable for paddy
cultivation, and based on BBS (2008) data for 2006-07 season, rice (the staple cereal crop)
occupied about 77% of total cropped area of 13.73 Mha. This statistic has been more or less
similar since the mid-1980s. Total areas with different crops and their productions for the
year 2006-07 are presented in Table 2.6. Regional distribution of cropped areas, cropping
intensities and rice cropped areas are presented in Table 2.7. Rice is the dominant crop in all
regions, its share of total crops ranging from 42% in Khagrachari and 51.5% in Bandarban in
the eastern hill region and 68% in Dhaka and 73% in Tangail in the northcentral region, 86%
in Khulna and 89% in Patuakhali in the coastal (greater) southwest region, to over 90% in
Sylhet and Kishoreganj in the northeast region.
Table 2.6 Cropped and irrigated areas and production in 2006-07 (Source: BBS, 2008)
Crop
Crop area
(Mha)
% of total
cropped area
Production
Average yield
(million tons)
(tons/ha)
1. Rice crops
Aus
0.91
6.60
1.51
1.67
Aman
5.42
39.45
10.84
2.00
Boro
4.26
31.02
14.97
3.51
10.58
77.07
27.32
2.58
Wheat
0.40
2.91
0.74
1.84
Jute
0.42
3.05
0.89
2.12
Pulses
0.31
2.27
0.26
0.83
Oilseeds
0.30
2.19
0.63
2.08
Sugarcane
0.15
1.09
5.77
38.43
Potatoes
0.38
2.76
5.47
14.44
6.97
0.35
2.54
1.41
4.04
2.31
16.81
22.14
63.78
Rice crops Total

2. Other crops
Vegetables
Spices
Other crops Total
22
Table 2.7: Region distribution of cropped areas, cropping intensities and rice cropped
areas in 2006-07 (Source: BBS, 2008)
Former
district
Cropping Net cropped

Total
Total area
% of rice Production
intensity
area
cropped area under rice crop of total ('000' tons)
(000 acres) (000 acres)
(000 acres) crop area
Bandarban
126.67
63
80
42
52.50
38
Chittagong
174.96
653
1136
1000
88.03
1044
Comilla
175.84
1058
1850
1537
83.08
1630
Khagrachari
164.29
74
122
86
70.49
91
Noakhali
186.29
701
1289
1022
79.29
917
Rangamati
141.49
91
129
54
41.86
52
Sylhet
145.09
1591
2293
2081
90.75
1867
Dhaka
166.05
942
1564
1062
67.90
1154
Faridpur
183.65
1083
1987
1091
54.91
1053
Jamalpur
197.03
562
1113
912
81.94
1065
Kishoreganj
157.38
888
1410
1287
91.28
1482
Mymensingh
198.58
715
1421
1292
90.92
1247
Tangail
181.72
535
977
712
72.88
841
Barisal
165.82
1034
1701
1470
86.42
1070
Jessore
210.36
1063
2239
1599
71.42
1937
Khulna
131.62
981
1300
1118
86.00
1111
Kushtia
205.53
545
1127
596
52.88
640
Patuakhali
151.67
699
1054
935
88.71
583
217.6
712
1545
1243
80.45
1495
Dinajpur
186.79
1202
2253
1637
72.66
1737
Pabna
196.27
744
1471
939
63.83
1078
Rajshahi
159.89
1774
2841
2050
72.16
2401
Rangpur
194.28
1556
3020
2378
78.74
2785
Bangladesh
175.98
19266
33922
26143
77.07
27318
Bogra
The main cropping seasons are as follows, although there is some overlap between them:
Kharif I (March to July): the pre-monsoon season. Aus is the type of rice planted in
this season. Jute is the other principal crop.
Kharif II (July to December): the monsoon and immediately post-monsoon period.
Aman rice is the dominant crop.
Rabi (November to April): the winter season. Boro rice, transplanted between
December and February and harvested largely in May, is the most widely grown
crop. Other crops grown are wheat, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables and spices.
Conditions during rabi are favorable for high yields, because of high solar radiation, lack of
flooding, low humidity and a wide variation between day and night temperatures. The rabi
season is the main irrigation season, although some supplementary irrigation of Aus and
Aman also takes place in the Kharif season.
23
The annual cropping intensity has risen from

155% in the late 1970s to 175% in the mid1990s. Cropping intensity has been more or
less the same since then with cropping
intensity reading at 176% in the year 2005-06
(BBS, 2008). In 2005-06, 51% of the net
cropped area was double-cropped and 12.5%
was triple-cropped (BBS, 2008). There are
substantial district-wise variations in
cropping intensities. The most common
cropping patterns are: T Aman-Boro and
Aus-T aman plus some rabi cropping on high
and medium high land; T Aman-rabi crops;
and Aus-rabi crops. On low lands often only
one crop is grown, B Aman or Boro
(WARPO, 2001b). The occurrence of
different cropping patterns according to
inundation land types are shown in Figure
2.13 (a), (b) and (c).
(a) Mustard (Rabi A) - Boro HYV (Rabi B)

Fallow
(c) Wheat - B. Aus (LV) T.Aman (LV)
(b) Boro (HYV)-Fallow-T.Aman (HYV)
Figure 2.13: Occurrence of different cropping patterns by inundation land type

(Source: GIS Project, BGD /95/006, BARC)
24
2.10 Fisheries
The rivers and their tributaries, the seasonally inundated floodplains, the Beels, Haors and
Baors, the estuarine and brackish waters in the south, provide a hospitable abode for a rich
fisheries resource. Bangladesh is the third among the top inland fish producing nations, and
also the third in inland aquaculture production (BBS, 2005). The diverse aquatic ecosystem
of Bangladesh can be divided into three categories: freshwater, estuarine and marine. About
260 species of freshwater finfish, four species of freshwater crabs, 10 species of freshwater
shrimps/prawns and 20 species of turtles have been recorded. The estuaries of Bangladesh
are rich in biodiversity with 149 species of finfish, and 19 species of shrimp/prawns. The
marine water of Bangladesh contains various species of fish at different depths. There are
442 species of fish, of which 56 are cartilaginous fishes and 386 are boney fishes. Eleven
species of marine crabs have been identified. Several species of shrimps occur in the Bay
among which the giant tiger shrimp, brown tiger shrimp, white shrimp, blue crab and spring
lobster are commercially significant (BBS, 2005).
Total area under inland open and closed water bodies is about 4.6 Mha of which 91% is
inland open water body and the remaining 9% area is closed water body. The BBS (2008)
estimate of the yield of fish from different types of fisheries for the year 2005-06 is presented
in Table 2.8. It is seen that during this period, 1,848,735 metric tons of fish were harvested
from the inland waters, representing 79.4% of the total fish harvest of the country. Again, out
of the harvest from the inland waters, a total of 956,686 metric tons or 41% were taken from
the inland capture fishery system, floodplains alone contributing 75% of that amount.
Table 2.8: Total catch and area productivities by sectors of fisheries for 2005-06
(Source: BBS, 2008)
Sector of fisheries
A. Inland Fisheries
(i) Capture
1. River and Estuaries
2. Sundarban
3. Beels
4. Kaptai Lake
.
5. Flood lands
Capture total
(ii) Culture
1. Ponds
2. Baors
3. Shrimp farms
Culture total
Inland Total
B. Marine Fisheries
(i) Industrial fisheries (trawler)
(ii) Artisanal fisheries
Water area
(ha)
Total catch
(Metric ton)
1031563
114161
68800
2832792
4047316
137859
16423
76365
7548
718491
956686
305625
5488
217877
528390
4575706
759628
4498
127923
892049
1848735
34084
445726
Marine Total
Country Total
479810
2328545
25
Catch/Area
(Kg/ha)
134
669
110
254
41.1
38.3
79.4
2490
820
587
-
20.6
100.0
In Bangladesh, fish is second only to rice as a source of food. Fish represents 80% of the
total animal protein consumed in the country (BBS, 2005). Most importantly, fish is virtually
the only source of free animal protein for the poorer section of the community, who catches
fish from open water bodies including inundated floodplain, rivers and swamps. During the
flood season, subsistence fishing is carried out throughout the inundated floodplains on an
extensive scale by members of rural households, for home consumption as well as for sale.
For that matter, fishing in the monsoon inundated floodplains is practically the only
opportunity for the poorer section of rural people to obtain free fish to meet their animal
protein needs. Fisheries sector in Bangladesh represents 5.1 per cent of total GDP, but it
fully employs 1.5 million rural people and provides partial employment to another 11
millions.
2.11
Flora and fauna
There are about 5000 species of flowering plants in Bangladesh. The numbers of endangered
and threatened vascular plants are 9 and 27, respectively. Ferns and orchids are most common
in all over the Gangetic plains where the fertile land is mostly under cultivation. There are
about 85 species of orchids in the country of which 20 are used for ornamental and medicinal
purposes. Seventeen common wild grasses and 31 indigenous woody species that are
important forage and fodder resources have been recorded in the country. The total forest
area covers about 17% of the land area of which less than 50% forestlands are under tree
cover. It is estimated that 9000 hectares of forestland are lost every year. The government
forests managed by the Forest Department are distributed in 42 districts (BBS, 2005).
Bangladesh has about 1600 species of vertebrate fauna. Of them 113 species of mammals
(110 inland and 3 marine), 628 species of birds (388 resident and 240 migratory), 126 species
of reptiles (109 inland and 17 marine), 22 species of amphibians and 708 species (266
freshwater and brackish water, and 442 marine) of fishes are recorded. Royal Bengal Tiger is
the most famous species of carnivorous mammals which lives in the Sundarbans. Among all
the above mentioned species, 40 species of mammals, 70 birds, 24 reptiles and 2 amphibians
are listed as threatened.
2.12
Water pollution
Industrial pollution
The increasing urbanization and industrialization of Bangladesh have negative implications
for water quality. The pollution from industrial and urban waste effluents and from
agrochemicals in some water bodies and rivers has reached alarming levels. In Bangladesh,
industrial units are mostly located along the banks of the rivers. Most of the old industries are
not equipped with treatment facilities. As a consequence, industrial units drain effluents
directly into the rivers without any consideration of the environmental degradation. Such
emissions are also responsible for causing land degradation, as well as pollution of
groundwater due to leaching. The most problematic industries for the water sector are textiles,
tanneries, pulp and paper mills, fertilizer, industrial chemical production and refineries. A
complex mixture of hazardous chemicals, both organic and inorganic, is discharged into the
water bodies from all these industries usually without treatment. The DoE has identified
1176 major polluting industries by sectors (Table 2.9) and the distribution of these industries
by divisions is presented in Figure 2.14.
26
63
10
Fertilizers
118
Pharmaceuticals
Distilleries
92
Engineering
Chemicals and
pesticides
35
38 129
149
Food and sugar
Jute
365
Paper and pulp
Cement
198
Rubber and plastic
Textiles
Sector
Number
Tanneries
Table 2.9: Major polluting industries in Bangladesh (Source: BBS, 2005)
The industries are located in

concentrated 'hot spots' (WARPO, 500
2000a). The main areas are around 400
Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Bogra.
300
Due to unplanned industrial expansion
in the vicinity of Dhaka, the worst 200
problems at present are on the 100
Buriganga River in the south of Dhaka,
0
the most significant source being the
Khulna Rajshahi Chittagong Dhaka
tanneries at Hazaribagh. Dissolved
Figure 2.14: Distribution of major polluting
Oxygen levels are very low or nonindustries among four divisions
existent in the dry season and the river
(Source: BBS, 2005)
becomes anoxic.
This is already
having an impact on human health in Dhaka and surrounding areas. Recently, the
Government has decided to shift the tanneries from Hazaribagh to Savar (exclusively
developed for Tannery) at a total cost of Tk. 2000 million (BBS, 2005).
Pollution from agro-chemicals
Agriculture is generally considered as the cleanest production process. However, in recent
years the use of herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers by farmers, largely unaware of the
potential negative effects, is growing fast, posing a big challenge to health, environment and
the declining economy of the country. The main problem for the aquatic environment created
by higher levels of use would be high nitrogen and phosphate residues, which might
contribute to eutrophication processes in shallow standing water bodies. Use of fertilizers has
increased due to widespread introduction of HYV seeds by farmers. Urea, Triple Super
Phosphate (TSP), Muriate of Potash (MP) and Gypsum are the major chemical fertilizers
used in Bangladesh. There are about 20,000 private pesticide dealers throughout Bangladesh
marketing 64 kinds of pesticides (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a). It is apprehended by scientists that
fish mortalities in the open water of Bangladesh have occurred due to uncontrolled use of
pesticides (BBS, 2005; PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
Pollution from domestic sewage
Bangladesh has the highest rural population densities in the world, and with an exception in
some areas, the overall density is very high. Most of the rural areas have densities around
1,000 people per km, and over one third of the thanas exceeded this (WARPO, 2000a). The
main problem in respect to water is the lack of sanitation facilities in the rural areas and
inadequate facilities for urban wastewater treatment. There is one sewage treatment plant in
the whole country, serving only a part of Dhaka. A major program for provision of sewerage
27
is needed to arrest the increasing fecal pollution of open watercourses around all urban areas
in Bangladesh, particularly Dhaka. Outside the urban areas, there is a problem with designing
adequately sealed latrine systems at the household level, which can cope with the annual
flooding and prevent fecal pollution of the water supply. Poor management of wellhead areas
may be the most significant source of fecal contamination rather than direct aquifer pollution.
Oil and Lube Spillage
Chittagong and Mongla are the two seaports of the country, and they dealt with 2682 vessels
and 28259 cargos in 2007 (BBS, 1998). These ports, however, do not have facilities to
receive and treat bilge and ballast water, and thus ships throw wastewater into the territorial
waters of Bangladesh. Oil and lube spillage also happen during refueling of vessels and cargo
handling. In addition, there are innumerable mechanized trawlers and boats engaged in
fishing in the Bay of Bengal. The operators of these vessels dump waste, including burnt oil,
into the water, because of their ignorance about its adverse effect on environment. As the
seaports and the harbors of Bangladesh are located near shallow water, large oil tankers
carrying crude and refined oil cannot enter them. Therefore, oil spills also take place in outer
anchorage during the transfer of crude and refined oil from large oil tankers to small tankers.
There have been several environmental disasters due to heavy spillage from oil tankers in
outer anchorage and along coastal areas (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
2.13 Char lands
The Brahmaputra-Jamuna and parts of the Ganges-Padma and the Lower Meghna have
braiding characteristics, i.e. they have multiple channels separated by alluvial islands. The
subsidiary channels have meandering courses which continuously erode their banks and
islands, and deposit new materials on existing island or on other bank to form point bar or
within the channel to form new island. The mainland is also eroded and accreted causing
shift in the main bank of the river. The islands and accreted lands on the bank are generally
known as char. The whole of the braided channel, including subsidiary channels and chars is
called the active river floodplain (Brammer, 1996). There can be island chars and attached
chars. The island chars can only be reached by crossing a channel of the main river, even in
dry season. The attached char is accessible from the mainland without crossing a channel
during the dry season; however, they are inundated or surrounded by water during the flood
season.
The active river floodplain occupies roughly 6% of Bangladesh, of which 40% is island
chars. Almost 4.3 million people (about 4% of the total population) lived in the active
floodplain in 1992-1993 and 22% of them lived on island chars, mostly concentrated in the
Jamuna and Meghna (ISPAN, 1993). During the period 1981-1993, almost 64,000 thousand
people per year were displaced on average by river erosion. Depending on the river to which
the active floodplain belongs, 43 to 46% were involved in agriculture, 23 to 40% depended
predominantly on agricultural day-labor, and a significant part of the remaining population
worked as fishermen and boatmen (ISPAN, 1993).
2.14 Coastal zone
The coastal zone is described separately in this section since it will carry the major brunt of
climate change. It is a zone of multiple vulnerabilities and opportunities (PDO-ICZMP,
2004a). Coastal population (35.1 million) is around 1/4th of the country population, while
28
poor livelihood groups form about three-fourths of the coastal population. The extent of
poverty is relatively high compared with the remaining part of Bangladesh. It is prone to
severe natural hazards, such as cyclones, storm surges, floods, and salt water intrusion. In
combination with other natural and man-made hazards, such as erosion, the high arsenic
contents of groundwater, water logging, water and soil salinity and various forms of pollution,
these disasters have made coastal dwellers very vulnerable and slowed down social and
economic developments. Sea level rise, the major consequence of future climate change, will
have a significant bearing on the coastal zone.
The coastal zone of Bangladesh comprises the largest delta of the world and is under a
process of active delta development and morphological changes by the Ganges-BrahmaputraMeghna (GBM) river system. The coastal region is marked by a vast network of river
systems and deltaic tidal channels, and ever dynamic estuary, interaction of huge quantities of
fresh water that are discharged by the major river systems, and prevents saline water from
penetrating inland from the sea. In addition to the coastal plains, there are a number of
offshore islands that are subject to strong wind and tidal interactions throughout the year and
are inhabited by a large number of people.
Coastal zones refer to areas where land and sea meet (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a). The Coastal
Zone Policy considers three indicators for determining the landward boundaries of the coastal
zone of Bangladesh, which are: influence of tidal waters, salinity intrusion and
cyclones/storm surges (Ministry of Water Resources, 2005). Accordingly, the coastal zone,
covering an area of 47,201 km2, has been delineated which consists of:
19 districts comprising 147 upazilas; and

The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
Furthermore, a distinction has been made between upazilas facing the coast or the estuary and
the upazilas located behind them. Out of 19 coastal districts (147 upazilas), a total of 48
upazilas in 12 districts that are exposed to the sea and or lower estuaries, are defined as the
exposed coast and the remaining 99 upazilas of the coastal districts are termed interior coast
(Figure 2.15). Some basic statistics of the coastal zone are provided in Table 2.10.
Figure 2.15: Coastal zone of Bangladesh (Produced by PDO-ICZMP)

