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1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
High pressure water jets are in continuous development from 1900 onwards. In USA
these jets were introduced in mining applications to washout valuable materials like gold.
In the early 60's O. Imanaka, University of Tokyo applied pure water for industrial
machining. The idea was based on the destruction of shell structures of airplanes by
rain particle impact.
In the late 60's R. Franz of University of Michigan, examine the cutting of wood with
high velocity jets. He got the idea from the way steam leaks were detected on invisible
spots. A broom was moved through the locations where the leak was expected. By the
damage to the broom the idea came up that a jet of high velocity water could also cut
materials.
This led to the first industrial application manufactured by McCartney Manufacturing
Company and installed in Alto Boxboard in 1972.
From that time high-pressure water jets were utilized in cutting soft materials like
wood and leather. But also hard and brittle materials like granite and bricks and
even some tough materials like titanium were cut with pure water.
Research led to the invention of the abrasive water jet in 1980 and in 1983 the first
commercial system with abrasive entrainment in the jet became available. The added
abrasives increased the range of materials, which can be cut with a Watergate drastically.
[35]

1.2 INTRODUCTION
1.2.1 CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
Conventional machining usually involves changing the shape of a workpiece using an
implement made of a harder material. Using conventional methods to machine hard
metals and alloys means increased demand of time and energy and therefore increases
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in costs; in some cases conventional machining may not be feasible.
Conventional machining also costs in terms of tool wear and in loss of quality in the
product owing to induced residual stresses during manufacture. With ever increasing
demand for manufactured goods of hard alloys and metals, such as Inconel 718 or
titanium, more interest has gravitated to non-conventional machining methods.[27][28]

1.2.2 NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING

Non-conventional machining utilizes other forms of energy. Water Jet Machining
(WJM) and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) are two non- traditional or nonconventional machining processes.

They belong to mechanical group of non-

conventional processes like Ultrasonic Machining (USM) and Abrasive Jet Machining
(AJM). In these processes (WJM and AJWM), the mechanical energy of water and
abrasive phases are used to achieve material removal or machining. The general
grouping of some of the typical non-traditional processes are shown below
Mechanical Processes

Ultra Sonic Machining (USM)

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Water Jet Machining (WJM) and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

Thermal Processes

Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) and Wire Electric Discharge Machining

(WEDM)
Electrical Processes
Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
Electric Discharge Grinding (EDG)
Chemical Processes

Chemical milling

Photo chemical machining[29]

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1.3 ABRASIVE WATER JET SYSTEMS
AWJM can be achieved using different approaches and methodologies as enumerated
below:
AWJM entrained three phase abrasive, water and air
AWJM suspended two phase abrasive and water

Direct pumping

Indirect pumping

Bypass pumping

As discussed earlier there are two ways or systems in w hich the abrasives are mixed
with the water to form an AWJ, one is the entrainment system and the other is the
suspended pumping system. In an entrainment system, a high pressure waterjet is
formed first by an orifice; abrasives are then entrained into the waterjet to mix with
the watejet and form an abrasive waterjet. In a suspended pumping system, abrasives
are pre-mixed with water to form slurry that is then pumped and expelled through a
nozzle to form an abrasive slurry jet (ASJ). A description of these two system is given
below.[29]

1.3.1 ENTRAINED SYSTEM

The entrainment abrasive waterjet system is being widely used in the manufacturing
area. The water pressure in this system is in the order of 400 MPa. This high-pressure
water is focused through a small precious stone orifice to form an intense water stream
or waterjet, as shown in Figure 1.1. The stream moves at a velocity of up to 2.5
times the speed of sound, depending on the water pressure. As the waterjet passes
through a mixing chamber, it mixed with the abrasive particles that are entrained into
the mixing chamber through a separate inlet to the vacuum created by the waterjet.
Typical AWJ particle velocities range from 450 to 720m/s. The material removal takes
place due to the erosion of target material by particles. Each particle contributes to
the cutting process and the integration of all cutting actions by a large number of
particles (in the order of 105 particles per second) can remove material at a high rate.
As the vast majority of the abrasive waterjet cutting applications use the entrainment
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system, this project will study the various aspects of the technology for entrainment
abrasive waterjet systems. [29]

Figure 1.1 : Principle of entrainment system.

