Chemic al

Engine r,ng
ana .
Processing
ELSEVIER

Chemical Engineeringand Processing 34 (1995) 157-172

Heat transfer in two- and three-phase bubble column reactors

with internals
S. Schlfiter ~'*, A. Steiff ~, P.-M. Weinspach b
aInstitut fih Umwelt-, Sicherheits- und Energietechnik (UMSICHT), OsterfelderstraJ3e 3, D-46047 Oberhausen, Germany
bLehrstuhlfiir Thermische Verfahrenstechnik und Wiirme- und Stoffaustausch, Fachbereich Chemietechnik der UniversitgitDortmund,
D-44221 Dortmund, Germany
Dedicated to Prof. Dr. Dietmar Werner on the occasion o f his 60th birthday

Abstract

Indirect and direct heat transfer is an important aspect in the design of bubble column reactors used for many industrial organic
and inorganic processes. Longitudinal flow or cross-flow tube-bundle heat-exchangers, jacket cooling, direct evaporative cooling
or circulation cooling are possible methods for this purpose. The existing physical and empirical models describing heat transfer
in bubble columns are reviewed. The results of experimental investigations of longitudinal-flow and cross-flow tube-bundle
heat-exchangers in bubble columns are presented and compared with empirica ! and semi-theoretical correlations.
In the second part of the article the governing equations describing heat transfer in gas/liquid bubble column reactors are
derived under the assumptions of the axial dispersion model and the cell model with backflow. For steady-state conditions, the
axial dispersion model leads to a boundary value problem consisting of non-linear ordinary differential equations, whereas the c~I1
model with backflow can be represented by a system of non-linear algebraic equations. Both equation systems include strong
non-linearities and can be solved only by special numerical methods.
As an example of the use of heat-transfer correlations in modelling bubble columns, the wet air oxidation of municipal sewage
sludge carried out in a three-phase bubble column reactor (18 m in height, 2 m in diameter) is simulated considering different
heat-removal methods. The simulation runs were carried out with the BCR program, which was developed at the University of
Dortmund and the UMSICHT institute for the simulation of bubble column reactors operated under industrial conditions.
Keywords: Heat transfer; Bubble column reactors; Tube-bundie heat-exchangers; Longitudinal flow; Cross flow; AxiaI dispersion
model

1. Introduction

Many gas-liquid and gas-liquid-solid reactions are

connected with heat production. Some processes which
are representative of industrial two- and three-phase
reactions carried out in bubble columns are listed in
Table 1. In addition, reaction enthalpies and significant
operating conditions are also given. In the case of
exothermic reactions, as presented in Table 1, the removal of the heat of reaction is an important aspect in
the design of bubble column reactors in order to ensure
safe process operation.
* Corresponding author.

Basically there are two different methods for removing energy from a multiphase reaction system: (i) direct
heat transfer and (ii) indirect heat transfer. Direct heat
removal is realized by vaporization of a solvent or a
liquid reactant and is the most effective way of heat
transfer. Direct heat removal is especially suitable for
emergency cooling where a lot of energy must be removed in a short time. Investigations in this field have
already been carried out at the University of Dortmund
[1-3]. However, in this paper only indirect heat transfer
is discussed. Indirect heat transfer is very important for
industrial practice since it can be applied in most cases.
Figure 1 shows some examples of indirect heat transfer
in bubble column reactors.

S. Schliiter et al./ Chemical Engineerhlg and Processing 34 (1995) 157-I72

158

Table 1
Industrial two- and three-phase reactions carried out in bubble column reactors [.9,10]
Main products

Chemical reactants

Heat of
reaction
(kJ mol- i)

Operation
pressure
(bar)

Operation
temperature
(oC)

acetaldehyde
acetone
ethyl benzene
benzoic acid
n-, iso-butyraldehyde

ethylene, oxygen
propylene, oxygen
benzene, ethylene
toluene, oxygen
propene, hydrogen,
carbon monoxide
benzene, propene
benzene, hydrogen
cyclohexane, air
ethylene, chlorine
ethylene, hydrogen
chloride, oxygen
acetaldehyde,
oxygen
n-butane, air

-243
-255
- 113
-628
- 118, -147

3
t0-14
2-4
2-3
7-25

120-130
110-120
125-140
110-120
90-120

- 113
-214
-294
-239
- 80

7
50
8-15
15-20
4-5

35-70
200-225
125-165
170-185
40-70

-294

2.3-2,5

50-70

-176

15-20

170-190

ethylene, acetic acid,

oxygen
sewage sludge, air

-176

30-40

I10-130

-435

50-150

200-300

-210

12-15

250-290

-91

50-100

220-270

cumene
cyclohexane
cyclohexanol
1,2-dicloroethane

acetic acid
acetic acid,
methyl ethyl
ketone
vinyl acetate
wet air oxidation
of sewage sludge
Fischer-Tropsch
synthesis
methanol (slurry
phase process)

hydrogen, carbon
monoxide
hydrogen, carbon
monoxide

Large specific-heat-exchanging surfaces can be installed by using tube bundles. In the case of highly
exothermic reactions, longitudinal flow tube bundles

are suitable for producing high-pressure steam. Account must be taken of the fact that installations
change the fluid dynamics of a bubble column. Hence,

--

gas

liquid
.--=>

ca;

er

- liquid

- - ~ -==~

==>heat
carrier

heal
carrier

heat
carrier

2,er
2,er

=:b<=-

heat

heat

carrier

carrier
,

jacket
heat
exchanger

<#=
liquid

_-q=

liquid

gos liquid

external
heat
exchanger

-<:=

liquKl

coil

cross
flow
tube b u n d l e

Fig. I. Indirect heat transfer in bubble column reactors.

liquid

longitudinal
flow
tube bundle

I59

S. Schliiter et al./ Chemical Engineering and Processing 34 (I995) I57-172

correlations describing heat-transfer coefficients obtained by measurements in columns without installations cannot be applied in every case.
This paper presents measurements of heat-.transfer
coefficients in columns with longitudinal flow and crossflow tube bundles and their correlations. First the basic
approaches described in the literature towards heat
transfer in bubble columns with and without installations need to be summarized. In the second part of the
paper, the governing equations for modelling heat
transfer in two-phase and slurry bubble columns are
derived and some ideas of solution methods presented.

