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SOCIAL ISSUES, JUSTICE AND STATUS

SUSTAINABILITY BEHIND
SUSTAINABILITY

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SOCIAL ISSUES, JUSTICE AND STATUS


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SOCIAL ISSUES, JUSTICE AND STATUS

SUSTAINABILITY BEHIND
SUSTAINABILITY

ANTONIS A. ZORPAS, PH.D.


EDITOR

New York

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Copyright 2014 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.


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CONTENTS
Preface

vii

A Word from the Editor


Antonis A. Zorpas

ix

Contributors

xi

Chapter 1

Definitions of Sustainability
Irene Voukkali, Loizia Pantelitsa
and Antonis A. Zorpas

Chapter 2

Policies and Legislation


Irene Voukkali and Loizia Pantelitsa

Chapter 3

Environmental Indicators
Vassilis J. Inglezakis and Antonis A. Zorpas

17

Chapter 4

Psychological Aspects of Sustainability


Nikos Ilia and Katerina Giorgalla

35

Chapter 5

Business behind Sustainability


Antonis A. Zorpas, Irene Voukkali
and Vasilis J. Inglezakis

45

Chapter 6

Ancient Sustainability Use of the Palmeral of Elche and the


Current Unsustainabilty: Reasons for a Sustainable Future
Encarni I. Hernndez, M. T. Ferrer, Jose Navarro-Pedreo,
Ignacio Melendez-Pastor and Ignacio Gmez

Chapter 7

Africa and Sustainable Development


Antonis A. Zorpas

Chapter 8

Reconciling Sustainable Development with Nature Conservation


The Natura 2000 Paradigm
Maria Zomeni

Chapter 9

Natural Vegetation As a Key to Sustainability of Agroecosystems


D. J. Bilalis, I. S. Travlos and P. Papastylianou

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73

87

109
123

vi

Contents

Chapter 10

Waste Treatment Sustainability


Muhammad H. Al-Malack and Muhammad Muhitur Rahman

135

Chapter 11

Energy and Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTP)


A. Zouboulis, P. Samaras and A. Tolkou

157

Chapter 12

Sustainable Energy Development: Smart Grid


A Vision for the Future
Diana-Mihaela Pociovliteanu,
Janina Florena Popeang and Walter Leal Filho

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Chapter 15

Chapter 16

Biogas Utilization through Anaerobic Digestion in Greece:


Current Status and Future Perspectives
Avraam Karagiannidis, George Perkoulidis
and Apostolos Malamakis
Environmental Assessment of Composting in the
Context of Sustainable Waste Management
K. Lasaridi, C. Chroni, K. Abeliotis, A. Kyriacou
and A. A. Zorpas
Agricultural Wastes: Protecting Soil Quality by
Sustainable Disposal and Reuse in Agriculture
M. K. Doula, F. Tinivella, A. Sarris, V. Kavvadias,
J. Moreno Ortego and K. Komnitsas
Sustainable Supply Chains: Social Practices and
Organizational Performance
Lusa Pinto, Joaquim Borges Gouveia
and Lus Miguel D. F. Ferreira

207

219

229

243

275

Chapter 17

Sustainable Agriculture in the Pampas Region, Argentina


Silvana Irene Torri

297

Chapter 18

Tourism Development through Sustainability


Antonis A. Zorpas, Katia Lasaridi and Irene Voukkali

319

Chapter 19

Sustainable Urban Transport


Marios Valiantis

345

Chapter 20

Concrete Sustainability
Demetris Nicolaides

371

Index

387

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PREFACE
In 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development sought to address the
problem of conflicts between environment and development goals by formulating a definition
of sustainable development: Sustainable development is development which meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. here has been a growing recognition of three essential aspects of sustainable
development: Economic, Environmental and Social. These three elements (or these three
pillars) of sustainability introduce many potential problems, difficulties as well as
complications to the original, simple definition of economic development. The goals
expressed or implied behind the Sustainability, are multidimensional, raising the issue of how
to balance objectives and how to judge success or failure regarding Sustainable Development.
For example, what if provision of adequate food and water supplies appear to require
changes in land use that will decrease biodiversity or what if non-polluting energy sources are
more expensive, thus increasing the burden on the poor, for whom they represent a larger
proportion of daily expenditure or how will we manage the transportation and how we
introduce and manage sustainability in business, and more are the main research questions
behind the Sustainable Development.
Sustainability, however, is more than limits on population or restraint in consumption
(though these are important). It mainly means that the choice of technologies and goods must
focus on the requirements of ecosystem integrity, ecosystem capacity to absorb, adopt and
resume thinks and species diversity as well as to social goals. Elements of the three views
(ecological, economic and social) are essential to an understanding of the requirements for
sustainability and what is behind, of what we call today Sustainable Development.
The aim of the present book is to review current scientific knowledge on the field of
Sustainable Development topic and assess the environmental, economic and social impact of
Sustainability
It is an honour to be invited to provide this preface.
Dr./Professor Yangsheng Liu
College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,
Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
The Secretary-General of Heavy metal pollution control and soil remediation committee,
China Environmental Protection Industry Association
Email: yshliu@pku.edu.cn

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A WORD FROM THE EDITOR


Antonis A. Zorpas
Behind Sustainability exist significant principles; the most important one is FAMILY
(belonging to the social pillar of Sustainable Development); my Family, which I really thank
as they support me through my career in many ways. Behind of a strong Family always exists
a strong woman; Stella (Star in Latin) my wife always on my side, helping me and supporting
me in many ways; is like a star above my head; Andreas my son and Georgia (Gogo for me)
my little prince and princess consist my Sustainable Paradise. Actually the implementation of
Sustainability principles in horizontal level (economics, environment, social-cultural) could
be, for all of us, the New World.
What I learn from life is that practice makes perfect and that the real principles are behind
a long lasting friendship, as strong relations are built on trust. My dad (Antreas) always told
me that Antonis, there are two basic principles in the life which are (1st) the second thought
is always better than the first one and (2nd) Learn how to apply the first principle.
Principles are like indicators which Sustainability has several of; economics, environment,
social cultural. On the other hand, my Mum (Irene) has always been supportive and
encourages me and my brother (Giovannis) in every step through our life.
This is my 3rd Edit Book and the 2nd with NOVA SCIENCE PUBLISHER which I really
thank once again for their trust. This Book tries to travel you around Sustainability and what
is behind of this. All the Authors and Co-authors, of the following chapters, are very good
friends of mine and I would like to say to all of them a huge THANK YOU (,
eycharisto in Greek Language my mother language; Language belongs to the social-cultural
pillar of Sustainable Development) and tries to provide you with details that is not always
easy to find in the scientific community.
This book started back in the time for me during my involvement in several research
areas focusing on Sustainable Development or on Sustainability Pillars and Indicators
(economic, environmental and social). The book is written for academics as well as for
graduate and postgraduate students of Sustainable Development. However, the book should
attract the attention of professionals who want to read the latest insights in the field of
Sustainable Development
It is an honor for me to have in my book an impressive number of authors coming from
different countries: Argentina, Australia, Cyprus, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Romania,
Republic of Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabia, Spain. Thus, we consider that the geographical,

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Antonis A. Zorpas

cultural, scientific and professional diversity of the book guarantees the expression of
divergent views on the subject.
The participation of Professor Y. Liu from the University of Beijing in China, in this
book as signatory of the Preface is an event that I will never forget and will always be an
ultimate honor for me.
From this position I have the need to thank from by heart all those who have supported
me as well as all those who have discouraged me throughout my career all these years. I have
learned that the most important values of life are the ones which are without price; strong
relations are built on trust as well as success is a state of mind.
I, (Antonis A. Zorpas), personally hope the readers to appreciate my efforts and to enjoy
reading.
I (Antonis A. Zorpas) would like to THANK all of you and especially Mrs Stella Zorpa
(Managing Director of SMART LEARNING Institute in Cyprus www.smart
learning.com.cy), Mrs Irene Voukali Director (Quality Control Manager) and Mrs Pantelitsa
Loizia (Department of European Affairs-Research and Development) in the Institute of
Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development (www.envitech.org) for their
personal help as well as Mr Charis Siasos (my Designer) which has designed the cover of my
Book (prime_design@cytanet.com.cy).
Dr. Antonis A. Zorpas, Ph.D.,
Chemical Engineer Environmental Engineer
Cyprus Open University
Faculty of Pure and Applied Science
Environmental Conservation and Management
antonis.zorpas@ouc.ac.cy, antoniszorpas@yahoo.com

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CONTRIBUTORS
(presented in alphabetical base)
Dr. Abeliotis Konstadinos
Dr. Al-Malack H. Muhammad
Dr. Bilalis J. Dimitrios
Mrs. Chroni Christina
Dr. Doula K. Maria
Dr. Ferreira F.D Luis Miguel
Dr. Filho L. Walter
Mrs. Giorgalla Katerina
Dr. Gmez L. Ignacio
Dr. Gouveia B. Joaquim
Dr. Hernndez I. Encarni
Mrs. Hernndez F. Mayte
Dr. Ilia Nikos
Dr. Inglezakis J. Vassilis
Dr. Karagiannidis Avraam
Dr Kavvadias A.Victor
Dr. Komnitsas Konstantinos
Dr. Kyriacou Adamantini
Dr. Lazaridi Katia
Dr. Malamakis Apostolos
Dr. Melendez-Pastor Ignasio
Dr. Moreno L. Jose
Dr. Navarro Pedreo Jose
Dr. Nicolaides Demetris
Dr. Papastylianou Panayiota
Dr. Perkoulidis George
Dr. Pinto Luisa
Dr. Pociovliteanu M. Diana
Mrs. Popeanga Janina
Mr. Rahman M. Muhammad
Dr. Samaras Petros
Dr. Sarris Apostolos

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xii

Antonis A. Zorpas
Dr. Tinivella Federico
Mrs. Tolkou Athanasia
Dr. Torri I. Silvana
Dr. Travlos S. Ilias
Dr. Valiantis Marios
Mrs. Voukkali Irene
Dr. Zomeni Maria
Dr. Zouboulis Anastasios

Dr. Zorpas A. Antonis


(antoniszorpas@yahoo.com,
antonis.zorpas@ouc.ac.cy)
is
Chemical Engineering and I hold a Ph.D. which focuses on
Environmental Management and Engineering. I had or I still have
significant co-operations with other institutes, Universities,
research Centres around Europe as well as with the European
Commission. Now I belong to the Academic Staff of Cyprus
Open University (associated Lecture) teaching in the Master
program (i) Environmental Conservation and Management,(ii)
Waste (Liquid and Solid) Treatment Environmental Friendly
Technology (iii) Renewable Energy (iv) Sustainable
Development (v) Risk Assessment/LCA/EIA/Health and
Safety/Quality Control.
I have taught in the past several scientific fields like: Water and Soil Pollution,
Processing & Supply of Liquid Waste, Treatment and Disposal of Solid Waste, Advanced
& Modern Liquid Treatment Procedures Waste, Recycling Technologies, Restoration
Technologies, Control System and Installation of Clean Technologies, Management and
Hazardous Waste Treatment, Environmental Impact Assessment Studies, Risk Analysis,
Clean Technology Design Systems, Design of Waste and Wastewater Treatment Plants,
Utilization of Biomass, Educational program, Quality Control, Innovation technologies etc.
I am also the Managing director of the Institute of Environmental Technology and
Sustainable Development (I.E.S.D) which is NGO focuses on research and development.
Until now, I am the editor in 2 two scientific books. The first with the title Sludge
Management; From the Past to Our Century published on March 2012 from the Nova
Science Publisher, and the second with the title Natural Zeolites published on Sep 2012
from Bentham Science Publishers, while one more will be published soon (during 2014)
with the title Sustainability Behind Sustainability covering horizontal the difficult subject
of Sustainable Development. Also, I have written more than 25 chapters for other 7
scientific Books, 13 academically Note Books in Greek. I have published more than 60
scientific papers in 23 different scientific journals and with impact factor from 0.751
6.072. Also, I have more than 120 presentations in International and National Conferences
while at the same time I am one of the reviewers of 27 scientific journals (which belong to
ELSEVIER, ISWA, Emerald, Nova Science, and Springer). Hence, I am, also in the
scientific committee of several International conferences. The article Industrial hazardous
waste in the framework of EU and International Legislation published in Management of
Environmental Quality: been chosen as a Highly Commended Award Winner at the Literati
Network Awards for Excellence 2012 (Emerald Literati Network).

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Contributors

xiii

My research back-round includes: Implementation of Natural minerals in the treatment


of solid and liquid waste (>15 years experiences), Implementation of Composting methods
for the treatment of several organic waste up on sustainable way (>15 years),
Implementation of chemical oxidation, electrochemical oxidation for the treatment of
heavy polluted waste (>15 years), Waste water treatment plans (>10 years), Waste
minimization monitoring and evaluation, EMAS, ISO 14001, strategic plans etc. (>10
years), Sustainable development programs (environmental, social culture and economics)
(>10 years), Coastal Environment, Management of Liquid waste, Management of solid
waste (>15 years), Environmental Impact and Environmental / Risk Assessment Analysis
(>15 years), Training Programs, Human resource, Quality Control, Health care, Quality of
Life Projects (> 15 years).
My research is funded from European and National or Industrial sources. I have taken
part in more than 75 research programs the last years while at the same time while I have
had the benefit to investigate and develop new scientific research areas either in industrial
and either in academic level. I have done several models simulations for the treatment of
liquid and solid waste in the lab before their final application in the industry. I have
accreditation from the Cyprus Institute of Technology in higher scale in the section:
Environmental Management, Health and Safety Management, Research and Developments,
Quality Management, Facilities Plants. Also I am Environmental Auditor (Lead Auditor of
ISO 14001/EMAS), Quality Control Auditor (Lead Auditor ISO 9001, ISO 19011) and I
am Health and Safety Auditor (Accreditation- OHSAS).
I am from 2013-2017 the President of Cyprus Environmental Engineers Council as
well as I am in the Advisory committee of the Office of the Cyprus Commissioner for the
Environment.
I am acting also as individual consultant in several Governmental Departments, Local
Authorities for the implementation of Sustainable Development Programs, Strategic Plan,
preparation of research projects, organizations and monitoring of waste minimization and
zero waste plan, health and safety etc.

Dr. Yangsheng Liu is a full professor at College of


Environmental Science and Engineering at Peking University
(China). He received his BSc degree (1990), MSc degree
(1996) and Ph.D. degree (1999) in chemical engineering, and
accomplished two-year postdoctoral research on solid waste
pollution control and management (1999~2001). Currently,
Dr. Liu is the executive vice director of Beijing Municipal
Key Laboratory for Solid Waste Utilization and Management,
the executive vice director of Shenzhen Municipal Key
Laboratory for Sustainable Development, and the vice
director of Institute of Solid Waste Utilization and Ecological
Restoration at Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School.
Dr. Liu is a famous environmental scientist and environmental
engineering educator. His research and writings cover a wide
range of environmental problems including solid waste

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xiv

Antonis A. Zorpas
incineration and landfilling, organic wastes composting and
anaerobic digestion for methane production, industrial wastes
reutilization, and biomass energy development. He has owned
20 invention patents, and published more than 80 papers at
national and international journals, and has ever been invited
to review manuscripts for international famous journals
including
Environmental
Science
&
Technology,
Chemosphere, Energy, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Waste
Management, Atmospheric Environment, Journal of
Environmental management, Industrial & Engineering
Chemistry Research, etc. Dr. Liu is the member of editorial
board for two journals Urban Management Science and
Technology and Environmental Protection of Oil & Gas
Fields, and also the member of China Society of
Environmental Sciences, China Society of Environmental
Protection and Industry, and China Association of Urban
Environmental Sanitation.

Dr. Abeliotis Konstadinos holds a Diploma and a Ph.D. in


Chemical Engineering. His main areas of expertise include
environmental management and life cycle environmental impact
assessment. He has conducted extensive research and published
over 40 papers in international peer-reviewed journals and
conference proceedings.

Dr. Al-Malack H. Muhammad received his Ph.D. degree from the


University of Newcastle upon Tyne (England) in 1993 in the field
of Environmental Engineering. Presently, Dr. Al-Malack is
working as a Professor in the Civil Engineering Department of
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals. He received his
B.Sc. degree from King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
(KFUPM) in the field of Applied Civil Engineering. His M. Sc.
degree was in the field of Water Resources and Environmental
Engineering and was obtained from KFUPM. Between 1987 and
2006, Dr. Al-Malack joined the Research Institute where he was
exposed to different research projects. During that period, he
managed and participated in several projects related to liquid and
solid waste management and environmental impact assessment. Dr.
Al-Malack has published more than fourty technical papers in
refereed journals and sixteen papers in national and international
conferences. Besides reviewing technical papers and reports for
national and international conferences and institutions,

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Contributors

xv

Dr. Al-Malack has conducted refereeing activities for national and


international journals such as the Arabian Journal for Science and
Engineering, Water Research, Journal of Membrane Science,
Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Hazardous
Materials and Journal of Water, Air, and Soil Pollution.

Dr. Bilalis J. Dimitrios is Assoc. Professor of Organic


Agriculture at Agricultural Univ. of Athens Prof. at Univ. of
Ioannina (2002-2007) and Tutor in Open Univ. of Cyprus (from
2011 until today). Over 90 scientific papers published in highprofile journals; reviewer of over 200 scientific papers belonging
to more than 70 journals; member of editorial board (ten
journals). Member of different organizations and associations,
including IFOAM, ISOFAR (National representative member in
EU-IFOAM, 2007-2011); participation in more than 30
international conferences and scientific meetings. Manager or
scientific coordinator of more than 30 research projects. National
and EU evaluator in different projects. Member in Certification
Board in Organic Certification Body DIO and Council Member
of Institute of Organic Agriculture. General Secretary of
Interscientific Society for Organic agriculture REA. Scientific
corresponding of NGO Organization Earth. Member of
National Accreditation Council (ESYD). Member of National
Academic Recognition Information Center (NARIC). Consistent
studies elaborated for organic agriculture and products for
industrial, cooperatives, government and local authorities sector;
a lot of articles in daily newspapers, TV broadcasts. Research
activities: Organic Agriculture, Certification system Soil
Management (Tillage & biology), Agric. Environment & weed
management.