29
Table 2.10: Some basic statistics of the coastal zone (Source: Islam et al., 2006)
Land area
Total Agricultural Area
Net cultivable area (NCA)
Area under irrigation
Total forest area
Homestead and settlement area
Polder protected area
Total population
Urban & Rural population
Per capita GDP
GDP growth rate (Over all)
Share of agricultural sector in GDP
Poverty
Rural household depending on non farm activities
Urban & Rural peoples access to potable water
Tube well density
Population with access to cyclone shelter
Proportion of small farmer household
Proportion of functional landless
Proportion of agriculture labor household
Cattle holding per rural household
47,201 km2
34,775 km2
22,017 km2
7507 km2
10,046 km2
1,410 km2
15,000 km
36.8 million
8.0 & 27.1 million
18,198 Taka
5.4 % annual growth
29 % of GDP
75.6 % of household
30 % of rural households
94 & 86 % of household
110 No. of persons per Tubewell
14 %
58 % of rural household
53.5 % of rural household
33 % of rural household
2.61 Nos.
Depending on the geo-morphological features, the coastal areas of Bangladesh can broadly be
divided into three distinct regions - namely, western, central, and eastern coastal zones. The
western part, also known as the Ganges tidal plain, comprises the very low and flat, semiactive delta and is criss-crossed by numerous channels and creeks. The southwestern part of
the region is covered by the largest mangrove forest of the world. The central region is the
most active one, with continuous processes of accretion and erosion. The very active Meghna
River estuary lies in the region. This estuarial region has seen the most disastrous effects of
tropical cyclones and storm surges in the world. The eastern region, being covered by hilly
areas, is more stable, and it has one of the longest beaches in the world (Ali, 1999a).
The coast of Bangladesh covers about 710 km in length and hosts a unique diversity of
ecosystems. It consists of dynamic geographical and ecological setting. Topography, tidal
river system, wetlands (marshes and lagoons), and natural mangrove forests of coastal areas
provide diversified biological (fisheries), mineral (sand, metals) and energy (wave energy)
resources which are supported by available surface water flow, tidal water effect and sea
level. It has sites for Export Processing Zones, harbors, airports, land ports and tourism
complexes and other industrial units. The coastal zone also contains several ecosystems that
have important conservation values. The worlds largest uninterrupted stretch of mangrove
ecosystem, the Sundarbans, has been declared a World Heritage Site in 1997, whereas coral
ecosystems are found around St Martins Island. These ecosystems are not only biodiversity
hot spots, but they also provide the ecological foundation for an important common property
resource: the fisheries in the Bay of Bengal. Coastal water resources not only support
30
agriculture and industrial activities but also provide extensively used navigational routes.
There are two sea ports in Bangladesh: Chittagong and Mongla.
Sundarbans
The Sundarban is the largest single tract of mangrove ecosystem in the world. It is loated in
the southwest corner of Bangladesh, bewteen lattitudes 21o30 and 22o30N and longitudes
89o00 and 89o55E, within the Khulna administrative division and extended over parts of
Khulna, Satkhira and Bagerhat districts. At present, Sundarban covers an area of 6,017 km2.
The forest is highly influenced by the hydrological characters of the eregion. It is intersected
by numerous rivers and canals; around 30% area is under rivers, channels, streams and canals
(PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
Three broadly defined ecological zones are recognized based on salinity, freshwater flushing,
physiography and their influence on the compostion and characters of the species. The
Sundarban contains a considerbly high floral diversity. A total of 245 genera and 334 plant
species hav ebeen recorded. Twenty families of trees are present in the Sundarban, major
predominant species being Sundri and Gewa, followed by Passur, Keora, baen, Kankra,
Dhundal, Golpatta and a few others. The Sundri, as a pure crop and in mixture with Gewa,
occupies about 18.2% and 62.4% of the forest area, respectively (PDO-ICZMP, 2004; IUCN,
2001). However, the dominance of Sundri is decreasing because of top-dying disease;
around 0.18 million trees covering 198.48 km2 are severely affected (Rahman, 1998).
A total of 453 faunal species were officially listed (SBCP, 2001). Other sources report over
120 species of fishes, 290 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and 8
amphibian species, representing 36-37% of the birds, 28-30% of the reptiles and 33-34% of
the mammals of the country (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a). The Sundarban is the largest habitat of
the reknowned Bengal Tiger.
The Sundarbans provide livelihood and employment to wood cutters, fishermen, honey and
wax collectors, shell collectors, timber traders and workers, workers of fish drying industries,
etc. Overall, it is estimated that the forest ecosystem provides employment for a total of 0.5 to
0.6 million people in Bangladesh. According to a baseline study in the impact zone of the
Sunrarban, 18% households are dependent on Sundarban resources. The proportion of
Sundarban dependent housholds varies from 4% in Pirojpur district to 27% in Khulna district.
Among them are shrimp fry collectors (35%), fishermen (33%), honey collectors (22%),
boatmen (4%), golpata collectors (3%), shell/crab collectors (2%), and medicinal plant
collectors (SBCP, 2001). These non-wood forest products are harvested for both subsistence
and commercial purposes and represent an important source of income for the land-poor
families, especially during the winter months of food deficit. Golpata is by far the most
important non-wood forest product in the region. Every year, from December to May,
thousands of "bawalis" (traditional forest users) collect an average of 60,000 metric tons of
fronds. The Sundarbans is the major producer of honey in the country and account for about
20 per cent of the total honey production of Bangladesh. Most of the honey is collected from
December to June but the peak period for collection is February to April.
Coastal island and chars
There are many island and chars, both landward and seaward of the coastline, yet those are
among the least known geographical entities in Bangladesh for such reasons as remoteness,
31
instability (land accretion versus coastal erosion), and the resulting difficulty in mapping.
According to PDO-ICZMP (2002a) study, there are 60 islands: 9 located in the sea, 49 in the
estuary and 11 in the coastal rivers. In addition, 65 charlands are identified. The size of the
islands and chars varies between 2 and 77,000 ha; the three largest ones are Hatiya, Sandwip
and Bhola. Only half of these islands and chars are somewhat protected; 40% are populated
by less than 5,000 people. Because of the instability of the land, island dwellers are often
forced to move from one place to another. Families shifting 10-15 times over 10 years is not
uncommon. A summary statistics of coastal islands and chars compiled from PDOICZMP(2002a) is in Table 2.11.
2.15 Marine resources
The countrys Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) comprises 164,000 km2. The bulk of the
countrys exploitable fisheries extend largely to the 50 m mark, representing 37,000 km2.
Upwelling of relatively cold and nutrient-loaded water from the Swatch of No Ground
creates a suitable biotope for a variety of plankotic species, supporting marine fish and
shellfish production. There are more than 90 commercially important fish . Almost all the
shrimp species are commercially important. The significance of the marine fisheries sector is
large. Especially the group of artisanal inshore fisher is important. This poor group depends
much of the year on catching juvenile species and postlarvae. Marine capture fisheries is an
important source of output, employment and livelihood in the coastal regions. At present
about 7.3 million people are living in the coastal marine fishing villages. Among them 22%
(350,000 housholds) have taken fishing as their major occupation (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
Together they operate 96,000 boats. The majority of the fishermen are living in Laxmipur,
Chittagong and Coxs Bazar districts. Since the 1980s large groups of mainly poor people
have started hunting for shrimp and prawn fries for the shrimp culture industry. The
estimated number of shrimp fry collectors in the coastal zone is about 450,000. Special fisher
groups are the collectors of shellfish and crabs. Around 5-6 thousand people are engaged in
crab collection along the coast.
2.16 Areas of special environmental importance
The ecosystems are not free from disturbances. In a densely populated country with limited
economic capacity, the ecosystems are declining due to many factors, like, change in land use,
land use conflict, encroachments into the natural forests, oil spills and industrial pollution,
indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals, over-exploitation of flora and fauna, destruction of
habitat, change in hydrologic regime, etc. (PDO-ICZMP, 2004b). Already the country has
experienced the extinction of many important flora and fauna and a number of species are
vulnerable to extinction. Recognizing the gradual depletion of the ecosystems and the need
for the protection of natural system, Government of Bangladesh created and implemented
laws and regulations to protect areas at different locations. A "protected area", as defined by
the Convention on Biological Diversity is "a geographically defined area which is designated
or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives". These special areas
have diverse characteristic features, often having potentials of regaining the original
ecosystem functionality. They take different forms as national park, game reserve, wildlife
sanctuary, fish sanctuary, world heritage sits, ramsar sites, marine reserve and ecologically
critical areas (ECAs). They are described briefly below, and the locations of them in the
coastal zone are shown in Figure 2.16.
32
Table 2.11: Description of coastal islands and chars (compiled from PDO-ICZMP, 2002)
district_name char_name
char_type
safety (emb)
BAGERHAT
Marine & Estuarine Islands

Chars Attached With Mainland
Detached Riverine Chars
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
BARGUNA
BARISAL
BHOLA
Dubla Island
Alor Kol
Maher Ali
Majer Kella
Office Kella
Dimer Char
Pakkhir Char
Bholar Char
Boro Ambaria
Choto Ambaria
Kotkar Khot
Kobor Khali
Kokilmoni
Mujib Nagar Char (Bashtali)
Narikel Baria
Passur Nadir Char
Sela Char
Bhola Char
Kachubariar Char
Char Gopalpur and Jangalia
Darichar Khajuria
Dhulkhola
Shayestabad
Char Monai
Alimabad
Andhar Manika
Bhasan Char
Gobindapur
Harinathpur
Hizla Gurabdi
Bhola
Char Aicha
Char Chakrimara
Char Dhal
Char Kukri Mukri
Char Motahar
Char Nizam
Char Patila
Char Tufania
Char Uril
Char Zahiruddin
Manpura
Hazir Hat
Sakuchia
Ramdaspur
Sonar Char
Bhanga
Char Nilkamal
Char Velumia
Gazaria
cyclone_shelters area (sqkm) BBS1991

4
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
73.51
2.95
4.28
3
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
0.006
0.04
0
6
0.04
3
0.11
1.05
0.87
69.31
18.98
30.3
27.7
41.62
48.86
18.98
16.82
42.84
11.218
112.18
1440.62
9.97
11.19
5
25.36
18
3.57
11.43
0.75
5.5
38.4
373.19
51.43
18
7.31
9.45
2.69
11.43
46.31
0.52
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
protected
protected
protected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
0
1
NA
NA
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
4
6
3
1
1
0
0
3
10
4
18
0
0
0
1
0
33
population
resources
main_occupation
7700
2900
1700
1500
1600
0
0
2500
open fishing
open fishing
open fishing
open fishing
open fishing
NA
NA
open fishing
open fishing
open fishing
open fishing
open fishing
NA
NA
agriculture
fishing
fishing
fishing
fishing
agriculture, fisher, forest, livestock
marine fishing
river fishing
marine fishing
river fishing
river fishing
29
60
500
60
500
300
1327
4000
0
0
36314
11970
19588
22935
28170
20997
19143
18559
27167
41648
6469
1476328
6338
814
10000
17500
9800
1500
1500
4
n
7920
51361
16271
56730
8100
1887
marine fishing
NA
NA
NA
NA
forest
1401
20506
1298

education (%)
0
0
0
0
0
NA
NA
45
NA
NA
marine fishing
agriculture
marine fishing
marine fishing
agriculture
agriculture
0
0
0
0
20
0
14
0
NA
NA
27.9
21.3
37.25
34.4
39.7
22.1
28.2
28.2
24.4
26.4
18.4
23.95
37.9
16.5
39.4
25.2
8.7
24
NA
NA
NA
8.7
21.3
20
NA
18
25
labor
agriculture
agriculture
14.4
17
24
marine fishing
agriculture
marine fishing
NA
NA
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
labor
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
marine fishing
marine fishing
agriculture
marine fishing
Table 2.11 Continued..

char_type
safety (emb)
CHANDPUR

protected
protected
unprotected
protected
protected
protected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
protected
protected
protected
protected
protected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
protected
protected
unprotected
protected
Char Bhairabi
Char Nilkamal
Char Koralia
Gazipur
Haim Char
Hanar Char
Ibrahimpur
Rajrajeshwar
Sakhua
CHITTAGONG Bhasan Char
Jahajjir Char
Sandwip
Char Amanullah
Urir Char
Banskhali
COXS BAZAR Kutubdia
Moheshkhali
Saint Martin
Chakaria
Sonadia
Ukhia
FENI
Sonagazi
KHULNA
Putney Island
Bagalir Char
Bhadra Nadir Char
Chunkuri
Chunkuri Char
Dacope Nadir Char
Dakhin Banishanta Char
Dashalia
Haliabaranpara
Koyra Nadir Char
Kuchanadir Char
Tildanga Jaliakhali Char
LAKSHMIPUR Char Abdullah
Char Gajaria
Char Alexander
Char Algi
Char Falkon
Char Gazi
Char Kalkini
Jaliar Char
Patar Char

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
8
8
26
2
35
2
10
1
7
3
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
protected
unprotected
protected
protected
unprotected
0
0
1
0
1
0
3
1
2
1
0
34
population
resources
main_occupation
5442
113306

NA
agriculture
agriculture
NA
agriculture
agriculture
25
18.7
NA
28.1
25.4
15477
agriculture
12.9
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

NA
agriculture
marine fishing
marine fishing
marine fishing
marine fishing
marine fishing
marine fishing
marine fishing
rivier fishing
NA
agriculture
fishing
boatman
agriculture
van puller
23.2
22.7
15.1
9.5
7.76
12.8
3.9
8.51
32.2
NA
24.2
10
10
30
25
20
24.2
20
NA
10
35
11.9
6
18.6
23.3
18.6
22.2
11.6
14
0
10.4
42.72
28737
27473
4.48
174.56
45.36
3951
45.36
50
181
239.47
24.7
105.27
323.07
0.0224
160.75
8
575.26
10.99
174.68
235.18
3.15
0.17
24
0.81
5
0.05
0.41
0.4
3
0.15
20
2
40.29
9.33
33.26
33.26
33.26
51.59
28.22
9.51
9.51
0
0
9295
323590
72527
152644
3636
303691
863
89250
215122
0
300
221
5000
434
1500
650
0
350
47
10845
6106
29882
28148
29882
14680
37034
577
36
fishing
NA

agriculture
agriculture
NA
fishing
fishing
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
fishing
agriculture
education (%)
Table 2.11 Continued..

NOAKHALI
char_type
Badner Char
Char Romani Mohan
Damar Char
Hatia
Burir Char
Char Jahajmara
Char King
Sonadia
South Hatia
Moulovir Char
Dhal Char
Nijhum Dwip
Char Baggardona II
Char Batirtek
Char Bouya
Char Gangchil-Torabali
Char Majid
Char Mora Dona
Muhuri Accreted Area
PATUAKHALI Char Hare
Char Kachua
Char Kasem
Char Montaz
Char Bastin
Chhota Baisdia
Char Bangla (Char Haldar) Marine & Estuarine Islands
Char Halim
Rangabali
Shibar Char
Char Biswas
Char Kajal
Char Nazir
Sonar Char
Under Char
Bara Baisdia
Chalita Bunia
Char Ganga
Kalapara
PIROJPUR
Majher Char
Char lakhakathi, Soyna RaghuChars Attached With Mainland
SATKHIRA
Chakla
Chuna Nadir Char
SHARIATPUR Char Kachikata
Char Jalapur
Char Kumaria
Char Tarabunia
safety (emb)
unprotected
protected
unprotected
protected
protected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
NA
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
protected
unprotected
protected
protected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
protected
protected
unprotected
NA
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
protected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected
unprotected

4
2
0
5.04
58.14
7.03
370.7
8.7
143.23
55.1
39.62
27
6.57
4
4
0
6
NA
0
0
4
2
12
0
1
9
2
3
0
77.37
0.21
17.85
55.1
8.74
10.28
19.82
20
10.03
28.97
7.27
25.79
3.13
96.51
5.36
8.14
108.68
13.37
19.18
101.86
6.76
7.27
7.33
54.63
13.25
18.02
483.47
3.03
0
6
5
8
1
2
6
NA
1
3
1
1
20
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.3
0.02
10.64
7.02
32.12
21.29
35
population
resources
main_occupation
4372
15074
0
NA
NA
agriculture
NA
8.3
9
NA
7311
33135
2000
36554
18370
60

agriculture
agriculture
marine fishing
marine fishing
labor
marine fishing
17
15.5
16
19
NA
19.1
4372
13929
14830
2000
1831
4129
15652
3150
124
1003
200
4792
859
20698
44
535
32566
4212
9645
20698

agriculture
labour
labour
rivier fishing
labour
rivier fishing
labour
agriculture
agriculture

agriculture
agriculture
shrimp
agriculture
shrimp
agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
marine fishing
agriculture
agriculture
8.4
NA
8.9
16
NA
NA
9
32.2
13.5
30.25
21.2
24.5
10.5
26.1
200
1380
17186
3120
1977
174921
3000
4698
310
5157
5057
26752


agriculture
agriculture
agriculture

agriculture
agriculture
fishing
agriculture

agriculture
agriculture
agriculture
education (%)
10.35
22.9
22.2
18.4
32.5
8.7
21.2
15.9
32.5
24
34.9
NA
60
24.2
3
11
9
20.3
Figure 2.16 Areas of special importance in the coastal zone (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a)
Reserved forests
Any forest land or wasteland belonging to the government, or to which it has proprietary
rights, may be constituted a reserved forest subject to completion of notification and
settlement procedures provided under the Forest Act. A total of 601,700 hectares of
mangrove forests of the Sundarbans in the districts of Bagerhat, Khulna and Satkhira, and a
total of 500,696 hectares of forest land spread over Barguna, Bhola, Chittagong, Coxs Bazar,
Feni, Lakshmipur, Noakhali, and Patuakhali districts have been declared reserved forest.
Wildlife sanctuaries
Wildlife sanctuaries are designated areas where wildlife and natural resources are protected
by closing them down to hunting and maintained as undisturbed breeding grounds, primarily
for the protection of wildlife including all natural resources such as vegetation, soil and water.
There are five wildlife sanctuaries in the coastal zone: Sundarban (East) Wildlife Sanctuary
in Bagerhat; Sundarban (West) Wildlife Sanctuary in Satkhira; Sundarban (South) Wildlife
Sanctuary in Khulna; Char Kukrimukri Wildlife Sanctuary in Bhola; and Chunati Wildlife
Sanctuary in Chittagong. The Sundarban sanctuaries, with a wide range of flora and fauna,
present an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes, displaying the effects of
monsoon rains, delta formation, tidal influence and plant colonization. They have been
declared as the World Heritage Site. Char Kukrimukri is a low lying island with extensive
intertidal mudflats, mangrove forest, and a wide range of flora and fauna. There are two
other wildlife sanctuaries in the non-coastal zone: Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary in
Chittagong Hill Tracts and Rema-Kelenga Wildlife Sanctuary in Hobigonj.
36
Game reserve
It refers to an area in which the wildlife is protected to enable populations of important
species to increase. Capture of wild animals is prohibited, with hunting and shooting allowed
on a permit basis. There is only one game reserve in the coastal zone at Teknaf peninsula, in
the district of Coxs bazaar.
National Park
A national park is a comparatively large area of outstanding scenic and natural beauty, in
which the protection of wildlife and preservation of the scenery, flora and fauna in their
natural state is the primary objective, and to which the public may be allowed access for
recreation, education and research. There are two national parks in the coastal zone: Himchari
in Coxs Bazar district and Nijhum Dwip in Noakhali. Semi-evergreen as well as deciduous
forest dominate Himchari. Nijhum Dwip is the southern most staging ground of more than
98 species of migratory birds. A dozen of them are globally critically endangered. This site
supports more than 200,000 migratory birds either as their wintering ground or as staging
ground during winter. This is mainly because of its pristine habitat and a huge foraging and
roosting ground. The other national parks of the country include Bhawal National Park in
Gazipur, Kaptai National Park in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Lawachara National Park in
Moulavibazar, Modhupur National Park in Tangail/Mymensingh, Ramsagar National Park in
Dinajpur, and Satchari National Park in Hobigonj.
Ramsar site
The Ramsar site in the coastal zone is the Sundarban Mangrove forest since 1992. The other
two Ramsar sites are the Halakuki haor in Maulvibazar district, and Tanguor haor in
Sunamganj district.
ECAs
These are ecologically defined areas or ecosystems affected adversely by the changes brought
through human activities. The Government of Bangladesh has become convinced that the
ecosystems of certain areas of the country are under threat and if not taken appropriate
measure might lose the integrity and the natural system could be in danger. As such the
following sites have been declared as ecologically critical areas (ECAs):
i.
the western, coastal zone of Teknaf Peninsula (10,465 ha in area), which is a long,
narrow and forested peninsula separating the Bay of Bengal from the estuary of the
Naf river and neighbouring Myanmar;
ii.
St Martin's Island (590 ha), a sedimentary continental island located 10 km south of

Teknaf Peninsula;
iii.
Sonadia Island (4,924 ha), a barrier island a few km north of Teknaf Peninsula;
iv.
Hakaluki Haor;
v.
Tanguar Haor;
vi.
Marjat Baor (oxbow lake) at Jhenaidaha;
vii.
outside of Sundarbans Reserved Forest at 10 km extent; and
viii.
Gulshan- Baridhara Lake