From these assumptions, Deckwer has derived a dimensionless equation,

St = 0.1 (Reo Fro Pr 2) - 0.2s

which corresponds to Eq. (2) proposed by Kast.

Joshi and Sharma [8] regard heat transfer in bubble
columns as being similar to heat transfer in mechanically agitated contactors. The heat-transfer coefficient
can be calculated from
~wDa
7.--7 - 0.4

Investigations on heat transfer in bubble columns

were first carried out by K61bel and coworkers [4]. The
authors presented their results in the form of art empirical correlation, i.e.
Nu = aRe~

(1)

with a and b as empirical constants. Kast [5] developed

a simple model by analyzing the motion of fluid elements around an ascending gas bubble near the column
wall. According to Kast's model, heat transfer is determined by the radial components of the induced liquid
velocity. In front of the bubble, fluid eleme,nts are
displaced and receive a radial velocity towards the
heat-exchanging surface. On the other hand, these fluid
elements are sucked into the region at the rear of the
bubble. Assuming that for the flow around ascending
bubbles mass, viscosity and gravitational forces are
decisive, Kast proposed the following dimensionless
relation,
St-

C~w

UGPL Cp,L

which does not include a characteristic length.

Starting from Kast's model, Deckwer [6] has employed Higbie's surface renewal theory of interphase
mass transfer [7]. Deckwer assumed that there is a steady
flow of fluid elements from the bulk of the fluid to the
wall surface and vice versa. The fluid elements reside for
a finite time (the contact time) at the surface until they
return to the bulk. If the surface renewal theory is linked
with Kolmogoroff's theory of isotropic turbulence [4], a
relation for the contact time can be derived:
(3)

In two-phase bubble columns, the energy dissipation

rate per unit mass can be calculated from
g = uog

vc = 1.31 ~x/gDr<(uc-

eGVB~)

(6)

(7)

In a similar manner to the approach of Joshi and

Sharma, Zehner [11-t3] assumed that the circulation
velocity of large fluid eddies is a determining property
of heat transfer in bubble columns. In contrast to Kast
and Deckwer, however, Zehner's model is based on the
existence of a boundary layer. Zehner derived his model
from the heat transfer of single-phase flow over a flat
surface by introducing the liquid circulation velocity as
the characteristic velocity and the average distance of
the bubbles as the characteristic length. The liquid
circulation velocity as given by Zehner is
Vc = 37~-.-.~(PLp?G)gDauo

(8)

On the assumption that the heat-transfer coefficient of

the two-phase system is proportional to the fractional
liquid phase hold-up, Zehner proposed the following
equation:

- f { R e o Fr~ PrLa}

(2)

(DRVcIOL~2/3(I~LCp,L~I/3(/~L ~0.14
\ 'L / k 2L / \rlLw/

if the following expression for the liquid circulation

velocity in bubble columns is used:

2. Basic approaches

~W ~ Uo,OLCp,L or

(5)

(4)

CZw= 0.18(1 I- eo) ~/22PL Cp,LlB v----L with

IB =

du

7,r

6eo

(9)
At the University of Dortmund, investigations on
heat transfer in bubble columns with longitudinal flow
tube bundles have been carried out by Westermeyer
[14]. Westermeyer developed a model to describe heat
transfer in columns with installations similar to Zehner's model. In contrast to Zehner, however, Westermeyer used only simple measurable physical quantities.
He assumed that the boundary layer on the heat-exchange surface will be destroyed by gas bubbles which
are moved by liquid circulation eddies. The disturbed
boundary layer is then filled by liquid flowing with a
local liquid velocity1 given by
~Measurementsof this quantity are available from the work of
Bernemann[15] and Korte [i0].

160

S. Schliiter et al. / Cllemical Enghleerhlg and Processhlg 34 (1995) I57-172

10000

W
m2K
d

5000

0J
1..)

, m

KSlbel

8
b

Joshi/Sho~

co
c-

"5

, ~

2000

t-

;t ::: i[

Zehner

s tern

[",Oeckwer

"

\ Kost

ter /

~'L

Pq.

kg/m a mPos

d/lkgg} W/linK}

1000

4182

0.60L

--

column diameter DR=O,2m

1000
0,002

0.005

0,01

0,02

superficial

0,05

0,1

gas velocity Voo

0,2 rn/s

0,5

Fig. 2. Comparison of different approaches to correlate the heat-transfer coefficientfor the air-water system,

VL,loc=

~ fia~LguGH e
8L PL

or

VL,loc= 7

fiGUS
..
8L PL g!AG/'/e

(io)
Here He is the height of liquid circulation eddies and ~'
is a parameter describing the energy distribution given
by Westermeyer [14] as follows:
"DR
He =

2tR
DR -- da

2L /

VL ~/ 2L VIL,W/

dRJ

(ii)

Here the mean thickness of the boundary layer, 3"L, is

given by:

for columns without tube bundles

fit. = 2.32 /dB~
:GL,OL'~

for \ g'-~L; < 106

\ gr/4L J I> 10 6

( 1 - 2"'~~

(12)

"~/ PC,loc

In Fig. 2, some known correlations for the estimation

of heat-transfer coefficients in bubble column reactors
for systems with low liquid viscosities are compared.
Their mathematical representation is given amongst
others in Table 2.