Mrs. Chroni Christina holds a degree in Agricultural


Biotechnology and a MSc in Environmental Management. Her
research interests are focused on biowaste management, waste
prevention and environmental microbiology. She has
participated in many national and international environmental
projects. Her PhD study focuses on the microbial succession
during the composting process. She has published over 30
research papers in peer reviewed Journals and Conference
Proceedings.

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xvi

Antonis A. Zorpas
Dr. Doula K. Maria is a chemist and she was born in 1969 in
Greece. She was awarded a Bachelor on the adsorption
phenomena on silicate minerals in 1997 and a PhD on the
adsorption of heavy metals on natural zeolites in 2003. She is
working for the Soil Science Institute of Athens, a national
Institute that belongs to the Hellenic Agricultural Organization
(ELGO DEMETER) since 1992. She is working on soil
contamination, movement and adsorption of heavy metals and
nutrients, soil remediation, soil management, reuse of agricultural
wastes in agricultural sector, composting of wastes and reuse in
agriculture, environmental policy. She has participated in many
research projects as coordinator or as a member of the research
team.
Dr. Ferreira F.D Luis Miguel is an Assistant Professor of
Supply Chain Management with the Industrial Engineering and
Management Department of the University of Aveiro and a
researcher with the Centre for Governance, Competitiveness and
Public Policy. He received his PhD from the Universidade
Tcnica de Lisboa. His research interests include: Supply Chain
Risk Management and Sustainable Supply Chain Management.
He has significant consultancy experience, both in the private and
public sectors

Dr. Filho L. Walter is a Professor of Environment and


Technology at Manchester Metropolitan University, in UK, and
at Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, in Germany. His
research interests are on sustainable development, climate change
and renewable energy. He has over 300 publications among
authored/edited books, book chapters, papers published in
refereed journals and/or presented at international conferences.
Prof. Leal has extensive experience with European funding
programmes and the management of large interdisciplinary
research projects.

Mrs. Giorgalla Katerina BA, MA, PhD (candidate) received her


first degree in Sociology at the University of Cyprus and then
proceeded to complete a bachelors degree in Psychology at
University of Reading. Recently, she has completed a Master's
degree in Educational Psychology at University of Nicosia and
currently is pursuing a doctorate in Psychology.

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Contributors

xvii

Dr. Gmez L. Ignacio is Graduate in Chemistry (Alicante


University, 1981), holding PhD degree in the field of organic
residues (1986). His post-doc research focused on waste
management as amendment of soils and nutritional effects on the
soil-plant system. He has 25 years experience in the field of use
of organic waste in agricultural and degraded soils. He has
published two books and more than a hundred articles. He has
participated in numerous nationals and international projects in
soil science and environment. Since 1993, he is Professor of the
Alicante University and since 2002 is Professor and the Head of
the Agrochemical and Environmental Department, of Miguel
Hernndez University (Elche, Spain).

Dr. Gouveia B. Joaquim, Full Professor at Department of


Economics, Management and Industrial Engineering of
University of Aveiro, since Oct. 2001. He received his PhD in
1983 from the Faculty of Engineering of the University of
Porto.He is also member of the Board of GALP ENERGIA,
SGPS, S.A., since May of 2008, president and founder of the
Executive Board of ENERGAIA, since Jun 1999, member of the
Border of Directors of The Foundation for National Scientific
Computing (FCCN) since April 1997 to Feb 2008, VicePresident of the Executive Board of Directors of The National
Innovation Agency (AdI), between Dec. 2002 to July 2005.His
main research areas of interests are in Energy Management.
Energy Policy, Energy Efficiency, Power System Management,
Innovation and Technology Management, Supply Chain
Management, Services Operations, Networks & Collaborative
Work.

Dr. Hernndez I. Encarni is a post-doc researcher at the


Department of Agrochemistry and Environment, University
Miguel Hernndez of Elche, Spain. Her PhD Was in Restoration
and Conservation of Ecosystems and Biodiversity at the
University of Alicante (Functional traits related to strategies of
water use and drought resistance in Mediterranean species, 2010).
Her current research is focussed in water implications in the soilplant system associated with the reuse of palm waste, new
materials and uses. She has published more than twenty articles
and participated in several projects related to plant-water
interactions.

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Antonis A. Zorpas
Mrs. Hernndez F. Mayte, graduate in Environmental sciences
and Master in Analysis and management of Mediterranean
Environments. She has been working as technician for CIDARIS
Foundation related with geological heritatge. She also has been
member of the research team of Centro de Estudios Ambientales
del Mediterrneo (CEAM) and in the Department of
Agrochemistry and Environment of the University Miguel
Hernndez of Elche. Nowadays she is finishing her PhD.

Dr. Ilia Nikos received his BA (Hons) and MA (Hons) degrees


in Psychology from Montclair State University (USA) and PhD
in Social Psychology from Queen's University Belfast (UK). He
is currently a Lecturer of Psychology at University of Nicosia,
Cyprus. His research endorses a multi-methodological approach
and multi-theoretical frameworks in the investigation of multiple
identities construction. He is interested in the constructions and
development of "green identities", and in particular, in the design
and application of different interventions that aim to change selfconstructions and consequently social and environmental
behaviors. His recent book is titled, "In Search of Hope" (2013)
and lies in the field of applied positive psychology and personal
growth.

Dr. Inglezakis J. Vassilis is Chemical Engineer holding MSc


degree in Process Engineering (1996) and PhD in the field of
Pollution Abatement Technologies (2002) awarded by the
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA, Greece). In the
period 2004-2007 he conducted his post doc research as lead
researcher in the field of Environmental Science & Technology
at NTUA. Currently he holds the position of Assistant Professor
of Chemical Engineering at Nazarbayev University (NU,
Kazakhstan). He has published 51 Journal articles, of which 40
indexed in Scopus, 81 papers in international conferences and 8
published books and books chapters. His work has received more
than 1100 citations, he has an h-index 19 and he has been acting
as reviewer in 37 academic Journals in Chemical &
Environmental Engineering fields. Dr Inglezakis has
considerable professional experience working in several
European and non-European counties in long and short term
missions, all in environmental-related fields; he has been

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Contributors

xix

involved in more than 36 projects in 15 counties. Finally, he has


been project proposals evaluator for the European Commission in
the framework of the ERASMUS MUNDUS programme, the
Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research, Development
and
Innovation
Funding
(Romania)
and
recently
the National Center of Science and Technology Evaluation
(Kazakhstan).

Dr. Karagiannidis Avraam is Associate Professor at the


Department of Mechanical Engineering of Aristotle University
Thessaloniki. Since 1991 he has participated or coordinated over
90 international and national research projects on waste, resource
and environmental management and engineering. He has
authored or co-authored over 300 papers in journals and
international conferences.

Dr Kavvadias A. Victor, has a B. Sc in Forestry and Natural


Environment, School of Geotechnical Studies, Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki, Greece and a PhD in Forestry from
University of Aberdeen, UK, granted by the State Scholarships
Foundation of Greece. Research interests include soil fertility,
agricultural waste and wastewaters management, soil pollution,
plant nutrition, dynamics of soil organic matter. He has
participated and coordinated in many national and international
projects, in the fields of and sustainable fertilization practices
under different farming and crop production systems,
management strategies of agricultural wastes, soil contamination
and soil remediation, plant nutrition and nutrient cycling in forest
and agricultural ecosystems. Dr Victor Kavvadias has authored
and co-authored research articles in various national and
international peer reviewed journals

Dr. Komnitsas Konstantinos graduated from Technical


University of Athens in 1983, obtained his PhD in 1988 and
carried out post doctoral studies with a European Commission
grant in University College Cardiff, UK. Since 2003, he is
member of staff in Technical University Crete and director of the
laboratory Waste Management and Soil Rehabilitation. He is

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Antonis A. Zorpas
expert in the fields of chemical processing, decontamination of
effluents and soils, valorization of wastes and risk assessment.
He has acted as expert in several European Commission program
committees such as FP6, FP7 and Horizon 2020 in the fields of
environment and materials. He is member of the editorial board
of three international journals. Professor Komnitsas has been
involved in more than 50 research projects and has published
over 150 research papers in journals and conference proceedings.
Dr. Kyriacou Adamantini, Assistant Professor in Microbiology,
School of Health Science and Education, Harokopio University
Her research interests are focused on issues of human gut
microbiota and food safety as the detection of foodborne
pathogens and antibiotic resistance genes in the food chain and in
the environment. She has been involved also in research projects
studying the biological treatment of different waste as well as the
quality parameters of the final product. From this work, 64
research articles have been published in peer-reviewed journals
and Conference Proceedings.

Dr. Lazaridi Katia is Professor in Environmental Science and


Technology, in Harokopio University, Athens, Greece. From
2010 to 2013 she was the President of the Hellenic Recycling
Agency, an independent public body, under the Ministry of
Environment, responsible for licensing and implementing
Extended Producer Responsibility policies in Greece. Dr. Lasaridi
has extensive research and consultancy experience with local
authorities and the industry in all aspects of waste management
with main focus on biological treatment, recycling systems and
prevention, which holds central position in her current research
(see: wasptool.hua.gr). She has published over 150 research
papers in peer reviewed Journals and Conference Proceedings.
Mrs. Loizia Pantelitsa had studied Chemical Engineering at
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, as well as MSc from the
same University. She is a Lead Auditor of ISO 22000:2005
(Hazard analysis and critical control points Food Safety). Since
2011 she work as a consulting engineer on issues related to
sustainable development, environmental issues, research
programs and health and safety. Until now, she has published 5
different scientific journals and she has 10 presentations in
International Conferences.

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Dr. Malamakis Apostolos is a Postdoctoral Research Assistant


at the Laboratory of Heat Transfer and Environmental
Engineering of the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
AUT, since 2005. He is a Mechanical Engineer with the
following fields of expertise: (a) waste collection systems, (b)
Pay-As-You-Throw systems, (c) organic waste management (d)
aerobic composting technologies (c) anaerobic fermentation of
organic substrates. He is a member of the Solid Waste
Management research team at the Laboratory of Heat Transfer
and Environmental Engineering at AUTH since 2005.
He has participated in several national and international research
projects; he is a member of the Technical Chamber of Greece.
Dr. Melendez-Pastor Ignasio has a BSc and PhD in
Environmental Sciences from the University Miguel Hernndez
of Elche (Spain) where he is associate professor and scientific
researcher. He completed his formation with research stays at the
University of Edinburg (UK), Boston University (USA) and the
University of Massachusetts Amherst (USA). He teaches courses
of Environmental Sciences and Sustainability and his research
focus on geospatial technologies for natural resources
management, land degradation and water quality modeling.

Dr. Moreno L. Jose currently works in the Department of Soil


and Water Conservation and Organic Resources Management at
CEBAS-CSIC institute, where he is Tenured Scientific since
2006. Dr Moreno obtained his PhD degree in Chemistry by the
University of Murcia in 1997. Then he was awarded with a
Marie-Curie Fellowship by EU and spent two years in the
Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition of the University
of Florence in Italy. In this Department, he researched, under
supervising of Professor Paolo Nannipieri, in the effect of heavy
metal contamination on the soil microbial activity and
specifically on both extracellular enzyme activities with a main
role in the biogeochemical cycles of C, N and P and other
biochemical parameters indicator of the soil microbial activity.
Afterwards he came back to CEBAS-CSIC and was joined in the
research team of Dr Carlos Garca where he contributes for
developing the research line of soil enzymology and soil
bioremediation in arid and semi-arid regions. He is principal
author or co-author of more than 40 articles in SCI journals or
book chapters.

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Antonis A. Zorpas
Dr. Navarro Pedreo Jose is professor of Soil and
Environmental Science at the University Miguel Hernndez of
Elche. He was fellowship of the Spanish Government (FPI) and
PhD degree in Environmental Sciences at the University of
Alicante (1992). He was associate and assistant professor of the
Autonomous University of Madrid (1993-95) and Polytechnic
University of Valencia (1995-96), coordinator of Environmental
Sciences career (2001-2003) and Vice-rector of the University
Miguel Hernandez of Elche (2003-05). He has been collaborating
with EU and USA universities. Nowadays, he is coordinator of a
Master Program (Analysis and Management of Mediterranean
Ecosystems) and PhD in Environment and Sustainability.
He has participated in more than 50 research projects, published
more than 100 articles and member of IUSS, ESSC and other
national and international scientific associations.

Dr. Nicolaides Demetris holds Diploma in Civil Engineering


from the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), as
well as MSc in Structural Engineering from the Cardiff
University, UK. From the same school he received his PhD in
Civil Engineering in 2004, in the research area of fracture and
fatigue of Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced
Cementitious Composites (UHPFRCCs). He is currently a
Lecturer of Civil Engineering at Frederick University in Cyprus.
He worked as a civil engineering consultant in Greece and
Cyprus, being involved in large scale projects. He is the
Chairman of the National Technical Committee for Eurocode 2
(Concrete Structures) and a member of the Scientific and
Technical Chamber of Cyprus (ETEK).

Dr. Papastylianou Panayiota, Assistant Professor of Agronomy


at the Laboratory Field Crop Production of the Agricultural
University of Athens, has taught courses in Seed Production,
Aromatic and Medicinal Plants and Principles of Field Crop
Production. She has been involved in many national research
projects, either as coordinator or as a member of the research
team. She has published more than 20 papers in peered journals
and congress proceedings. Her research field includes:
Agricultural ecology, Aromatic, medicinal plants and allelopathy,
Weed biology and competitive ability and Ecophysiology of seed
germination and seedling establishment.

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Dr. Perkoulidis George is a teaching and postdoctoral research


assistant in Laboratory of Heat Transfer and Environmental
Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle
University Thessaloniki, Greece from 1996 to today. His main
activities and responsibilities are: (a) lectures on solid waste
management, environmental engineering, thermal processes and
refrigeration and (b) design and implementation of Geographic
Information Systems, Decision Support Systems, efficient and
sustainable processes, risk assessment and refrigeration. He has
participated in ten national and international projects, in 23
papers in journals, in 67 papers in conference proceedings and in
multi-reports and other publications.

Dr. Pinto Luisa is a Lecturer in Business Administration of the


Polytechnic Institute of Viseu since 2010 and a researcher from
the Centre for the Study of Education, Technologies and Health.
She received her MBA and Master degree on Business
Administration from the ISCTE-IUL and a Postgraduate degree
in Hygiene and Safety at Work from the IPP. She is finishing her
PhD on Management and Industrial Engineering at University of
Aveiro. Her research interests includes: Sustainable Supply
Chain Management and Organizations Performance. She has
experience on quality, environmental and safety issues in several
industrials sectors
Dr. Pociovliteanu M. Diana is assoc. prof. of Macroeconomics
at the Constantin Brancusi University of Targu-Jiu, Faculty of
Economics and Business Administration, in Targu-Jiu, Romania.
She graduated in 2012 her Postdoctoral research in Sustainability
of the Social Securities Systems. Her areas of research interest are
macroeconomics, sustainable development and environment,
labor market, renewable energy. She is deeply involved in
European projects related to human resources development. She
has presented many research papers in national and international
conferences

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Antonis A. Zorpas
Mrs. Popeanga Janina graduated in 2010 the Faculty of
Cybernetics, Statistics and Economic Informatics, Economic
Informatics specialization. The title of her Bachelors thesis is
Distributed Databases. In 2012, she graduated the Databases
for Business Support master program with the thesis
Monitoring and management of electric power consumption
using sensorial data. Janinas interests are broadly in the fields
of databases and distributed systems. Since 2012 she is a Ph.D.
Student in the Doctoral School of Bucharest Academy of
Economic Studies. Her research focuses on real-time database
systems, business intelligence analytics, sensor data
management, smart grid and renewable energy.
Mr. Rahman M. Muhammad completed his MSc in Civil
Engineering with the specialization of Environmental
Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum &
Minerals (KFUPM) in 2005. After completing the MSc, he
joined the Department of Civil Engineering, KFUPM in 2006 as
Research Engineer. Mr. Rahman has extensive experience in
development of wastewater feasibility and strategic studies,
conceptual and detail design and associated reporting of
municipal and industrial wastewater project. Mr. Rahman is the
technical author of several journal and conference papers and
co-author of a book chapter on use of membrane technology in
the treatment of wastewater.
Dr. Samaras Petros (PhD Chemical Engineer), born in 1964, is
a Professor at the Department of Pollution Control Technologies
in Technological Educational Institute of West Macedonia,
(Koila, Kozani) and from 2010 is an Associate Professor at the
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition in Technological
Educational Institute of Thessaloniki and Laboratory of Water
and Wastewater Technology. He is an author (and co-author) of
several articles in refereed journals and of several books, and he
has more than 60 publications in international scientific journals.
He participated in more than 30 National and European R & D
Projects dealing with water or wastewater treatment and he also
holds a patent of US Patent Office (PN 200201602324).
Dr. Sarris Apostolos is Director of Research and scientific
supervisor of the Laboratory of Geophysical and Satellite
Remote Sensing & Archaeo-environment at the Institute for
Mediterranean Studies, one of the research units of F.O.R.T.H.
He is also a contracted lecturer of Archaeometry at the

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xxv

Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki. His research interests


span from Applied Geophysics and Remote Sensing to
Geophysical Prospection of Archaeological Sites, Site
Assessment and Modeling through the Application of Remote
Sensing/GIS techniques, Satellite Remote Sensing, Image
Processing, Classification Techniques, and Environmental
Research-Development Strategies. Dr. Sarris is an associate
editor of the Society for Archaeological Sciences Bulletin and of
the Archaeological Prospection Journal and editor of ArchaeoTelepiskopika Nea. He has been elected Vice-chair of the
International Society for Archaeological Prospection (ISAP)
(2007-2011), President of CAA-GR (2012 -today) and member
of the UISPP Commission IV (2011- today). He has organized,
planned, and participated in more than 140 geophysical/satellite
remote sensing/GIS/GPS projects in Greece, the U.S.A., Cyprus,
Hungary, Albania, and Egypt and organized and/or participated
in more than 70 European, Bilateral and National Research
Programs: European Space Agency, Wenner-Gren, NSF-USA,
Information Society, LIFE, Instap, GGET, Interreg
III/Archimed, PENED, EU CULTURE 2008-2013, EU eContent, GGET bilateral programs (Cyprus, Bulgaria, China),
EPEAEKArchimedis, Information Society, EMERIC-CRINNO,
Leverhulme Trust, NATO Science and Stability, Thalis, EU
Marie Curie).