37
The western shore of the Teknaf peninsula is a sandy beach extending for over 75 km in a
single stretch, and averaging about 160 m in width at high tide. Sand flats upto 2 km in
width and patches of dead coral and boulders are exposed at low tide (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
The peninsula provides breeding areas for four globally threatened species of marine turtles
and, lying along international bird migration flyways, serves as a significant bird area, with
over 81 species recorded. Finally, its inshore water hosts globally threatened marine
mammals.
Sonadia Island supports the last remaining remnant of mangrove forest in southeast
Bangladesh, which once stretched along much of the coastline of Chittagong and Cox's Bazar.
Sonadia's mangroves are distinct from the well-known Sundarbans due to their development
in a coastal lagoon setting rather than in a delta. This has led to the domination of different
mangrove species, ones that were able to tolerate higher levels of salinity than their
Sundarbans cousins. In addition to this important mangrove area, the island supports a large
number of waterbirds, mollusks, echinoderms, and marine turtles.
St Martin's Island is a sedimentary island, consisting of continental base rocks which coral
communities have colonized due to favorable ecological conditions. This unique set of
environmental conditions, biotic and abiotic, has no parallel in Bangladesh and perhaps not
worldwide. The island also supports significant breeding areas for globally threatened marine
turtle species and serving as a stepping stone for several globally threatened migratory
waders.
Hakaluki Haor itself is a complex of more than 80 inter-connecting beels located in the
Maulvi Bazar district. During the dry season, the beels cover an area of approximately 4,400
ha. However, during the rainy season, the entire area gets flooded, and the beels are united as
one large lake, or haor, with an area of approximately 18,000 ha. This makes it the largest
haor in Bangladesh. Some 190,000 people live surrounding Hakaluki haor area. Hakaluki
haor is a highly significant site for a wide variety of waterfowl. It is important for wintering
migratory birds. Its overall significance is perhaps best expressed with reference to the
various criteria for inclusion as a Ramsar site.
Tanguar Haor is an important wetland area located in the northeastern Bangladesh, and
Marjat baor is a small but biologically significant oxbow lake. The Tanguaor haor is an ideal
place for migratory birds, an important source of fisheries, an important habitat for important
threatened species of freshwater wetland trees. Like Hakaluki Haor, it is also included in the
list of Ramsar sites.
Ecopark
Ecopark a recreational park established in any natural habitat that does not disturb or affect
biodiversity or the community of that area. The objective of establishment of an ecopark is
for the recreation of visiting people from home and abroad, as well as creating a centre for the
dissemination of knowledge to people of all age groups about the habits and habitats of the
plant and animal populations living there, and at the same time creating awareness about the
need of conservation of biodiversity. Bangladesh Government has taken initiative to
establish ecoparks at different places of the country. The first ecopark has been inaugurated at
Chandranath Hill and surrounding areas, located in Sitakunda upazila of Chittagong. The
place is rich with tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forest flora and herbs, shrubs,
38
creepers and climbers of diversified habits. Some threatened plant species have been reported
from this place and surrounding area. Two other ecoparks are planned to be established in
the Madhabkunda and Muraichara forest areas located respectively in Kulaura and Baralekha
upazilas of Maulvi Bazar district.
Marine reserve
Bangladesh Government has declared an area of 204 sq nautical mile of the fishing ground of
the south patches and the middle ground as marine reserve under the Section 28 of Part 8
of Marine Fisheries Ordinance / 1983 (Ordinance Number 35, 1983) by S.R.O. No. 327 in
29/10/2000 to provide safe breeding ground for fisheries and shrimps inside Bangladesh
territory to conserve and develop marine fisheries resources.
World heritage site
It refers to an area consisting of one or more specific natural or natural/cultural feature, which
is of outstanding or unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative or aesthetic
qualities or cultural significance. UNESCO declares the area/site as world heritage site for
protection and management for conservation of specific natural feature. There are two world
heritage sites located in the coastal zone; one for its environmental significance (Sundarban)
and the other for cultural and architectural significance (Shaat Gombuz Mosque). Somapura
Mahavihara in Paharpur, Naogaon, Bangladesh is among the best known Buddhist viharas in
South Asia and is one of the most improtant archeological sites in the country. It is
designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985.
39
3. Physical Settings
3.1 General
Physical infrastructure can play dual roles; it may either help reduce vulnerability (a public
infrastructure transformed into a shelter during a hazard) or may also increase risks by
aggravating certain types of problems (road network aggravating floods by creating obstacles
in drainage systems). Mapping and characterizing physical infrastructure are necessary to
understand the exposure to climate induced phenomena, performance capability under
changed conditions, and overall risks of these infrastructures to climate hazards. Overlaying
likelihoods of occurrence of hazards shall enable one to devise and implement protective
measures for existing infrastructure in one hand and decide on safe design for future
infrastructure development (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
Examples of physical infrastructure include roads and highways, health care centers
(hospitals/clinics/dispensaries etc.), urban centers, village growth centers, industries and
factories, school buildings and ports (inland and sea-bound), disaster rehabilitation centers
(shelters such as multipurpose cyclone shelters), settlement infrastructures, utility and
communication infrastructures, embankment and polders, flood management and irrigation
infrastructure and other infrastructures that support livelihood activities. A number of
important physical elements are described in this chapter.
3.2 Roads and Highways
Bangladesh is covered by a large road and highway network, most of it traversing through the
floodplains of the country. Flood loss potentials to roads infrastructure have been huge. In the
1998 and 2004 flood, for example, the direct damage to roads sector is estimated at TK
15,272 and TK 10,031 million, accounting for 15 and 9.0 per cent of the total damage
respectively. The situation is expected to be deteriorating in the days to come, with the
increased extent and intensity of flooding due to potential climate change and sea level rise in
the future. Hence, protecting and maintaining nearly thousands of kilometers of roads and
highways with thousands of bridges and culverts is of prime importance for the national
economy.
There are nearly 21,000 kilometers of national and regional highways (including feeder road
type A that connect upazila headquarters to the highway arterial network) in 2000 and nearly
250,000 kilometers of upazila, union and village roads in the whole country, the road density
being as high as 1.85 km/km2 . The total road network (national, regional and feeder type) in
1995 was about 15,000 km (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a). Table 3.1 and Figure 3.1 provide a feel
about the high density of road network in the country.
Table 3.1 Road lengths and density
District
Area
(km2)
RHD (BBS, 2002) (km)

NHs
RHs
FRs
Road
Density
Total
(km/
km2)
LGED (LGED MIS Division) (km)
Total
UZRs
UPRs
VR-A
VL-B
Bagerhat
3959
30
78
243
351
781
572
2224
1197
4774
1.21
Bandarban
4479
23
486
509
307
293
811
827
2238
0.50
Barguna
1832
26
198
224
442
601
1766
1581
4390
2.40
Barisal
2791
60
40
453
553
947
1064
2483
2921
7415
2.66
40
Bhola
3403
13
497
510
521
479
1207
1411
3618
1.06
Bogra
2920
101
63
337
501
1106
1210
1724
1229
5269
1.80
Brahmanbaria
1927
78
211
289
460
529
799
967
2755
1.43
60
238
298
552
845
1353
1524
4274
2.51
33 1020
1228
980
1031
4134
4201
10346
1.96
113
361
367
881
420
2029
1.75
Chandpur
1704
Chittagong
5283
175
Chuadanga
1158
28
85
Comilla
3085
139
28
734
901
1008
1448
3329
1616
7401
2.40
Cox's Bazar
2492
154
232
393
322
404
1009
1183
2918
1.17
Dhaka
1464
32
38
80
150
480
842
2147
636
4105
2.80
Dinajpur
3438
59
49
256
364
1062
1310
2722
1451
6545
1.90
Faridpur
2073
83
208
291
773
601
1265
1072
3711
1.79
928
50
254
304
237
377
738
1578
2930
3.16
Gaibandha
2179
61
36
195
292
592
737
1608
1142
4079
1.87
Gazipur
1741
93
172
270
508
680
1340
1234
3762
2.16
Gopalganj
1490
88
58
352
498
604
338
895
571
2408
1.62
Habiganj
2637
61
16
171
248
581
515
1238
1063
3397
1.29
Jamalpur
2032
20
140
161
605
741
1278
854
3478
1.71
Jessore
Feni
2567
110
61
119
290
1070
991
1920
2627
6608
2.57
Jhalakathi
758
13
148
161
266
327
1293
665
2551
3.37
Jhenaidaha
1961
51
336
387
621
646
1341
1351
3959
2.02
Joypurhat
965
31
96
127
311
290
587
472
1660
1.72
Khagrachari
2700
62
408
470
252
275
1912
117
2556
0.95
Khulna
4395
33
34
246
313
755
484
1525
1565
4329
0.98
Kishoreganj
2689
120
308
431
585
726
1169
1708
4188
1.56
Kurigram
2296
14
53
201
268
395
625
1610
668
3298
1.44
Kushtia
1621
49
57
135
241
716
486
1234
442
2878
1.78
Lakshimpur
1456
39
346
385
325
529
1011
1727
3592
2.47
Lalmonirhat
1242
122
62
184
343
618
999
742
2702
2.18
Madaripur
1145
59
17
99
175
300
462
598
727
2087
1.82
Magura
1049
67
100
167
333
411
758
657
2159
2.06
Manikganj
1379
54
16
120
190
462
522
1072
653
2709
1.96
Maulivibazar
2799
94
242
336
582
629
1755
883
3849
1.38
716
81
139
220
208
304
549
454
1515
2.12
Munshiganj
955
33
164
200
292
310
503
728
1833
1.92
Mymensingh
4363
87
19
544
650
1106
1657
3559
2672
8994
2.06
Naogaon
Meherpur
3436
108
319
434
1032
1253
1681
1094
5060
1.47
Narail
990
12
83
95
269
181
545
889
1884
1.90
Narayanganj
759
74
23
113
210
315
178
752
767
2012
2.65
Narsingdi
1141
54
238
292
392
506
813
655
2366
2.07
Natore
1896
72
151
223
430
810
1213
786
3239
1.71
Nawabganj
1702
170
178
322
457
932
809
2520
1.48
Netrokona
2810
20
252
272
616
729
1615
912
3872
1.38
Nilphamari
1641
11
20
172
203
665
680
798
913
3056
1.86
Noakhali
3601
29
12
401
442
481
747
2377
2575
6180
1.72
Pabna
2371
116
256
372
681
717
1518
1401
4317
1.82
Panchagar
1405
73
56
129
416
494
852
1463
3225
2.30
41
Patukhali
3205
38
30
211
279
562
1388
2467
2796
7213
2.25
Pirojpur
1308
20
477
497
519
560
1627
595
3301
2.52
Rajbari
1119
19
46
176
241
338
436
1215
1097
3086
2.76
Rajshahi
2407
51
73
200
324
933
809
2023
1092
4857
2.02
Rangamati
6116
48
200
248
461
585
1906
1121
4073
0.67
Rangpur
2308
71
252
323
847
996
1968
1243
5054
2.19
Satkhira
3858
29
237
266
658
539
1785
1814
4796
1.24
Shariatpur
1181
37
124
161
314
422
663
680
2079
1.76
Sherpur
1364
18
337
355
375
359
706
640
2080
1.52
Sirajganj
2498
56
20
288
364
622
755
1510
1151
4038
1.62
Sunamganj
3670
46
219
265
657
799
1067
855
3378
0.92
Sylhet
3490
120
22
298
440
755
810
1976
1566
5107
1.46
Tangail
3414
122
22
242
386
868
1090
2556
1754
6268
1.84
1809
42
1072
Thakurgaon
Country
Coastal zone
147570 3086
47201
767
115
157
487
752
1148
3459
1.91
1751 15962
20799
36166
42328
94059
77276 249829
1.85
602 5879
7248
10605
11879
31022
32100
2.03
85606
The coastal zone has a higher density of roads (2.03 km/km ) than other areas (1.85 km/km2 ),
indicating a good development of road network in the coastal zone. Two coastal districts,
Jhalakathi and Feni, are the highest density areas. Other high density areas are Barguna,
Lakshmipur, Comilla, Chandpur, Dhaka and Narayanganj.
LGED type A roads
Roads and Highways
R h d _ m e r g e .s h p
N a t io n a l H i g h w a y
R e g i o n a l H ig h w a y
Z ila R o a d
O th ers R o ad
L g e d ra .s h p
U p a z ila K a tc h a
U p a z ila P a c c a
Figure 3.1: Density of roads in Bangladesh (Figures do not show rural roads of LGED)
(Source of data: CEGIS)
42
3.3 Growth centers

The distribution of growth centers, including hats and bazaars, among the districts are shown
in Figure 3.2 and Table 3.2. On average, there are 1.5 growth centers per 100 km2 centers in
the country. The highest density occurs in Chittagong (5.87) followed by Naogaon (4.87).
The other regions where the development of growth centres has been high are Bogra,
Maulvibazar, Pabna, Netrokona, Patuakhali and Habiganj.
###
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Figure 3.2 Location of growth centers (including hats, bazaars) (Source: CEGIS)
Table 3.2: Distribution of growth centers in Bangladesh (Source: CEGIS)
District name
Area (km2)
No. of growth centers
Density (Nos./100 km2)
Bagerhat
1117.33
25
2.24
Bandarban
1044.20
20
1.92
Barguna
1374.44
14
1.02
Barisal
2714.03
35
1.29
Bhola
724.26
26
3.59
Bogra
931.82
28
3.00
Brahmanbaria
4271.44
27
0.63
Chandpur
3435.86
32
0.93
Chittagong
963.59
56
5.81
Chuadanga
1162.99
20
1.72
43
Comilla
779.40
14
1.80
Cox's bazar
1912.04
20
1.05
Dhaka
1718.14
24
1.40
Dinajpur
2865.75
40
1.40
Faridpur
1660.05
36
2.17
Feni
2633.27
23
0.87
Gaibandha
2410.17
26
1.08
Gazipur
1387.08
22
1.59
Gopalganj
1109.90
22
1.98
Habiganj
1121.27
26
2.32
Jamalpur
6064.52
13
0.21
Jessore
2323.60
22
0.95
Jhalakati
3443.71
41
1.19
Jhenaidah
1243.33
13
1.05
Joypurhat
2378.23
49
2.06
Khagrachhari
1316.88
11
0.84
Khulna
2431.48
22
0.90
Kishoreganj
3705.08
35
0.94
Kurigram
3416.51
43
1.26
Kushtia
3447.02
23
0.67
Lakshmipur
1811.34
21
1.16
Lalmonirhat
1117.33
12
1.07
Madaripur
1044.20
18
1.72
Magura
1374.44
17
1.24
Manikganj
2714.03
24
0.88
Meherpur
724.26
11
1.52
Moulvi bazar
931.82
35
3.76
Munshiganj
4271.44
18
0.42
Mymensingh
3435.86
55
1.60
Naogaon
963.59
44
4.57
Narail
779.40
1.15
Narayanganj
1162.99
20
1.72
Narsingdi
1912.04
22
1.15
Nator
1718.14
29
1.69
Nawabganj
2865.75
25
0.87
Netrakona
1660.05
38
2.29
Nilphamari
2633.27
32
1.22
Noakhali
2410.17
19
0.79
Pabna
1387.08
32
2.31
Panchagarh
2458.44
15
0.61
44
Patuakhali
1109.90
25
2.25
Pirojpur
1121.27
14
1.25
Rajbari
2458.44
15
0.61
Rajshahi
2323.60
35
1.51
Rangamati
2378.23
31
1.30
Rangpur
6064.52
36
0.59
Satkhira
3443.71
19
0.55
Shariatpur
1243.33
25
2.01
Sherpur
1316.88
20
1.52
Sirajganj
2431.48
32
1.32
Sunamganj
3705.08
34
0.92
Sylhet
3416.51
52
1.52
Tangail
3447.02
41
1.19
Thakurgaon
1811.34
19
1.05
3.4 Cyclone shelters

Cyclones and associated tidal surges Table 3.3: Distribution of cyclone shelters in the coastal
are
an
important vulnerability
districts (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a)
encountered by the people of the District Name
Number of
% of population
coastal region. Recognizing the need
cyclone shelters
coverage
to provide safe havens for the Bagerhat
82
11
inhabitants of the area, the first
Barguna
70
17
purpose-built cyclone structures were
57
5
constructed in the 1960s. Shelters are Barisal
208
24
constructed to provide refuge to the Bhola
5
exposed population during storm Chandpur
floods, and also intended for multi- Chittagong
492
15
purpose use as school and community Cox's Bazar
455
52
center. Presently there are a little over Feni
106
18
2,100 shelters (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a)
Jhalakathi
26
8
in 15 of the 19 coastal districts that
34
3
can accommodate only 27% of the Khulna
110
15
people at risk (WARPO, 2001a). The Lakshmipur
202
16
distribution of shelters among the Noakhali
coastal districts is shown in Table 3.3. Patuakhali
196
27
The National Water Management Plan Pirojpur
42
8
(NWMP) proposed 775 multi-purpose Satkhira
48
5
shelters for 1.72 million people and
Total
2133
1,369 killas (raised earth mounds) for
livestock over the next 15 years (WARPO, 2001a). One of the planning issues is how to
allocate shelters and killas equitably among competing areas since the available fund at a
certain time is a fraction of the requirement. The allocation needs to be based on minimizing
the risk to the population who are not covered by existing shelters. It should be able to
account for socio-economic vulnerability, preference to the disadvantaged sections of the
45
society who usually live in the areas close to the coast and have the right to community
facility since shelters are also intended for multi-purpose use as school and community center.
Governments safe haven medium term goals are based on protection against a 1 in 30 year
cyclone surge event; the long term goals aim at 1 in 100 year level protection. Population
served would be typically 2,000 per shelter, 900 per killa and about 22 per bari-level shelters
(PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
3.5 Ports and waterways
Bangladesh is literally a land of rivers. A dense network of rivers, canals and creeks serves
large parts of the country and provides a cheap means of transport. In some areas, it is the
only means of transport. The total length of rivers in Bangladesh is estimated to be in the
range of some 24,000 kilometers, providing a very high degree of penetration. According to
Inland Transport Authority, the total length of waterways in the monsoon season may exceed
6000 km, which may shrink to about 3800 km at the end of dry season. This estimate is
based on plying of large boats (4 tons). If small dingis and boats are considered, the total
length in the monsoon season may exceed 24,000 km (BBS, 2005). According to BBS
(2008) estimate, there are 251,000 country boats (motorized, passenger, and cargo combined)
in Bangladesh. Country boats alone offer 60% of all employment in the transport sector. A
total of two million people rely on country boats as their main source of income (Rasheed,
1995). Country boats are able to reach outlying rural areas which are otherwise more or less
in accessible. During floods, homesteads in many low-lying parts of the country often remain
isolated by water for four to five months, and boat transport is the only means of movement
during this time. Due to riverine, flood prone and low lying nature of the country, the cost of
building and maintaining roads and railways is very high. The inland water transport (IWT),
on the contrary, has always been a natural and cheap means of transport in Bangladesh, and
hence is important for the competitiveness and growth of the economy.
Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority (BIWTA) classified navigation routes in four
major categories. The navigable waterways under these classes define the level of service to
be guaranteed taking into account the economic importance of the river as well as the
technical and financial capacity to maintain the level of service. The level of service is
defined by the least available depth in the navigation channel based on the loaded draft
characteristics of the mechanized cargo vessels. The system of classification is useful as it
provides information on the conditions of navigation that can be expected on a river in a
defined Class and is also the basis for determining the dredging policy necessary to maintain
the conditions of navigation. Classification is also needed to decide on vessel design and
ensure its adequacy with the characteristics of the river where the vessel will operate. Figure
3.3 shows the four major navigation routes classified by BIWTA.
BIWTA started developing inland water transport (IWT) sector by creating five major inland
river ports at Dhaka, Narayanganj, Chandpur, Barisal and Khulna at the initial stage.
Subsequently, six new inland river ports were created at Patuakhali (in 1975), Nagarbari
(1983), Aricha (1983), Daulatdia (1983), Baghabari (1983) and Narsingdi (1989) to cater to
the growing requirements in the IWT sector. BIWTA also developed 5 ferry terminals at
Aricha, Daulatdia, Nagarbari, Mawa, and Char Janajat to connect the capital city with the
districts situated on the other side of the rivers Padma and Jamuna by ferry services. In
addition to the development of inland river ports at the main commercial and urban centers,
46
BIWTA
took
up
schemes to provide
landing facilities to
the people of far-flung
areas alongside the
waterways
by
developing
launch
stations at important
wayside ghats. The
number of launch
ghats so far developed
by BIWTA is 304.
The distribution of
ports and waterways
among the districts is
shown in Table 3.4.
The inland ports and
landing ghats serve as
feeder ports to the two
seaports of the country.
In addition to the
cargo that moves from
one inland port to
another, inland ports
handle about 40% of
the countrys total
exports and imports.
During
floods,
cyclones and other
natural
calamities,
IWT and inland ports
render
essential
services to the nation
Figure 3.3 Major navigation routes classified by BIWTA
through transportation
(Source: World Bank, 2007)
and handling of relief
materials in areas where road and rail communication are not available or have become
disrupted. Water transportation is cheaper, safer, and environment-friendly, and will thus
continue to play a significant role in the economic life in the future.
The Chittagong port is the main sea port of Bangladesh. It is situated on the right bank of
Karnafuli river at a distance of about 9 nautical miles from the shoreline of the Bay of Bengal.
It has been an international harbor for sea going vessels for several centuries. Presently,
about 2,000 ships pass through Chittagong port yearly. The port has a storage capacity of
359,000 tons. The second important sea port is Mongla. The port currently employs 4,820
laborers and about 2,000 officials (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
47
Table 3.4: Distribution of ports and waterways (Source: BBS, 2002)