3. Results of experimental investigations

~ = 1 7 0 M o ~ 8 ( l + 7 . 8 5 x 1 0 - 4 D ~ 3 G-3x/~LMOI.
[ 10-8]'~
x exp~ - ~o-~%j,)
From the measured data, Westermeyer finally
derived the following dimensionless equation for the
local heat-transfer coefficient:

As shown in Fig. 3, the heat-transfer coefficient increases with the superficial gas velocity. In highly viscous liquids, the heat-transfer coefficient reaches a
limiting value. In these liquids the coefficient is also
much smaller than in liquids with low viscosity. The
tube pitch has only a small effect in the case of highly
viscous liquids. Figure 4 shows that only in low viscosity liquids does the heat-transfer coefficient increase
with the reactor diameter. Otherwise the coefficient is

S. Schliiter et al. I Chemical Engineering and Processing 34 (1995) 157-I72

i6I

Table 2
Correlations for the estimation of heat-transfer coefficients in bubble column reactors
Authors

Correlation

K6Ibel et aI. [4]

NU(dR) = 34.7 ~'O,dR

m,0.22 for ReO,dR > 150
Nu(aR) = 22.4 m,0.36
~'G,de. for eeG,da < 150

Fair et al. [16]

~w = 8850u~ 22

Kast [5,17]

St = 0. i 0 [(Re o Fr o Pr[) 1/3]- 2/3

K61beI and Langemann [18]

Shaykhutdinov et al. [I9]

__ 0.124[(R%,s~FroPrs~)
2.5 1/3--0.66
Stsu~]
St = 0.11 x 1.25[(Reo Fro PrZu"~)i/3]-0.667

Burkel [20]

St = 0.11 [(Re o Fr o Pr~48) 1/3]-0.69

Nishikawa et aI. [21]

St = 0.418(Reo w"
--<O---LJ
D'2'--I/3"'I/4(PL--fl~G~II3(
"G

Pu

St = 0.30(Reo Fro Pr 2)- t/3 _ _

PL

I
(,oL_,ooT,(
\

PL

Deckwer et al. [6,9,23]

St = 0.10[(Re o Fr o Pr~f/3] -o.75

Sts~ = 0.10[(Reo,s~ Fro PrZ~s)1/3]- 0.75

~TL /

__

\r/L,WJ

St = O.136[(Reo Fro prrl "94) 1/3] - 0.81

At.

V/t~.w/

Louisi [22]

Joshi and Sharma [8]

/7"~L~ -0"05

\1']L,W/

V/L,w/

vc = 1.3I[gDR (uo -- eo vs~. )]1/3

Zehner [11-13]

2L

\ VL /

\ 2t- /

3/1
IB = dB 37-~ec,
Wendt [24]

St = 0.037I Re~'t7Fr~'32pr~-'46

Micheal [25]

St = 0.1 l[Reo Fro pr2) U3]-0.75

Sts~~= 0.12[(Re a ,su~Fro pr2us) m] - 0.75

Korte [I0]

St = 0.120[(Re o Fr o Pr~2) 1/3]-0.83

Westermeyer [14]

V
c~dB 0664(c,l<,jB
/ 1/2(r/LCp,L~t/3(r/L "]0.23(1'4-L6~ /

zL

'

vt- J

(DR~0.,5( /~t- ~0.30

\da/

~L J

\r/L,W/

V1L,wJ

dR/

VC'Ioc=7(C'oPo-b6LPL-kesPS)
g D R'%PLu G \

COO
=

(I
7,
(1)
li-@--4~es,

n = 0.75

(/= 170 MoUs 1 + 7.85 x 10 .4

n e a r l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f the g e o m e t r i c d i m e n s i o n s . M e a s u r e d N u s s e l t n u m b e r s are c o m p a r e d w i t h v a l u e s p r e d i c t e d b y E q . (11) in Fig. 5. It c a n be seen t h a t t h e r e is

a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to w i t h i n 15%.

exp[-~--~%f)

F i g u r e s 6 a n d 7 s h o w m e a s u r e d d a t a o b t a i n e d by
K o r t e [10] in b u b b l e c o l u m n s w i t h c r o s s - f l o w t u b e
b u n d l e s . T h e p l o t t e d c u r v e s are s i m i l a r to t h o s e s h o w n
in Fig. 3 d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t c r o s s - f l o w a n d l o n g i t u d i -

162

S. SchhTter et al./ Ckemical Enghwerhlg and Processhtg 34 (1995) 157-172

10 ~
D

...mev~/--'~

m2K

column
DR : 029m , HR : t, 27m
.gos....._sp~__..rger_._sieve lroy , dL=2mm
mlernols :
Iongi tudinol flow
lube bundle, da --25rnrn
s.uper ficiol liquid
velocily~
vt. o -- 1orals

(3)
~J

At (%1

97,0

72.5

90,3

g/,,8

tR [ram]

120

t,0

70

120

12

13

1/.

15

0
cj

C
0

@ 0

tube
arrongemenl

10 3

,0
di,. ' m / Y

A~.~

_~

I - -

,I,I,

m,

T.

iI,-

13

1L

.15

_C.

IrIJi ,,~-

symbol
tube
orrongement

12

liquid

lb

15

1,0

Z,6,3

0,1

0,2

02

0,4

0,5

superficial

13

propylene glycol

"ilL[ toPos]

3.10 2

12

woter

gas v e l o c i t y

0,6 .~-

0,7

Voo

Fig. 3. Influence of superficial gas velocity and tube pitch on heat transfer in bubble columns (longitudinal-flow tube bundle).

hal-flow tube bundles cause different flow conditions. In

contrast to longitudinal flow tubes, there is a significant
effect of superficial liquid velocity on heat transfer.
Large superficial liquid velocities increase the heattransfer coefficient. A smaller tube pitch increases this
effect. A comparison between Figs. 6 and 7 shows the
influence of liquid viscosity. In the case of highly viscous liquids, the heat transfer decreases.
Heat-transfer coefficients in bubble columns with
cross-flow tube bundles can be estimated by a correlation given by Korte [10]:
St = Stlph + C" St2p h

(13)

where Stlp h and St2p h describe the heat transfer for

single phase flow conditions and the additional effect of
the second phase on the heat transfer in bubble
columns with a single tube, respectively. The second
term can be predicted from data measured by Korte

As shown in Fig. 8, experimental data can be predicted

by Eq. (13) with a mean deviation of +20%.