Dr. Tinivella Federico is an agronomist and extension plant


pathologist. He received his MS in agricultural sciences from the
University of Torino (Italy) in 2001 and his Ph.D. in plant
pathology from the same University in 2006. He spent different
periods of study abroad in Sweden, Denmark and US. His field
of research was focused on sustainable agriculture with specific
regards to seed treatment and disease control of key vegetable
crops of the Mediterranean area. He served for 4 years as
coordinator of the Italian review about crop protection
Informatore Fitopatologico La Difesa delle piante edited by
Il Sole 24 Ore Edagricole s.r.l. Since 2006 he is working as
senior staff at the Center for Agricultural Experimentation and
Assistance (a special agency of the Chamber of Commerce of
Savona, Liguria, Northern Italy) as project manager being the
following the main topics: sustainable management of crops,
food safety, adoption of renewable energy sources in the
agricultural sector, set up of best practices for agricultural wastes
treatment and reuse in agriculture.

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Antonis A. Zorpas
Ms. Tolkou Athanasia (M.Sc. Chemist), born in 1980, is a PhD
candidate (from 2013) at the Department of Chemistry in
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, working at the Laboratory
of Chemical Technology. Her Doctoral dissertation has to do
with the optimization of Water and Wastewater treatment and in
addition she has a scientific background in the field of
Environmental Engineering and on Material analysis. She has
collaborated in the preparation of a number of research proposals
that were submitted to EU and national programmes. She is also,
an author (and co-author) of several articles in conference
proceedings.

MSci Silvana Irene Torri is Graduate in Chemistry (FCEyN,


University of Buenos Aires) , holding MSci degree in the field of
soil science.. Since 2010 is Professor in the Department of
Natural Resources and Environment, School of Agriculture,
University of Buenos Aires. She is actually finishing her PhD.
Her research program mainly focuses on dynamics of potentially
toxic elements, land application of organic residues and
bioremediation of contaminated soils. She is also involved in the
supervision of pre and post graduate students research. She has
published 16 book chapters, 24 papers in academic Journals and
70 announcements in conferences. She acts as the Lead Editor in
an annual special issue of a scientific Journal, and she is reviewer
in 18 academic Journals.
Dr. Travlos S. Ilias is a lecturer of Agronomy in Agricultural
University of Athens. Member of scientific societies (ASA,
WSSA, EWRS, ESA), scientific committees and working groups.
Author of many papers published in peer reviewed journals, book
chapters and announcements in conferences and workshops.

Dr. Valiantis Marios is currently the Director of the Centre for


Green Development and Energy Policy at the University of
Nicosia. He is also the Head for the Energy, Oil, Gas and
Environmental Management Academic Programmes and the
Associate Head of the Department of Management and MIS at
the same University. Dr Marios Valiantis holds a PhD from
Imperial College London in the field of Atmospheric Pollution
and Transportation. His research addressed the contribution of
traffic pollution to exceedence of the air quality standards in UK.
In doing that, Dr. Valiantis had studied excessively different

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xxvii

vehicle technologies for reducing vehicle emissions. He also


holds a MSc in Environmental Management from Louisiana
State University (USA), a Master in Business Administration
(MBA) from University of New Orleans (USA), and a BSc in
Management and Information Systems from University of New
Orleans (USA). Dr Marios Valiantis worked in the Consultancy
area in United States and United Kingdom, and prior to his
current position he held the position of the Director of Energy
and Environment at the AEA Group (Atomic Energy Authority)
of UK in Oxford. He is certified Prince2 Project Manager and a
Lead Auditor of Environmental Management Systems
(ISO14001). He also holds a Post-Graduate Certification in
Higher Education (PGCertHE) and received training on the new
ISO 50001 - Energy Management Systems. Dr Valiantis has over
15 years of experience in the fields of Energy, Environment and
Transportation.

Mrs. Voukkali Irene holds a degree in has a degree in Food


Science in the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and the
department of Agriculturist and Master Degree in
Environmental Engineer from Cyprus University. She is a Lead
Auditor of ISO 9001:2008 (Quality Management Systems) ISO
14001:2004 (Environmental Management Systems) and ISO
18001:2007 (Occupational Health and Safety Management
System. Since 2007 she has collaborated with the Institute of
Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development and
she the Director of the Quality Control Department of the
Institute. She has implemented more than 70 Environmental
Management Systems (ISO 14001/EMAS), Environmental
Impact Assessments, Quality Management Systems, and Risk
Assessment Analysis in several activities in Cyprus. She
organized several seminal for SMEs most of theme focus on
Quality Management, Environmental Management and Health
Safety. Until now she has 4 scientific Chapters in 3 several
books. She has published 10 scientific papers and she has 7
presentations in International Conferences.

Dr. Zomeni Maria is a researcher at the Open University of


Cyprus. She holds a Ph.D. in Landscape Ecology and a B.Sc. in
Biology from Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (Greece). To
date she has participated in numerous research projects with
focus on land-use/land-cover change detection and modelling,
landscape pattern analysis and biodiversity conservation. She
shares great interest in the pattern-process paradigm in

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Antonis A. Zorpas
landscape ecology i.e. the study of spatial pattern effects on
landscape functions and species persistence, focusing on habitat
loss and fragmentation. She is particularly concerned with the
implementation of the Natura 2000 network of protected areas,
with emphasis on the investigation of its effectiveness towards
biodiversity conservation.

Dr. Zouboulis Anastasios (PhD Chemist), born in 1959, is a


Professor of Chemical & Environmental Technology in
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (A.U.Th.), Department of
Chemistry and Division of Chemical Technology and from 2005
is the Director of the Laboratory of General & Inorganic
Chemical Technology, Department of Chemistry of A.U.Th. He
is an author (and co-author) of several articles in refereed
journals, review chapters in co-author and co-editor of several
books, conference proceedings etc., guest editor in special issues
of scientific journals (Separation Science & Technology,
Desalination, etc.) and he has more than 200 publications in
international scientific journals. He participated in more than 45
National and European R & D Projects, dealing with water or
wastewater treatment, hazardous solid waste management and
biotechnological applications and has been the administrative
coordinator of several projects.

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

DEFINITIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY
Irene Voukkali1, Loizia Pantelitsa1 and Antonis A. Zorpas2*
1

EnviTech Ltd, (Institute of Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development,


Department of Research and Development)
2
Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Science,
Environmental Conservation and Management

ABSTRACT
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs. The definition of
Sustainable Development given by Brundtland in 1987 is the most common used by
authors, researchers and other related to concept of sustainability. However this definition
is not the only one. This Chapter provides a selective reference to the main explanations
given for sustainable development starting from the first definition of 1713 since recent
years.

1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainability remains an elusive concept. It has been a part of local, national and
international discussions. It means different things to different people and is difficult to
define. Sustainable development could be introduced as a process or evolution (Bebbington,
2001). Terminology in the field of sustainable development is becoming increasingly
important because the number of terms continues to increase along with the rapid increase in
awareness of the importance of sustainability.

Corresponding author: antonis.zorpas@ouc.ac.cy, antoniszorpas@yahoo.com.

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2. STATE OF THE ART


The idea of sustainable development was born in 1713 when Carlowitz edited the first
book on forest sciences. He argued that timber would be as important as our daily bread
and that it should be used with caution in a way, that there is a balance between timber
growth and lumbering. This would allow forever a continuous, perpetual use. For this
reason, we should organise our economy in a way that we wont suffer scarcity [of timber],
and where it is lumbered we should strive for young growth at its place (Keiner M, 2005).
The first use of the term "sustainable" in the modern sense was by the Club of Rome in
March 1972 in its epoch-making report on the Limits to Growth", written by a group of
scientists led by Dennis and Donella Meadows of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Describing the desirable "state of global equilibrium", the authors used the word
"sustainable": "We are searching for a model output that represents a world system that is: 1.
sustainable without sudden and uncontrolled collapse; and 2. capable of satisfying the basic
material requirements of all of its people (Meadows 1972, Mikolajuk and Gar-On Yeh,
2000).
The 1972 conference of the United Nations (UN) on the Human Environment was an
important step in the development of the concept of sustainable development. Although the
connection between environmental and development issues was strong, there were signs that
the pattern of economic growth should be altered or changed. In subsequent years, the
terminology has evolved to such concepts as environment and development, development
without destruction, and environmentally sound development. Eventually, the term ecodevelopment appeared in the inspection of the UN Environment Programme in 1978. Until
then, it had been recognized that global environmental and development ideas should be taken
into account together (Mebratu, 1998).
The concept of sustainable development was introduced in 1980 at the first Global
Strategy for the Conservation published by the World Conservation Union (World
Conservation Union) and recognized as targets maintaining essential ecological processes,
preserve genetic diversity and sustainable use of resources (Adams, 1995). According to this
definition, sustainable development is the maintenance of essential ecological processes and
life support systems, maintain biodiversity and sustainable use of species and ecosystems
(European Commission Secretariat General, 2004). It is obvious that definition emphasized
the need to maintain a critical natural capital and biodiversity conservation.
The report Our common future published by World Conservation on Environment and
Development WCED (1987) is taken as a starting point for most current discussions on the
concept of sustainable development. This report, a comprehensive one produced through a
global partnership, constituted a major political turning point for the concept of sustainable
development. Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generation to meet their own need (Figure 1). A key idea of this report is the
concept of sustainable development which is based on the assumption that poverty inevitably
leads to environmental crisis. The critical objectives in achieving the goal of sustainable
development are considered to include: reviving growth; changing the quality of growth;
meeting essential needs for jobs, food, energy, water and sanitation; ensuring a sustainable
level of population; conserving and enhancing the resource base; reorienting technology and

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Definitions of Sustainability

management risk; and merging environment and economics in decision making (Glasby,
1995).
By the mid-90s and other amendments concerning the definition of sustainable
development carried out, increasing focus on social issues and a requirement for simultaneous
achievement of economic ("economic viability"), social ("sociopolitical sustainability") and
environmental ("environmental sustainability") objectives. These amendments formally
expressed in the UN Conference in Rio in 1992, in which over 170 countries pledged that the
concept of sustainable development is the basic principle for future development, signing the
Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The Agenda 21 was
the result of an extensive analysis of what is needed to achieve sustainable development. The
40 chapters on the environmental, economic, social and organizational issues contain
guidelines for developing decision-making processes for sustainability.
Regarding the adoption of sustainable development by the European Union, there was
also an "evolutionary" process concept. The environment became an independent legal
recognition in 1987 by the Single European Act and in particular with the addition of Articles
130r, 130s and 130s (Korkovelos, 1997). In Article 2 of the Maastricht Treaty (1992)
described as the main mission of the European Community to promote "harmonious" and
"balanced" development of economic activities. Can the principle of sustainable development
is not explicitly mentioned but clearly described.
Article 2 of the Amsterdam Treaty (1997) referred to a "harmonious balanced and
sustainable development of economic activities (European Communities, 1999). Thus
sustainable development has change from being solely an environmental concept and
recognized that there must be a close correlation between economic growth, social cohesion
and environmental protection in the context of the EU Strategy for Sustainable Development
(Commission of the European Communities, 2001).
In order to offer a more workable interpretation of the principle of sustainable
development, the Swiss Monitoring of Sustainable Development Project MONET (BFS,
BUWAL & ARE 2001) precise the Brundtland definition according to the first of the 10
Bellagio Principles, saying that assessment of progress toward sustainable development
should be guided by a clear vision of sustainable development. In this sense, MONET
modified the definition given in the Brundtland Commission report, using key elements like
justice, intra- and intergenerational equity, maintenance of options, meeting of needs, and
maintenance of bio-diversity.
As a result, MONET proposes the following definition: Sustainable development means
ensuring dignified living conditions with regard to human rights by creating and maintaining
the widest possible range of options for freely defining life plans. The principle of fairness
among and between present and future generations should be taken into account in the use of
environmental, economic and social resources. Putting these needs into practice entails
comprehensive protection of bio-diversity in terms of ecosystem, species and genetic
diversity, all of which are the vital foundations of life (Keiner M, 2005).
Through the years, except the definitions given in important conferences and treaties,
many other writers gave their own interpretation to the concept of sustainability. Some of
them are given below.

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Irene Voukkali, Loizia Pantelitsa and Antonis A. Zorpas

Figure 1. The definition of Sustainable Development - autograph of Gro Harlem Brundtland


(Brundtland et al., 1987).

Sustainability means transforming our ways of living to maximize the chances that
environmental and social conditions will indefinitely support human security, well-being
and health (McMichael et al., 2003).
I define sustainability as the possibility that all forms of life will flourish forever
(Ehrenfeld, 2005).
Sustainable development means the will to follow a rational approach to economic
policies; to show respect for future generations by integrating concern for environmental
protection into decisionmaking; and progressively to evolve towards the full
participation of all concerned actors (Barboza, 2000).
Sustainability is defined in economic terms as nondeclining capital taking capital
to mean not just monetary and human capital, as economists conventionally consider
capital to be, but natural capital, being the value to human beings of the Earth itself
(Dresner, 2002).
Sustainability means protecting our options. To protect our options we must place
as much (or more) emphasis on maintaining and restoring ample, healthy stocks and
flows of natural capital as we do on protecting financial capital. Natural capital
includes all of the environmental resources and ecological processes that sustain life on
earth (Doppelt, 2003).
Sustainable development comprises types of economic and social development that
protect and enhance the natural environment and social equity (Dunphy et al., 2000).

CONCLUSION
Recent research carried out by White (2013), included the study of the most frequentlyoccurring words in sustainable development (Figure 2). It's obvious that there is not a specific
definition for sustainable development. Each one has a different approach to sustainability
depends the study area. It has been a part of local, national and international discussions and
will continue to be since the meaning of sustainability includes so many sub-categories.

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Definitions of Sustainability

Figure 2. Top 25 most frequent words/phrases in definitions of sustainability (White M.A, 2013).

REFERENCES
Adams, W. M. (1995). Green development theory: Environmentalism and sustainable
development. Power of development (1st edition). London: Routledge.
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/htm /11997D.html
Barboza, N. (2000). Educating for a sustainable future: Africa in action. Quarterly Review of
Comparative Education, 30, 71-85
Bebbington, J. (2001). Sustainable development: A review of the international development,
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Brundtland, G., Khalid, M., Agnell, S., Al-Athel, S. A., Chidzero, B. & Fadika, L. M. (1987).
Our common future: the World commission on environment and development (1st
edition). Oxford: Oxford University

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Irene Voukkali, Loizia Pantelitsa and Antonis A. Zorpas

Bundesamt fr Statistik (BFS), Bundesamt fr Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft (BUWAL) and
Bundesamt fr Raumentwicklung ARE. (2001). MONET projectFrom the definition to
the postulates of sustainable development. Neuchtel.
Doppelt, B. (2003). Leading Change toward Sustainability: A change Management Guide for
Business, Government and Civil Society. Greenleaf Publishing
Dresner, S. (2002).The principles of sustainability (2st edition). Earthscan
Dunphy D. & Benveniste J. (2000). Sustainability the Corporate Challenge of the 21st
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Ehrenfeld, J. R. (2005). The roots of sustainability. MIT Sloan Management Review, 46,
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Glasby, G. P. (1995). Concept of sustainable development: a meaningful goal? Science of the
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Keiner, M. (2005). History, definition(s) and models of sustainable development. ETH eCollection
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McMichael A. J., Butler, C. D. & Folke C. (2003). New visions for addressing sustainability.
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Meadows, H. D., Meadows, I. D., Randers, J. & Behrens, W. W. (1972). The limits to
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Mikolajuk, Z. & Gar-On Yeh, A. (2000). Sustainable Development and Decision Support
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Development Research Centre-Kluwer Academic Publishers.
United Nations Conference on Environment & Development Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (1992)
/Agenda 21. Available from: http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content /documents/
Agenda21.pdf
White, A. M. (2013). Sustainability: I know it when I see it. Ecological Economics (in press)

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Chapter 2

POLICIES AND LEGISLATION


Irene Voukkali* and Loizia Pantelitsa
EnviTech Ltd, (Institute of Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development,
Department of Research and Development)

ABSTRACT
Since the introduction of the concept of sustainable development till today the
European Union and the United Nations have proposed and voted several legislation and
policies for meeting basic goals and objectives raised for sustainability. The following
section describes the most important treaties that occurred from 1992 up to date and
became focal points in the evolution of sustainable development globally. Starting from
Agenda 21, signed in Rio in 1992, up to the Strategy on climate change for 2020 (2010),
the global community is making continuous efforts to balance the three pillars of
sustainability - environmental, social and economic dimension-.

1. INTRODUCTION
When the European Economic Community (EEC) was established, environmental
protection, let alone the broader concept of sustainable development, was not perceived as an
important policy issue. The concept of sustainable development contains environmental,
social and economic dimensions; finding practical ways to balance the three is widely
regarded as a key challenge. The EU policies in the field of sustainable development evolved
as a result of the interaction between internal political drivers and the EUs response to a
number of key UN conferences (table 1), (Pallemaerts, M., and Azmanova, A., 2006). One
such influential conference was the first UN Conference on the Human Environment held in
Stockholm in 1972. This not only addressed the environmental concerns of the industrialized
countries in the North, but also, the development concerns of countries in the South.
Sustainable development was only mentioned in European Council Conclusions for the first
time in 1988. Wavering political support for sustained growth and/or sustainable
*

Corresponding author: irenevoukkali@envitech.org.