District
Terminals
Name
Dhaka
1
Narayanganj
1
Munshiganj
Manikganj
1
Narsingdi
1
Faridpur
Madaripur
Gopalganj
Shariatpur
Rajbari
1
Comilla
Chandpur
1
Brahmanbaria
Barisal
1
Patuakhali
1
Pirojpur
Jhalakathi
Bhola
Barguna
Khulna
1
Bagerhat
Sirajganj
1
Pabna
1
Tangail
Gaibandha
Kurigram
Kishoreganj
Chittagong
Cox's Bazar
Rangamati
Narail
Hobiganj
Sunamganj
Moulvibazar
Sylhet
Netrokona
Lakshmipur
Satkhira
Total
11
Launch
Ghats
7
7
11
1
2
1
9
5
13
1
9
18
17
39
26
17
12
6
23
22
11
2
1
1
1
1
9
1
9
5
2
4
5
1
1
1
2
1
304
Ferry
Ghats
Coastal Island
Terminal Jetty
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7
48
19
Total
Ports
8
8
12
3
3
1
10
5
14
3
9
20
17
40
33
17
12
11
23
23
11
3
3
1
1
1
9
2
16
5
2
4
5
1
1
1
2
1
341
Sea Ports
3.6 Irrigation infrastructure

Irrigation in Bangladesh is divided into two categories: minor and major irrigation. The
common methods of minor irrigation technology are power pumps for pumping irrigation
water from surface source and pumping of groundwater from deep or shallow wells. Minor
irrigation was introduced in Bangladesh in early sixtees using low lift pumps (LLPs). The
nature of irrigation soon changed to groundwater abstraction, initially through deep tubewells (DTWs), followed by introduction of shallow tube-wells (STWs), driven by surface
mounted centrifugal pump. The summary of irrigation by different modes are shown in
Table 3.5, and statistics of irrigation by different modes in different districts are shown in
Table 3.6 . Out of 8,640,727 ha net cultivable area, 4,882,879 ha was irrigated in rabi season
in 2007, of which 4,731,412 ha was irrigated by DTWs, STWs and LLPs, 14,403 ha by
traditional methods, and 137064 ha by gravity flow. Out of total irrigated area, groundwater
accounted for 80.60%, while surface water accounted for the remaining 19.40%. A total of
29,177 DTWs, 1,202,728 STWs and 1,072,936 LLPs were in operation in 2007 (BADC,
2007).
In some parts of the country, irrigation is carried out by gravitational flow through major
irrigation projects. This type of irrigation projects were mainly implemented by BWDB.
Most of these are FCDI schemes, because they have FCD as well as BWDB irrigation supply.
Irrigation water is made available by directing river water elevated by a barrage or lifting by
pumps into a distribution canal network. Examples of some big FCDI projects are Pabna
Irrigation Projest Phase-I in the northwest region, Chandpur Irrigation Project in the SE
region and Bhola Irrigation Project Phase-I in the south central region covering a total
benefitted (system) areas of 184.60, 54.04, , 46,437 and 52, 632 ha, respectively. In many of
the FCDI projects, however, the irrigation component is not large, the main emphasis being
on flood control and drainage. Apart from the BWDB schemes, some area is covered by
BADC, LGED and private sector.
Table 3.5: Summary of irrigation by different modes (Source: BADC, 2007)
Sl.
No.
Mode of irrigation
No. of
equipment
Area
irrigated
(ha)
% of total
irrigated
area
Area irrigated
per equipment
(ha)
29177
725258
14.85
24.86
1202728
3196127
65.46
2.66
14403
0.29
1231905
3935788
80.60
107293
810027
16.59
7.55
137064
2.81
Sub Total
107293
947091
19.40
Grand total
1339198
4882879
100
A. Groundwater irrigation
1
Deep tube-well irrigation
Shallow tube-well irrigation
Manual, Traditional method,

Artesian irrigation (don, dug
well, treadle pump, rower pump,
hand tube-well, etc.)
Sub Total
B. Surface water irrigation
Low lift pump irrigation
Gravity flow irrigation
49
Table 3.6: Irrigation by different modes in different districts (Source: BADC, 2007)
District name
NCA (ha)
DTWs
STWs
LLPs
Irrig. Area
Irrig. Area by
by
DTWs,
manual,
traditional
Irrig. Area
STWs,
LLPs
method,
artesian
(ha)
(ha)
well (ha)
nos
Irrig.
Area (ha)
nos
Irrig.
Area (ha)
nos
33282
1339
12078
51840
Dhaka
99190
248
Munshiganj
63399
Narayanganj
54039
Manikganj
Narsingdi
10
Total Irrig.
Area (ha)
(9+10+11)
11
12
6480
10279
18
650
2252
9224
1405
15278
25152
25152
42
1795
2211
12186
665
6622
20603
157
3786
24546
95167
238
5705
14602
33461
105
876
40042
40042
87264
83
2575
15945
45354
493
4102
52031
418
922
53371
Tangail
236455
956
20897
49272
140445
345
1763
163105
303
20
163428
Gazipur
106800
645
13500
8712
24015
2052
15345
52860
533
1000
54393
Mymensingh
323543
3216
69373
40211
123354
2266
11282
204009
46
3750
207805
Kishorganj
182558
357
6321
17618
86191
2715
57308
149820
877
150697
Jamalpur
152814
358
7626
47210
1 07459
153
615
115700
152
226
116078
Netrakona
200687
304
6565
24140
95120
3864
31782
1 33467
133467
Sherpur
104315
214
6391
21573
60876
623
7154
74421
2058
76483
Faridpur
139250
130
2816
20899
59171
353
3170
65157
65157
Rajbari
75796
131
4104
12344
42290
97
680
47074
47074
Madaripur
80092
14
1140
4930
18626
1766
17949
37715
37715
Gopalganj
106763
16
297
6832
29412
3450
29260
58969
58969
Shariatpur
85152
10
473
2366
11675
1599
20797
32945
32945
Rajshahi
179317
2779
78834
25205
72567
3709
16414
167815
167815
Chapai Nganj
130918
1414
34517
11016
23971
2318
8792
67280
380
67660
Natore
143064
257
6675
40653
102049
217
1560
110284
110284
Naogaon
272817
3568
71762
61117
102674
1966
11782
186218
186218
50
Irrg. Area
by gravity
flow (ha)
51840
District name
NCA (ha)
DTWs
STWs
LLPs
nos
Irrig.
Area (ha)
nos
Irrig.
Area (ha)
nos
Irrig. Area
Irrig. Area by
by
DTWs,
manual,
traditional
Irrig. Area
STWs,
LLPs
method,
artesian
(ha)
(ha)
well (ha)
8
10
Irrg. Area
by gravity
flow (ha)
Total Irrig.
Area (ha)
(9+10+11)
11
12
Pabna
185255
647
23777
17203
75966
773
4752
104495
6983
111486
Sirajganj
171450
561
10937
58261
1 1 6622
227
1321
128880
128880
Bogra
212105
1899
71298
61464
180816
401
2286
254400
254400
Joypurhat
79484
1420
47712
10968
43519
10
91241
91241
Gaibandha
146750
286
5450
38303
104290
39
144
109884
109884
Rangpur
176845
458
8521
52352
134180
11
65
142766
17
142783
Nilphamari
125573
98
785
23760
84495
41
185
85465
617
16325
102407
Lalmonirhat
1 00280
65
562
26218
80879
28
165
81606
81606
Kurigram
158248
187
2200
32169
86608
137
278
89086
89086
Dinajpur
268203
2057
51857
72264
154485
437
1779
208121
42
208163
Thakurgaon
159502
944
17628
33842
1 23788
141424
141424
Panchagar
109076
172
2405
18608
42668
97
560
45633
45633
Chittagong
218073
65
1280
1295
7461
4846
41538
50279
765
8195
59239
Laksmipur
115195
14
695
801
2672
2198
21928
25295
390
25685
Feni
73609
32
982
1883
9528
1424
19380
29890
93
29983
153021
54
2155
1915
6851
4526
33233
42239
103
321
42663
Cox's Bazar
72189
25
2799
12407
1520
16676
29108
134
2317
31559
Rangamati
34182
1856
6456
6456
42
6498
Khagrachari
39272
1581
8163
8166
3702
11868
Bandarban
42616
17
83
938
4805
4888
21
1164
6073
Comilla
230122
1582
47257
22236
66172
4304
43377
156806
230
100
157136
Chandpur
106316
285
8900
1910
9914
3860
41403
60217
118
454
60789
NoaKhali
51
District name
NCA (ha)
DTWs
STWs
LLPs
Irrig. Area
Irrig. Area by
by
DTWs,
manual,
traditional
Irrig. Area
STWs,
LLPs
method,
artesian
(ha)
(ha)
well (ha)
nos
Irrig.
Area (ha)
nos
Irrig.
Area (ha)
nos
10
Irrg. Area
by gravity
flow (ha)
Total Irrig.
Area (ha)
(9+10+11)
11
12
B.Baria
149713
340
9108
9840
42916
3386
44429
96453
115
24
96592
Jessore
192392
1410
28372
60841
131833
1105
4810
165015
1837
166852
55790
104
3119
25825
41547
69
44735
425
45160
109476
117
2831
17644
74543
245
1848
79222
40451
119673
90926
203
3221
35084
62955
13
315
66491
25973
92464
Satkhira
146779
726
13504
28821
41784
1861
4612
59900
80
1230
61210
Bagerhat
135612
3405
6712
4729
15932
22644
105
854
23603
Khulna
155157
8076
17542
8187
17636
35178
35
580
35793
Jhenidah
146338
309
6306
60153
94192
10
110
100608
13
2132
102753
Narail
76272
60
9326
25533
828
3336
28929
1408
30337
Magura
77314
16
459
21675
53694
98
987
55140
7537
62677
Sylhet
207894
122
67
241
2739
8203
8566
5381
13947
Sunamqanj
199578
105
1399
6620
8060
46300
53025
290
2900
56215
Habiganj
178279
113
5069
2829
18723
4636
33857
57649
617
58266
Moulvi Bazar
126091
10
62
291
1723
8497
8798
1360
I015H
Barisal
184606
50
22
172
4309
49068
49290
49290
Jhalokathi
55409
602
5706
5706
5706
Perojpur
84677
20
493
2215
2235
1347
3582
Patuakhali
90782
396
3657
3657
3657
Borquna
108755
523
4485
4485
4485
Bhola
172121
2594
30843
30843
30843
8640727
29177
725258
1202728
3196127
107293
810027
4731412
14403
137064
4882879
Meherpur
Kushtia
Chuadanga
Bangladesh
52
3.7 Flood control infrastructure

and drainage projects in Bangladesh since mid 60s. Generally, flood control projects can be
classified into four major types: FC (Flood Control) projects; FCD (Flood Control and
Drainage) projects; FCDI (Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation) projects; and D (Drainage)
projects. Locations of such infrastructure in Bangladesh are shown in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Location map of flood control projects in Bangladesh (Source: CEGIS)
FC projects involved building of embankments alongside rivers to prevent river flooding. 24
FC projects were constructed by BWDB covering a benefitted area of 0.248 Mha (WARPO,
2000b). The Teesta Right Embankment is an example of FC project employing about 46 km
53
of embankments and covering a benefitted area of around 33,400 ha. Besides, submersible
embankments in the northeast region are examples of partial flood control projects. There are
46 such projects in the northeast region having a total of 1826 km of submersible
embankments and covering an area of 0.29 Mha (CEGIS, 2005). In FCD projects, drainage
provisions, in most of the cases were incorporated with the flood control embankments in
order to evacuate the unwanted rain water from behind the embankment or from within the
poldered area. Drainage provisions are mainly governed by gravity flow drainage through
regulators and sluices. 241 FCD projects were constructed by BWDB covering a benefitted
area of 2.36 Mha (WARPO, 2000b). Out of this, the Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) is
the biggest FCD project extending over approximately 1.05 Mha, comprising of around 141
polders in the southwest, southcentral, southeast and eastern hill regions. FCDI projects, as
described in section 3.6.1, constitute earthen embankments around the periphery of the
project area (polders) to prevent inundation to cropland by riverine floods and tidal floods,
drainage through sluice gates in the embankments at the outfalls of the natural channels, and
irrigation water made available by directing river water elevated by a barrage or lifting by
pumps into a distribution canal network. Drainage is done mostly by gravity flow,
particularly in smaller projects, or by pumps in bigger selected projects. 82 FCDI projects are
benefitting a total area of 1.85 Mha. Drainage (D) projects are aimed at drainage
improvement by constructing drainage channels, drainage regulators and sluices. 104
drainage projects constructed by BWDB covering an area of 0.77 Mha. One example of big
drainage project is the Comprehensive Drainage Structure Project for Faridpur in the
southcentral region benefitting an area of 0.15 Mha. No new schemes have commenced since
1995, other than partial flood protection schemes in the northeast region.
54
4. Socio-Economic Settings
4.1 General
Socio-economic condition of an individual, a household, a community, and a society (or even
the whole country) determine how the contexts of vulnerability will change underlying risks
(of the subject) due to change in exposure of any hazard. To better understand human and
economic conditions, one has to analyze a number of vulnerability contexts that charaterize a
few aspects that include livelihoods, status of gender equity social capital, networking and
kinship, status of nutrition, population growth rates, infant mortality rate, fertility rate, access
to productive resources, labor and wage conditions, the proportion of functional landless,
seasonal migration dynamics, demographic dependency ratio, level of service provision,
literacy rates and primary school densities, primary school enrollment rate, per capita GDP,
the share of the industrial sector in GDP, etc. Some important elements from the above list
are discussed in this chapter.
4.2 Demography
Total population. The total population of the country is 123.15 million, male population
being 62.74 million (50.94% of total) and female 60.41 million (49.06% of total) (BBS,
2003). The most populated districts with more than 3.25 million population are Dhaka,
Chittagong, Comilla and Mymensingh. District-wise total, male and female population is
shown in the Figure 4.1. Average population density of the country is 839 per km2. However,
this figure will be much higher if density is calculated on the basis of net land area of the
country. The map of population densities in Figure 4.2 shows that the densest population
areas centre on Dhaka district, where it averages 5,643 people per km2, followed by Comilla
(3,988 /km2), Jamalpur (2,923 / km2), and Naogaon (2467 / km2).
The population of Bangladesh is overwhelmingly rural. However, this has decreased because
of increasing urban population growth. Rural land is densely settled, especially in more fertile
areas where alluvial soils support crops such as rice, jute, fruit and vegetables. Ericksen et al.
(1997) observed that in the rainy season, settlements in low basins, floodplains, and the delta
are sited on natural or artificially raised land (ridges or mounds). About half of rural
settlements in Bangladesh are of this type. The remainder - in areas of Medium Highland and
Highland - the settlement pattern are either semi-nucleated or scattered. In low-lying basins,
homestead mounds may be 3-5 metres high.
Population growth rate. The annual growth rate during the years from 1991 to 2001 was
1.48%, which has followed the previous overall declining trend in growth rate. The growth
rates were 3.47%, 2.00% and 2.01% between 1961-1974, 1974-1981 and 1981-1991,
respectively. Bangladesh has achieved noted success in the field of population control. The
number of children born per woman has declined from 6.3 in 1975 to 3.4 in 1995; the crude
birth rate has declined from 49.9 persons per thousand to 25.5 persons, and the crude death
rate from 19.4 persons per thousand to 8 persons (WARPO, 2001b). Given the widespread
acceptance of family planning, the increasing adult literacy rate, increased exposure of people
to modern influences through the media and the recognition by most Bangladeshis of the
adverse effects of increasing population pressure, there is little doubt that the decline in
population growth rate will continue in the future.
55
(a) Total Population

Total_Pop_01_dist.shp
292900 - 844814
844815 - 1419536
1419537 - 2026244
2026245 - 3253961
3253962 - 8575533
(b) Male Population

M a le_P o p_0 1_ dis t.shp
156377 - 610652
610653 - 1001818
100181 9 - 162767 1
162767 2 - 226530 6
226530 7 - 472828 7
(c) Female Population