1.3.2 SUSPENDED SYSTEMS

Two different principles can be used to pump premixed abrasive suspension or slurry
through a fine nozzle to form an ASJ.

1.3.2.1 BYPASS PUMPING SYSTEM

In this system, part of the water flow is pumped through the bypass line to a storage
vessel to bring the abrasives out of the storage. The bypassed water together with the
abrasives then joins the main flow and mix with the water. The main components of
a bypass Figure 1.2 system are a plunger pump, a high pressure abrasive storage
vessel, a bypass line and hopper, and valves. This system has the disadvantages of
system wear, and low pressure level of usually lower than 50MPa, while the
maximum pressure is limited to 200MPa.

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Figure 1.2 : Bypass Pumping System

1.3.2.2 INDIRECT PUMPING SYSTEM

Abrasive suspension is first formed by mixing abrasives and water. A high viscous
suspension-stabilizing additive may be added to the water abrasives slurry to suspend
the particles in the storage vessel and reduce their settling velocity. The premixed
slurry is then pumped by a pump-isolator assembly through a nozzle, where the
isolator is used to prevent unexpected mixing of the slurry and water. The pressure
level in this generation system is relatively higher than the bypass system, but lower
than the entrainment system. A comparison of these two systems indicates that the
process of ASJ formation is more energy efficient than an AWJ. In an ASJ system,
most of the energy put into the system is realized as cutting power at the nozzle.
However, an AWJ at high pressures (in the order of 400MPa) is more effective in
cutting than an ASJ at low pressures for the same abrasive mass usage. In the ASJ
system, the elimination of entrained air ensures a minimal expansion of the exiting jet,
which in turn provides maximum cutting precision. Furthermore, the ASJ generation
system has a simple nozzle and compact cutting head which enables operation in
confined spaces. The implementation of the ASJ system is associated with hardware
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problems such as the requirements of a high pressure slurry check valve, pressure
vessel and nozzles. Because of severe wear on the high pressure tubes in the ASJ
generation system, it is only used with relatively low pressure and manufacturing
cutting applications primarily use the entrainment system. Figure 1.3. [29]

Figure 1.3 : Indirect Pumping System

1.4 ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINE

Abrasive Waterjet (AWJ) machine uses cold supersonic abrasive erosion to cut almost any materials both metals and non-metals and so it is also understood as a
blast erosion process in which the highly pressurized water is forced through a tiny
areas resulting in formation of waterjet. Abrasive garnet is mixed to this jet in the
mixing chamber making it an Abrasive Waterjet which erodes away the material.
Conventional machining may also use a liquid medium in conjunction with the cutting
tool but its purpose is not to deliver but to carry away the material.
Figure 1.4 shows the Abrasive water jet machine. In addition for both conventional and
abrasive water jet machining the liquid medium will also act as a heat sink, taking heat
away from the machining away from the working area.[35]

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Figure 1.4 : Abrasive water jet machine

1.5 WORKING PROCESS

Water pressurized at 240 MPa or greater enters the cutting head at relatively slow speed,
The water is forced through an orifice that has a small diameter orifice of 0.1-0.3 mm.
These orifices are made of extremely hard material, such as diamond, sapphire or
ruby. This step converts the water stream from a high pressure stream to a high
velocity stream. At this point the water is moving in excess of 1000 m/s.
The high velocity of the jet creates a Venturi effect, or vacuum, in the mixing
chamber located immediately beneath the orifice. Abrasive, typically garnet is metered
from a mini-hopper through a plastic tube down to the cutting head and is sucked
into the waterjet stream in the mixing chamber. Cutting speed will increase with more
abrasive until a saturation point is reached where speed starts to decrease. If the
abrasive amount is increased too high, ultimately the mixing tube will clog.
The abrasive is fully mixed in the waterjet stream and is accelerated to approximately
the speed of the waterjet stream. This step does steal some energy from the waterjet
stream, slowing it down slightly.