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development continued for some years and reveals just how ambivalent attitudes were to the
concept (Pallemaerts, M., 2012). The 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam eventually ensured the
formal recognition of sustainable development as a legal objective under the Treaties.
Subsequently, the EUs commitment to sustainable development was formalised as one of the
EU's fundamental goals.
In 1997, the EU committed itself to draw up a national strategy for sustainable
development by 2002. The Commission published a Communication on a European Union
Strategy for Sustainable Development in 2001 which was discussed at the Gteborg European
Council. However, this strategy suffered from several governance weaknesses which
inhibited its implementation. In particular, the Strategy has been heavily affected by its
ambiguous relationship to the Lisbon Strategy for growth and jobs, which has received far
higher political priority (Pallemaerts, M., 2012).
The political and institutional crisis that faced the EU in 2005 after the rejection of the
EU Constitution pushed the Sustainable Development Strategy back up the political agenda.
A renewed SDS was subsequently adopted by the EU Council in 2006. The renewed
strategy contained more detailed arrangements for implementation, monitoring and follow-up.
The legal formalization of the EUs commitment to sustainable development as a policy
objective was completed by the Lisbon Treaty. Sustainable development is now repeatedly
mentioned in the Treaties: as a basic objective of the EU in the new Article 3 TEU; in Article
21 TEU concerning the external action of the Union; and in Article 11 TFEU setting out the
integration principle. The EU is now legally committed to pursue sustainable development
both internally and externally (i.e. in its relations with the wider world).
The post 2008 economic crisis has led to a marked decline in high-level policy interest in
long-term policy objectives such as sustainable development. A new Europe 2020 strategy
replaced the Lisbon Strategy in 2010; it reduced the environmental dimension to energy and
resource efficiency. The future of the EUs sustainable development policies is uncertain and
it is possible that the EU will return once again to a narrower focus on environmental policy.
Table 1. EU policies in the field of sustainable development
Declaration of the United Nations
Conference
Earth Summit 1992 Agenda 21
Treaty of European Union
Treaty of Amsterdam
Kyoto Protocol
European Union Strategy for
Sustainable Development (2001/2005)
Earth Summit 2002 - declaration
Treaty of Lisbon
United Nations Climate Change
Conference (Copenhagen Summit)
Strategy on climate change for 2020
and beyond

1972

Stockholm

1992
1992 (1993)
1997 (1999)
1997 (2005)
2001

Rio De Janeiro, Brazil


Maastricht, Netherlands
Amsterdam, Netherlands
Kyoto, Japan
European Council

2002
2007 (2009)
2009

Johannesburg, South Africa


Lisbon, Portugal
Copenhagen

2010

European Council

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Policies and Legislation

2. STATE OF THE ART


2.1. Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment (Stockholm Declaration)
The UN declaration took place in Stockholm on 5th June 1972 and it was the first United
Nations conference on the environment, representatives from 113 countries were present, as
well as representatives from many international non-governmental organizations,
intergovernmental organizations, and many other specialized agencies. Stockholm signified a
first taking stock of the global human impact on the environment, an attempt at forging a
basic common outlook on how to address the challenge of preserving and enhancing the
human environment. As a result, the Stockholm Declaration espouses mostly broad
environmental policy goals and objectives rather than detailed normative positions (Handl G.,
2012). It consists from 26 principles and its basic principle was to serve as a practical means
to encourage and to provide guidelines to protect and improve the human environment and
to remedy and prevent its impairment (Stockholm Declaration, 1972).

2.2. Earth Summit 1992 -Agenda 21


Agenda 21 is a non-binding, voluntary action plan developed by the United Nations and
national governments at the "Earth Summit" in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. At the
Summit, governmental leaders around the world agreed on the need to become more
sustainableto meet todays needs without sacrificing our future. Agenda 21 presents a
vision for how all levels of governmentespecially in the developing worldcan take
voluntary action to combat poverty and pollution, conserve natural resources and develop in a
sustainable manner. One-hundred-seventy-eight nations adopted the agenda. The "21" in
Agenda 21 refers to the 21st Century.
The Conventions, Principles and Declarations of the Earth Summit, provide guidelines to
deal with the problems of poverty, hunger, resource consumption and the deterioration of
ecosystems. Agenda 21 provides a format for this to happen, detailing an action plan for
sustainable development and establishing targets for actions that combine economic
development and environmental protection. Agenda 21: a) Is the blueprint for sustainability in
the 21st century, b) Provides options for combating the deterioration of land, air and water,
whilst conserving habitats and their diversity, c) Deals with poverty, over consumption,
health and education, d) Promotes roles for all. Everyone governments, business, trade
unions, scientists, teachers, indigenous people and youth have roles to play in achieving
sustainable development and should be involved in the decision making processes, e)
Encourages the reduction of environmentally and socially detrimental processes, but within a
framework which allows economic success.
Agenda 21 highlights the need to eradicate poverty. One of the major problems facing
poorer nations is their lack of resources and ability to live sustainably. Developed nations
have taken on the responsibilities of assisting poorer nations to reduce their environmental
impacts and achieve sustainable development.

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Agenda 21 asks governments to integrate sustainable development into their national


strategies and highlights the importance of involving non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) and the public in the process. For sustainable development to work issues must be
tackled on a local, national and international level and nations must work towards
international agreements which respect the interests of all and protect the integrity of the
global environmental and developmental system (Earth Summit 1992 -Agenda 21).

2.3. Treaty of European Union 1992 - Maastricht Treaty


The signing of the Treaty of European Union (Maastricht Treaty) took place in
Maastricht, Netherlands on 7 February 1992, entered into force in 1993 and strengthened the
ECs commitment to environmental protection.
The Treaty of Maastricht responds to five key goals: i) strengthen the democratic
legitimacy of the institutions, ii) improve the effectiveness of the institutions, iii) establish
economic and monetary union, iv) develop the Community social dimension and v) establish
a common foreign and security policy It led to the creation of the euro, and created what was
commonly referred to as the pillar structure of the European Union. The treaty established the
three pillars of the European Unionthe European Community (EC) pillar, the Common
Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar, and the Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) pillar.
The first pillar was where the EU's supra-national institutionsthe Commission, the
European Parliament and the European Court of Justicehad the most power and influence.
The other two pillars were essentially more intergovernmental in nature with decisions being
made by committees composed of member states' politicians and officials.
The Treaty establishes Community policies in six new areas: a) trans-European networks,
b) industrial policy, c) consumer protection, d) education and vocational training, e) youth
and f) culture Includes as a principal objective the promotion of sustainable growth
respecting the environment (Article 2):
The Community shall have as its task, by establishing a common market and an
economic and monetary union and by implementing the common policies or activities
referred to in Articles 3 and 3a, to promote throughout the Community a harmonious and
balanced development of economic activities, sustainable and non-inflationary growth
respecting the environment, a high degree of convergence of economic performance, a
high level of employment and of social protection, the raising of the standard of living
and quality of life, and economic and social cohesion and solidarity among Member
States

Central themes of the Maastricht Treaty are to support sustainable development and to
take measures to curb environmental degradation. Includes among the activities of the Union
a policy in the sphere of the environment specifying that this policy must aim at a high level
of protection, be based on the precautionary principle and that environmental protection
requirements must be integrated into the definition and implementation of other EU policies
(Treaty of European Union, 1992).

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2.4. Treaty of Amsterdam 1997


A major agreement was signed in Amsterdam on 2 October 1997. The Treaty of
Amsterdam (1997) was the third major amendment to the arrangements made under the
Treaty of Rome (1957).
The Amsterdam Treaty has met the demand, that sustainable development should be the
basic objective for the European Union and should be written down in the treaty articles
where the objectives of the Union are given and sustainable development is now explicitly
incorporated in the EC constitution through several amendments. The first amendment is in
the seventh paragraph of the preamble to the Maastricht Treaty, which is amended to read as
follows: Determinate to promote economic and social progress for their peoples, taking into
account the principle of sustainable development and within the context of the
accomplishment of the internal market and of reinforced cohesion and environmental
protection, and to implement policies ensuring that advances in economic integration are
accompanied by parallel progress in other fields
The interesting in this new wording is that sustainable development is referred to as a
principle and not a concept. The choice of principle in the amendment may denote that for
the authors of the Amsterdam Treaty sustainable development is consolidated to a principle. It
is a significant amendment since sustainable development has so far been indiscriminately
used in many disciplines more as a slogan than a guiding principle. This has prevented the
concept from developing a firm, precise and uniform legal content. The other amendment
with respect to sustainable development is in Article B of the Maastricht Treaty, which will
be renumbered as Article 2 of that treaty, concerning the objectives of the European Union.
Sustainable development has found expression even in Article 2 of the EC Treaty and in a
new Article 6. The amended text of Article 2 reads: The Community shall have as its task,
by establishing a common market and an economic and monetary union and by implementing
common policies or activities referred to in Articles 3 and 4, to promote throughout the
Community a harmonious, balanced and sustainable development of economic activities
In this way, the present amendments place sustainable development both in the preamble
and in the operative part of the EC constitution. Characterizing it as a principle may
contribute to the crystallization of its legal implications and confirm its role as the basic
guiding principle for all work within the Community (Treaty of Amsterdam, 1997).

2.5. Kyoto Protocol 1997


The Kyoto Protocol, which follows the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, is one of the major instruments for tackling climate change. It contains the
undertakings entered into by the industrialized countries to reduce their emissions of certain
greenhouse gases which are responsible for global warming. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted
in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The
detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh,
Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the "Marrakesh Accords." The total emissions of the
developed countries are to be reduced by at least 5 % over the period 2008-2012 compared
with 1990 levels.

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The Framework Convention made a large contribution towards the establishment of key
principles of the international fight against climate change. In particular, it defines the
principle of "common but differentiated responsibility". It also helped to make people the
world over more aware of the problems linked to climate change.
The Kyoto Protocol tackles emissions of six greenhouse gases: 1) carbon dioxide (CO2);
2) methane (CH4); 3) nitrous oxide (N2O); 4) hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); 5)
perfluorocarbons (PFCs); 6) sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was
adopted. The amendment includes: i) new commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto
Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January
2013 to 31 December 2020; ii) a revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be reported on by
Parties in the second commitment period; and iii) amendments to several articles of the Kyoto
Protocol which specifically referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and
which needed to be updated for the second commitment period.
During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and the European
Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990
levels. During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions
by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020 (Kyoto
Protocol, 1997).

2.6. Strategy for Sustainable Development 2001 (2005)


The European Union has formulated a long-term strategy to dovetail the policies for
economically, socially and environmentally sustainable development, its goal being
sustainable improvement of the well-being and standard of living of current and future
generations.
This strategy provides an EU-wide policy framework to deliver sustainable development.
It rests on four pillars: 1) economic, 2) social, 3) environmental and 4) global governance,
which need to reinforce one another. The economic, social and environmental consequences
of all policies need to be examined in a coordinated manner and taken into account when
those policies are being drawn up and adopted. The EU also needs to assume its international
responsibilities with regard to sustainable development, whose various aspects, including
democracy, peace, security and liberty.
The strategy is based on the following guiding principles: promotion and protection of
fundamental rights, solidarity within and between generations, the guarantee of an open and
democratic society, involvement of citizens, involvement of businesses and social partners,
policy coherence and governance, policy integration, use of best available knowledge, the
precautionary principle and the polluter-pays principle.
Its identifies seven unsustainable trends (able 2) on which action needs to be taken and
lists a whole range of operational and numerical targets and specific measures at EU level to
attain these objectives (Commission Communication, 2001).

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Table 2. Strategic for sustainable development (2001) trends


A/A
1

OBJECTIVE
Limit climate change

Limiting the adverse effects


of transport

Promote more sustainable


modes of production and
consumption

Sustainable management of
natural resources
Limiting major threats to
public health
Combat social exclusion and
poverty

5
6

Fight against global poverty

Kyoto Protocol, European Strategy on Climate


Change (framework) , energy efficiency, renewable
energy
infrastructure charging, promotion of alternatives to
road transport and vehicles which produce less
pollution and use less energy
promote green public procurement, define
environmental and social performance targets for
products, expand the distribution of environmental
innovations and environmental technologies
Biodiversity, Natura 2000, Recycling and re-use
Food safety and quality, threats to health and
environment posed by chemicals, combat HIV/AIDS
promote active ageing, make efforts to ensure the
viability of pension and social protection systems,
integrate legal migrants, improve the situation of
families, promote equality between men and women.
increase the amount of aid provided to less favoured
countries, improve the coherence and quality of
development aid policies and promote better
international governance

2.7. Earth Summit 2002 - Johannesburg Declaration


The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development was adopted at the World
Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)-(2002), at which the Plan of Implementation of
the World Summit on Sustainable Development was agreed upon.
It is an agreement to focus particularly on "the worldwide conditions that pose severe
threats to the sustainable development of our people, which include: chronic hunger;
malnutrition; foreign occupation; armed conflict; illicit drug problems; organized crime;
corruption; natural disasters; illicit arms trafficking; trafficking in persons; terrorism;
intolerance and incitement to racial, ethnic, religious and other hatreds; xenophobia; and
endemic, communicable and chronic diseases, in particular HIV/AIDS, malaria and
tuberculosis." (Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development, 2002), (Commission
Communication, 2002).

2.8. Lisbon Treaty - 2007 (2009)


The aim of the Lisbon Strategy, launched in 2000, was to make Europe "the most
competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable
economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion".

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After years of negotiation over institutional matters, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into
force on 1 December 2009. Described as the foundation for a more democratic, transparent,
and efficient Europe, the Treaty provides the EU with a new legal framework and tools to
tackle future challenges. It consists of amendments to the Union's two main treaties, Treaty
on European Union (TEU) and Treaty establishing the European Community (TEC).
The Treaty reinforces the EUs commitment to sustainable development, the fight
against climate change, and development of renewable energy sources.
Although the concept of sustainable development was already present in the existing
treaties, the Treaty of Lisbon reinforces the Unions pledge to pursue this objective both
within and beyond its borders. The emphasis brought by the amendment underlines the
different dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social, and environmental).
Introduces specific reference to the promotion of scientific and technological progress, which
could also have implications for environmental protection. In its relations with the wider
world, the EU shall uphold and promote its values and contribute to the sustainable
development of the Earth. (Lisbon Treaty, 2007).

2.9. United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009


(Copenhagen Summit)
The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, commonly known as the
Copenhagen Summit, was held at the Bella Center in Copenhagen, Denmark, between 7 and
18 December. The conference included the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP 15) to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 5th Meeting
of the Parties (MOP 5) to the Kyoto Protocol.
The Copenhagen Climate Change Conference raised climate change policy to the highest
political level. Close to 115 world leaders attended the high-level segment, making it one of
the largest gatherings of world leaders ever outside UN headquarters in New York. More than
40,000 people, representing governments, nongovernmental organizations, intergovernmental
organizations, faith-based organizations, media and UN agencies applied for accreditation.
The Copenhagen Accord enclosed several key elements on which there was strong
convergence of the views of governments. This included the long-term goal of limiting the
maximum global average temperature increase to no more than 2 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels, subject to a review in 2015. It also included a reference to consider limiting
the temperature increase to below 1.5 degrees - a key demand made by vulnerable developing
countries. Additional essential elements included: i) developed countries' promises to fund
actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt to the inevitable effects of climate
change in developing countries, ii) developed countries promised to provide US$30 billion
for the period 2010-2012, and to mobilize long-term finance of a further US$100 billion a
year by 2020 from a variety of sources, iii) agreement on the measurement, reporting and
verification of developing country actions, including a reference to "international consultation
and analysis", which had yet to be defined, iv) the establishment of four new bodies: a
mechanism on REDD-plus, a High-Level Panel under the COP to study implementation of
financial provisions, the Copenhagen Green Climate Fund, and a Technology Mechanism.
Despite the expectations for the completion of the negotiation process and the adoption of
a new multilateral agreement to combat climate change to succeed the Kyoto Protocol, was

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15

finally another conference in the course of international climate policy with very limited
results, failing to put the main institutional pillars of the post-Kyoto period. The Copenhagen
Accord came to seal the assumption of policy inconsistency and institutional failure,
confirming once more the irreconcilable differences between the Member States and the
failure to reach consensus on a substantive progress of the international regulatory framework
on climate change.

2.10. Strategy on Climate Change for 2020 and beyond - 2010


European Commission sets out strategy to reinvigorate global action after Copenhagen.
The Communication proposes that the EU swiftly begin implementing last December's
Copenhagen Accord, in particular 'fast start' financial assistance to developing countries.
To prevent the most severe impacts of climate change, the international community has
agreed that global warming should be kept below 2C compared to the temperature in preindustrial times. This Communication -"Limiting Global Climate Change to 2 degrees Celsius
- The way ahead for 2020 and beyond"- is addressed to the spring 2007 European Council
which should decide on an integrated and comprehensive approach to the EU's energy and
climate change policies. It follows up on the 2005 Communication "Winning the Battle
against Global Climate Change", which provided concrete recommendations for EU climate
policies and set out key elements for the EU's future climate strategy. In deciding the next
steps in our climate change policy the European Council should take decisions which will
enhance the conditions for reaching a new global agreement to follow on from the Kyoto
Protocol's first commitments after 2012.
This Communication proposes that the EU pursues in the context of international
negotiations the objective of 30 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by
developed countries by 2020 (compared to 1990 levels). This is necessary to ensure that the
world stays within the 2C limit. Until an international agreement is concluded, and without
prejudice to its position in international negotiations, the EU should already now take on a
firm independent commitment to achieve at least a 20 % reduction of GHG emissions by
2020, by the EU emission trading scheme (EU ETS), other climate change policies and
actions in the context of the energy policy.
In line with the strategic analysis of the EU's energy policy, the Commission
recommends taking the following measures on energy:

improving the EU's energy efficiency by 20 % by 2020;


increasing the share of renewable energy to 20 % by 2020;
developing an environmentally safe carbon geological storage policy.

Also provided that by 2050 global emissions must be reduced by up to 50 % compared to


1990, implying reductions in developed countries of 60-80 % by 2050. Many developing
countries will also need to significantly reduce their emissions (Commission Communication,
2007).

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Irene Voukkali and Loizia Pantelitsa

CONCLUSION
Over time the world community efforts to achieve their respective targets set in relation
to sustainable development in environmental as well as social and economic dimension. For
accomplish this, strategies and policies are reviewed, amended and where is necessary are recreated. It is certainly that the future of the EU's sustainable development policies is uncertain
and until they become dramatic changes in the global community the concept of sustainability
will continue to be a concern for all.