F e m a le _ P o p _ 0 1 _ d is t .s h p
136523 - 485610
485611 - 759352
759353 - 1053516
1053517 - 1626290
1626291 - 3847246
Figure 4.1: Distribution of population among districts (Source of data: BBS, 2003)
56
Population growth rate. The annual

growth rate during 1991-2001 was
501 - 1000
1.48%, which followed the previous
1001 - 2000
overall declining trend. The growth
2001 - 3000
3001 - 4000
rates during 1961-1974, 1974-1981
4001 - 5643
and 1981-1991 were 3.47%, 2.00%
and 2.01% respectively. Bangladesh
has achieved noted success in the
field of population control. The
number of children born per woman
has declined from 6.3 in 1975 to 3.4
in 1995; the crude birth rate has
declined from 49.9 persons per
thousand to 25.5 persons, and the
crude death rate from 19.4 persons
per thousand to 8 persons (WARPO,
2001b). Given the widespread
acceptance of family planning, the
increasing adult literacy rate,
increased awareness about the
adverse effects of increasing
population pressure among most
Bangladeshis, there is little doubt
2
Figure 4.2: Distribution of population density (per km ) about the continuation of decline in
among districts (Source of data: BBS, 2003) population growth rate.
59 - 500
Coastal population. The total population in the coastal region is 35.08 million (28% of the
total population.), male population being 17.9 million and female 17.1 million. The average
density of population per km2 is about 743, which is well below the national average. About
1/3rd of the total coastal population live in the exposed coast. The population density in the
exposed coast (482) is considerably lower and that of the interior coast (1,012) is much
higher than the national average.
4.3 Literacy rates
The distribution of adult (15+ years) literacy rates based on population census data of 2001
(BBS, 2003) is shown in Figure 4.3. The average literacy rate (both sexes) is highest in
Dhaka (59%) followed by Pirojpur (54%). The other districts having significantly higher
literacy rates than the national average (33.7%) are the coastal districts of Jhalakathi (55%),
Bagerhat (49%), Khulna (48%), Barisal (47%), and Chittagong (47%), and Barguna (45%).
Districts of Sunamganj (24%), Kishoreganj (25%), Jamalpur (23%) and Coxs Bazar (23%)
have much lower literacy rates than the national average. The male literacy rate is higher
than the female literacy rate in all districts with national average of 43% and 24%,
respectively. Distribution of male and female literacy rates follow patterns similar to that of
national average. The adult literacy rate in the coastal zone is higher than the national
average (both sexes 40%, male 49%, female 39%).
57
(a) Adult literacy rate
(a) Male literacy rate
( )
(a) Female literacy

y rate
male_lit.shp
27 - 35
35 - 40
40 - 47
47 - 55
55 - 66
Adult_lit.shp
20 - 27
27 - 31
31 - 36
36 - 45
45 - 59
Figure 4.3: Distribution of adult literacy rates among districts (Source of data: BBS, 2003)
58
fem ale_lit.sh p
13 - 18
18 - 22
22 - 29
29 - 37
37 - 49
4.4 Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Evolution of Bangladesh economy's structure since the Independence has followed the path
typical of developing countries, with a progressive reduction in agriculture's share of GDP
from 33% in 1980-81 to 21% in 2007-08 and an increase in the industrial sector's share, from
17.31% to 29.66%. The share of service sector remain somewhat the same with 49.62 in
1980-81 and 49.46 in 2007-08 (Figure 4.4).
2007-08
2006-07
Service
2005-06
2000-01
Industry
1995-96
1990-91
1985-86
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1980-81
GDP Share (%)
Agriculture
Financial Year
Figure 4.4: Change in sector-wise share of GDP (Source: Bangladesh Economic Review 2008)
A major success in industrial sector since 1990s till mid-2000s has been the expansion in
exports, mainly ready-made garments (although these have a high import content) and
shrimps. For most of the periods from Independence in 1971 to the 1990s Bangladeshs
economic growth was modest, at about 4% per year (3.5% in the 1980s and 4.8% in the
1990s). Since the mid-1990s till mid-2000s, however, annual growth in GDP increased to an
average rate of 6% (5.3% in 2003, 6.3% in 2004, 5.96% in 2005 and 6.63% in 2006), as a
result of increased economic liberalisation and other policy changes. This increase in growth
rate is greater than the rate of population growth, but not sufficient to effect the radical
economic transformation which is necessary to raise living standards to more acceptable
levels. The total GDP of the country in the financial years 2004, 2005 and 2006 were 3330,
3707 and 4157 billion taka, respectively, at current market prices and 2520, 2670 and 2847
billion taka, respectively, at constant market prices (BBS, 2008).
Information on district-wise GDP was found till 2000 (BBS, 2002). As seen in Figure 4.5,
major contributors to agricultural share of GDP are the districts of Mymensingh, Chittagong
and Comilla, followed by Naogaon, Bogra, Dinajpur, Tangail, Netrokona, Jessore and
Kishoreganj. Dhaka and Chittagong dominate among the districts contributing to the GDP
share of the industrial sector, followed by Gazipur and Narayanganj. Dhaka and Chittagong
also are the major contributors to services share of GDP, followed by Comilla, Gazipur,
Mymensingh, Narayanganj and Khulna.
59
(a) 1996-1997
0.0 - 11.8
0.0 - 11.8
0.0 - 11.8
11.9 - 27.8
11.9 - 27.8
11.9 - 27.8
27.9 - 39.2
27.9 - 39.2
27.9 - 39.2
39.3 - 57.5
39.3 - 57.5
39.3 - 57.5
57.6 - 83.2
57.6 - 83.2
57.6 - 83.2
Agriculture
Services
Industry
(b) 1999-2000
( )
Agriculture
0.0 - 11.4
0.0 - 11.4
0.0 - 11.4
11.5 - 28.5
11.5 - 28.5
11.5 - 28.5
28.6 - 36.9
28.6 - 36.9
28.6 - 36.9
37.0 - 46.1
37.0 - 46.1
37.0 - 46.1
46.2 - 80.6
46.2 - 80.6
46.2 - 80.6
Industry
Services
Figure 4.5: District-wise change in sectoral share of GDP (Source of data: BBS, 2002)
As it can be seen in Figure 4.6, major contribution to the total GDP of the country in 1999-00
came from the industrial districts of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Gazipur, and Narayanganj in the
northcentral zone and and Chittagong in the coastal zone. The average growth rate over four
years till 2000 was very high in Kurigram and Lalmonirhat in the northwest region. Other
high growth rates were observed in Joypurhat and Rajshahi in the northwest region, Jamalpur
in the northcentral region, and Meherpur, Madaripur and Bagerhat in the southwest region.
Per capita GDP in the coastal zone in 1999-2000 was Taka 18,198 at current price, compared
to Taka 18,269 for the country (BBS, 2002; PDO-ICZMP, 2004a). The per capita GDP,
excluding Chittagong and Khulna, was Tk. 15,422 only. Sixteen of 19 coastal districts had
lower than average per capta GDP; only districts of Chittagong, Jessore and Khulna had
higher GDP per capita. Noakhali, Lakshmipur, Chandpur, Shariatpur, Gopalganj and
Jhalkathi had a much lower GDP per capita.
60
(b) GDP at current price in 1999-00
(a) Per Capita GDP in 1999-00

12444 - 14798
5387 - 21701
14799 - 17385
21702 - 43986
43987 - 73117
17386 - 23135
73118 - 186202
23136 - 43852
186203 - 354240
(c) Average GDP growth rate (1996-97 - 1999-00)

4
5
6
7
Figure 4.6: Distribution of GDP and growth rates among districts
61
4.5 Incidence of poverty

Poverty is the central socio-economic issue in Bangladesh. There are obvious links among
population, poverty, development and environment. Due to high population density and since
Bangladesh is still an agricultural economy, per capita availability of resources has decreased.
At the same time, there has been an increase in unemployment that further aggravates the
poverty situation. The Fifth Five Year Plan defined the root causes of poverty in Bangladesh
as low economic growth; inequitable distribution of income; unequal distribution of
productive assets; unemployment and under-employment; a high rate of population growth; a
low level of human resource development; natural disaster; and limited access to public
services. Overall, the rural poor tend to be landless, live in remote areas, and have
inadequate access to basic infrastructure and services. Urban poverty is associated with
limited employment opportunities, poor health, inadequate water supply and sanitation
facilities, and frequent eviction of squatters by the authorities. Athough there has been
considerable progress, as manifested in decrease in poverty incidence by 10% during 19902000, one of the fastest rates of decline recorded worldwide, still about 42% of the population
are stricken by poverty (BBS, 2004).
Figure 4.7 presents the regional estimates of poverty indices for the years 1999 and 2004
(there was no poverty monitoring survey in between 1999 and 2004). While BBS (1999a)
provides urban and rural estimates for the former 21 districts, BBS (2004) provides regional
and national estimates for the six divisions. Poverty lines have been classified by the poverty
limit with an intake of less than 2122 calories per person day. In 1999, the highest poverty
index for urban population was 0.576 in Tangail region. The other relatively higher urban
indices of poverty were 0.522 in Patuakhali, 0.517 in Rangpur, 0.508 in Faridpur, and 0.503
in Jamalpur. In case of rural population, the poverty index was highest 0.563 in Mymensingh.
Also relatively higher indices of poverty were 0.528 in Faridpur, 0.519 in Rangpur, and 0.510
in Barisal. In comparison, the lowest indices of poverty were found to be 0.301 in Comilla
for urban population and 0.333 in Kushtia for rural population. The other relatively lower
indices were 0.354 in Sylhet, 0.361 in Noakhali, and 0.362 in Jessore among urban
population and 0.382 in Dinajpur, 0.392 in both Kishoreganj and Khulna, and 0.395 in
Patuakhali among rural population.
In contrast, in 2004 the highest poverty was observed in Rajshahi division (0.616), a
significant jump in poverty index in 5 years, and the lowest in the Sylhet division (0.284), a
further reduction from 1999. There has been a decrease in poverty in Barisal division as well.
The national average poverty incidence has followed the previous decreasing trend, more
significantly for urban population (Figure 4.8). The national average poverty indices in 2004
were 0.379 and 0.433 for urban and rural population, respectively, compared to 0.433 and
0.449 in 1999. However, these figures should not obscure the fact that the absolute numbers
offer a more vivid picture of the scale of the problem.
Poverty incidence by occupation is presented in Figure 4.9. It is seen that among the
agriculture related occupation, the highest poverty incidence at the national level was
observed for the landless agricultural laborers (0.74) and the lowest among owner farmers
(0.35). On the otherhand, among non-agricultural occupation, the highest poverty incidence
was found for the weaving occupation (0.69) and the lowest for officers (0.01).
62
Year: 1999
0.60
Urban
Rural
Poverty incidence
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
Sylhet
Tangail
Rangpur
Rajshahi
Pabna
Patuakhali
Noakhali
Mymensingh
Khulna
Kushtia
Jessore
Kishoreganj
Faridpur
Jamalpur
Dhaka
Dinajpur
Comilla
Bogra
Chittagong
Barisal
0.20
Chittagong H.T.
0.25
Year: 2004
0.70
Poverty incidence
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
Barisal
Chittagong
Dhaka
Khulna
Rajshahi
Sylhet
Figure 4.7: Poverty incidences by region (Source of data: BBS, 1999a; BBS, 2004)
Poverty incidence
0.60
Urban
0.50
Rural
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
Mar-2004
May-1999
Apr-1998
Apr-1997
Apr-1996
Dec-1995
0.00
Figure 4.8: Year-wise comparison of national poverty incidences

(Source: BBS, 1999a; BBS, 2004)
63
Agriculture
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
Poverty incidence
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Non-agriculture
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Other (agriculture)
Poultry
Livestock
Fishery
Labor (landless)
Labor (land owning)
Tenant farmer
Owner cum tenant farmer
Owner farmer
Officers (Executive/administrative)
Office staff
Teaching
Business
Production labor
Garments worker
Construction labor
Transport labor
Other labor
driver (rickshaw/ van/ pushcart)
Black smith /old smith
Pottery
Weaving
Carpentry
Doctor/Lawyer/Engineer/Agriculturist)
Tailor/ Laundry / Barber
Others
Poverty incidence
0.8
Figure 4.9: Poverty incidence by occupation in 2004 (Source of data: BBS, 2004)
4.6 Access to safe drinking water
Bangladesh has made significant
progress in extending access to safe
drinking water yet several districts
(especially Khulna, Barisal and Satkhira)
in the coastal region lag behind national
averages (Figure 4.10). Sources of water
from taps, tubewells, and ring wells are
considered as safe water. In the last
decades, public health in the coastal
regions had greatly benifitted from the
massive
shift
from
surface
to
groundwater sources for domestic water
supply. At present, the situaton is
reversing; in addition to reduced
availability of safe drinking water
because of arsenic pollution, people now
have to deal with saline groundwater,
especially at the end of dry season
(PDO-ICZMP, 2004a). These problems
will increase with climate change. Figure 4.10: Access to safe drinking water (%)
(Source of data: UNICEF, 2000)
Availability of safe drinking water is
64
especially poor for coastal communities, as fresh groundwater is only available at great
depths, if at all. Inadequate use of safe water contributes to a high incidence of diarrheal
diseases. Pre-monsoon diarrheal outbreaks are common in the coastal belt. Arsenic problem
is threatening health condition of coastal population.
The highland population in the eastern hills region is subject to severe scarcity of domestic
water. Formulation and implementation of regulations for water rights are necessary to
providing protection to these basic human needs. Efforts are needed to introduce and
strengthen community based domestic water supply and sanitation facilities
4.7 Major livelihood groups
Four major livelihood
Small farmer
Fisherman
groups were considered,
who accounted for
large shares of the poor
population
of
the
country.
They are:
small
farmers,
fishermen, rural wage
labor and urban wage
labor.
A similar
classification was used
in the coastal area
(PDO-ICZMP, 2003d).
Although it may vary
Rural wage labor
Urban wage labor
as per location specific
analysis and the degree
of details sought, the
classification
used
seems reasonable for
the country as a whole.
The distribution of the
livelihood groups were
estimated from national
Population Census of
2001 (BBS, 2002) and
Agricultural Census of
1996 (BBS, 1999b),
2
and is presented in Figure 4.11: District-wise population (per km ) of the four
livelihood groups
Figure 4.11.
11 - 82
0 - 15
82 - 152
15 - 30
152 - 223
30 - 45
223 - 294
45 - 60
294 - 365
60 - 74
16 - 85
1 - 40
85 - 153
40 - 79
153 - 222
79 - 119
222 - 291
119 - 158
291 - 359
158 - 197
Rural wage labors (mainly agricultural laborers) constitute the largest livelihood group in the
country in terms of density as well as number. Small farmers stand second. Among the nonfarmers (those whose principal occupation is not agriculture), fishers are the single largest
group. In the coastal zone, the districts of Bhola, Satkhira, Khulna and Jessore have higher
concentrations of agriculture laborers than other districts (Figure 12).
65
Small farmer
Fisherman
21 - 35
1-6
35 - 49
6 - 11
49 - 63
11 - 16
Rural wage labor
Urban wage labor

29 - 41
1 - 11
41 - 52
11 - 22
52 - 64
22 - 32
Figure 4.12: District-wise percentage of four livelihood groups

4.8 Industry
Although Bangladesh is predominantly an agricultural country, a large number of large-scale
industries based on both indigenous and imported raw materials have been set up. Among
them, ready-made garments, cotton textile, food and beverages, sugar, leather,
pharmaceuticals, fertilizer, wood product, iron and steel, ceramic, cement, rubber and plastic
66
products and chemicals are important. Other notable industries are engineering and ship
building, oil refinery, paints, colors and varnishes, electric cables and wires, electric lamps,
fluorescent tubelights, other electrical goods and accessories, matches, cigarettes, etc.
Among the cottage industries, handlooms, carpet-making, shoe-making, coir, bamboo and
cane products, earthenware, brass and bell metal products, bidi and cheroots, small tools and
implements, ornaments, etc. are important (BBS, 2008). Manufacturing sector contributes
about 17% of the GDP. Growth rate of manufacturing sector is dominated by ready-made
garments. Bangladesh is the fifth largest garment exporter to the European Union and among
the top ten apparel suppliers to the U.S (BBS, 2008).
Table 4.1 presents the distribution of industries in four major divisions. About 47% of the
industries are located in Dhaka division, followed by 20% in Rajshahi division, 17% in
Khulna division and 16% in Chittagong division. The major industries groups have been
providing increased opportunities of employment; they employed about 2.46 million
populations in 2001-02, as can be seen in Table 4.2. The garments industries (manufacturing
of textiles and wearing apparels) constitute the largest numbers (50% of total number of
industries), providing the largest share of employment (74.5% of total) and the largest share
of the production value (50% of total) (Table 4.3).
Table 4.1: Distribution of industries in four major divisions (Source: BBS, 2008)
Dhaka
Chittagong
Rajshahi
Khulna
Total
1995-96
13257
4429
3095
8139
28920
1997-98
13900
4428
7131
4114
29573
1999-2000
11588
4235
6570
2359
24752
2000-01
28065
Table 4.2: Average annual employment by major industry groups (Source: BBS, 2008)
1993-94
1995-96
1997-98
1999-2000
2001-02
Average annual employment

- all employees (Nos)
1203018
1714039
2104247
2259717
2465397
Average annual employment

- production workers (Nos)
1040804
1486875
1838667
2005038
2142401
Table 4.3: Employment and production of major industries

Title of Category
Food Manufacturing
Beverage industries
Tobacco manufacturing
Number of
Reporting
Factories
Number of
Average
Annual
Employment
(All Employees)
Number of
Average Annual
Employment
(Production
Workers)
Gross
Value of
Production
(Million
Taka)
5737
149642
113009
108788
22
5137
3218
4253
218
14151
7659
26178
67
Animal by products
32
944
706
1025
Mfg. of Textiles
9165
473091
421904
132386
Wearing apparel except

footwear
4735
1363076
1275014
318340
Leather and leather products
268
17184
13929
20321
Leather footwear
100
9990
6675
14794
Ginning, processing of
fibres
28
1006
808
141
Embroiding of textile goods
60
2843
2588
1036
Wood and cork products
410
4196
3466
869
Furniture manufacturing
(wooden)
773
26470
19065
12850
Paper and paper products
127
11035
8769
4275
1023
83086
70236
11686
376
110090
42558
115023
41
9622
4791
11413
208
19074
14152
22171
Misc. prod. of petrolium

and coal
10
516
260
888
Rubber products
96
2765
2236
865
Plastic products
260
8250
6397
3719
2361
76721
66646
18128
Glass and glass products
13
1738
489
1512
Mnon-metalic mineral
products
98
6112
3462
9090
199
11572
9127
17475
17
Fabricated metal products
733
18533
15876
5328
Non-electrical Machinery
103
2794
2397
754
Electrical machinery
227
15393
11280
12841
Transport equipment
189
12241
9244
23303
Measuring Industries
131
104
134
25
300
300
25
130
1733
1584
379
270
5961
3983
2068
28061
2465397
2141932
902058
Printing and publishing

Drugs and pharmaceuticals
Industrial chemicals
Other chemical products
Petrolium refining
Pottery and China ware
Iron and steel basic

industries
Non ferrous metal basic
inds.
Photographic and optical

goods
Decorative Handicrafts
Sports and atheletic goods
Other Mfg. Industries
TOTAL
68
4.9 Tourism
Bangladesh is bestowed with the bounties of nature. Bangladesh has a coastline of 66,400
km with the Bay of Bengal, the worlds longest 120 km unbroken sandy sea-beach along the
Bay of Bengal at Coxs Bazar, the Sunbarbans- the largest mangrove forest, the home of the
Royal Bengal Tiger and the spotted deer, Dhaka the capital known as the city of mosques,
Rangamati the heart of the panaromic lake district, Sylhet land of holy shrines of great
religious saints and of fascinating hills and
tea gardens, Chittagong the largest port Table 4.4: Tourism statistics of Bangladesh
(Source: BBS, 2008)
city and the Commercial Capital of the
Arrival of
Foreign currency earned
country (also known as the city of holy Year
tourists
(Tk. in Lakh)
shrines), Mainamati, Mohasthangarh and
1999
172781
24519
Paharpur archeological treasures in the
2000
199211
26270
country over the period from 300 BC to
2001
207199
26538
1200 AD. Above all, the riverine beauty,
2002
207246
33126
colorful tribal life and simple village life of
the friendly millions are the main
2003
244509
33100
motivational factors for the potential
2004
271270
39676
visitors.
Bangladesh earns substantial
2005
207662
44939
foreign currency from tourism; the forest
2006
200311
55307
currency earned in 2007 was more than 5
2007
289110
52652
billion taka (Table 4.4).
4.10 Areas with special economic importance
Similarly to areas of environmental importnace, some areas that offer special services and
maintain core socioeconomic functionality such as sea ports, land ports, air ports and export
processing zones, have been provided a special status to facilitate economic activities under
various laws and regulations (PDO-ICZMP, 2004b). These areas have wider forward and
backward economic and management linkages. Strengthened supporting linkage to these
special areas is also an essential component of the integrated resource management. The areas
lying in the coastal zone are shown in Figure 2.15.
EEZ
As mentioned in section 2.11, the countrys Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) stretches for
714 km along the coastline and comprises 164,000 km2. The bulk of the countrys exploitable
fisheries extend to the 50 m mark, representing 37,000 km, while the industrial trawl fishery
exploits fishery resources to a depth of 100 m. Total annual marine fisheries catch in 2005-06
was estimated at 0.48 million ton, which is around 20.6 per cent of all fish produced in that
year (BBS, 2008).
Marine Fishing Zone
Marine fishing zones of Bangladesh (Figure 4.13) have been demarcated through a
Bangladesh Gazette Extra dated September 12, 1983 as described:
15. Area for fishing: -(1) Area for fishing with the set bag net is earmarked up to 40 meters depth of marine
water at the highest tide.
69
(2) Area for fishing using hooks and lines are earmarked up to 40 meters depth of marine
water at the highest tide.
(3) Area for fishing with drift net (Bhasajal) for fishing Ilish (Hilsha) and like fishes are
earmarked up to 40 meters depth of marine water at the highest tide.
(4) Area for fishing with drift net (Bhasajal--Lakhyajal) are earmarked up to 40 meters
depth of marine water at the highest tide.
(5) Area for fishing with trawlers are earmarked for operation beyond 40 meters of
marine water at the highest tide.
Figure 4.13 Marine fishing zones of Bangladesh