4. Modelling heat transfer in bubble column reactors

To set up the energy balance, it is assumed that mass
and energy dispersion can be coupled in accordance
with the Lewis analogy". By analogy to Fourier's law of
heat conduction in solids, the heat dispersion flow is
given by
Qdi,p{X} - -2=rrAr~ <~)

with

2~rr-D~frcpp

(16)

Thus the law of energy conservation written for a

differential element in the bubble column consisting of
phases m = 1, 2 can be represented as follows:

[1o]:
St2p h = 0.120(ReGFroPr~2)_0.277

f n \o.ts/, \0.30
(~_~_a) ( '/L ) (14)
\aa/

\r/L,W/

The adjusting factor C in Eq. (13) is given by

c = 10.2 Re -29PrE"N?

\aRJ ' 4

(15)

2 Badura et al. [26] and Wendt [24] have investigated mass and heat
dispersion in bubble columns. Their experimental results show a
correspondence between the dimensionless concentration and temperature distributions over the reaction height. Hence it seems to be
possible to put the effective heat conduction coefficient equal to the
overall mass dispersion coefficient by using Lewis' analogy a~rr= 2ar/
(pcp)= Dcrr.

S. Schliiter et al. I Chemical Engineering and Processing 34 (1995) I57-172

O
2

symbol

W
rn2K

lube

arrangement
liquids

z~, [3
13 19
water

"qL [toPos ]

1
<D
U

't:f"
2

. gas_._Sl~o._rger~sieve

19

propylene glycol

1,0

22,6

163

dL=2ram

troy,

internals:

Iongttudmol flow
tube bundle ; dn =25ram
s,uperficiol liquid
velocit y~
vLo =lcm/s

--E] ,-- -------

m"-'-'-'"

[3 " - - -

lo<-

_o_----o-

_/c

.~._n~--n~

.~'e~o__
~O

5 7D/'%<'~

DR [ ram]
tR /d:R {11

u~
C
O

o-

100
1,5
2

tube

290
1,6

450
.1,6

13

19

arrangement

_0_%

,i
[-

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

m
S

1,0

superficial gas velocity Voo -----,-Fig. 4. Influence of superficial gas velocity and reactor diameter on heat transfer in bubble columns (longitudinal-flowtube bundle).

8t

8H a(pV)_ E (p,.lP,.h,. {T(~)})(x)

(U+Ekin+Epot)

8T

8t

m=

= E (Pml)m(Um-'i-ekin,m+epot,m)) 0~)
in= 1

-- , ~E= ~ (PmI)m(Um+eki....

-- E (Pro ~'mh'n {T(x+dx) })(x+dx)

In = 1

pot,m]/

,~=,

- Z

+ Z

2 (

8T'~'~':+d':)-- d0+d~"

-1Lm~= 1 /~el:l',mA R ~m k ~ X ) )

dI~=dl~t+ 2
m=

( ( V ' m - p ) ( x ) - - ( ~ n P ) (x+dx))

(18)

- d O + d I~t

(17)

The overall power term d W is equal to the sum of the

technical power d I4zt and the flow displacement power:

(20)

The enthalpy H is a function of temperature, pressure and the molar composition of the system. The
total differential of H is given by

d.

(d0

After introducing the system enthalpy via the definition

H- U+pV

\axJ)

and

h-

H
M

the energy conservation law can be written as

(19)

+i~=t -~i r,;,~i \ at ]

(21)

The term (SH/ST);,Ni is equivalent to the expression

(pVcp). The term (SH/OP)r, Ne can be neglected for
liquids in most cases, for ideal gases it disappears

S. Schliiter et al. I Chemical Engineering and Processbig 34 (1995) 157-172

164

10 2
DR single
rn

tube

0,190

IR

'

mm

~Os,v dR

'%~"e ' T

~0 70 120
0015
+ m + ~> -- 0,4210,8A2 0-15 0:025

0.;~-

+o

,'-o

+o0.308-0.92t.

o"

"

//..+7
/,/~Y'~

101 .

/~:/"

0.025,

ii

-~

///'///
../Z /

model

symbol operolion PrL

//c~

r.J--~

+150/0/,/'/
--',/9//

///<,-lSOio

10 0

100

)ill

2-phose
,

,>

3-p~e

~,

2-p~,o

275
I

! I 1

101

0,66,.~

10 2

(l+-~r))

Fig. 5. ComparisonbetweenmeasuredNusselt numbersand valuespredictedby Eq. (11).

totally 3. The term (SHISN~)~N... is the partial molar
enthalpy ~ of component t m the mixture. By definition, the system enthalpy H can be expressed as

H: :vh= N,~= v :~ c,Z.

i=l

Equation (24) has to be completed by the mass-balance

equations for the bubble column reactor:

dNi, G
dt = ( I';'GCi,o)('~)-- ( f>'O<t,G)x+ d.~)

(22)

i~l

- @ ~~'.t,(d<<'
Tx );'?:

and Eq. (21) simplifies to

dH

dNz

(23)

i~l

For two-phase flow conditions, the enthalpy H of the

system can be composed, for example, of the enthalpies
of the gas and liquid phase:
d g dHa d i l l
dt - ~ + T = ( ' o G V o C p ' G - ] - f l L

(kLa),,.b, lbt (~:~Cj,o -- <i,t.)Ai~dx

%

+ (ko.),,v.. (c,,L_
) dx
\to" Cf,o_Ar~

(25)

dN,.,i.

dT

dt=

VLCp'L)--~

" ( ~ dY,,o
dX,;L~
+ 2m \ " O dt +/~''L dt ]

(I;"LC';L)("O- (I?LCi'L)(X+dX)

/dcl, L'~\(x) /

(dqL\\(~+d'')

(24)
+ (kL a)l,.b: ~'l (tc'ici,o -- qL)AR dx
- (koa)~,v.~

3 Thermodynamic considerations show the validity of the folloMng

expression:

\(c~j.
tc~'_ Cf.o)AR dx
w

+eLAR dx y" Vi,kRk

(26)

k--1
When introducing the equation of state for an ideal gas, the right-

hand expressionis equivalentto zero.