REFERENCES
Commission Communication 2007: Limiting Global Climate Change to 2 degrees CelsiusThe way ahead for 2020 and beyond
Commission Communication of 21 February 2002, entitled: "Towards a global partnership
for sustainable development"
Commission Communication of 13 December 2005 on the review of the Sustainable
Development Strategy A platform for action
Commission Communication of 15 May 2001 A Sustainable Europe for a Better World: A
European Union Strategy for Sustainable Development
Declaration of the United Nations Conference On The Human Environment (Stockholm
Declaration), 1972
Earth Summit 1992 -Agenda 21 (http://www.sustainable-environment.org.uk).
Handl G. (2012). Declaration of The United Nations Conference On The Human
Environment (Stockholm Declaration), 1972 and the Rio Declaration On Environment
And Development, 1992. Tulane University Law School
Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development. 2002
Kyoto Protocol. 1997
Pallemaerts, M. & Azmanova, A. (2006). The European Union and Sustainable Development:
Internal and external dimensions. VUB Press: Brussels.
Pallemaerts, M. (2012). Developing more Sustainably? In: Jordan, A.J. and C. Adelle (ed.)
Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics
(3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, VA.
Treaty of Amsterdam. 1997
Treaty of European Union. 1992
Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the
European Community, signed at Lisbon, 13 December 2007
United Nations Climate Change Conference, 2009

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Chapter 3

ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS
Vassilis J. Inglezakis1* and Antonis A. Zorpas2
1

Nazarbayev University, School of Engineering,


Department of Chemical Engineering Astana, Republic of Kazakhstan
2
Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Science,
Environmental Conservation and Management, Latsia, Nicosia, Cyprus

ABSTRACT
According to the definition given by the European Environmental Agency (EEA), an
environmental indicator is an observed value representative of a phenomenon under
study. Indicators are necessary information we use to understand the world and then to
decide and plan the future. Communication is the main function of indicators but they
also provide an early warning to prevent economic, social and environmental damage and
they are used to assess, monitor and manage systems. Consequently they are of
paramount importance for policy decision making as well as for communication and
dissemination of important environmental information to the public. This Chapter deals
with the broad issue of Environmental Indicators and provides the scientific and policy
context in a concise and comprehensive way.

Keywords: Environmental indicators, environmental index,


environmental communication, environmental statistics

environmental

policy,

1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of environmental sustainability was developed by Goodland (1995).
According to Goodland, environmental sustainability seeks to improve human welfare by
protecting the sources of raw materials used for human needs and ensuring that the sinks for
human wastes are not exceeded, in order to prevent harm to humans (Moldan et al., 2012).
*

vasileios.inglezakis@nu.edu.kz.
+357-99532025, +357-22411600 antonis.zorpas@ouc.ac.cy, antoniszorpas@yahoo.com.

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18

Environmental sustainability and the more general concept of sustainable development are
ambiguous and loosely defined. In the same time is true that failing to clearly define scientific
terms creates problems both in science and communication. Especially in legislation and
standards different interpretations by several stakeholders frequently lead to confusion (Heink
and Kowarik, 2010). In this context, the function of environmental indicators is to support
environmental management activities and policy frameworks. The work done the last two
decades on sustainable development strategies and indicators at international, national and
local levels is immense. Figure 2 presents the relationship between selected scientific fields
and their indicators.

SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability Indicators

SOCIETY
Quality-of-life Indicators

ECONOMY
Macroeconomics Indicators

ENVIRONMENT
Environmental Indicator

ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS
Welfare Indicators

Figure 1. Relationship between selected scientific fields and their indicators (Pissourios, 2013).

Indicators are the necessary metric to track environmental performance and they provide
a comprehensive basis for assessment of progress against environment policy targets (Herva
et al., 2011; EC, 2009). According to Herva et al. (2011), indicators quantify information by
aggregating different and multiple data (necessary to obtain reliable information); thus, they
can be used to illustrate and communicate complex phenomena in a simpler way, including
trends and progresses over a certain period of time. Furthermore, according to the
definitions given by the European Environmental Agency (EEA), an environmental indicator
is an observed value representative of a phenomenon under study (EEA, 1999) and a
measure, generally quantitative, that can be used to illustrate and communicate complex
phenomena simply, including trends and progress over time (EEA, 2005).
Simply put, environmental indicators reflect the status and tendencies of, for example,
biodiversity, quality of water, quality of air, waste generated, etc. It is true that the motivation
behind indicator initiatives lies in their ability to provide reliable and concise information on
economical, societal and environmental issues (Rinne et al., 2013). Is also clear that
communication is the main function of indicators; communication demands simplicity and
indicators always simplify a complex reality (EEA, 2003). This distillation of complex

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19

information allow stakeholders to make decisions and general public to be properly informed.
A detailed discussion on indicators definitions is provided by Heink and Kowarik (2010).

2. DEVELOPING THE INDICATORS


Indicators are not designed to provide a full picture of environmental issues, but rather to
help reveal trends and draw attention specific issues (OECD, 2003). Indicators are thus only
one tool for evaluation and should be used in combination to other methods. Concerning
environmental indicators, they are based on certain environmental variables and the selection
and measurement of these variables is not an easy task as they are by nature dynamic in space
and time and thus their values are heterogeneous and tend to fluctuate. Another challenge in
developing environmental indicators is the identification of those parameters that characterize
the entire system yet are simple enough to be effectively and efficiently monitored and
modeled. It is true that monitoring programs often depend on a small number of indicators
and, as a consequence, fail to consider the full complexity of the ecological system (Dale and
Beyeler, 2001).
Indicators are statistics and as such they are often produced by processing statistical data
in order to demonstrate the current state or the trend of a phenomenon. Thus, in comparison to
environmental statistics, which are based on existing or new data, indicators are based on the
information that is needed for decisions that must be made and is a combination of one or
more variables. Indicators should be statistically robust but in the same time they should be
displayed in a manner that is attractive and easily understood by the users. Furthermore, is
important to remember that an indicator is only as credible as the underlying data from which
it is based. Thus developers of an indicator should strive for accuracy (Hsu et al., 2013). The
first step in developing environmental statistics is to select a few key variables and to make
decisions on the source, frequency and aggregation of these variables. The principal sources
for environmental statistics are:

Administrative records of government


Censuses & surveys
Monitoring systems & remote sensing
Estimates by use of models and simulations
Combinations of sources

As simplified procedure and example are provided in Figure 2.


Indicators are tools for objectivizing environmental information and they have been
heavily influenced by the increasingly popular idea of evidence-based policy making (Rinne
et al., 2013). Thus, the design of indicators should explicitly include consideration of their
potential use in policymaking and in this context they are used for four major purposes (EEA,
2003):
1. To supply information on environmental problems, in order to enable policy-makers
to evaluate their seriousness;

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2. To support policy development and priority setting, by identifying key factors that
cause pressure on the environment;
3. To monitor the effects and effectiveness of policy responses, and
4. To raise public awareness on environmental issues.

DATA
COLLECTION

VALIDATION
METADATA

STATISTICS

PROCESSING

INDICATORS

DATABASE

WATER QUALITY
MEASUREMENTS

MONTHLY
STATISTICAL TABLES
MINIMUM &
MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATIONS

NUMBER OF DAYS
WHEN THE
CONCENTRATION
OF POLLUTANTS
EXCEEDS
THRESHOLDS

Figure 2. Simplified procedures from raw data to indicators with the example of water quality
indicators.

Hsu et al. (2013), developers of the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), present the
following examples of common purposes and benefits for which environmental performance
indices are created:
I.

II.

III.

IV.
V.

Measurement:
Measure or gauge something
Track progress toward identified goals
Communication:
Communicate information to a specific audience
Translate complex information for social or policy learning.
Call attention to the most relevant or current policy-related issues.
Comparison
Develop a common metric by which to compare progress or performance
between entities.
Determine impact of policies or processes.
Issue Framing
Combine complex or disparate data/information to communicate something new.
Decision making and management tools
Provide a guide for allocating resources, taking actions, or making decisions.
Devices for support or influence.
Inform specific decisions or directions of management/policies.

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According to Pissourios (2013), unlike other scientific areas, environmental studies have
reached an adequate and efficient indicators framework level. A significant problem is the
large number of indicators, which is constantly growing and could lead to confusion. It is true
that the less information required the higher chance is to get it but is also true that too little
information may not give a true image of the situation. The proliferation of environmental
indicators is balanced by the development of core or key or core indicators, which facilitate
the dissemination and communication of the important information (Pissourios, 2013).
The criteria for selecting environmental indicators vary the most representative are
summarized in Table 1. European Environmental Agency (2005) used the respective criteria
for selection of the core set of indicators (CSI). Three basic criteria are used for the selection
of environmental indicators in OECD work (OECD, 2003): policy relevance and utility for
users, analytical soundness, and measurability. Finally, Dale and Beyeler (2001) proposed
another set of criteria for selecting ecological indicators.
Table 1. Criteria for selection of environmental indicators
EEA (EEA, 2005)
Policy relevance
Progress towards
targets
Available and
routinely collected
data
Spatial and temporal
coverage
National scale and
representativeness of
data
Understandability of
indicators
Methodologically well
founded
EU priority policy
issues

OECD (OECD, 2003)


Policy relevance and utility for users.
Provide a representative picture of environmental
conditions, pressures on the environment or
societys responses
Be simple, easy to interpret and able to show trends
over time
Be responsive to changes in the environment and
related human activities
Provide a basis for international comparisons
Be either national in scope or applicable to regional
environmental issues of national significance
Have a threshold or reference value against which to
compare it, so that users can assess the significance
of the values associated with it.

Dale and Beyeler (2001)


Be easily and relatively
inexpensive to measure.
Be sensitive to stresses by human
on the system and also having
limited and documented
sensitivity to natural variation.
Respond to stress in a predictable
manner
Be anticipatory, i.e. signify an
impending change in key
characteristics of the ecological
system
Predict changes that can be
averted by management actions
Are integrative: the full suite of
Analytical soundness. An environmental indicator
indicators provides a measure of
should:
coverage of the key gradients
Be theoretically well founded in technical and
across the ecological systems
scientific terms
Have a known response to
Be based on international standards and international disturbances, anthropogenic
consensus about its validity
stresses, and changes over time
Lend itself to being linked to economic models,
Have low variability in response
forecasting and information systems.
Measurability. An environmental indicator should:
Readily available or made available at a reasonable
cost/benefit ratio
Adequately documented and of known quality
Updated at regular intervals in accordance with
reliable procedures.

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3. CLASSIFYING THE INDICATORS


Environmental indicators can be classified in topics and characteristic examples are the
classifications made by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) and the European Environment Agency
(EEA) (OECD, 2003; UNSD, 2010; EEA, 2010).
Besides simple indicators, composite indicators and indexes are also utilized. For
example, Yale and Columbia Universities have released the Environmental Performance
Index (EPI) (Emerson et al., 2012; Pissourios, 2013; Hsu et al., 2013). EPI sums up 22
indicators spanning over ten policy categories. In the framework of the Environmental
Performance Index, the following definitions are used (Hsu et al., 2013):

Environmental indicator is used to describe a quantitative variable measured or


calculated from data that is used to identify pressures on the environment,
environmental conditions (states), or policy responses, or trends thereof.
Environmental performance indicators refer to applying environmental stress, state,
and policy response against clearly defined targets.
Index is an aggregate of performance indicators, which generally implies conversion
to common units (or a unitless scale) and weighted or unweighted aggregation.

In other cases, composite indicators are simpler, as in the case of decoupling,


introduced by OECD who offered a methodology and indicators to measure the decoupling of
environmental pressures from economic growth. This indicator is a quotient of environmental
pressure divided by an economic variable. Decoupling occurs when the growth rate of an
environmental pressure is less than that of its economic driving force (e.g. GDP) over a given
period of time. Decoupling can be either absolute or relative (Moldan et al., 2012; OECD,
2002; EEA, 2012).
The large number of environmental indicators makes it difficult to be effectively used
and understood. Thus, the necessity of a framework is old and was proposed in the late 1970s
from David Rapport and Antony Friend (Rapport and Friend, 1979; Pissourios, 2013). The
proposed distinction among indicators was as follows: (a) to environmental pressure, (b) to
the state of the ecosystem and (c) to the ecosystem response. This is the basis of the causal
framework called Pressure-State-Response (PSR) framework and is comprised of Hsu et al.
(2013) as follows:

A pressure variable that describes human activities or aspects that exert pressures on
the environment, e.g. income growth, energy use, population growth etc.
A state variable that describes some measurable characteristic of the environment
that results from the pressure variable, e.g. water quality, deforestation, air
pollution etc.
A response variable that measures policy responses to environmental states and
changes, e.g. water-pricing methods, use of alternative crops, reforestation programs
etc.

This framework was elaborated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, United Nations and EEA and led to the development of the Driving forces

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Environmental Indicators

PressureStateImpactResponse framework of environmental indicators (DPSIR)


(Pissourios, 2013; Heink and Kowarik, 2010; Hsu et al., 2013). According to the DPSIR
framework (Figures 3 and 4), Driving Forces, in the form of social, economic, or
environmental developments, exert Pressures on the environment and, as a result, the State of
the environment is altered. This leads to socio-economic and environmental Impacts that may
elicit societal Responses that feed back to the Driving Forces, Pressures, State, or Impacts
(Pissourios, 2013). Based on the DPSIR framework of analysis, environmental indicators can
be classified in one of the above five classes.

DRIVING FORCES
(e.g. causes)

PRESSURES
(e.g. pollutants)

STATE
(e.g. quality)

RESPONSES
(e.g. policies and
targets)

IMPACT
(e.g. health
ecosystems,
materials)

Figure 3. The DPSIR framework of environmental indicators analysis (EEA. 2003; Pissourios, 2013).

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Problem recognised

Measures taken

Problem
controlled

Public awareness

Problem
signaled

Time

State
Impact
Driving force
Pressure
Response

Figure 4. DPSIR indicator use in the policy life cycle (EEA, 2003).

The Environmental Performance Index (EPI), which is based on PSR and DPSIR
frameworks, is based on three major components to (Hsu et al., 2013):
I.

II.

III.

Measurable objectives: relate to the overall goals of an index and can be assessed
with data. Often it may be sufficient to have only one overall measurable objective
for an index. For the EPI, two environmental protection objectives were selected: (1)
Environmental Health and (2) Ecosystem Vitality.
Core Policy categories: Core categories of an index are the types of categories that
reflect facets of its measurable objectives. These categories set clear policy lines to
help distinguish an intermediary level between indicators and objectives. The 2012
EPIs include 10 core categories: environmental health, air quality (human health
effects), water quality (human health effects), agriculture, biodiversity and habitat,
forestry, air quality (ecosystem effects), water quantity, climate change and energy.
Indicators: The third component of the indicator framework includes the indicators
themselvesquantitative variables measured from observations (i.e., data) or
calculated.

European Environmental (EEA) introduced 225 indicators organized in twelve topics that
focus, either on physical aspects of the environment that covers seven environmental themes
(air pollution and ozone depletion, climate change, waste, water, biodiversity, land and soil
and environmental scenarios), or on human activities with environmental impact that covers
five sectors (agriculture, energy, transport, tourism, fisheries) (EEA, 2005; EEA, 2010; EEA,
2012). These topics address EU policy priorities. The proliferation of environmental
indicators is balanced by the development of core or key indicators, which facilitate the
dissemination and communication of the important information (Pissourios, 2013).

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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Environmental Indicators

25

Figure 5. The Indicator Framework for the 2012 Environmental Performance Index (adopted from Hsu
et al., 2013). The percentages indicate the weightings used for aggregation .

The core set of indicators (CSI) in used by the EEA is 37. Each indicator in the core set
can be positioned in the DPSIR framework (EEA, 2005). Furthermore, the indicators are
classified by type, which is based on their operational utility, in four classes (EEA, 1999,
2003; Pissourios, 2013):
(a) Descriptive, e.g. cadmium contents in blue mussels in mg/kg dry matter. Descriptive
indicators are used in order to describe a certain aspect of the environmental situation
and are usually presented as a time-series.
(b) Performance, e.g. distance-to-target for greenhouse gas emissions. Performance
indicators compare the actual conditions with a specific set of reference conditions.
(c) Efficiency, eco-efficiency indicators combine pressure and driving force indicators in
one graph, e.g. gross value added of fuel and power products and greenhouse gas
emissions. Efficiency indicators provide an insight into the efficiency of products and
processes, in terms of the resources used and waste generated.
(d) Policy effectiveness indicators, relate the actual change of environmental variables to
policy efforts. As such they are a link between response indicators on one hand and
state, driving force, pressure or impact indicators on the other.
(e) Total welfare indicators, composite indicators are used e.g. Index of Sustainable
Economic Welfare (ISEW).