70
However, the present situation is that the fishing grounds and shrimp grounds are scattered in
the vast marine areas. The fishing ground of the Bay depending on the ongoing fishing
practice and fishing possibilities could be demarcated into 5 patches of which the nearest two
patches are fished at present and the remaining 3 patches have the potentials. Starting from
coastline, depth 0 up to a depth of 40 m and extends up to 120 km (+/- 10 km) from the
coastline is reserved for the artisanal fishers (Figure 3.3). The next patch of fishing zone
extends from 40 m depth (from 120 km (+/- 10km) line) to 80 m depth (170 km (+/- 10km)
line) are trawling. All other patches are either inactive or no fishing at present.
Sea ports
The two sea ports at Chittagong and Mongla, as described in section 3.4, are among the areas
of special economic importance.
Land ports
Land ports have been established to facilitate trade and commerce between bordering
countries of Bangladesh: India and Myanmar. These ports are administered through
Bangladesh Land Port Authority (BLPA) Act of 2001. There are 14 land ports in the country
of which three are in the coastal zone: Benapole land port at Jessore (to India); Teknaf land
port at Coxs bazar (to Myanmar), and Bhomra land port at Shatkhira (to India). All 12 land
ports, except Benapole, are planned to be handed to the private sector for development and
cargo operations to improve efficiency. The land port at Teknaf has already been transferred
to the private sector for development. The government will, however, have regulatory
authority over all land ports.
Airports
There are airports in Dhaka, Rajshahi, Barisal, Jessore, Barisal, Chittagong, Comilla, Coxs
Bazar, Ishurdi and Saidpur, of which Dhaka, Chittagong and Sylhet airports are the
international ones.
EPZ
Export Processing Zone (EPZ) is a response to international market demand for cheaper
goods. It addresses the national problems like growing trade gap, high unemployment, dearth
of capital investment, shortage of foreign currency and lack of technical know-how. As
special industrial parks EPZs are located in areas with advantages in terms of communication
and access to raw materials and industrial labour. Following an Act of Parliament in 1980,
the first EPZ of the country was established in Chittagong in 1983. The second one started
operations in 1993 at Savar. The third one is the EPZ at Mongla. There are 5 other EPZs:
EPZ-Ishwardi, EPZ-Comilla, EPZ-Adamjee, EPZ-Uttara and EPZ-Karnaphuli.
71
5. Natural Hazards
5.1 General
In Bangladesh, major natural hazards that have occurred in Bangladesh over centuries include
floods, droughts, cyclones, river erosion, and salt water intrusion. Ericksen et al. (1997)
observed that only six years between 1960 and 1992 were disaster free; droughts occurred on
average every 2.3 years and floods and cyclones every 1.8 years. The spatial distribution of
these events is quite extensive relative to the size of the country. Comparison of different
hazards in Bangladesh illustrates that cyclones have the most dramatic consequences.
Riverbank erosion is in second place, not in terms of deaths, but in terms of the process of
impoverishment and landlessness of the many people affected. The number of deaths during
monsoon floods, even during extraordinary events, is comparatively small (Hofer & Messerli
1997). Drought is a "creeping phenomenon"; the effects of drought accumulate slowly over a
considerable period of time, and may linger for years after the termination of the event. The
five natural hazards (flood, drought, cyclones, river erosion and salt water intrusion) are
reviewed in this chapter.
5.2 Floods
Flood in Bangladesh is an annual phenomenon; about 20% of its area is inundated by
overflowing rivers during monsoon in a normal flood year, about 35% in a moderate flood
year, and more than 60% in a major flood year (Salehin et al., 2007). Normal floods are
considered a blessing for Bangladesh-providing vital moisture and fertility to the soil through
the alluvial silt deposition. However, moderate to extreme floods are of great concern, as they
inundate large areas and cause widespread damage to crops and properties. Over a span of 17
years from 1987 to 2004, four major floods occurred in Bangladesh.
The principal sources of floods are the river floods from the major river systems, the
Brahmaputra, the Ganges, and the Meghna, in the monsoon months, with the inundation
assuming the greatest extent usually in August-September. A broad strip of land adjacent to
the rivers is subjected to this type of flood. Although rise and fall of stages in major rivers
are very weakly dependent on the local rainfall, local rainfall floods often accompany river
floods, which result from runoff of high intensity and long duration rainfalls that can not be
drained because of high outfall water levels. The northern and north-eastern trans-boundary
hill streams are susceptible to flash floods from the adjacent hills in India in the pre-monsoon
months of April and May. Flash floods in the northeast region cause damage to dry-season
boro rice crop just before or at the time of harvesting and also to towns and infrastructures.
The areas adjacent to estuaries and tidal rivers in the southwest and southcentral parts of the
country experience tidal floods twice a day due to astronomical tide from the Bay of Bengal.
During spring tide, which occurs fortnightly, large area is flooded by tidal water. Tide is
experienced upto 225 km inland in the wet season and 325 km inland during the dry season.
Approximately 12,000 km2 of coastal land is prone to occasional cyclonic storm-surge floods
due to tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal during April to June and September to
November.
River and rainfall flood are frequently aggravated by the backwater effect from the sea and
the timing of peak flows in the major rivers. The spring and monsoon wind setup in the Bay
of Bengal cause strong backwater effect in the Lower Meghna river, which is the single oulet
72
of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system. As a result, drainage is slowed down

causing increase in the duration of flood. Synchronization of peak flows in the Brahmaputra
and the Ganges is a major determinant of the extent of flooding in the country. When the
peaks of the two rivers coincide, which is not a rare event, severe flooding occurs as it was
the case in 1988, 1998 and 2004 (Salehin et al., 2007).
Flood-prone land as shown in Figure 5.1 is basically of two kinds: active and stable. Active
floodplains lie within and along the main river channels. These are marginal environments for
human occupancy and are highly vulnerable to floods and riverbank erosion. Stable
floodplain land provides good crops in normal years, but kharif crops are vulnerable to
untimely or unusually high floods. This vulnerability can be reduced by irrigation (dry rabi
Figure 5.1: Map of Flood prone areas (Source: GIS Project,BGD

/95/006, BARC)
73
season) and flood control (wet kharif season). Early flash floods affect boro in the north-east.
In 1998, over 65 per cent of Bangladesh land area was inundated and crop loss was enormous.
Typically it is the relatively high producing districts of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Tangail, Pabna
and Faridpur that are flood-prone. Studies have predicted increase in monsoon precipitation
in Bangladesh due to climate change that would potentially increase additional floodvulnerable areas and higher levels of flooding in already flood-vulnerable areas (e.g. Ahmed
et. al., 1998; Mirza and Dixit, 1997).
Flooded Area (%)
and drainage projects in Bangladesh since mid 60s. In keeping with the increased coverage
of flood protected areas, there has been an expected gradual decline in the flooded area up to
mid 90s (Figure 5.2).
However, there is clearly
an increasing trend in
year-to-year variability
in the annually flooded
area from around the
year 1974. With illplanned growth of flood
control projects, and
transportation
and
drainage networks, the
system has become
unstable during extreme
floods. However, during
major
floods
the
damages
to
infrastructure including
embankments are very
pronounced,
thus
causing
increased
flooded area. The flood
control projects that
provide
protection
Figure 5.2: Growth of flood control projects and variability of
against normal floods
annually flooded area (Source: Salehin et al., 2007)
transfer the flood risk
elsewhere during major floods, spreading the flood volume over a wider region (Salehin et al.,
2007). Construction of infrastructures (mainly roads) without sufficient drainage capacity,
road alignments transverse to the main drainage paths, blocked drainage channels due to
siltation, cross-dams and inadequately sized drainage sluices are increasing flood hazards
(WARPO, 2001a).
5.3 Drought
Drought is a common hazard for the rainfed cultivation in Bangladesh. Between 1949 and
1991, droughts occurred in Bangladesh 24 times. Very severe droughts hit the country in
1951, 1957, 1958, 1961, 1972, 1975, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1984 and 1989 (WARPO, 2005).
74
Past droughts have typically affected about 47% area of the country and 53% of the
population. Bangladesh experiences long spells of dry weather and moderate to severe
droughts spreading over a region of 5.46 million ha in the districts of Rajshahi, Natore,
Chapai Nawabganj, Rangpur, Dinajpur, Bogra, Kushtia, Jessore and Dhaka. In comparison
with floods and especially cyclones, droughts are slow to manifest themselves and are
relatively more pervasive.
Drought refers to a condition when the moisture availability at the root zone is less than
adequate. It is often observed when there is extremely high rate of evapo-transpiration or
high index of aridity. As the evapo-transpiration of soil becomes high, it forces the soil to be
unsuitable for plant growth. This is how Aman cultivation suffers from periodic drought
conditions (Karim et al., 1999). Although 80% of the annual rainfall occurs during May to
September, long spells of rainless days ranging upwards from two weeks can cause drought.
Similar conditions are observed in early pre-Kharif months, affecting Boro and wheat
cultivation.
Figure 5.3 shows the drought prone areas of Bangladesh. A geographical distribution of
drought prone areas under climate change scenarios shows that the western parts of the
country will be at greater risk of droughts, during both the Kharif (June-October) and preKharif (January-May) seasons. Kharif drought is more prevalent in the sub-humid and dry
conditions in the highland and medium highland areas of the country, especially the northwestern part of the country. Shortage of rainfall affects the critical reproductive stages of
transplanted Aman crops in October, reducing its yield, particularly in those areas with low
soil moisture holding capacity. Pre-kharif/rabi droughts affect all the Rabi crops, such as
(a) Kharif drought
(b) Rabi and pre-Kharif drought
Figure 5.3: Drought prone areas in Bangladesh (Source: SRDI)

75
HYV Boro, Aus, wheat, pulses and potatoes, especially where irrigation possibilities are
limited. It is found that, under a moderate climate change scenario, Aus production would
decline by 27% while wheat production would be reduced by 61% (Karim et al., 1999).
Under a severe climate change scenario (with 60% moisture stress), yield of Boro might
reduce by 55-62%. Moisture stress might force farmers to reduce the area for Boro
cultivation.
5.4 River bank erosion
Important secondary consequences of climatic hazards include riverbank, char (river and
deltaic islands), and coastal erosion. These are localized on-going processes, but tend to
accelerate and become more severe during times of floods and cyclones. Erosional processes
along the rivers render some millions of people landless. These processes also have dramatic
consequences in the lives of people living in those areas. Mott MacDonald et al. (1993)
reported that every year almost one million people were affected by eroding banks along 75
rivers including the major ones in about 130 different locations, and at least 7 million people
were displaced by riverbank erosion between 1970 and 1990. As reported in WARPO (2005),
a four year study concluded in 1991 found that out of the 462 administrative units in the
country, 100 were subject to some forms of riverbank erosion, of which 35 were serious, and
affected about 1 million people on a yearly basis.
The erosion prone zones of
Bangladesh are shown in Figure 5.4.
The towns of Sirajganj and
Chandpur are under constant threat
from the Jamuna and the Lower
Meghna, respectively. The Meghna
estuary is a highly dynamic place of
erosion and accretion. Although
there is a long term trend in gain of
new lands, a huge amount of fertile
land, in particular the old land, is
exposed to erosion due to migration
and widening of the river system.
Erosion is also a problem in inland
coastal rivers in Barisal, Patuakhali,
Bhola, Barguna, Jhalakathi and
Pirojpur districts of the Barisal
division, resulting in hundreds of
families homeless and shelterless
(PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
Counter-balancing loss of land
through erosion, is the deposition of
silt and the creation of new lands
for settlement. However, erosion
processes are highly unpredictable,
and not compensated by accretion Figure 5.4: Erosion prone areas in Bangladesh
76
(except Meghna Estuary). On average about 87 km2 of mainland are lost each year due to
erosion by the major rivers during 1984 to 1993 while about 50 km2 of land accreted per year
(ISPAN, 1993). A study by EGIS (1997), analyzing remote sensing images from 1973 to
1996 of the 240 km long the Brahmaputra- Jamuna River between the Indian border, and the
confluence with the Ganges concluded that the river has been widening at an average rate of
about 130 m per year. This corresponded to a loss of about 70,000 ha in 23 years, while only
11,000 ha had been accreted. Erosion-induced landlessness has a more immediate adverse
impact than the positive impact of a deposition-induced settlement.
5.5 Salinity intrusion
Water and soil salinity are normal hazards in many parts of the coastal area. During monsoon,
there is abundant fresh water, whereas during the winter, water becomes a scarce resource.
Due to reduced flows in the rivers in winter, the surface water systems suffer from saline
water intrusion, making the resource unsuitable for agriculture, domestic and industrial
purposes. The salinity zones in the coastal area are shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5: Average dry season salinity zones in the coastal

area (Source: OGDA, 2001)
Rahman and Ahsan (2001) estimated that a total of 1.65 million ha of land (70%) out of 2.34
million is affected by different degrees of soil salinity within Khulna and Barisal divisions.
Of these 0.49 million ha are strongly saline. It traditionally restricted the cultivation of Aus,
Boro (HYV) and dry season rabi crops. The critical salinity level for agriculture is 1 to 1.5
ppt NaCl; for Sundri growth it is in the range of 10 to 15 ppt, and for optimum shrimp
production between 10 and 20 ppt. There is a seasonally salinty interface, with the threshold
limit for agriculture moving inland in May in the southern part of the coastal region (PDOICZMP, 2004a).
77
In the southwestern region, surface water salinity has been aggravated by the reduction in
dry-season flows entering the Gorai distributaries, following the diversion of the Ganges flow
upstream of the border. Salinity now reaches as far as Khulna, creating problems to normal
agricultural practices and affecting the supply of clean water for industrial use. Surface water
salinity is also a problem for Chittagong when there are no releases from the Kaptai Lake, as
the saline front approaches the abstraction point for city water supply (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).
River water salinity has also important implications for the natural environment, such as
functioning of the Sundarban ecosystem, sedimentation rates in tidal rivers, and human health.
The surface water and soil salinity of coastal districts are presented in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Surface and soil salinity levels (Source: SRDI, 2001; reported in PDOICZMP, 2004a)
District
Surface water salinity (ppt)
Soil salinity (ppt)
Bagerhat
5 - >10
4 - >15
Barguna
1-5
4 - >15
Barisal
0-4
Bhola
1 - 10
4 - >15
Chandpur
<1
Chittagong
0 - <1
0-8
Coxs Bazar
<1
>15
0 - 10
0 - 15
Gopalganj
<1
0 - 15
Jessore
<1
4-8
Jhalakathi
<1
4-8
5 - >10
8 - >15
Laxmipur
<1
4-8
Narail
<4-8
Noakhali
<1 - 10
0 - >15
Patuakhali
1 - 10
8 - >15
Pirojpur
0 - 10
0 - 15
Satkhira
5 - <10
4 - <15
<1
Feni
Khulna
Shariatpur
5.6 Cyclonic storm surge

Tropical cyclones accompanied by storm surges are one of the major disasters in Bangladesh.
The Bay of Bengal is a favourable breeding ground of these cyclones. About 5.5% cyclonic
storms (wind speed greater than or equal to 62 km/hr) form in the Bay of Bengal and about
1% cyclonic storms of the global total hit Bangladesh (Ali, 1996,1999a, 1999b). When
minimum death tolls over 5000 are considered, it turns out that Bangladesh is the worst
sufferer of all cyclonic casualties in the world, with a death toll of about 53% of the global
total (Ali, 1999a). Around 500,000 people were lost in 1970, and during the more severe
1991 storm about 140,000 people died. The high number of casualties in Bangladesh is due to
the fact that cyclones are always associated with storm surges. Storm surge heights in excess
78
of 10 m or even more are

not uncommon (e.g. in 1876,
the
greatest
Bakerganj
cyclone had a surge height
of 13.6 m and in 1970 the
height was 10 m). Storm
surge amplifications on the
Bangladesh
coast
are
facilitated by a number of
factors,
including
the
shallow water in the north
Bay,
the
northwardconverging nature of the
Bay, and high astronomical
tides. An increase in cyclone
intensity will cause an
increase in storm surge
heights and the horizontal Figure 5.6 Cyclone risk zone of coastal area of Bangladesh
extent of flooding.
Dependence of cyclone formation and intensification on Sea Surface Temperature (SST) has
led to the speculation that any rise in SST due to climate change is likely to be accompanied
by an increase in cyclone frequency and cyclone intensity, which in turn will affect the storm
surges generated by cyclones. Although there is no indication whether the frequency of the
cyclonic activities will increase in the Bay of Bengal, high-intensity cyclonic events will be
far more damaging due to increasing density of both population and infrastructure in the
coastal plains. Climate change will have increasing threats to sea-facing polders due to sea
level rise induced increasing surge heights.
79
6. Vulnerability to Natural Hazards

6.1 General
This chapter presents an analysis of existing vulnerability of people to a number of natural
hazards. For each hazard, the number of population under different degrees of hazard prone
or risk areas are analyzed together with the composition of the population, e.g. male or
female, different major livelihood groups, etc.
6.2 Vulnerability of people in different AEZs
Areas prone to five important hazards, viz. flood, drought (monsoon), river erosion, cyclone
and salinity are presented in Table 6.1. Severe and moderate river flood prone areas are
mainly located in the floodplains of the major rivers (e.g. the Brahmaputra-Jamuna, Meghna
estuarine and low Ganges river floodplains), the Haor basin and the lower Atrai basin, and
areas prone to severe and moderate flash floods include mainly the northern and eastern
piedmont plains and Chittagong coastal plains. Drought prone areas are mainly located in
the western part of Bangladesh, with very severe areas concentrated in the Barind Tract and
adjacent high Ganges river floodplain areas. Active floodplains of the major rivers Teesta,
Brahmaputra and the Ganges, and middle and young estuarine floodplains of the Meghna are
the major areas prone to river erosion. High risk and risk areas for cyclone are located within
the exposed areas of the coastal zone (Ganges tidal plain, Meghna estuarine floodplain and
Chittagong coastal plain). Major salinity intrusion takes place in the Ganges tidal plain, with
the salinity front extending to the high Ganges river floodplain and Gopalganj-Khulna Beels
in some dry months. Salinity intrusion is limited to much shorter distances from the coastline
in young Meghna estuarine floodplain and Chittagong coastal plain.
Table 6.1 Major hazards in different physiographic units
No.
AEZ zones
Area
(km2)
Population
Flood
Hazards
Drought Erosion Cyclone Salinity
Very
severe,
Severe
and
Moderate
Erosion
prone
Old Himalayan
Piedmont Plain
3796
2532670
Active Tista
Floodplain
Tista Meander
Floodplain
Karatoya-Bangali
Floodplain
Lower Atrai
Basin
1062
1024610 Severe
9351
8684660 Moderate
2369
2750890 Moderate Moderate
3
4
5
6
Lower
Purnarbhaba
Floodplain
Active
Brahmaputra-
828
672850 Moderate
and low
132
104530
2537
2663930 Severe
80
Moderate Erosion
prone
No.
AEZ zones
Jamuna
Floodplain
Young
Brahmaputra
and Jamuna
Floodplain
Old Brahmaputra
Floodplain
10 Active Ganges
Floodplain
Area
(km2)
Flood
5597
9138700 Low
7057
7772380 Low
2529
3045890 Severe
11 High Ganges
River Floodplain
13068
12 Low Ganges
River Floodplain
7676
13 Ganges Tidal
Floodplain
(including
Sundarbans)
Population
14846
Moderate
Erosion
prone
Erosion
Prone
11253960 Low
Severe
and
Moderate
7609750 Moderate Moderate Erosion
Prone
9848950 Severe
Very
Erosion High
Salinity
severe,
risk
and
prone
prone
Severe
Risk
and
Moderate
14 GopalganjKhulna Bils
15 Arial Bil
16 Middle Meghna
River Floodplain
2208
1709670 Moderate
150
1277
411330
1959790 Moderate
17 Lower Meghna
River Floodplain
18 Young Meghna
Estuarine
Floodplain
19 Old Meghna
Estuarine
Floodplain
20 Eastern SurmaKusiyara
Floodplain
21 Sylhet Basin
820
1125560 Moderate
22 Northern and
Eastern Piedmont
Plain
23 Chittagong
Coastal Plain
Hazards
5834
5563110 Severe
7624
9917680 Moderate
and Low
4421
3035900 Moderate
4456
3020580 Moderate
and Low
4139
3420670 Severe
3289
4438460 Moderate
81
Erosion
prone
Erosion High
Salinity
risk
and
prone
prone
Risk
Erosion
prone
Erosion High
prone
risk
Salinity
prone
No.
AEZ zones
Area
(km2)
Population
Flood
24 St. Martin's Coral