The mass-transfer rates due to absorption and evaporation given above are described later [see Eqs. (45) and
(46) for explanations]. Defining the heat of reaction as

I65

S. Schliiter et al./ Chemical Engineering and Processing 34 (1995) 157-I 72

W
m2K

sy~bo,
o 110 3~0
L__9_,O
v
1,0
cm/s
I~
mm

1600(

11o 3[0

1.0

32

/0

6A

/''

12000
6

M/__,

8000

2
i

ul
C

~...., x~

'--

~--~-'oV
l

,-O--

2
@
t-

_system:

4000' {

column :
.gas sparger~
internals:

Vi
0

water l a i r

, "qt.=lmPas

OR=0196rn, HR = 6,81m
sieve tray d~=3mm
3 tube rows
...~7~

.probe position:h/HR=0.5,rlR~0

10

20

30

AO

50

60

70

80

cm/s

100

t10

superficial gas velocity Yea

Fig. 6. Influence of superficial gas and liquid velocity on heat transfer in bubblecolumnswith cross-flowtube bundles.

A.~= ~, ~,.~{r}
i~I

(27)

f~

dQ=dQw=

C~w,~aw,o~Aadx(T-Tw,o))

(31)

co~l

the energy change of the system due to chemical reactions can be considered without defining any heat
source terms. Considering Eq. (16), the energy dispersion by backflow, i.e.

with the volumetric heat transfer surface area aw,~

defined by:
(dAwq
aw,~ = aw,~ {x} - \ ~ ]
(32)

(l~ {T}AReDefr{dci~
i=t
\dxl]

Generally the heat-transfer coefficients C~wand the surface temperatures Tw depend on each other and must
be calculated iteratively by numerical procedures. Using
a Taylor expansion around (x) for the quantities at
differential position (x+dx), a non-linear ordinary
differential equation is obtained for the axial temperature of the multiphase system in the bubble column:
d2T

(28)

is equivalent to the effective overall heat dispersion in

the system:

~(~{T}ApsDe~:dci)~
T)
~=
~
\ dx J ] - AR s2~ ( d-~x

(29)

The heat of absorption and the heat of evaporation can

be defined as

dT

= (b/G/gG CP'G + ULPL Cp'L -/I- (UL -- 8L/')S)DS Cp'S) "~X

A]~abs,i ~ (]~',G {T} -- ~',L { T})abs

and
Ai~vap#" ~ (~/,o

(SG2eff, G "-~ 8L.~eff,L + (SL Jr- 8S)2eff,S ) dx2

-- ~ (kLa)i, abs @i (KI'Ci, G -- Ci,L)(A~abs,i)

{T} - ~,L { T } ) v a p

(30)

Neglecting mixing effects, Affab s and Ah'vap can be calculated from the molar enthalpy differences of the pure
compounds, given as the molar heat of absorption or
evaporation in chemical engineering data collections.
Heat flows added or withdrawn from the system by
indirect heat transfer are given by:

i=l

+,=,i

\4'

c,,o (AL~p,;)

tp

-8~ 2 R~(-A#r,k)
k=l

+ 2 C~w,~aw,~(T- Tw,~)
(0=

(33)

166

S. Schliiter et al. / Chemical Engbmerhlg and Processhlg 34 (I995) I57-172

._system

m2K
2400

.T_

propylene glycol / a i r .

llt:55rnPos

On:O,lg6m , HR = 6 81m
sieve tray
d L : 3ram
3 tube rows

column :
.gas sporger
internals'

_probe position: hlHl~ :0.5. rlR:O

~~

2000

.j

".M~

<

1600

.V I ~ 1 '

1200I

e
"5

A..~v-*

------'1

y _,Co*O--

c"

'

,O~

O,

,0

400~
i'
O
QL

32
=

10

20

64

30
40
50
60
70
superficial gas velocity %0

80

crn/s

100

110

Fig. 7. Heat transfer in bubble columns with cross-flow tube bundles in the case of highly viscousliquids,

In Eq. (33), the energy content of a dispersed solid

particle phase is considered by introducing its molar
heat capacity and rise velocity.
An alternative approach for modelling heat transfer
in bubble columns is the 'Cell Model with Backflow'
(CMB). Here the multiphase flow is simplified to a
cascade of ideally mixed tank reactors in series (see
Figs. 9 and 10) with a single tank volume of
V,
Tic =

LR
Nc = ~

with

(34)

For characterizing the degree of back-mixing in the

partially mixed system, a backflow circulating between
neighbouring cells is used. Assuming equidistant cell
heights, the backflow ratio, defined as the backflow
related to the overall convective volumetric flow rate,
can be coupled mathematically with the lumped axial
dispersion coefficient of the axial dispersion model:
_ ;[?G,b = Nc
VG,feed

Boc

t~,b

Nc

Y= I?L,,'e~d BOL

1 with
2

Bat-

uGLR

(35)

j = 1:

( cp.c
AR 0 c ) (r~ -- (uc Pc Cp,t at)(1)
- ((ut)")[@ t cp,c Or):' - Co t cp.t Oo):'-)]
_}_( M L h L ) freed)

(ULPLhL)(1) -- (yUL) (1)

Aa
[(pLhD m - (pLhL)c2)]
4

AR

AR

~:~/~bs

AR

.~yap

AR

=0

(37)

1 <j<Nc:
(uo Po %0 0c )u- :) _ (uc Pc Cp,c0c )u~
- @c)v?[Coo cp.c OG)v? _ @ t ep,t a t ) v + :)]

+ ((Ut)q- :)[(P C Cp,t Oa)~- '} -- GOt %,t at)u~]

ecD~m t

+ (ULPLhL)U--l) _ (ULPLhL)O?