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All core indicators are either descriptive or performance based (EEA 1999; EEA 2003;
EEA 2005).
Table 2. EEA core set of indicators (EEA, 2005)
Theme

CSI
1
2
3

Air pollution and ozone


depletion

Biodiversity

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Climate change

Terrestrial
Waste

Water

Agriculture

Energy

Fisheries

Transport

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37

Indicator title
Emissions of acidifying substances
Emissions of ozone precursors
Emissions of primary particulates and secondary
particulate precursors
Exceedance of air quality limit values in urban areas
Exposure of ecosystems to acidification. Eutrophication
and ozone
Consumption of ozone-depleting substances
Threatened and protected species
Designated areas
Species diversity
Greenhouse gas emissions and removals
Projections of greenhouse gas emissions and removals and
policies and measures
Global and European temperature
Atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations
Land take
Progress in management of contaminated sites
Municipal waste generation
Generation and recycling of packaging waste
Use of freshwater resources
Oxygen-consuming substances in rivers
Nutrients in freshwater
Nutrients in transitional, coastal and marine waters
Bathing water quality
Chlorophyll in transitional, coastal and marine waters
Urban wastewater treatment
Gross nutrient balance
Area under organic farming
Final energy consumption
Total energy
Total energy consumption
Renewable energy consumption
Renewable electricity
Status of marine fish stocks
Aquaculture production
Fishing fleet capacity
Passenger transport demand
Freight transport demand
Use of cleaner and alternative fuels

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For the preparation of the Environment Policy Review report, European Commission
uses a different set of indicators mainly chosen from the EU Sustainable Development
Indicators, EU Structural Indicators and the EEAs Core Set of Indicators, divided in 6
different groups (EC, 2009):

Climate change and energy (11 indicators)


Nature and biodiversity (9 indicators)
Environment and health (9 indicators)
Natural resources and waste (4 indicators)
Environment and the economy (3 indicators)
Implementation (1 indicator)

OECD work on environmental indicators includes several categories of indicators, each


corresponding to a specific purpose and framework (OECD, 2003; OECD, 2008):

Core Environmental Indicators (CEI) are designed to help track environmental


progress and the factors involved in it, and analyse environmental policies. A number
of about 50 indicators is in use.
Key Environmental Indicators (KEI), are a reduced set of core indicators, selected
from the CEI, that serve wider communication purposes. They inform the general
public and provide key signals to policymakers.
Sectoral Environmental Indicators (SEI) are designed to help integrate environmental
concerns into sectoral policies (transport, energy, household consumption, tourism,
agriculture).
Indicators Derived from Environmental Accounting, are designed to help integrate
environmental concerns into economic and resource management policies.
Decoupling Environmental Indicators (DEI), measure the decoupling of
environmental pressure from economic growth. They are used for determining
whether countries are on track towards sustainable development.

Table 3. OECD core environmental indicators (OECD, 2003). The table includes only
the main core indicators
Theme
Climate change

Ozone layer
depletion

Eutrophication

Indicator
Index of greenhouse gas emissions
Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases
Global mean temperature
Energy efficiency
Index of apparent consumption of ozone depleting substances (ODP)
Atmospheric concentration of ODP
Ground level UV-B radiation
CFC recovery rate
Nutrient balance
BOD/DO in inland/in marine waters
Concentration of N & P in inland/marine waters
Population connected to biological and/or chemical sewage treatment plants

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Table 3. (Continued)
Theme

Indicator
Index of acidifying substances
Exceedance of critical loads of pH in water & soil
% of car fleet equipped with catalytic converters
Capacity of NOx and SOx abatement equipment of stationary sources
Emissions of heavy metals
Emissions of organic compounds
Concentration of heavy metals & organic compounds in environmental
media & in living species
Changes of toxic contents in products and production processes
Urban air emissions (SOx, NOx, VOC)
Population exposure to air pollution/noise
Ambient water condition in urban areas
Green space
Economic, fiscal and regulatory instruments
Habitat alteration and land conversion from natural state
Threatened or extinct species as a share of total species known
Area of key ecosystems
Protected areas as % of national territory and type of ecosystem
-

Acidification

Toxic
contamination

Urban
environmental
quality

Biodiversity
Cultural
landscapes
Waste
Water resources

Forest resources

Fish resources
Soil degradation
(desertification &
erosion)
Material resources

Socio-economic,
sectoral and
general indicators

Generation of waste (municipal, industrial, hazardous, nuclear)


Waste minimization
Intensity of use of water resources
Frequency, duration and extend of water shortages
Water prices and user charges for sewage treatment
Intensity of forest resources use
Area, volume and structure of forests
Forest area management and protection
Fish catches
Size of spawning stocks
Fishing quotas
Erosion risks: potential and actual use of land for agriculture
Degree of top soil losses
Rehabilitated areas
Intensity of use of material resources
Population growth & intensity
Growth and structure of GDP
Private & governmental final consumption expenditure
Industrial production
Structure of energy supply
Road traffic volumes
Stock of road vehicles
Agricultural production
Environmental expenditure
Public opinion

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Table 4. OECD key environmental indicators. The table includes available indicators
and medium term indicators (in italics) as defined in the original source
(OECD, 2008)
Theme
Pollution issues
Climate change
Ozone layer
Air quality
Waste generation
Freshwater quality
Natural resources
Freshwater resources
Forest resources
Fish resources
Energy resources
Biodiversity

Indicators
CO2 emission intensities
Index of greenhouse gas emissions
Indices of apparent consumption of ozone depleting substances
(ODS)
SOx and NOx emission intensities
Population exposure to air pollution
Municipal waste generation intensities
Total waste generation intensities
Wastewater treatment connection rates
Pollution loads to water bodies
Intensity of use of water resources
Intensity of use of forest resources
Intensity of use of fish resources
Intensity of use of energy
Energy efficiency index
Threatened species
Ecosystem diversity
Area of key ecosystems

It should be noted that emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given
pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity; for example mass
(g) of carbon dioxide released per energy produced (MJ), greenhouse gas emissions produced
per gross domestic product (GDP), waste generation per capita etc.

4. USING THE INDICATORS


When indicators are applied over a period of time they can be used to determine a trend
(Moldan et al., 2012). Also, indicators are particularly useful in distance from baseline and
distanceto-target assessments, where quantifiable policy targets have been established
(EEA, 2012). Baseline is the simplest reference point. Baselines are starting points for
measuring change from a certain state or date. Pre-industrial background values play a
prominent role. It should be noted that a baseline is not a targeted state. The later is set when
policymakers agree upon a specific target for an issue (Moldan et al., 2012). Targeted states
are based on national or international legislation, international treaties and environmental and
public health standards developed by national authorities, scientific literature or experts
opinions. The term target value is explicitly mentioned in the EU air quality legislation and
they are to be attained where possible by taking all necessary measures not entailing
disproportionate costs. These target values are not legally binding (EEA, 2013b). A target

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could also be in the form of reduction target, e.g. 10% by year etc. A review of targets set in
the European Union policy is provided by the latest European Environmental Agency report
(EEA, 2013). The targets are divided to (Figure 3):

Targets are binding goals established by EU legislation regulations, directives and


decisions) and international legislation that Member States and the EU are required
to achieve.
All other goals are classified as non-binding objectives. This broad category includes
goals set out in Commission communications, environmental action programmes and
European Council Presidency conclusions, as well as those incorporated into EU
legislation

In European Union these targets refer to 9 different areas: energy, GHG emissions and
ODS, air pollution and air quality, GHG emissions and air pollution in transport, waste,
water, SCP and resource efficiency, chemicals, biodiversity and land use.
Apart from baselines and targets another important parameter is the threshold value,
which is set in legislation and standards is might be also used as reference point. Thresholds
are limits beyond which unacceptable and possibly irreversible consequences to the
environment are likely to occur. To avoid such consequences, it is important to identify where
such 2thresholds might exist and what the actual threshold values are (EI-SERI, 2010). A
threshold example is the limit value which is used in EU air quality legislation. These limit
values are legally binding concentration thresholds that must not be exceeded and are
generally termed as Environmental Quality Standards (EEA, 2013b).
40

37

35
30
25
20

10
5

14

13

15
9
6

6
3

4
1

4
1

0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2028 2030 2050
Binding targets

Non-binding targets

Figure 6. Binding and non-binding targets in EU environmental policies, by sector and year (EEA,
2013).

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Environmental quality standard is a concept for which there is no uniform definition. This
type of rule is used in many different legal systems in the world, but the standards do not have
the same definition, criteria or legal effect in them. According to the Industrial Pollution
Prevention and Control Directive 96/61/EC, environmental quality standards shall mean: the
set of requirements which must be fulfilled at a given time by a given environment or
particular part thereof, as set out in Community legislation. Environmental quality standard
is also defined in the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC as: the concentration of a
particular pollutant or group of pollutants in water, sediment or biota which should not be
exceeded in order to protect human health and the environment.
Environmental quality standards are set in order to protect human and ecosystem health
and prevent damage to the physical environment. The term standard refers here to any limit
placed on the presence of a contaminant in the ambient environment. Standards can be either
numerical values (for example, the maximum allowable concentration of a contaminant in air)
or narrative descriptions (such as the requirement that odour associated with treated drinking
water be inoffensive). The quality objectives are substantiated at a various level (Stuno,
1989). For example, there are desirable levels (long-term objectives), maximum tolerable
levels (short term objectives) and intervention levels (alarm function). These different
sorts of quality objectives need to be quantified with their own forms and accuracies.
For example, in EU the quality status of the water is evaluated on the basis of 41
dangerous chemical substances, including 33 priority substances and 8 other substances,
specified by the legislation. The environmental quality standards for these priority substances
are described in the directives and consist of annual average concentrations and maximum
allowable concentrations, for protection against long-term and for short-term, direct and acute
ecotoxic effects, respectively (EI-SERI, 2010).
An indicator as a variable can take any value from below the baseline to above the
threshold value (Figure 7). Although there is no absolute rule, in the typical case baseline
value is the lowest possible while threshold value is the maximum permissible. Target values
are somewhere between baseline and threshold values.

Figure 7. Baseline, target, threshold and indicator values.

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Vassilis J. Inglezakis and Antonis A. Zorpas

REFERENCES
Bedrich, M., Svatava, J., Toms, H. (2012). How to understand and measure environmental
sustainability: Indicators and targets. Ecological Indicators 17, 413
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and control.
Dale, H.V., Beyeler, C.S. (2001).Challenges in the development and use of ecological
indicators. Ecological Indicators, 1 310.
Directive 2000/60/EC of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in
the field of water policy.
EC, 2009. (2009) Environment Policy Review. European Commission
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EEA, 2003. Environmental Indicators: Typology and Use in Reporting. European
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EEA, 2005. EEA core set of indicators. European Environment Agency
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EEA, 2012. Environmental indicator report 2012. Ecosystem resilience and resource
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EEA, 2013b. Air quality in Europe 2013 report, European Environment Agency
EI-SERI (2010), Establishing Environmental Sustainability Thresholds and Indicators.
Ecologic Institute and SERI, Final report to the European Commissions DG
Environment, November 2010.
Emerson, J.W., Hsu, A., Levy, M.A., de Sherbinin, A., Mara, V., Esty, D.C., Jaiteh,
M.(2012). Environmental Performance Index and Pilot Trend Environmental
Performance Index. Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy, New Haven.
Goodland, R., (1995). The concept of environmental sustainability. Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics 26, 124.
Heink, U., Kowarik, I. (2010) What are indicators? On the definition of indicators in ecology
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Herva M, Franco A., Carrasco E., Roca E., (2011). Review of corporate environmental
indicators. Journal of Cleaner Production 19, 1687-1699.
Hsu, A., L.A. Johnson, and A. Lloyd. (2013), Measuring Progress: A Practical Guide From
the Developers of the Environmental Performance Index (EPI). New Haven: Yale Center
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OECD, 2002. Indicators to Measure Decoupling of Environmental Pressure from Economic
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OECD, 2008. Key Environmental Indicators, OECD Environment Directorate, Paris, France.

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Pissourios, I. (2013) An interdisciplinary study on indicators: A comparative review of


quality-of-life, macroeconomic, environmental, welfare and sustainability indicators,
Ecological Indicators 34, 420 427.
Rapport, D.J., Friend, A.M., (1979). Towards a Comprehensive Framework for
Environmental Statistics: A Stress-Response Approach. Statistics Canada, Ottawa.
Rinne, J., Lyytimki, J., Kautto, P. (2013). From sustainability to well-being: Lessons learned
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Stuno (1989), Begrippenkader milieukwaliteit. Brief van pdSR aan de Stuurgroep
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UNSD United Nations Statistics Division, 2010. UNSD Environmental Indicators, United
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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 4

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABILITY


Nikos Ilia and Katerina Giorgalla*
Lecturer in Psychology, Department of Psychology,
University of Nicosia, Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus

ABSTRACT
This chapter focuses on the psychological aspects of environmental sustainability
and aims to further our understanding in relation to the construction of positive
environmental behaviors. It is argued that the cornerstone of sustainability is behavior
change and psychology as the field of studying human behavior can provide valuable
insights of how we can enhance sustainable development. In relation to this, the focus
should not only be on how humans affect the environment but also how humans can alter
their behavior in stopping affecting the environment. This chapter discusses different
psychological processes that increase awareness of sustainable behavior in promoting
environmental sustainability. Moreover, it attempts to explain the significant role of
constructing positive social representations of sustainable behaviors and development of
"Green identities" in the service of environmental sustainability.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the second decade of the twenty - first century humanity continues to face many
challenges. Our world is witnessing colossal changes in every possible domain (e.g. the
financial domain, the political domain, the socio-cultural domain, the psychological domain
and the environmental domain). Centuries ago, man had struggled for survival against
environmental rivals. This struggle unavoidably led him to escape nature by building cities
and creating civilizations. As a result, man has accomplished his evolution by creating a new
safe haven where he can live, explore, enjoy and safely consume the benefits of the natural
world within city walls. Initially, the natural and urban environment was perceived as a
framework in which human and nature could harmoniously interact (Gleeson & Low, 2000).
*

Tel: 00357 22841500, 00357 99800364 E-mail: ilia.n@unic.ac.cy, ckaterina_geo@hotmail.com.

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Nikos Ilia and Katerina Giorgalla

However, this rapid expansion of human activity to a range of environments has caused a
great impact on the global environment (Clayton & Radcliffe, 1996). Fast shaping cities,
technological breakthroughs, financial crisis and increasing climate changes which occur
almost on a daily basis are the highlights of the dramatic alterations that our planet and world
is currently facing. These revolutionary environmental alterations confirm what we intuitively
know- what we see here today, may not be what we will see in the future to come (Morse,
2010). The world is clearly changing at a very fast pace. The increasing population suggests
increasing human needs in terms of food and water. This emphasizes that now, more than
ever we need to understand that this unregulated exploitation of resources without any
conscious planning or any reckoning of the potential ramifications of our actions to the
environment can no longer continue. (Hawkes, 2011).
The concept of sustainability or sustainable development has been evolving ever since the
relationship between the environmental quality and best quality in life, was first mentioned by
the international community at the United Nations Conference on Human Environment in
1972. Sustainability can be defined in many different ways. For example, it can be defined as
the idea of finding a more regenerative way to balance human and environmental needs, or as
an idea of emphasizing the need for more responsible decision makings regarding the
relationship of collective equity and ecological quality. As pointed out by Rogers, Jalal and
Boyd (2008), sustainability is a necessary process of change in which human needs,
exploitation of resources and technological advances are consistent with not only our present
needs but with our future ones as well. As Repetto (1986) explains, the core idea of
sustainability is that current decisions should not impair the prospects for maintaining or
improving future living standards, which implies that our economic systems should be
managed in that way so that we can live off the dividends of our resources. In general, the
idea of sustainability embodies the desire that future generations will inherit a world at least
as bountiful as the one we inhabit today. This can only be achieved by responsible and
cautious planning about our actions and materialistic pursuits (Hawkes, 2011).
Sustainable development is based on the relationship between people and time and
symbolizes the interrelation between the past, the present and the future. As Morse (2010)
explains, it is related to the past because it teaches us about the progress of human existence
and our battles for survival; the present because it emphasizes our duty to make sure we
provide the best quality of life that we can today and the future because it should be our moral
responsibility to provide future generations an even better quality of life than ours. To this
end, we should all acknowledge the importance in becoming the protectors of the
environment and in doing so we must acquire an active role in safeguarding humanity.
Clearly, it should be our obligation not only to limit any damage done to the environment so
far, but also, try and amend any destructions caused to the environment by past generations
(Morse, 2010).

2. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOR


The development and promotion of a more sustainable lifestyle is one of the major
challenges our environmental world is facing today. This could be due to the fact that people
are not often presented with the variety and number of available choices. These alternative

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choices or options may be confusing or misleading to people at first, yet these alternatives
regarding a more sustainable way of living are very important to be fully explained and
understood (Burthold, 2007).
According to the latest United Nations projections, it is estimated that by the year 2050
the world population will reach nine billion people in developing and emerging countries. It is
evidenced that there is a strong and global need for environmental awareness regarding the
importance of sustainable development worldwide because the current consumption rates
cannot continue like that; people need to be directed to more balanced and sustainable
patterns. Even though the majority of consumers may have positive attitudes towards
sustainability, they still havent really changed their consumption behaviors. They may "talk
green" but they do not in fact "walk green" (Van Trijp, 2014).
Psychology, as the field of studying human behavior, can provide valuable insights and
tips of how different professionals working in the field can empower sustainable
development. It should be noted that, human behavior is responsible for almost every
environmental disaster, whether it is air or water pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity
or climate changes (Manning, 2009). Interestingly enough, even though people are concerned
about the broader ramifications of their actions they still engage in unsustainable behaviors. A
psychological perspective can provide some valuable insights regarding the nature of peoples
unsustainable attitudes, explain why people do in fact occasionally behave sustainable and
how to motivate and empower sustainable behavior. Most people wish to respect and care
about the environment we live in and that is why they often express increasing concerns about
the state of our natural environment. However, despite their concerns they continue to behave
in unsustainable manners resulting in negative environmental consequences.
One of the most interesting observations made by psychological research is that our
decisions are frequently a result of unconscious automatic processes. There is research-based
evidence that thinking is a product of two separate systems of reasoning: the rule-based
system and the associative system but even though they work together they do not always
agree (Sloman, 2007). Manning (2009) explains that the rule-based system is our rational
thinking in which decisions are made after careful consideration of facts or evidence while the
associative system is more spontaneous and makes decisions a lot quicker based on our
instinct. People make decisions every day and even though we may think that these decisions
were rational they are in fact the result of the associative system.
For example, going to work by bicycle seems like a good idea because you are thinking
that you will save up petrol or because you may consider it to be a good exercise to keep you
fit and healthy. However, the associative system will definitely be negative on this idea
perhaps because nobody likes the idea of going to work with messy hair (Manning, 2009).
Therefore, following this line of logic, we need to make sustainable behavior more appealing
to the associative system. The primary focus then should be given to the individuals behavior
and the factors that influence it.
Festingers (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance claims that inconsistent cognitions
produce an aversive state of arousal (i.e., dissonance), which in turn produces a desire to
reduce the underlying inconsistency and preserve a state of consonance (Gawronski, 2012).
For example, recycling is one of the most promising ways of living sustainable lives. In line
with this theory, even though people know that they cannot carry on living in these
consumption rates and that they should embrace recycling because there will be negative
ramifications in the future; yet, they continue to behave unsustainable justifying this by

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thinking that scientists are exaggerating and that this scenario of severe changes worldwide
will not happen.
Praising more environmentally suitable patterns of living, unavoidably involves changing
our current way of living both at a personal as well as, at a social level; and the challenging
task is to foster these potentially helpful revolutions for a more sustainable behavior (Irvine &
Kaplan, 2001). Change suggests that things as we know them will be amended and people in
most cases feel threatened by change (Kaplan 1991). The thought of changing jobs, meeting
new people, working in a new city, or implementing technological innovations is frequently
perceived with some apprehension, but this fear of change is particularly severe during
situations where many changes occur at the same time (Grabiner & Miller, 1974). Why is it
so difficult for humans to accept change, and how can we provide solutions to these pressing
environmental issues given their resistance to change? In order to manage peoples fear of
change we first need to identify the "appropriate" change. The "appropriate" change should be
the one that will bring the desirable effects and minimize any undesirable ones. We need to
find solutions that will promote sustainable patterns of living but in a way that people will
feel comfortable and willing to help. The second step is to face the challenge of getting the
proposed change facilitated (Irvine & Kaplan, 2001). Once the "appropriate" changes have
been recognized, then there is the challenge of facilitating them. The reason why this is so
puzzling is simple; "humans are much more comfortable with the known than the unknown"
(Irvine & Kaplan, 2001). The "known", may refer to a person, a particular physical or social
environment or even something abstract such as the term sustainability. It is something that
someone has some understanding about it, something familiar which suggests a moderate
degree of understanding. In general, people are motivated to make minimal exploratory
ventures from the safe base of their "known". Therefore, we can increase familiarity and
lessen human resistance by introducing change in small steps. Taking small but steady steps
will create a level of familiarity, and this will help to keep track of the effect each step has
had so far, which is an important component for assessing what steps we should take next.
Lastly, we need a campaign that encourages participation. Participating in something helps
building this familiarity and a sense of ownership of the process which can keep you
motivated. For example, consider recycling. Each community or city needs to have recycling
bins. People need to be constantly reminded that they should recycle anything that can be
recycled in their households. If we convince them to keep recycling and this attitude is truly
implemented in their daily routines, then we will have made a great start. But how can this be
done? The next section explains how sustainable behavior can be developed and enhanced.

3. DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOR


The nature of human behavior is very complex and is often influenced by a mixture of
internal and external psychological factors; consequently, if we wish to increase awareness of
sustainable behavior and promote sustainability as the best alternative lifestyle we need to
consider different factors (Manning, 2009). Estava and Prakash (1994) pointed out that the
popular phrase "think globally, act locally" indicates that actions taken at a local level can
make a significant difference compared to a larger scale action (Irvine & Kaplan, 2001). In
particular, Estava & Prakash (1994, p. 162) argue that it is easier to "think wisely about what

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one knows well". Emphasizing in what one "knows well" may facilitate taking action towards
the achievement of environmental sustainability. If one takes into consideration the concept
of thinking and acting locally rather than globally, then one must also consider the local
human resources that are part of the solution to a problem as well. Finding better ways to
utilize theses resources can contribute toward solving our environmental problems and
achieving sustainability (Irvine & Kaplan, 2001). This should be thought as a step-by-step
goal; we cannot have a worldwide effect immediately, yet we can have local effects from
each community. In addition to this, it would be best to give people a specific goal to keep
them motivated. People respond better not only when they know what they need to do but
when they feel that they can do it as well. This goal needs to be a bit challenging so it can
motivate them, but more importantly it needs to be realistic., Thus, it would be best to
research what goals are perceived as realistic in sustainability in each community and refine
these goals accordingly (Manning, 2009).
People are biologically programmed to desire social approval and respect hence, they
tend to adjust their behavior accordingly. Social norms refer to implicit social rules that
influence our behavior in the community we belong to. Obviously, each community is
different but they all bound to certain rules that people need to follow in order to be socially
accepted. They are constantly looking for "social proof" they look at other peoples
behaviors for clues as to how they should behave themselves in a given situation (Cialdini,
2004). In accordance to that, we need to try and give people the following social proof:
behaving ecological is the desirable and acceptable thing to do. Furthermore, it would be best
to provide the audience with less normative information that they will not fully comprehend
but instead use terms such as, "many of your fellow citizens or many of your neighbors"
engage in this behavior. Manning (2009) suggests that by providing less normative
information could still be effective as these messages inform people that others are behaving
sustainable hence implying they should be too. Another critical factor to consider is that we
need to make this sustainable ambition personal. Its imperative that we make people realize
that it is not just the environment that is affected but all of us as well. We are a fundamental
part of the environment and any significant damages to it can and will have an effect on us
too. Therefore, instead of keep mentioning that there are "increasing environmental
problems" we should perhaps emphasize on personal messages such as, there is "an
increasing pollution to the air we breathe" (Manning, 2009).
In addition, it is important to understand that people tend to use heuristic thinking
whenever they want to make a quick decision. For instance, imagine when we go to our
grocery shop and see a sticker on a product that says "all natural". This phrase will activate a
heuristic or positive bias that "natural is good" hence we won't take time to further look at it
especially when we are in a hurry (Manning, 2009). Amel, Manning and Scott (2009) provide
support that people who are in a more mindful state of awareness are more likely to behave
more sustainably. Consequently, if we increase mindfulness and critical thinking we can also
increase sustainable behavior.
Furthermore, we should all aim to create opportunities in which people can demonstrate
to others sustainable patterns of living. We can talk about the future we want to create, rather
than the threats we are trying to avoid. It's better to mention the positive things that are
possible and doable so that people will feel more inspired to engage in a sustainable life
(Manning, 2009). Different academics (Cinnirella, 1998; Ilia, 2012) have pointed out the
importance of taking into consideration the psychological processes that take place in the

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(re)constructions of individuals identities that include temporal conceptualizations (e.g. how


an individual might have been a member of in the past, and could become a member of in the
future). The most motivating goals are those that are highly challenging but adhere a certain
degree of realism. We must remember that we need to be aware of what our audience
perceives as challenging and realistic goals and define our goals appropriately. Goal setting
tends to be more effective when people are really interested in achieving the goal thus
personal involvement is crucial in this process. In addition, technology is an important part of
our lives and instead of trying to control it or avoid it we can use it for a greater cause. Social
networks (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram etc.) are very popular and can be used to
promote environmental actions that encourage sustainable behavior.
As pointed out by McKenzie-Mohr (2011), the cornerstone of sustainability is behavior
change. A sustainable future will not only depend on people exhibiting casual positive
behaviors towards environment, but will also depend upon people redefining themselves
personally and socially. In particular, the way we think of who we are in relation to
nonhuman nature is a very important factor in determining our environmental behaviors
(Clayton & Opotow, 2003). In that sense, people involved in the field of environmental
sustainability should try to understand how people can construct what can be called a "Green
identity" that would eventually reflect a sustainable behavior.
But what is an identity and how is it constructed? A central concern in the investigation
of identity is how the identity structure is conceptualized and, in particular, the ways that
different identity elements are represented within the identity structure. In addition, the
content of identities and identification processes are all important elements in the
understanding of the construction of green identities.
According to Identity Process Theory (IPT), the structure of identity is conceptualized as,
a dynamic social product of the interaction between the biological characteristics of
memory, consciousness and organized construal (that are characteristic of the biological
organism) with the physical and societal structure and influence processes which constitute
the social context (Breakwell, 1986; 2010). This suggests that identity is a multifaceted and
dynamic product of the individual and his/her social context. The structure of identity is
guided by two main cognitive processes: the assimilation/accommodation and evaluation.
Assimilation and accommodation are closely interdependent and are seen as components of
the same process. Assimilation refers to the absorption of the new elements (i.e. positive
images of sustainability) in the identity, whereas accommodation refers to the adjustment in
the existing identity structure to provide a place to fit the new elements. Through the
adjustment of the elements, accommodation will also involve the re-arrangement of salience
and centrality hierarchies in the identity structure. On the other hand, the evaluation process is
responsible for allocating meaning and value to the elements in the identity structure.
It is important to note that there is a bi-directional relationship between social
representations and social identities. This relationship is seen as an integrated system in which
both social representations and identity shape each other through the processes of assimilation
and accommodation (Brewer, 2001; Ilia, 2012). Moreover, salient social representations can
work to define identity elements and provide them with significance and meaning and these
representations can imbue identity elements with a positive or negative value (Breakwell,
2001).
But what are social representations? Moscovici (1973) defines social representations as
a system of values, ideas and practices with a twofold function. Social representations

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establish a consensual order among phenomena and at the same time they enable
communication to take place among the members of a community by providing them with a
code for social exchange. Deaux and Philogene (2001) suggest that social representations are
built on a shared knowledge and understanding of a common reality; allowing people to
construct a framework of references that facilitates their interpretations of reality and guide
their relations to the world around them, and at the same time, because they elaborate them
together and evoke them frequently social representations become deeply embedded in their
cultural fabric. Social representations can therefore be conceptualized as a collective process
for understanding and giving meaning to new phenomena. Importantly, there are two related
processes which are central to the generation of representations: anchoring and
objectification. These are the psychological processes by which unfamiliar objects or events
become familiar (Moscovici, 1984).
Many social scientists have acknowledged the fact that information originating from the
mass media plays an important role in the development of social representations (Bruter,
2003; Cinnirella, 1996; Clemence, 2001; Ilia & Lyons, 2008; Ilia, 2012; Wagner &
Kronberger, 2001).
As Wagner and Kronberger (2001) explain, in modern society images rarely become
shared if there is no mass media to take on an image and provide for its necessary widespread
publicity and; in that sense, the mass media, become the major vehicle for the dissemination
of social representations. Furthermore, the media with a large audience contribute to the
circulation of various thematic elements and multiple opinions that produces a set of common
points of reference (Clemence, 2001); hence, it can provide an important source for the
content of information that may influence the processes of development and negotiation of
social representations in the society. In particular, those images (e.g. promoting positive
images with sustainable behavior) presented in the mass media could contribute to the process
of anchoring and objectifying the new phenomenon (i.e. positive aspects of a green identity)
to a better and healthier life through a more sustainable community (Morgan, 2009; Wagner
& Kronberger, 2001).
In relation to these, the mass media industry should be considered as a very strong actor
in the promotion of sustainable behavior and; should become an ally in the process of a green
identity construction. That is, an identity that will encompass all those elements that suggest a
green, environmental-friendly person who perceives and understands the world through an
environmental consciousness and behaves in a responsible and coherent way by protecting the
environment.
Moreover, for many people the representations of "environmentalists" are anchored to
negative images of people (e.g. hippy, smelly, vegetarian, protester etc.) and these are
representations that most people do not want to associate themselves with. This issue can be
addressed by replacing labels that are neutral and more broadly descriptive to portray groups
of people encouraging ecological stability (Amel, Scott, Manning & Stinson 2009). We could
for example try and use the mass media in a beneficial way by circulating new positive
images that are friendly to a green identity (e.g. use terms and promote images such as
"concerned citizens or people worried about clean air and water") and avoid terms such as
"environmentalists or environmental groups" (Manning, 2009).

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CONCLUSION
Sustainability is indeed a "word of our time" (Morse, 2010) and even though it may be a
subject of constant cultural debate, it should be embraced in all of its forms by all cultures and
civilizations (Hawkes, 2011). The fundamental challenge of sustainability is not just in terms
of environmentalism but also as a state of mind, because the question that rises is whether we
can understand our behavior and most importantly the actual consequences of our behaviors.
To do this we must be able to discard our biases and review every area of human life and
alternative life style choices. We need to become aware of the ramifications of our
irresponsible actions and then start to manage these actions more consciously (Clayton &
Radclifle, 1996). Human race has achieved a lot and whether we have enough vision and will
power to accomplish this goal as well, remains to be seen. As Morse (2010) pointed out, "we
should ask ourselves, what do we wish to give our children and grandchildren; do we wish
them to live and enjoy the environment that we have today or do we want them to have a
better one?".
Koger and Winter (2010) postulates that, while human behavior is not easy to change, it
does change through commitment, patience and perseverance: change begins by learning
what is needed and what is not needed through responsible consumer behaviors; by
explaining and teaching people why environmental sustainability is not just important but
crucial for our survival and; by making people understand that they need to take responsibility
for their own behavior while working to change the norms and rules that shape the behavior
of others.
People should rethink their own consumer and environmental attitudes via promoting a
more green lifestyle by building the blocks of a stronger green identity that would in turn,
reflect a more sustainable behavior. In general, we need to change the way/s we perceive
things and play the right cards for sustainable development. The greater obstacle to a
sustainable future, is indeed, human behavior, hence this needs to change if we want to have a
better future for us and our future generations. Importantly, the focus of the academic
community should not only be on how humans affect the environment but also how humans
can alter their behavior in stopping affecting the environment. The blueprint for an
environmental sustainability is to change people's understanding of how they think and act
towards these issues. This can be achieved with the construction of positive social
representations of a sustainable behavior through the development and enhancement of
"Green identities".
Finally it is important to say that the psychological aspects of sustainability are a crucial
factor when it comes to changing sustainable behavior. Importantly, greater emphasis should
be given to the psychological processes involved in how an individual perceives, understands
and behaves in relation to environmental sustainability and how green identities are being
constructed. The emphasis on one individual at a time may seem like a lengthy process for a
more sustainable world, however, we need to be realistic and keep in mind that we cannot
change the world in a day; an individual change though is in fact possible and can be the
beginning of future and broader changes (Manning, 2009).

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

BUSINESS BEHIND SUSTAINABILITY


Antonis A. Zorpas1*, Irene Voukkali2, and Vasilis J. Inglezakis3
1

Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Science,


Environmental Conservation and Management, Latsia, Nicosia, Cyprus
2
EnviTech Ltd, (Institute of Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development,
Department of Research and Development), Paralimni, Cyprus
3
Nazarbayev University, School of Engineering,
Department of Chemical Engineering, Astana, Republic of Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT
Businesses, worldwide about sustainability indicated the major benefits of
Sustainable development for their businesses are: Improved company or brand image
Cost saving Competitive advantage Employee satisfaction Product, service or market
innovation new sources of revenue or cash flow Effective risk management. Multiple
forces in the 21st century have propelled businesses into confronting conditions that
challenge their own and the worlds sustainability. In spite of the considerable research
on sustainability, reports suggest that we are barely any closer to a more sustainable
society. As such, there is an urgent need to improve the effectiveness of human efforts
towards sustainability. A clearer and more unified understanding of sustainability among
different people and sectors could help to facilitate this. In last decade the issue of
Sustainability has become a critical issue for the world and for business. Global issues
relation to water, food, energy, health, corruption, human rights, property, climate and
population threaten societal well-being and thus the pillars of a healthy market place.
This chapter present the concept of Business behind the concept of Sustainable
Development.

+357-99532025, +357-22411600 antonis.zorpas@ouc.ac.cy, antoniszorpas@yahoo.com.


www.envitech.org, info@envitech.org; Tel:+35723743440; Fax: +35723743441.

vasileios.inglezakis@nu.edu.kz.

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1. INTRODUCTION
In Europe, an enterprise is considered to be an SME if it has fewer than 250 employees
and the annual turnover does not exceed 40 million euros (1 euro = USD 1.43, GBP 0.887,
JPY 138.31 on June 2009) or the annual balance-sheet 27 million euros (Milka and Matti,
2001). A further basic criterion for an enterprise to be characterized as an SME is its
independence, meaning that it may not be more than 25 % owned or controlled by another
enterprise or jointly by several enterprises which are not themselves SMEs. SMEs are an
important engine for economic growth and employment throughout the European Union.
In 1996, the Commission adopted a recommendation establishing a first common SME
definition. This definition has been widely applied throughout the European Union. On 6th
May 2003, the Commission adopted a new recommendation in order to take account of
economic developments since 1996 (for the complete text, see annex II, p. 32 of this guide). It
entered into force on 1st January 2005 and will apply to all the policies, programs and
measures that the Commission operates for SMEs. For Member States, use of the definition is
voluntary, but the Commission is inviting them, together with the European Investment Bank
(EIB) and the European Investment Fund (EIF) to apply it as widely as possible. This guide
presents the changes being made by the new definition and the reasons for them. It then
explains how to determine if an enterprise can qualify as an SME by following a step-by-step
approach. Since the average European enterprise employs no more than six people, most can
be considered as SMEs. However, the new definition takes into account possible relationships
with other enterprises. In certain cases, those relationships, particularly if they create
significant financial links with other enterprises, may imply that an enterprise is not an SME
(Zorpas, 2010).
According to The new SME definition User guide and model declaration and the
directive 2003/361/EC, (2003/361/EC; EU, 2005) we have a new definition (Table 1) for the
SMEs which is:
i.

Enterprise: An enterprise is considered to be any entity engaged in an economic


activity, irrespective of its legal form. This includes, in particular, self-employed
people and family businesses engaged in craft or other activities, and partnerships or
associations regularly engaged in an economic activity.
ii. Staff headcount and financial ceilings determining enterprise categories:
a. The category of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is made up
of enterprises which employ fewer than 250 people and which have an annual
turnover not exceeding EUR 50 million, and/or an annual balance sheet total not
exceeding EUR 43 million.
b. Within the SME category, a small enterprise is defined, as an enterprise that
employs fewer than 50 people and whose annual turnover and/or annual balance
sheet total does not exceed EUR 10 million.
c. Within the SME category, a micro enterprise is defined as an enterprise which
employs fewer than 10 people and whose annual turnover and/or annual balance
sheet total does not exceed EUR 2 million.
iii. Types of enterprise taken into consideration in calculating staff numbers and
financial amounts:

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a.