Island
3340
25 High Barind Tract
1558
1294180
26 Level Barind
Tract
4944
4283530
27 North-eastern
Barind Tract
28 Madhupur Tract
29 Northern and
Eastern Hills
30 Akhaura Terrace
1036
1008220
4162
18503
7512850
6975020
112
144080
Hazards
High
risk
Very
severe
Very
severe
and
Severe
Severe
Note: Analysis based on enumerated census data (BBS, 2003)
6.3 Vulnerability to floods

The population vulnerable to severe and moderate floods (as shown in Figure 5.1) are
presented in Figure 6.1 (a) & (b) and Tables 6.2
0
and 6.3. As of 2000, some 45.5 million people are
1 - 133
134 - 206
estimated to be exposed to severe and moderate
207 - 275
floods (including river flood, flash flood and tidal
276 - 365
flood), of which 22 millions are male and 23.5
millions are female.
Districts with higher
population vulnerable to flood are Chittagong,
Comilla, Sylhet, Sirajganj, Khulna, Noakhali,
Faridpur, Pabna, Patuakhali, Bogra, Bagerhat,
Satkhira, Sunamganj, Bhola, Dhaka, Kurigram
and Pirojpur, with population varying from 0.1 to
3.4 millions. As far as per centage of area affected
in a district is concerned, river floods are
prominent in the districts of Rajbari, Sirajganj,
Madaripur, Kurigram, Narail, Pabna and
Entire Population
Shariatpur, flash floods in the districts of
Chittagong, Feni, Sherpur and Netrokona, and
tidal floods in the districts of Patuakhali, Figure 6.1: (a) Population vulnerable
to severe and moderate
Jhalakathi, Barguna, Bagerhat, Faridpur, Khulna
floods (/km2)
and Pirojpur.
Entire Population
Some 8 million small farmers are vulnerable to flood, majority of whom live in the districts
of Khulna, Munshiganj, Faridpur, Bogra, Sirajganj, Noakhali, Bagerhat, Satkhira, Jhalokathi,
Rajbari, Patuakhali, Chittagong, Lakshmipur, Sylhet and Barguna. The population of small
farmers in these districts vary from 0.2 to 0.55 million. Flood affects some 10.2 million rural
wage laborers, especially in the districts of Sylhet, Sirajganj, Chittagong, Khulna, Sunamganj,
82
Satkhira, Noakhali, Faridpur, Munshiganj, Bhola and Bagerhat, with population varying from
0.34 to 0.55 million. The total number of exposed fishermen is 0.95 million, mainly in the
districts of Bhola, Bagerhat, Sylhet, Satkhira, Chittagong, Coxs Bazar, Sunamganj, Barguna
and Patuakhali. The exposed urban wage laborers total 0.83 million, mostly are concentrated
in the districts of Bogra, Chittagong, Sylhet, Faridpur, Dhaka, Narail and Khulna. The flood
free areas are Bandarban, Chuadanga, Joypurhat, Khagrachari, Meherpur, Naogaon,
Panchagarh, Rangamati and Thakurgaon.
0
1 - 710
1 - 14
711 - 1118
15 - 23
1119 - 1839
24 - 39
1840 - 5643
40 - 74
Fishermen
Small
farmer
Small
Farmer
Fishermen
1 - 13
1 - 186
14 - 23
187 - 236
24 - 77
237 - 288
78 - 197
289 - 359
Rural
Wage
Labor
Rural Wage
Labour
Urban Wage
Labour
Urban
Wage
Labor
Figure 6.1: (b) Population (four major livilihood) vulnerable to severe and
moderate floods (/km2)
Table 6.2: District-wise distribution of flooding extent (%) by different types of flood
District name
Bagerhat
Bandarban
Barguna
River flood
Severe Moderate
0.0
3.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Flash flood
Severe
Moderate
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
83
Tidal flood
Severe Moderate
65.3
15.4
0.0
0.0
83.4
16.4
Total
84.6
0.0
99.8
District name
Barisal
Bhola
Bogra
Brahmanbaria
Chandpur
Chittagong
Comilla
Chuadanga
Cox's bazar
Dhaka
Dinajpur
Faridpur
Feni
Gaibandha
Gazipur
Rajbari
Gopalganj
Habiganj
Joypurhat
Jamalpur
Jessore
Jhalakati
Jhenaidah
Khagrachhari
Khulna
Kishoreganj
Kurigram
Kushtia
Lakshmipur
Lalmonirhat
Madaripur
Magura
Manikganj
Meherpur
Moulvi bazar
Munshiganj
Mymensingh
Naogaon
Narail
Narayanganj
River flood
Severe Moderate
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
7.6
39.6
0.0
32.0
1.9
19.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
45.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.3
5.3
0.0
0.0
18.1
75.3
0.0
16.2
18.4
14.5
0.0
0.0
5.9
84.8
0.0
36.7
0.0
16.5
0.0
0.0
17.4
12.1
0.0
13.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
24.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.7
0.0
3.3
38.1
20.5
0.1
16.4
0.0
5.5
13.0
0.0
4.3
69.2
0.0
45.6
5.4
23.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
37.8
9.7
26.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
61.2
0.0
6.9
Flash flood
Severe
Moderate
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
35.1
10.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
8.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
30.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
18.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.7
5.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
84
Tidal flood
Severe Moderate
0.0
30.7
31.4
36.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.5
0.0
15.7
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
34.4
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23.5
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.3
0.0
99.2
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.0
62.1
18.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
60.7
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Total
30.8
68.0
47.2
36.3
22.4
50.8
56.4
0.0
43.2
12.6
0.0
93.3
70.1
32.9
0.3
90.7
36.9
35.0
0.0
30.3
13.9
99.2
25.6
0.0
82.9
3.4
58.6
16.5
66.1
13.1
73.5
45.6
28.8
0.0
39.9
36.4
9.9
0.0
61.2
6.9
District name
Narsingdi
Nator
Nawabganj
Netrakona
Nilphamari
Noakhali
Pabna
Panchagarh
Patuakhali
Pirojpur
Rangamati
Rangpur
Rajshahi
Satkhira
Shariatpur
Sherpur
Sirajganj
Sunamganj
Sylhet
Tangail
Thakurgaon
River flood
Severe Moderate
0.0
14.9
2.8
16.7
25.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.1
0.0
0.0
2.2
12.7
54.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
3.5
0.3
4.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
25.9
36.3
0.1
0.0
21.5
50.7
0.0
42.9
0.0
76.1
11.1
7.1
0.0
0.0
Flash flood
Severe
Moderate
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
15.8
6.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.1
32.3
0.0
0.0
16.9
0.0
10.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Tidal flood
Severe Moderate
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
69.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
52.2
47.7
21.1
69.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
59.4
6.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
Total
15.1
19.6
25.3
22.1
5.4
71.5
67.1
0.0
99.9
90.4
0.0
4.1
4.8
66.2
62.2
37.4
72.2
60.6
86.8
18.3
0.0
Table 6.3: District-wise distribution of population affected by flood

District
Total
Bagerhat
1282424
Bandarban
0
Barguna
836490
Barisal
718142
Bhola
1139929
Bogra
1412066
Brahmanbaria
857788
Chandpur
494592
Chittagong
3325106
Comilla
2589127
Chuadanga
0
Cox's bazar
758482
Dhaka
1081484
Male
657912
0
417264
359017
583332
717869
424520
240712
1734446
1278683
0
390536
596297
Affected Population
Female
Small
Fisherfarmers
men
624512
0
419226
359126
556597
694198
433268
253880
1590660
1310444
0
367945
485187
85
256227
0
201118
58484
178647
342039
191129
71691
213501
116199
0
101651
25491
86438
0
37048
23253
100915
10989
19460
14793
45602
5193
0
41017
5175
Rural
wage
labor
342664
0
197148
173338
347749
293961
170973
136175
489188
170728
0
238969
51174
Urban
wage
labor
18522
0
13231
19025
20456
70056
15290
12517
64258
8439
0
9808
37757
District
Dinajpur
Faridpur
Feni
Gaibandha
Gazipur
Rajbari
Gopalganj
Habiganj
Joypurhat
Jamalpur
Jessore
Jhalakati
Jhenaidah
Khagrachhari
Khulna
Kishoreganj
Kurigram
Kushtia
Lakshmipur
Lalmonirhat
Madaripur
Magura
Manikganj
Meherpur
Moulvi bazar
Munshiganj
Mymensingh
Naogaon
Narail
Narayanganj
Narsingdi
Nator
Nawabganj
Netrakona
Nilphamari
Noakhali
Pabna
Panchagarh
Total
Male
841
1604738
839092
697297
5440
853325
417245
615219
0
633929
339289
690557
397224
0
1935998
85830
1044542
281908
978232
142713
835730
369587
367075
0
639876
470377
439254
0
421833
148549
285615
297482
358794
427421
83182
1811557
1444997
0
430
808849
409210
350447
2816
435374
208831
307236
0
320620
173799
340867
203203
0
1004123
43161
518278
143392
481432
72171
420278
186870
182393
0
320659
235617
222329
0
210364
78134
144993
151313
179820
216739
42449
886086
739463
0
Affected Population
Female
Small
Fisherfarmers
men
411
795888
429881
346850
2623
417951
208414
307983
0
313308
165490
349690
194021
0
931874
42669
526264
138516
496800
70541
415452
182717
184682
0
319218
234760
216925
0
211469
70415
140621
146169
178974
210682
40733
925471
705534
0
86
154
362488
114404
175319
1332
228389
134332
192266
0
36871
97562
231445
24305
0
549708
14735
180607
40473
212634
35438
169620
129004
57048
0
66166
470635
61198
0
70620
29487
47644
38635
133277
90441
17657
267134
137721
0
4
23138
8948
8587
54
18215
20007
9396
0
2169
2718
5835
675
0
41645
691
7939
9279
4851
1611
8443
12525
12504
0
10780
17086
3400
0
14792
1777
3465
2352
8692
2197
3249
18958
2792
0
Rural
wage
labor
245
389481
132300
205373
625
274627
174346
189375
0
45330
51635
191574
39158
0
464337
20107
270911
60809
207783
42174
119732
129004
136759
0
102966
349481
65618
0
133129
18015
75364
88022
121688
112411
31641
389498
149818
0
Urban
wage
labor
31
40491
17896
10018
139
25221
9527
10119
0
4988
2718
10697
1350
0
35398
614
17862
5331
7276
3368
8443
9393
7815
0
14869
24852
2040
0
36742
2343
2599
7727
5070
4028
2401
27575
4653
0
District
Patuakhali
Pirojpur
Rangamati
Rangpur
Rajshahi
Satkhira
Shariatpur
Sherpur
Sirajganj
Sunamganj
Sylhet
Tangail
Thakurgaon
Total
Male
1443616
1018608
0
103023
109010
1219428
657503
466260
1953397
1193691
2230869
595676
0
721897
509545
0
52457
55808
616245
325991
237181
998973
607447
1132135
297965
0
Affected Population
Female
Small
Fisherfarmers
men
721719
509063
0
50566
53202
603184
331512
229079
954424
586245
1098734
297712
0
216322
185536
0
2712
26981
248335
132230
114772
338632
188711
201683
159648
0
28843
12166
0
740
896
68349
12372
6404
21055
40438
74148
8203
0
Rural
wage
labor
254040
206827
0
3944
35266
391868
201052
129549
493035
404380
542763
117369
0
Urban
wage
labor
21078
18249
0
247
1791
15948
10826
5418
29828
8986
53387
8834
0
6.4 Vulnerability to droughts

The population vulnerable to very severe, severe
and moderate Kharif droughts are illustrated in
Figure 6.2 (a) & (b) and Tables 6.4 and 6.5. As
far as per centage of affected area in a district is
concerned, very severe and severe droughts are
prominent in the districts of Joypurhat, Nawabganj,
Naogaon, Rajshai and Dinajpur, with area varying
from 91 to 55% of respective district areas. The
major districts under the influence of moderate
drought are Chuadanga, Meherpur, Jhenaidah,
Panchagarh and Jessore, with area varying from 88
to 78% of respective district areas.
0
1 - 1200
1201 - 2400
2401 - 3600
3601 - 5643
Some 2 million small farmers and 2.4 million rural

wage laborers are vulnerable to very severe to
severe Kharif drought, majority of whom live in
Entire Population
the districts of Joypurhat, Nawabganj, Naogaon,
Rajshahi and Dinajpur. The population of small Figure 6.2: (a) Population vulnerable
farmers in these districts vary from 0.12 to 0.46
to very severe and severe
million, while that of rural wage laborers from 0.1
drought
to 0.6 million.
Small farmers and rural wage
laborers exposed to moderate drought total 6 and 6.6 millions, respectively. Majority of
small farmers live in the districts of Chuadanga, Jessore, Tangail, Bogra and Gazipur, with
population varying from 0.86 to 0.32 million. Majority of rural wage laborers live in the
districts of Chuadanga, Satkhira, Dinajpur, Bogra and Jessore, with population varying from
0.82 to 0.29 million.
87
1 - 115
1 - 10
116 - 165
11 - 16
166 - 221
17 - 31
222 - 365
32 - 47
Fishermen
Fishermen
Small
Farmer
Small
farmer
0
1 - 186
1 - 11
187 - 236
12 - 21
237 - 287
22 - 31
288 - 315
32 - 77
Rural
Labor
RuralWage
Wage
Labor
Urban
Wage Labor
Urban
Wage
Labor
Figure 6.2: (b) Population (four major livilihood) vulnerable to

very severe and severe drought
Table 6.4: Small farmers and rural wage labors vulnerable to very severe and severe
drought
District name
Bagerhat
Bandarban
Barguna
Barisal
Bhola
Bogra
Brahmanbaria
Chandpur
Chittagong
Total
population
(2001)
1515815
292900
837955
2330960
1676600
2988567
2365880
2210162
6545078
Area (%) under

very severe and
severe drought
16.5
0.5
Area
(km2)
1117.33
1044.20
1374.44
2714.03
724.26
931.82
4271.44
3435.86
963.59
88
Affected
small
farmers
119491
2059
Affected
rural wage
labors
102695
4719
District name
Comilla
Chuadanga
Cox's bazar
Dhaka
Dinajpur
Faridpur
Feni
Gaibandha
Gazipur
Rajbari
Gopalganj
Habiganj
Joypurhat
Jamalpur
Jessore
Jhalakati
Jhenaidah
Khagrachhari
Khulna
Kishoreganj
Kurigram
Kushtia
Lakshmipur
Lalmonirhat
Madaripur
Magura
Manikganj
Meherpur
Moulvi bazar
Munshiganj
Mymensingh
Naogaon
Narail
Narayanganj
Narsingdi
Nator
Nawabganj
Netrakona
Nilphamari
Total
population
(2001)
4586879
987382
1757321
8575533
2617942
1719496
1196219
2117959
2026244
940360
1132046
1757331
844814
2089366
2440693
696055
1554514
524961
2334285
2525221
1782277
1713224
1479371
1088918
1137008
811160
1274829
579531
1604028
1293536
4439017
2377314
689021
2138492
1891281
1521359
1419536
1937794
1550686
Area
(km2)
Area (%) under

very severe and
severe drought
1.1
55.1
1.9
3.2
8.0
3.2
91.3
0.4
0.2
4.4
0.8
0.1
75.5
1.3
2.0
81.0
0.6
5.4
779.40
1162.99
1912.04
1718.14
2865.75
1660.05
2633.27
2410.17
1387.08
2458.44
1109.90
1121.27
2378.23
6064.52
2323.60
3443.71
1243.33
1316.88
2431.48
3705.08
3416.51
3447.02
1811.34
1117.33
1044.20
1374.44
2714.03
724.26
931.82
4271.44
3435.86
963.59
779.40
1162.99
1912.04
1718.14
2865.75
1660.05
2633.27
89
Affected
small
farmers
2632
264123
7224
17204
20256
11507
461024
460
1259
10859
2145
163
117912
1491
3945
427169
2566
17657
Affected
rural wage
labors
6188
419937
7762
20153
24357
14934
600026
566
666
16314
2145
390
114273
2811
8987
390024
3189
31641
District name
Noakhali
Pabna
Panchagarh
Patuakhali
Pirojpur
Rangamati
Rangpur
Rajshahi
Satkhira
Shariatpur
Sherpur
Sirajganj
Sunamganj
Sylhet
Tangail
Thakurgaon
Total
population
(2001)
2533394
2153921
829374
1444340
1126525
507180
2534365
2262483
1843194
1057181
1246511
2707011
1968669
2569788
3253961
1196429
Area
(km2)
Area (%) under

very severe and
severe drought
4.1
8.6
0.9
20.4
63.0
1.5
1.5
4.3
0.5
32.6
2410.17
1387.08
2458.44
1109.90
1121.27
2378.23
6064.52
2323.60
3443.71
1243.33
1316.88
2431.48
3705.08
3416.51
3447.02
1811.34
Affected
small
farmers
8434
22426
1844
13623
352604
5599
4653
20149
4261
95721
Affected
rural wage
labors
9175
28984
2166
19815
460873
8835
5252
29336
3133
101039
Table 6.5: Small farmers and rural wage labors vulnerable to moderate drought
District name
Bagerhat
Total
population
(2001)
Area
2
(km )
Per cent of area

under moderate
drought
Affected
small
farmers
Affected
rural wage
labors
1515815
1117.33
22.7
68622
91771
Bandarban
292900
1044.20
0.3
185
211
Barguna
837955
1374.44
4.1
8277
8114
Barisal
2330960
2714.03
3.5
6650
19711
Bhola
1676600
724.26
6.8
17911
34866
Bogra
2988567
931.82
49.3
357080
306888
Brahmanbaria
2365880
4271.44
2.1
10860
9714
Chandpur
2210162
3435.86
1.3
4280
8130
Chittagong
6545078
963.59
1.6
6865
15730
Comilla
4586879
779.40
1.8
3792
5571
Chuadanga
987382
1162.99
88.1
861903
820729
Cox's bazar
1757321
1912.04
9.5
22436
52744
Dhaka
8575533
1718.14
16.7
33738
67730
Dinajpur
2617942
2865.75
41.4
198400
315442
Faridpur
1719496
1660.05
48.6
188893
202959
Feni
1196219
2633.27
Gaibandha
2117959
2410.17
39.2
208908
244721
90
District name
Total
population
(2001)
Area
2
(km )
Per cent of area

under moderate
drought
Affected
small
farmers
Affected
rural wage
labors
Gazipur
2026244
1387.08
64.4
319345
149963
Rajbari
940360
2458.44
62.3
156732
188464
Gopalganj
1132046
1109.90
11.7
42548
55221
Habiganj
1757331
1121.27
0.4
2160
2128
Joypurhat
844814
2378.23
3.9
19892
25889
Jamalpur
2089366
6064.52
49.9
60663
74580
Jessore
2440693
2323.60
78.2
548867
290487
Jhalakati
696055
3443.71
2.4
5528
4576
Jhenaidah
1554514
1243.33
84.3
80155
129139
524961
1316.88
0.2
575
939
Khulna
2334285
2431.48
38.6
255592
215897
Kishoreganj
2525221
3705.08
Kurigram
1782277
3416.51
41.4
127710
191565
Kushtia
1713224
3447.02
66.6
163867
246200
Lakshmipur
1479371
1811.34
Lalmonirhat
1088918
1117.33
43.9
118692
141253
Madaripur
1137008
1044.20
4.6
10543
7442
811160
1374.44
55.6
157501
157501
Manikganj
1274829
2714.03
6.4
12677
30391
Meherpur
579531
724.26
85.4
109444
174368
Moulvi bazar
1604028
931.82
0.1
138
215
Munshiganj
1293536
4271.44
0.1
1569
1165
Mymensingh
4439017
3435.86
10.1
62169
66659
Naogaon
2377314
963.59
3.0
4660
4516
689021
779.40
35.6
41071
77424
Narayanganj
2138492
1162.99
9.0
38088
23270
Narsingdi
1891281
1912.04
9.6
30235
47827
Nator
1521359
1718.14
53.7
106044
241597
Nawabganj
1419536
2865.75
Netrakona
1937794
1660.05
Nilphamari
1550686
2633.27
40.3
132535
237504
Noakhali
2533394
2410.17
Pabna
2153921
1387.08
35.9
73700
80174
Panchagarh
829374
2458.44
72.9
189995
245560
Patuakhali
1444340
1109.90
8.7
18768
22041
Pirojpur
1126525
1121.27
4.1
8424
9391
507180
2378.23
0.9
4170
5044
Khagrachhari
Magura
Narail
Rangamati
91
District name
Total
population
(2001)
Area
2
(km )
Per cent of area

under moderate
drought
Affected
small
farmers
Affected
rural wage
labors
Rangpur
2534365
6064.52
42.8
28553
41532
Rajshahi
2262483
2323.60
16.6
92846
121355
Satkhira
1843194
3443.71
58.8
220839
348480
Shariatpur
1057181
1243.33
6.4
13686
20809
Sherpur
1246511
1316.88
45.8
140621
158727
Sirajganj
2707011
2431.48
14.1
66080
96210
Sunamganj
1968669
3705.08
4.4
13540
29014
Sylhet
2569788
3416.51
1.1
2635
7091
Tangail
3253961
3447.02
41.2
359633
264394
Thakurgaon
1196429
1811.34
64.9
190367
200943
6.5 Vulnerability to cyclone