ULLR

2 with Boi. -= eLD~r,L

(36)

Considering the energy flows given in Figs. 9 and 10

for cocurrent gas-liquid flow, the following algebraic
equation system can be set up for modelling heat
transfer and energy distribution in a bubble column
reactor:

+ (YUL)0'--D[COLhL)O-D_ (pLhU~]
_ (7UL)O?[(pLhL)O?_ (puhL)0 + I)]

A~. AR AR Ar<

(38)

S. Schliiter et aL / Chemical Engineering and Processing 34 (I995) I57-172

167

100(
vL / c._gm_

10

12.0 26.0

Voo/ c.~_

0,7; 5,5 ~15,0 ;50.0

internals:

3;5~11 tube rows

4/

2"/

50(

/" o /
O

f/ /

(>

20(

[]

liquids

5/
100V"
100

p - glycol
Pr L = 519

p- glycol
PrL= 105

&

glycerol / water
PrL =61

water
Pr L ; 7

[]

I
500

200

1000

NUcolculoted - - D , Fig. 8. Comparison between measured Nusselt numbers and values predicted by Eq. (I3).

j=Nc:

Qr~ = Hc? AR(1 - e~) 2 R~?( - hh~~)

(42)

k=l

(u~ PG Cp,G0~)(Nc - t) _ (UGPO Cp,G00)(Nc)

+ (~'UG)(NC -- 1)[(/gG Cp,G t9G )(N C -- 1) -- (PG Cp,G 0G) (NC)]

Q~s

Hc? AR ~ Ck
,/,o)Oc'
\ La~
)i,absg'i
\ iCi, G - c i,L)~o)AE~
abs,i
i=1

+ (ULPLhL) (Nc- ~) __ (ULPLhL)(NC)

(43)

+ (TUL)(Nc- ~)[(p~hL)(Xc-~) __ (pL hL)0V~)]

Q~Nc)
+ - -

AR

~(~C)

f) (Nc)
{ Zabs

Aa

AR

Q"~
vap =

0(Nc)

:r-,va.__...~=p 0
Aa

The system (37)-(39) must be solved in paralM with

the mass balances for the gas and liquid phase (overall
and component-wise) leading to a temperature distribution T{x} over the column height. For mathematical
and numerical reasons, the single cell height should not
be higher than the reactor diameter. So the number of
equidistant cells Nc should be at least
Nc/>

LR
Da

(40)

Good results should be obtained with Nc = 2La ~DR in

most cases. The heat source and heat-transfer terms of
a cell (/) can be written as follows:
0 ~ = H~c~ AR Z
CO=[

Q') ~i'L --ci, G

H c(J) AR ~ (kGa);,vap

(39)

C~w(r- Tw)

(41)
CO

i=1

A]~v(J,)ap,i

(44)

\Ki

In Eqs. (43) and (44), the volumetric mass-transfer

coefficients for absorption and evaporation of component i in the cell (/) are given by:
1
1
(K'(/)? 3
k a~0~ ( / L a ) ? + - L J,,abs
(riGa)??
and
1
k a~

G ]i, vap

1
1
= (/~Ga)? ~-(~"pLa)?~

(45)

The special thermodynamic conditions for absorption

and evaporation of components in the gas-liquid multiphase system are considered by the gas-liquid distribution parameters ~c'~ and ~ci . Phase equilibrium
expressions using rational Henry's law (absorption) or
liquid-phase activity coefficients (evaporation) lead to

168

S. Schliiter et al./ Chemical Engineerhtg and Processing 34 (1995) 157-172

(,~.IL j No)

0~)JNc)
(X~5.~

,,.J

:~ (~:)

.<

cdl (No)

<----dA~)

~N:)
d~'~.)

(/x_:

'(~':-~)

t~,v~) ~'~,,~ ~)

(:~d'o-o

(r~j'o"(oL1d,o-,,

(:,~d,o-M.i,j,,,ol

t ~, ~) ~'~,,c ~)

d__2,

~1

cell (/)

cell (I)

,I

,l,

~z., . o 0 o)x(l-~) u,,~o),9-x):~,oo~,.~0o)41-~)

M<;'

'0 ,0)

fi)

l)

(-j'-"(oo%:of
(1)

~O/t.

(~,,,.)'-" (~,ay-"co,.,,,.),J-" (,,a Y"(,,,.,,,.)<'~

~)

Fig. 9. Gas-phase energy flow rates in the cell model with backflow.

Fig. lO. Liquid-phase energy flow rates in the cell model with
backflow.

~;- -:;-Ci,O (abs) = \~r ~e /

tion of the wet air oxidation of municipal sewage sludge

in the slurry phase will be presented. The BCR program
developed at the University of Dortmund and the
UMSICHT institute in Oberhausen considers the specific flow conditions and simultaneous heat and mass
transfer in connection with chemical reaction processes
in bubble column reactors [27-29]. It is based on the
cell model with backflow and solves the numerical
problem by several modified Newton methods (NLEQ
family) and special continuation techniques (ALCON
family) developed at the Konrad-Zuse-Zentrum in
Berlin.
Already in 1911, a process to oxidize waste sulphite
liquor from pulp production in autoc!aves at a temperature of ca. 180 C had been patented. In the mid1960s, a number of wet air oxidation plants for the
treatment of municipal sewage sludge were installed in
the USA by the ZIMPRO Corporation. Ploos van
Amstel and Rietema [30,31] investigated the kinetics of
the wet air oxidation of municipal sewage sludges in

and
~;-

The algebraic system (37)-(39) must be solved in

parallel with the mass balances for the gas and liquid
phase (overall and component-wise) and the static pressure drop. Due to the strong non-linearities involved in
coupling highly non-linear mass and energy rate equations, this is not an easy job and can be done only by
special numerical techniques like the NLEQ family
solvers or the ALCON family solvers developed at the
Konrad-Zuse-Zentrum, Berlin.
5. Simulation of heat transfer in bubble column reactors