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The abrasive waterjet stream exits the mixing tube with extreme speed and power. The
abrasive erodes the material to be cut. The process is referred to as abrasive waterjet
cutting because it is the abrasive that is actually doing the cutting. [26]

Figure 1.5 : Working of AWJ

1.5.1 WATER JET CUTTER

Water jet cutting works by forcing a large volume of water through a small orifice in
the nozzle Figure 1.6.The constant volume of water traveling through a reduced area
causes the particles to accelerate. This accelerated stream leaving the nozzle impacts
the material to be cut. The extreme pressure of t he accelerated water particles contacts a
small area of the work piece. In this small area the work piece develops small
cracks due to stream impact. The water jet washes away the material that erodes
from the surface of the work piece. The crack caused by the water jet impact is now
exposed to the water jet the extreme pressure and impact
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of particles in the

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following stream cause t he small crack to propagate until the material is cut through.
[26]

Figure 1.6 : Working of AWJ cutter head

1.6 MAIN COMPONENTS OF AWJM

The general domain of parameters in entrained type AWJ machining system is given
below:

Orifice Sapphires 0.1 to 0.3 mm

Focusing Tube WC 0.8 to 2.4 mm
Pressure 2500 to 4000 bar

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Abrasive garnet and silica sand - #125 to #60

Abrasive flow - 0.1 to 1.0 Kg/min
Standoff distance 1 to 10 mm
Machine Impact Angle 600 to 900
Traverse Speed 10 mm/min to 1000 m/min
Depth of Cut 1 mm to 250 mm[29]

1.7 PARAMETERS OF AWJM

There are numerous parameters involved in the AWJ process. Generally, all these
parameters can be divided into two groups, i.e. the input parameters and output
parameters. These are listed below:

1.7.1 INPUT PARAMETERS

Hydraulic parameters

Waterjet pressure
Waterjet diameter

Mixing parameters

Mixing tube diameter

Mixing tube length

Cutting parameters

Traverse speed
Stand off distance
Angle of attack

Abrasive parameters

Abrasive particle size

Abrasive material
Abrasive flow rate

1.7.2 OUTPUT PARAMETERS

Surface roughness
Kerf width and taper
Depth of cut
Material removal rate

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In practice, the output parameters are of major concern as they represent the cutting performance. The cutting and abrasive parameters as well as the water pressure
(under hydraulic parameters) need to be properly selected or optimized to enhance
the cutting performance or output parameters for a given target material.[26]

1.8 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF AWJM

1.8.1 ADVANTAGES
AWJ can machine a wide range of materials including titanium, stainless steel,
aerospace alloys, glass, plastics, ceramics, and so on.
AWJ can cut net-shape parts and near net-shape parts.

No heat is generated in the cutting process. Therefore, there is no heat -affected

area and thus no structural changes in work materials occur.
AWJ cutting is particularly environmentally friendly as it does not generate
any cutting dust or chemical air pollutants.
The abrasives after cutting can be reused which allows for possible reduction
of the AWJ cutting cost.
Only one nozzle can be used to machine various types of work materials and
work piece shapes.
AWJ machining can be easily automated and therefore can be run with
unmanned shifts.

1.8.2 LIMITATIONS
The total cutting cost is relatively high.
The cutting quality is not always satisfying and unstable in nature. [29]
1.9 APPLICATIONS
The applications and materials, which are generally machined using AWJM are given
below
Application

Paint removal
Cleaning

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Cutting soft materials

Cutting frozen meat
Textile, leather industry
Mass immunization
Surgery
Peening
Cutting
Pocket milling
Drilling turning
Nuclear plant dismantling

Some common applications:

Fast and precise cutting of fabrics

Vinyl, foam coverings of car dashboard panels
Plastic and composite body panels used in the interior of cars
Cutting glass and ceramic tiles

Materials like:

Steels
Nonferrous alloys
Ti alloys, Ni alloys
Polymers
Honeycombs
Metal matrix composite
Ceramic matrix composite
Concrete
Stone- granite
Wood
Reinforced plastics
Metal polymer laminates
Glass fiber metal laminates. [29]

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