Some 6.2 million people in 12 districts (Bhola, Coxs Bazar, Barguna, Patuakhali, Noakhali,
Bagerhat, Khulna, Lakshmipur, Feni, Pirojpur and Barisal) are estimated to be at High Risk
from cyclonic surges. Addition of a further 2.3 million in 14 districts (Barguna, Lakshmipur,
Pirojpur, Patuakhali, Bagerhat, Barisal, Khulna, Coxs Bazar, Satkhira, Chittagong, Feni,
Noakhali, Bhola and Bandarban) at Risk results in a total at-risk population of 8.5 million.
In terms of area under high risk, Bhola, Coxs Bazar, Barguna, Patuakhali and Noakhali rank
first, second, third and fourth, fifth, respectively. However, in terms of population exposed to
High Risk, Bhola, Chitatgong, Noakhali, Coxs Bazar and Patuakhali rank first, second,
third, fourth and fifth, respectively. In the case of cyclone Risk area, Barguna, Lakshmipur,
Pirojpur, Patuakhali and Bagerhat rank first, second, third, fourth and fifth, respectively, in
terms of per cent area under risk, and Chittagong, Barisal, Khulna, Lakshmipur and
Patuakhali rank first, second, third, fourth and fifth, respectively, in terms of population at
risk.
Entire Population
(>1m surge height)
Entire Population
(<1m surge height)
Figure 6.3: (a) Population vulnerable to high risk cyclone (/km2)

92
Small Farmer
Fishermen
Rural Wage Labor
Urban Wage Labor
Figure 6.3: (b) Population per km2 (four major livilihood), vulnerable to high risk cyclone (>1m surge height)
Small Farmer
Fishermen
Rural Wage Labor
Urban Wage Labor
Figure 6.3: (c) Population per km2 (four major livilihood), vulnerable to risk cyclone (<1m surge height)
93
Table 6.6: Population vulnerable to cyclone in high risk zones (more than 1 m surge)
District name
Total
population
Bagerhat
Bandarban
Barguna
Barisal
Bhola
Bogra
Brahmanbaria
Chandpur
Chittagong
Comilla
Chuadanga
Cox's bazar
Dhaka
Dinajpur
Faridpur
Feni
Gaibandha
Gazipur
Rajbari
Gopalganj
Habiganj
Joypurhat
Jamalpur
Jessore
Jhalakati
Jhenaidah
Khagrachhari
Khulna
Kishoreganj
Kurigram
Kushtia
Lakshmipur
Lalmonirhat
Madaripur
Magura
Manikganj
Meherpur
Moulvi bazar
1515815
292900
837955
2330960
1676600
2988567
2365880
2210162
6545078
4586879
987382
1757321
8575533
2617942
1719496
1196219
2117959
2026244
940360
1132046
1757331
844814
2089366
2440693
696055
1554514
524961
2334285
2525221
1782277
1713224
1479371
1088918
1137008
811160
1274829
579531
1604028
Area
(km2)
1117.33
1044.20
1374.44
2714.03
724.26
931.82
4271.44
3435.86
963.59
779.40
1162.99
1912.04
1718.14
2865.75
1660.05
2633.27
2410.17
1387.08
2458.44
1109.90
1121.27
2378.23
6064.52
2323.60
3443.71
1243.33
1316.88
2431.48
3705.08
3416.51
3447.02
1811.34
1117.33
1044.20
1374.44
2714.03
724.26
931.82
Per cent of area under

severe cyclone
(more than 1m surge)
29.1
43.7
0.3
81.2
16.6
45.8
2.1
12.2
8.6
-
94
Affected
male
population
Affected
female
population
226614
182690
3602
696744
565136
414614
12330
147554
62904
-
215110
183549
3603
664811
518286
390630
12953
136937
64912
-
District name
Munshiganj
Mymensingh
Naogaon
Narail
Narayanganj
Narsingdi
Nator
Nawabganj
Netrakona
Nilphamari
Noakhali
Pabna
Panchagarh
Patuakhali
Pirojpur
Rangamati
Rangpur
Rajshahi
Satkhira
Shariatpur
Sherpur
Sirajganj
Sunamganj
Sylhet
Tangail
Thakurgaon
Total
population
1293536
4439017
2377314
689021
2138492
1891281
1521359
1419536
1937794
1550686
2533394
2153921
829374
1444340
1126525
507180
2534365
2262483
1843194
1057181
1246511
2707011
1968669
2569788
3253961
1196429
Area
(km2)
4271.44
3435.86
963.59
779.40
1162.99
1912.04
1718.14
2865.75
1660.05
2633.27
2410.17
1387.08
2458.44
1109.90
1121.27
2378.23
6064.52
2323.60
3443.71
1243.33
1316.88
2431.48
3705.08
3416.51
3447.02
1811.34

severe cyclone
32.2
37.1
1.9
15.8
-
Affected
male
population
Affected
female
population
398483
268268
10466
147578
-
416195
268202
10456
144450
-
Table 6.7: Population vulnerable to cyclone in risk zones (less than 1 m surge)
District name
Total
population
Bagerhat
Bandarban
Barguna
Barisal
Bhola
Bogra
Brahmanbaria
Chandpur
1515815
292900
837955
2330960
1676600
2988567
2365880
2210162
Area
(km2)
1117.33
1044.20
1374.44
2714.03
724.26
931.82
4271.44
3435.86

severe cyclone
11.5
0.03
20.3
10.9
3.6
-
95
Affected
male
population
Affected
female
population
89738
41
84768
127277
30514
-
85182
36
85167
127315
29116
-
District name
Chittagong
Comilla
Chuadanga
Cox's bazar
Dhaka
Dinajpur
Faridpur
Feni
Gaibandha
Gazipur
Rajbari
Gopalganj
Habiganj
Joypurhat
Jamalpur
Jessore
Jhalakati
Jhenaidah
Khagrachhari
Khulna
Kishoreganj
Kurigram
Kushtia
Lakshmipur
Lalmonirhat
Madaripur
Magura
Manikganj
Meherpur
Moulvi bazar
Munshiganj
Mymensingh
Naogaon
Narail
Narayanganj
Narsingdi
Nator
Nawabganj
Netrakona
Total
population
6545078
4586879
987382
1757321
8575533
2617942
1719496
1196219
2117959
2026244
940360
1132046
1757331
844814
2089366
2440693
696055
1554514
524961
2334285
2525221
1782277
1713224
1479371
1088918
1137008
811160
1274829
579531
1604028
1293536
4439017
2377314
689021
2138492
1891281
1521359
1419536
1937794
Area
(km2)
963.59
779.40
1162.99
1912.04
1718.14
2865.75
1660.05
2633.27
2410.17
1387.08
2458.44
1109.90
1121.27
2378.23
6064.52
2323.60
3443.71
1243.33
1316.88
2431.48
3705.08
3416.51
3447.02
1811.34
1117.33
1044.20
1374.44
2714.03
724.26
931.82
4271.44
3435.86
963.59
779.40
1162.99
1912.04
1718.14
2865.75
1660.05

severe cyclone
5.7
10.0
5.3
10.4
15.0
-
96
Affected
male
population
Affected
female
population
193336
90050
30826
125988
108992
-
177308
84841
32383
116923
112471
-
District name
Nilphamari
Noakhali
Pabna
Panchagarh
Patuakhali
Pirojpur
Rangamati
Rangpur
Rajshahi
Satkhira
Shariatpur
Sherpur
Sirajganj
Sunamganj
Sylhet
Tangail
Thakurgaon
Total
population
1550686
2533394
2153921
829374
1444340
1126525
507180
2534365
2262483
1843194
1057181
1246511
2707011
1968669
2569788
3253961
1196429
Area
(km2)
2633.27
2410.17
1387.08
2458.44
1109.90
1121.27
2378.23
6064.52
2323.60
3443.71
1243.33
1316.88
2431.48
3705.08
3416.51
3447.02
1811.34

severe cyclone
4.9
12.8
14.1
7.8
-
97
Affected
male
population
Affected
female
population
60737
92681
79324
72554
-
63437
92658
79249
71016
-
7. Institutional Settings
7.1 General
Institutions, including the current policy regime and support services, help identify part of the
social and financial strengths of a vulnerable society (community/ households/ individual)
and provide information on the livelihood outcomes of the society. There is a clear need to
have an improved understanding of local institutional arrangements that influence the
livelihood situation of the households, i.e. what institutional arrangements can empower and
enable local communities so that they can enhance their access to services and obtain control
over natural resources. An important aspect to be looked into is the linkages with central
government agencies and between different sectors, i.e. how they promote partnership
relations (e.g. between public and private sectors) and how these arrangements help create
conditions for a conducive environment at local level for improving livelihoods.
There have been a number of reviews on institutional settings. For example, PDO-ICZMP
(2001a) did an institutional review of selected ministries and agencies, PDO-ICZMP (2003b)
made analysis of the specific responsibilities and tasks of organizations mentioned in
different policy documents, and PDO-ICZMP (2003c) made a review of local institutional
environment in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. PDO-ICZMP (2004a) provides a good
account of institutions and organizations, laws and regulations, and inter-institutional
coordination. The importance of an institutional structure with adequate linkages among
different stakeholders is highlighted in this chapter, followed by a brief review of the
institutional setting present in Bangladesh based on the literature mentioned above.
7.2 Insitutional Coordination
Mainstreaming adaptation to climate change emphasizes on involvement of local as well as
national institutions taking part in the Climate Risk Reduction Action Plan (CRRAP) efforts
at local, regional (sub-national) and national levels. Mainstreaming will largely depend on
coordination across institutions and tiers, partnership among stakeholders, including
partnerships between agencies in charge of implementing development programmes and local
beneficiary groups, and integration of local plans into meso-scale plans, of meso-scale plans
into macro-level plans, and of macro-level sectoral plans into national level development
plans. It is important to find out mechanisms to establish linkages among different actors at
a tier (horizontal integration) and also among different tiers (vertical integration).
Institutional architecture, as envisioned in DOE (2006) (Figure 7.1), should encompass both
local through national scale institutions as well as national to global scale institutions. The
United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is a forum where
political leaders decide on modifying (or reducing) the threats of climate change. The global
scientific community has played a significant role in identifying, evaluating and promoting
adaptation measures for vulnerable countries. Their collaborative efforts have produced
assessment reports of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) where many
region specific adaptation techniques are explained. The global response to adaptation has to
be taken into consideration to benefit in terms of policy guideline, technology, knowledge
and information. The national planning authority formulates sector-specific plans and
programs as well as those of the local government, which reflect people-centered and needbased adaptation plans. The government also takes the necessary steps to implement the plans
98
involving its functionaries. Contributions also come from the research and academic
institutes, and national NGOs in planning development and implementation. Local
government institutions operate at meso-scale (sub-national or district) level. Their role is to
act as a bridge or intermediator between the government and the public. It is their
responsibility that local institutions and non-government organizations work together for
implementation of the plans. There are other actors at the local level, e.g. civil societies,
NGOs, informal institutions, and communities. Peoples participation is a must in planning
and implementing any measure. Combining lessons learnt at the microlevel and integrating
the efforts of the local people would enhance micro level programmes.
Figure 7.1: Institutional arrangement for mainstreaming climate risk management and
adaptation (Source: CCC, 2006).
7.3 National government institutions
7.3.1 Policy and planning organizations
The National Economic Council (NEC) is the highest executive body involved in the
Governments planning process. It is responsible for policy decisions on the basis of
recommendations from its Executive Committee (ECNEC). The Planning Commission is a
technical body responsible for advising and assisting ECNEC and NEC on development
planning. It produces the Five Year Plans, the Three Year Rolling Plan and the Annual
Development Programmes. NEC, ECNEC and the Planning Commission are also
responsible agencies to approve all projects/programs.
There are over 40 different agencies and organizations and at least 13 different ministries
involved directly or indirectly in water sector. National Water Resources Council (NWRC),
99
with an Executive Committee (ECNWRC), is responsible for coordinating all aspects of

water management. It was formed to fulfill the policy of the government to formulate a
framework of institutional reform to guide all water related activities. The NWRC will
periodically review the mandates of all water sector institutions and redefine their respective
roles, as necessary, to ensure efficient and effective institutions commensurate with changing
needs and priorities. The Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO) serves as the
executive secretariat of ECNWRC, and is responsible for preparing National Water
Management Plans NWMP and subsequent updates (every 5 years), and monitoring
implementation.
7.3.2 Development organizations
Development activities are carried out by many government organizations. The Bangladesh
Water Development Board (BWDB) is responsible, among other things, for implementing
water projects (> 1000 ha), dredging and re-excavation of channels, river training and erosion
prevention, and hydro-morphological surveys, investigations and monitoring. The Local
Government Engineering Department (LGED) implements rural infrastructure (e.g. roads,
bridges, culverts, growth centers) and small scale water projects (<1000 ha). The Department
of Fisheries (DOF) is the principal institution for the management and development of fish
resources of Bangladesh, quality control of fish and fish products. The Forest Department
(FD) is responsible for protection and management of reserved forests including coastal
mangrove belts, protected forests (Sundarban) and unclassified state forests. The Department
of Agricultural Extension (DAE) is the largest public sector extension service provider in
Bangladesh, which facilitates increases in agricultural productivity, human resource
development and technology transfer. The Department of Environment (DoE) is mandated to
regulate and enforce environmental management, including control of pollution. The
Disaster Management Bureau (DMB) is carrying out many activities in relation to natural
disasters, e.g. promotion of disaster prevention and mitigation plans, providing guidelines,
and organizing training. The Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority (BIWTA) is
responsible for river conservancy works, including river training, maintaining pilotage,
providing hydrographic survey services, and river dredging in order to develop, maintain and
operate inland river ports. The Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) is
responsible for installation of water supply and sanitation systems in rural areas and in urban
areas outside Dhaka and Chittagong. The Coast Guard is responsible for protection of the
national interests of Bangladesh in the marine areas and the EEZ.
7.4 Local government institutions
Local government institutions (LGIs) represent the most important formal institutional
structure and play a very significant role in shaping the local institutional environment. All
LGIs are under the administrative responsibility of the Local Government division of the
Ministry of Local Government, Rural development and Cooperatives. The LGIs include City
Corporations (6), Paurashava/Municipalites (223; each with population in excess of 15000),
Zila/District Parishad (64 in 64 districts), Upazila/Thana Parishad (507), Union Parishad
(4,484), and Gram Sarkar (87,928). Each city corporation, paurashava and parishad is a
corporate body with perpetual succession, entitled to acquire, hold and dispose of movable
and immovable property, and to raise taxes and other income. Parishads are allowed to raise
100
taxes to meet local expenditure, and prepare, approve amd implement development plans
within their jurisdiction.
7.5 Private sector
Privtate sector activities have expanded significantly over the last 20 years with progressive
liberization of the economy. Different associations and chambers represent private sector
activities. There are Chambers of Commerce and Industry in many of the district towns.
With the changing global economic scenario, the need for specialized institutions in
promoting private investment, both foregin and domestic, has started to emerge, and as a
result, investment promotion and facilitation bodies such as Bangladesh Small Cottage and
Industries Corporations, Bangladesh Export Processing Zones Authority, Privatization
Commission, and Board of Investment, etc. have been developed.
7.6 NGOs and CBOs
The Non-Governmentl Organizations (NGOs) are private, voluntary social organizations,
armed with external finance. They are actively promoting the value of socialjustice and
equality of men and women, and helping in the formation of local informal organizations that
deliver basic needs services, like health, education, water and sanitation, micro-finance, and
capacity building training, with an aim to contribute to poverty alleviation and community
development. The Community-based Organizations (CBOs) are engaged in similar activities;
however, they donot have the external financial support opportunities.
7.7 Informal institutions
The local samaj (a group of local leaders and elites) has existed since ancient times. They
continue to exist until today, together with other informal civil sector organizations like
goshti (kinship groups), shalish and bari (houshold or family groups). Samaj-type
institutions are vocal, active, and concerned, especially in the more remote areas (on the
chars). They often assume responsibilities in resolving local disputes, and they participate in
socio-cultural activities. There are small, samities of the poor, landless people, formed after
the liberation with active facilitilation by a few private sector organizations. Nowadays,
these samities are important local organizations within the Union Parishad. They may be
considered formal or informal, like school committees, mosque/temple committees, and
bazaar committees. They are involved in bringing some order in local trade and commerce,
and awareness raising or capacity building. Although they usually maintain a low profile,
they have important roles in directing the village society.
7.8 Networking
There are fixed coordination arrangements between the public sector agencies at district and
upazila level, e.g. Upazila Development Coordination Committee (UDCC), District
Development Coordination Committee (DDCC) and NGO Coordination Committees. Some
other functional coordination mechansims also exist.
101
102
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This document is produced by

Climate Change Cell
Ministry of Environment and Forests
with the assistance of
Ministry of Food and Disaster Management
Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (CDMP)
Phone: 880-2-9890937
Email: info@cdmp.org.bd
Url: www.cdmp.org.bd

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Development of a Base Document in the Backdrop of

Climate Change Cell

Characterizing Country Settings:

Characterizing Country Settings:

ISBN: 984 -300 - 003323 - 1

Zafar Ahmed Khan, PhD

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Agro Ecological Zone

Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute

Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics

Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority

Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee

Bangladesh Water Development Board

Community Based Organizations

Centre for Environmental and Geographic Information System

Coastal Embankment Project

Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters

Community Risk Reduction Action Plan

Department of Agricultural Extension

District Development Coordination Committee

Disaster Management Bureau

Department of Public Health Engineering

Deep Tube well

Executive Committee of National Economic Council

Executive Committee of National Water Resources Council

Exclusive Economic Zone

Export Processing Zone

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

Flood Control and Drainage

Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation

Ganges Brahmaputra Basin

Gross Domestic Products

Geographic Information System

High Yielding Variety

Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change

Irrigation Support Project for Asia and the Near East

Inland Water Transport

Livelihood Capital Assets

Least Developed Country

Local Government Engineering Department

Local Government Institutions

Low Lift Pump

Mean Sea Level

Non Government Organizations

National Water Management Plan

National Water Resources Council

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan

Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change

Sundarban Bio-diversity Conservation Project

Shallow Tube well

Upazila Development Coordination Committee

United Nation Education Science and Cultural Organization

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

United Nations Children's Fund

Water Resources Planning Organization

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Vulnerability to Natural Hazards

Area of Agro-Ecological Zones

Classification of cultivable land by flood depth