To give an example of the use of correlations for

predicting heat-transfer coefficients, a computer simula-

169

S. Schliiter et al./ Chemical Eng#wering and Processing 34 (1995) 157-I72

laboratory scale. They suggested that the sludge components should be divided into three main reactivity
categories: (i) easily oxidable components (component
class A); (ii) difficultly oxidable components (component class B); and (iii) very difficultly or not oxidable
components (component class C). For the oxidable
component classes A and B, Ploos van Am~tel and
Rietema [31] proposed the following second-order reaction kinetic expressions:
-~COD,A ]CACCOD,A002,L
=

and
RCOD,B :

(47)

kBCCOD,BCo2,L

In the classical Zimmermann process the reactor

temperature is controlled only by the feed sludge temperature without any additional heat removal installations. Heat exchange is therefore limited to the mass
flows leaving the bubble column reactor. With regard
to process temperature control and energy recovery,
two other methods for reaction heat removal [A/)'r
450 kJ (mol 02) -1] may be mentioned: (a) jacket cooling over the reactor wall; and (b) internal tube bundle
heat exchanger, longitudinal-flow or cross-flow. Jacket
cooling over the reactor wall, however, cannot be recommended for the process conditions of wet air oxidation. A wall thickness of ca. 100 mm and above causes
a relatively high heat transport resistance at the reactor
wall which dominates the overall heat-transfer coefficient. As a result, either the amount of energy transferred to the cooling fluid is low or the outlet
temperature of the cooling medium is relatively low
which prevents effective heat recovery.
The internal tube-bundle heat-exchanger raakes it
possible to use larger specific-heat transfer surfaces and
results in high overall heat-transfer coefficients. Thus it
is possible to remove reaction heat by producing highpressure steam at temperatures above 250 C and to
control the process temperature safely at very high
levels. In addition, the reactor can be preheated by
steam condensing in the tubes during the start-up
phase.
The basis of the mathematical model is a set of
balance equations arising from mass and energy balances for the column and its surroundings. The size and
mathematical type of the resulting non-linear equation
system depend strongly on the number of reacting
components which are to be balanced in the gas and
liquid phase, and from the basis type of the model. For
wet air oxidation of sewage sludge in the bubble
column reactor, the axial dispersion model leads to a
boundary value problem which is set up by three
first-order differential equations [27,28]:
1. hydrostatic pressure drop, gas-liquid mixture
2. overall mass balance, gas phase
3. overall mass balance, liquid phase

and seven second-order non-linear differential equations:

4. mass balance 02, gas phase
5. mass balance 02, liquid phase
6. mass balance C Q , gas phase
7. mass balance CO2, liquid phase
8. mass balance easily oxidable component class A,
liquid phase
9. mass balance difficultly oxidable component class
B, liquid phase
10. energy balance, gas-liquid mixture
For the cell model with backflow, the model equations listed above must be set up for each single cell in
the balanced reactor volume, resulting in 10 algebraic
equations per celt. To give an example, for a 90-cell
representation of a 18 m height bubble column reactor,
this method leads to an algebraic system of 900 nonlinear equations with 900 unknown quantities. Additionally, a large number of dependent parameter variables (gas hold-up, heat-transfer coefficients, etc.) need
to be solved simultaneously. The results described below have been computed with the BCR program using
the basic data record in Table 3 for the wet air oxidation of municipal sewage sludge suspensions.
The axial temperature profile for the bubble column
reactor with external (suspension feed temperature --- 190 C) or internal (steam temperature -- 280 C)
heat-exchangers is demonstrated in Figs. 11 and 12.
The curve parameters are the inner reactor diameter or
the suspension feed temperature, respectively. The reactor without an internal cooling tube bundle shows a
temperature increase of ca. 50 K up to an outlet temperature above 300 C, whereas the temperature increase in the reactor with an internal tube-bundle
heat-exchanger is limited to about 8 K over the temperature range 280-288 C. For optimal process control,
the reactor cooled with an internal tube-bundle heat-exchanger is superior to the classical method of heat-exchange between fluids entering and leaving the reactor.
A considerable amount of reaction heat can be recovered as high-pressure steam by installing an internal
tube-bundle heat-exchanger. In addition, the amount of
energy recovered by preheating the entering feed sludge
is considerably higher in the case of internal heat
Table 3
Basic data for the wet air oxidation of municipal sewagesludge
Simulation parameter

Quantity

Unit

column diameter
column height
reactor operating pressure (head)
suspension feed temperature
steam temperature (tube)
superficial gas velocity(bottom)
superficial liquid velocity

2.0
18.0
125.0
190.0
280.0
2.25
0.85

m
m
bar
C
C
cm scm s-

170

S. Schliiter et al. / Chemical Enghwerhtg and Processing 34 (1995) 157-I72

chemical oxygen demand, tool 02

molar concentration, tool m -3
corresponding concentration of chemical
CCOD
oxygen demand, COD m -3
molar gas-phase concentration, mol m -3
CG
c;
molar gas-phase concentration at interphase,
mol m -3
molar liquid-phase concentration, mol m -3
CL
c*
molar liquid-phase concentration at interphase, mol m -3
gas heat capacity, J k g - ~ K Cp,
liquid heat capacity, J kg-z K-i
Cp,L
heat capacity of solids, J kg-1 K p,S
reactor diameter, m
Dr{
axial dispersion coefficient, m z sDeft
axial gas-phase dispersion coefficient, m'-s -~
axial liquid-phase dispersion coefficient,
Derr,i
m 2 s-1
bubble Sauter diameter, m
tube diameter, m
kinetic energy, J
specific kinetic energy, J kg-i
ekin
potential energy, J
Epot
specific potential energy, J kgepot
g
gravitational acceleration, m s -2
H
enthalpy, J
cell height, m
gas enthalpy, J
Ho
r-&
liquid enthalpy, J
h
specific enthalpy, J kgAE~u~
molar heat of absorption, J kg-I
molar heat of reaction, J kg-1
molar heat of evaporation, J kgK
partial molar enthalpy, J molpartial molar gas cnthalpy, J molEo
partial molar liquid enthalpy, J toolheight of liquid circulation eddies, m
go
He
Henry's law constant, Pa
kA, kB reaction rate constants, m 3 ( m o l Q ) -1 s -~
(koa)~.p overall volumetric mass-transfer coefficient
for evaporation, soverall volumetric mass-transfer coefficient
(kLa)abs
for absorption, slength of reactor, m
LR
COD

320
C

310

3oo

280 /

column diometer :

__

/
270

260,..
250
0

z,

6
8
10
reQctor height

3.0m

b
c
cl
e

2,5m
2,Ore
1,5m
1,Ore

12

1/-,

16 m 18

Fig. 1I. Axial temperature plots for the reactor with an external
heat-exchanger.

290 [ ~ - - - - i - - ~ - -

o220cd250~Fc--~~
b 230c ~ 26oc1

/.

10

12

15 m 18

reoctor height
=
Fig. 12. Axial temperature plots for the reactor with an internal
longitudinal-flow tube-bundle heat-exchanger.

removal because of the higher feed sludge temperatures

necessary for the best process operation. Further numerical simulations showed that an increase of the feed
sludge temperature caused an increase of the energy-recovery potential of both internal steam generation and
feed preheating. However, a simultaneous decrease in
the temperature difference between feed and outlet flow
increased the technical need for feed preheating. Hence
an optimum solution has to be found taking account of
the effective costs for feed preheating, the profit from
high-pressure steam generation and better process temperature control.

3 / ~'

&

= dB x / ~

mass, kg
gas-phase mass flow rate, kg sliquid phase mass flow rate, kg snumber of cells, number of moles in gas phase, tool
number of moles in liquid phase, tool
number of tubes, numerical parameters, number of components, pressure, Pa

Nomenclature
A, B
AR
Aw
aw

sludge reactivity categories A and B

cross-sectional area, m 2
heat-transfer surface area, m 2
volumetric heat-transfer surface area, m 2

n
n

= mean bubble distance, m

S. Schliiter et al./ Chemical Engineering and Processing 34 (1995) 157-i 72

Psat

0
Qabs
Q"disp

Qr
vap

0w
R
RcoD
T

rw
tR

U
UG
UL

vo
VL
V
Vo,u
gG,feed
VE,b
gL,feed
t~Boz
~)L,loc
VS

X
~W

t%Ga
fie a

g
bE

es

st
7
~L
~L,W
/C/

saturation pressure, Pa
heat flow rate, W
production rate of heat of absorption, W
heat dispersion flow rate, W
production rate of heat of reaction, W
production rate of heat of evaporation, W
indirect heat transfer flow rate, W
reaction rate, mol m - 3 s - I
corresponding reaction rate, COD m -3 s -1
radial position, m
temperature, K
wall temperature, K
tube pitch, m
internal energy, J
specific internal energy, J kg -~
superficial gas velocity, m s-~
superficial liquid velocity, m s -~
volume, m 3
cell volume, m 3
gas volume, m 3
liquid volume, m 3
volumetric flow rate, m 3 s - 1
volumetric gas flow rate, m 3 svolumetric gas backflow rate, m 3 S-1
volumetric gas feed flow rate, m 3 s - 1
volumetric liquid flow rate, m 3 s-~
volumetric liquid backflow rate, m 3 s - 1
volumetric liquid feed flow rate, m 3 s-~
terminal rise velocity of a bubble, m sliquid circulation velocity, m s-1
local liquid velocity, m s-~
hindered settling velocity of solid particles,
m s -1
power, W
technical power, W
axial coordinate, m
heat-transfer coefficient, W m-2 K - t
volumetric mass-transfer coefficient, s-1
volumetric mass-transfer coefficient, s -~
= 2.32dB/~
(see Westermeye:c [14])
= mean thickness of the boundary layer, m
energy dissipation rate per unit mass, m 2 s -3
volumetric gas hold-up
volumetric liquid-phase hold-up
volumetric solid-phase hold-up
fugacity coefficient
fugactiy coefficient of pure component at
saturation
liquid backflow ratio
activity coefficient
rational activity coefficient
liquid dynamic viscosity, Pa s
liquid dynamic viscosity at wall temperature,
Pa s
gas/liquid distribution parameter, - [see Eq.
(47)]

~c"
2L
2e~
v
VL
~G

,
,
Pc
PG
PL
/~L
Ps
#5
~7L
r
~'

171

gas/liquid distribution parameter, - [see Eq.

(47)]
liquid thermal conductivity, W m - 1 K effective thermal conductivity, W m -1 K -I
stoichiometric coefficient, liquid kinematic viscosity, m 2 s -I
energy distribution parameter, gas temperature, C
energy dissipation function, enhancement factor, gas density, kg m -3
molar gas density, tool m -3
liquid density, kg m -3
molar liquid density, mol m -3
solid density, kg m -3
mean density of multiphase system, kg m -3
liquid surface tension, N m -1
contact time, s
gas backflow ratio
number of reactions
number of heat-transfer surfaces

Dimensionless quantities

BoG

= u~La/(eGDerc, G) = Bodenstein number gas

phase
BOL

= ULLR/@LDeff, L ) = Bodenstein number liq-

uid phase
FrG
GaL
MoE
Nu
NuB
PrL
ReG
ReE

ReL,loc

St
Stlph
St2p h

= u ~ / ( g D R ) = Froude number
= D ~ g / v 2 = Galilei number
= ;7~g/(G3/)L) = Morton number

= c~wDa/2 E = Nusselt number 1

= c~wdB/2 E = Nusselt number 2

= ~ILCp,L/2L= Prandtl number

= u c D a / v E = Reynolds number 1
= ULda/v E = Reynolds number 2
= vL,~oodB ~rE = Reynolds number 3
= ~w/(PLCp,LU~) = Stanton number 1
= Cqph/(pECp,LUG) = Stanton number 2
= ~2ph/(DLCp,LUG) ----Stanton number 3

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