An autonomous enterprise is any enterprise which is not classified as a partner


enterprise within the meaning of paragraph 2 of the directive 2003/361/EC or as
a linked enterprise within the meaning of paragraph 3 of the directive
2003/361/EC.
b. Partner enterprises are all enterprises which are not classified as linked
enterprises within the meaning of paragraph and between which there is the
following relationship: an enterprise (upstream enterprise) holds, either solely or
jointly with one or more linked enterprises within the meaning of paragraph 3 of
the directive 2003/361/EC, 25 % or more of the capital or voting rights of
another enterprise (downstream enterprise).
However, an enterprise may be ranked as autonomous, and thus as not having any partner
enterprises, even if this 25 % threshold is reached or exceeded by the following investors,
provided that those investors are not linked, within the meaning of paragraph 3, either
individually or jointly to the enterprise in question:
(a) public investment corporations, venture capital companies, individuals or groups
of individuals with a regular venture capital investment activity who invest
equity capital in unquoted businesses (business angels), provided the total
investment of those business angels in the same enterprise is less than EUR 1
250 000;
(b) universities or non-profit research centers;
(c) institutional investors, including regional development funds;
(d) autonomous local authorities with an annual budget of less than EUR 10 million
and fewer than 5 000 inhabitants.
Linked enterprises are enterprises, which have any of the following relationships with
each other:
(a) an enterprise has a majority of the shareholders' or members' voting rights in
another enterprise;
(b) an enterprise has the right to appoint or remove a majority of the members of the
administrative, management or supervisory body of another enterprise;
(c) an enterprise has the right to exercise a dominant influence over another
enterprise pursuant to a contract entered into with that enterprise or to a
provision in its memorandum or articles of association;
(d) an enterprise, which is a shareholder in or member of another enterprise, controls
alone, pursuant to an agreement with other shareholders in or members of that
enterprise, a majority of shareholders' or members' voting rights in that
enterprise.
There is a presumption that no dominant influence exists if the investors listed in the
second subparagraph of paragraph 2 of the directive 2003/361/EC, are not involving
themselves directly or indirectly in the management of the enterprise in question, without
prejudice to their rights as stakeholders. Except in the cases set out in paragraph 2 of the
directive 2003/361/EC, second subparagraph, an enterprise cannot be considered an SME if

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25 % or more of the capital or voting rights are directly or indirectly controlled, jointly or
individually, by one or more public bodies. Enterprises may make a declaration of status as an
autonomous enterprise, partner enterprise or linked enterprise, including the data regarding
the ceilings set out in Article 2 of the directive 2003/361/EC. The declaration may be made
even if the capital is spread in such a way that it is not possible to determine exactly by whom
it is held, in which case the enterprise may declare in good faith that it can legitimately
presume that it is not owned as to 25 % or more by one enterprise or jointly by enterprises
linked to one another. Such declarations are made without prejudice to the checks and
investigations provided for by national or Community rules.

2. CHALLENGE OF BUSINESS SUSTAINABILITY


The challenge of sustainability is not merely an environmental problem. We now
recognize that our current industrial and lifestyle patterns threaten to destabilize the global
economy and impede social progress.
While sustainabilitys so called novice practitioners thought of the topic mostly in
environmental and regulatory terms, with any benefits stemming chiefly from brand or image
enhancement, practitioners with more knowledge about sustainability expanded the definition
for sustainability well outside the green silo. They tended to consider the economic, social
and even personal impacts of sustainability-related changes in the business landscape. Simply
put, they saw sustainability as an integral part of value creation.
The extent to which organizations should proactively address societal sustainability
issues continues to be debated in the management literature. In a special issue of the Academy
of Management Perspectives linked to its Green Management Matters 2009 conference
theme, one article essentially argued that firms should address the worlds social and
environmental challenges because it is the right thing to do (Marcus & Fremuth, 2009), while
another argued they should do so only when it makes good strategic sense and pays off
(Siegel, 2009). What is clear is that companies increasingly are being urged to shape the
content of their corporate strategies to achieve greater mutuality between their own and
societys strategic needs (Porter & Kramer, 2006), and many are searching for ways to
achieve success on a broader and more balanced array of outcomes such as those delineated
by the triple bottom line of people, planet, and profits (Elkington, 1997; Savitz & Weber,
2006). A large practitioner-oriented literature documents the wide variety of sustainability
practices being implemented by organizations, and offers compelling logical arguments and
anecdotal evidence regarding the ways that such practices can strengthen competitive
advantage (Blackburn, 2007; Esty & Winston, 2006; Willard, 2002). The findings from a
growing set of financial and econometric studies examining the relationship between
sustainability investments and firm performance shows that such investments often improve
and almost never detract from performance (Goldman and Sachs, 2007; Siegel, 2009). Much
less well developed in the literature are the ways that organization can best execute
sustainability strategies only a limited amount of prior empirical academic research
illuminates what specific factors enable or inhibit the implementation of sustainability
practices.

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Micro enterprises (Zorpas et al, 2008) presented with several characteristics. Among
them are: (i) that they have Mono-service and or product, (ii) they fill economic pressure, (iii)
they sell to the local market, (iv) they're Family traditions and they are informal organization,
(v) they have Very low management, sometimes they have employees from different
nationalities (new phenomenon), (vi) they have little access to adult training and to the new
requirements of the market, (vii) they do not federate and (viii) they produce high amount of
waste (liquid, solid, air).
Traditional Quality and Environmental Management or Health and Safety tools do not fit
in the reality of the VSMEs or micro-business with less than 10 employees. Nor do they fit
well in many SMEs. Family companies are everywhere in Europe. Most of them they want to
apply the most common and known standard which is the Quality Management System
(QMS) ISO 9001:2008. The requirement of the QMS for the VSMEs sometimes is very
complex. It is not the substantial or effective qualities of those standards which are too high, it
is more the internal and external barriers to access which are more demanding; cost,
bureaucracy, resources, measurement analysis and improvements, knowledge, know-how, etc
(Zorpas et al, 2008).
The EMS has several Objectives, which are (i) Encouraging SMEs to develop an
environmental management system in their production processes; (ii) Assisting SMEs to
apply concepts of EMSs in their actual operations in order to reduce pollution and comply
with regulations while saving costs and increasing productivity; (iii) Developing
environmental awareness among SMEs entrepreneurs; (iv) Laying a solid foundation upon
which SMEs could base a further step towards international standards such as ISO 14001 or
EMAS regulation.
There is increasing pressure on firms, from a number of different sources, to engage in
environmental management initiatives. Government regulation was the major initial
environmental pressure. However, community and market have become the determinant
factors as they play more active roles in environmental protection in developed countries
(Chen and Soyez, 2003). Certain strategic choices can be imposed coercively through
sanction or threat, as in the case of a government legally mandating environmental standards
(Meegeren 2001; Delmas, 2002). Government regulation, including inspections and
enforcement actions, is one of the most important factors affecting a firms decision-making
process (Henriques and Sadirsky, 1996). However, Cohen (1999) reports that surprisingly few
empirical studies of environmental enforcement have been conducted in the USA. In the
economics literature, a few articles have examined the effectiveness of government
interventions on facility environmental performance involving standard emissions (i.e., nonaccidental discharges). These studies began by focusing exclusively on two industrial sectors
e pulp/ paperboard and steel (Gray and Deily, 1996). Later, expanding to other sectors, May
and Winter (May and Winter, 1999) examined the compliance with agro-environmental
regulations in Denmark. Stafford (2002) examined the effect of a new United States
Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) enforcement protocol on facility compliance
with hazardous waste regulations. Reijnders (2003) examined the regulatory influence on
cleaner production and found that regulation by permits based on adequate law and related
negotiated agreements might emerge as more specific instruments furthering cleaner
production. The US EPA has expressed a strong interest in getting a better understanding of
the factors that shape environmental performance at individual polluting facilities (Earnhart,
2004a). Subsequently, Earnhart (2004b) analyzed the regulatory factors that shape the level of

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environmental performance at municipal wastewater treatment plants in the state of Kansas


for the years 1990-1998. Gray and Shadbegian (2004) examined the determinants of
environmental regulatory activity (inspections and enforcement actions) and levels of air and
water pollution for 409 US pulp and paper mills, using data from 1985 to 1997. Evangelinos
and Oku (2006) assessed the regulatory and environmental problems of mining operations in
the Cyclades, Greece. Mendivil et al. (2005) presented a systematic approach to introduce the
evolution of technology, market and environmental regulations on the past and future
performance of chemical processes. Triebswetter and Hitchens (2005) examined, through
three case studies, whether German industrial plants suffered from a negative impact on
competitiveness caused by stringent environmental legislation. The results showed that
abatement initiatives had, in general, been implemented without economic damage and did
not touch on the core business. Mutagwaba (2006) analyzed the benefits and challenges of
implementing environmental regulatory program for mining industry in Tanzania. Some
economic studies examined the effects of non-regulatory factors on corporate environmental
performance and/or behavior. In particular, these studies explored the reasons for overcompliance, which cannot be explained by regulatory pressure. Zhu et al. (2007) found that
market pressure was a strong driver for the adoption of the green supply chain management
practice by Chinese automobile supply chain enterprises. Other studies have shown that most
consumers would more likely choose environment-friendly products (Weber, 1990).
Desgupta et al (2000) reported that capital markets might react negatively to the
announcement of adverse environmental incidents, such as violation of permits, spills, court
actions, complaints or react positively to the announcement of superior environmental
performance. Eriksson (2004) analyzed to what extent partial and voluntary internalization of
negative environmental externalities can replace public interventions in a duopoly market.
The results showed that a modest degree of idealism could not replace environmental
regulation. Community pressure may also explain over-compliance. A few economic studies
explicitly explored the effect of community pressure on environmental performance and/or
behavior. For example, Henriques and Sadorsky (1996) explored the effect of self-reported
community pressure on Canadian firms decisions to adopt an environmental plan. Dasgupta
et al. (2000) explored the effect of self-reported community pressure (presence versus
absence) on Mexican firms decisions to adopt certain environmental management practices.
Pargal and Wheeler (1996) explored the effects of community characteristics on facility-level
industrial wastewater discharges in Indonesia and interpreted these characteristics as
capturing community-generated informal regulation against facilities. Estimation revealed
community characteristics significantly affected both regulatory interventions and facility
performance. Corporate environmental performance can also be affected by a firms own
characteristics (ownership, size, financial status, etc.). For example, Henriques and Sadorsky
(1996) identified that firms in the natural resource sector are more likely to formulate
environmental plans, while firms in the service sector are less likely to have plans. Downing
and Kimbal (1982) assessed the possibility that managements concerns about corporate
image induce over-compliance. Gray and Deily (1996) examined the link from firm-level
financial status to facility-level environmental performance in the USA. Other studies
explored the relationships between firm-level financial status and firm-level environmental
performance (Gottsman and Kessler, 1998).
As can be seen from this short review of literature, we assume that firms engagement in
environmental management can be influenced by (i) their own characteristics (ability

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aspects), (ii) market opportunities (incentive aspects), (iii) regulatory procedures (sanction
aspects) and (iv) community pressure (informal aspects).
However, most of the recent research focused on single factors influence on corporate
environmental performance, for example regulation and compliance. But firms usually make
decisions with a full consideration of all factors. Thus an integrated approach with all factors
taken into account should be adopted. On the other hand, such researches in China are
limited, though China has an urgent demand of effective environmental policies (Zorpas,
2010).

3. SUSTAINABILITY PRACTICES IN SEVERAL COMPANIES


Today, more companies see the need to move beyond traditional concerns of running a
business focused only on immediate profit and have begun to deal with factors in the greater
world vital to their medium- to long-term success. Reflecting the holistic and multidimensional nature of sustainability, a rapidly growing literature documents a wide range of
specific sustainability practices being implemented by organizations (Blackburn, 2007; Esty
& Winston, 2006; Savitz & Weber, 2006; Willard, 2002, 2009). Many practices relate to
improving eco-efficiency and reducing environmental footprint through energy
conservation, renewable energy sources, local sourcing, and reduction of emissions,
pollutants and waste. Other practices relate to creating more sustainable and effective
workplaces by focusing on worker health and safety, employee engagement, work-life
balance, civic volunteerism, and ethical governance, while slowly infusing sustainability
criteria into talent and performance management systems. Many practices focus on
sustainability-related product innovation, market development, and branding. Still others
emphasize stakeholder engagement, including suppliers, investors, communities, regulators,
and a wide range of activist groups.
Sustainability in an enterprise can mean small adjustments or a major reorientation.
Information technology (IT) is not itself a big part of the problem, as it is estimated to
contribute only a small percentage of global carbon emissions. But it can be a big part of the
solution. In addition to datacentre optimisation and other operational issues such as
teleworking, companies are now leveraging IT capabilities to facilitate sustainability
initiatives across the enterprise in new areas, including fleet management, paperless billing,
and construction and facility management, among others. Challenges include initial costs, the
sometimes lengthy periods before companies see a return on investment, and the need to keep
up with fast-moving technology and to reeducate employees (whether these be the chief
executive officer or rank-and-file workers) about the benefits of sustainability. Special
attention must also be paid to ensuring transparency and good governance throughout all
sustainability initiatives to make sure that policies are followed and goals are met (The
Economist Intelligent Unit, 2009). IT contributes only 2% of global carbon emissions,
compared with 20% from agriculture, according to The Climate Group, a UK-based nonprofit organisation that promotes business and government leadership on climate change. And
it offers a host of solutions to assist other parts of the business to become more
environmentally sound. The question is, how do we take [the capabilities of] the 2%
associated with computing, and apply that to the other 98%? says Lorie Wigle, director of

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the EcoTechnology office at US-based Intel, the worlds largest manufacturer of computer
microprocessors The Economist Intelligent Unit, 2009. However, IT evolve as a key strategic
enabler across the enterprise, many companies are realising the need to think more holistically
about how IT can support enterprise-wide corporate sustainability efforts. This paper aims to
understand how those efforts are being applied in various business settings, and to identify
best practices for other companies to follow.
According to the same report (The Economist Intelligent Unit, 2009) there is one clear
area where IT can help companies to become more energy-efficient is in the design,
construction and ongoing maintenance of office buildings. The common assumption is that
most greenhouse gases come from transport, but in fact its only 25-27%. The largest
contributing activity (at 47% of total emissions, he says) is the construction, operation and
decommissioning of buildings. Clearly the area where IT can make the most significant
contribution is in energy management. For example, Yahoo!, an Internet company, uses an
online system to track energy consumption building by building on its California campus, and
translates that into kilowatt-hours used and dollars spent. Wal-Mart, a US retail giant,
monitors and controls in real time the lighting, heating, air conditioning and refrigeration in
all 4200 of its Wal-Mart and Sams Club stores in the US from its headquarters in
Bentonville, Arkansas. This allows the company to analyse its energy use and performance
and to adjust specific levels at any time. But to be truly eco-friendly, environmental issues
must be taken into consideration at the earliest planning stages of a new office complex. That
has been the case with the Shanghai Tower, which, it is claimed, will be the most sustainable
skyscraper in the world when it is completed in 2014. At 128 floors, the building will have
two skins, with an airy inner atrium surrounding the core structure. The top of the office
building will have a wind farm of 54 vertical-axis wind turbines generating 540000 kwh of
electricity per year (the energy is equal up to 400 houses). There will also be systems to
collect rainwater and condensation. These and other sustainability elements will be computer,
controlled and linked through a variety of enterprise and application software that will be
controlled by the buildings owner.
One of the worlds leading mobile-phone manufacturers, Nokia of Finland buys
environmentally friendly components, uses recyclable materials and purchases 25% of its
global energy needs from green sources, aiming to increase this to 50% by 2010. But it is also
trying to instill in its employees a corporate philosophy steeped in the ideas of sustainable
resources and the minimisation of carbon emissions. According to the Vice president of
Nokias environmental affairs, Kirsi Sormunen, The way that Nokia sustainability is based
on the principle that it has to be part of everything Nokias do, and fully integrated into
business activities. Workers at Nokias offices in New York, the UK and China are
encouraged to use mobile offices (desks and meeting rooms where IT supplies wireless
access and to which employees can relocate for an hour, a day or more). This system has so
far reduced office space needs by roughly 30%, leading to lower energy and buildingmaintenance costs. Top management is leading the way by being the first to use the mobile
office concept. Employee travel is discouraged when teleconferencing will suffice. But for
those who do travel and book their passage on the companys intranet, there is an option to
purchase, at company expense, carbon offsets equivalent to the appropriate carbon credit for
that distance. Nokia is taking sustainability initiatives to its customers as well. Some of its
phones come with applications such as city maps to encourage walking, directions to phonerecycling centres and information on ways to purchase carbon offsets. Nokia has formed

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partnerships with European Internet services to educate consumers about the environment,
link them to a conservation bulletin board or offer a daily sustainability tip. To conserve
energy further, the company has developed software to make battery chargers beep when
phones are fully charged, so that users will unplug them and avoid drawing unnecessary
power from outlets. Nokia calculates that if its 1 bn phone users followed this practice they
would conserve enough electricity to power 100000 houses (The Economist Intelligent Unit,
2009).
According to IKEA policy (the largest stores offer everything for the home displayed in
inspiring room Settings), by the end of 2015, the energy consuming products, such as lights
and white goods, will be at least 50% more efficient than average installed products on the
market. The water consuming products, such as taps, dishwashers and washing machines
shall be at least 50 % more efficient than average installed products on the market in 2008.
Comparisons for both water and energy consumption are based on estimated averages for the
European market. According to same policy by the end of 2015, all product materials shall be
renewable, recyclable, or recycled. The main raw materials used in IKEA products are wood,
cotton and glass. The latter is recyclable, while wood and cotton are renewable and recyclable
materials. Hence IKEA want as many people as possible to be able to afford IKEA products
as part of their visions and to develop a better everyday life. Cost-consciousness is essential to
this idea, inspiring IKEA to make economical use of all resources and to seek innovative
solutions. This in turn helps IKEA to reduce overall environmental impact. IKEA always
strives to use the least possible resources to make the best possible products (using hollow
legs on furniture and chipboard as filling) are classic IKEA ways of saving on wood
resources, and often blend cotton with other materials to reduce cotton use without any
negative impact on the quality. Raw material extraction can be associated with environmental
and social concerns. IKEA wants to support the development of sustainable practices for what
they are often long and complex supply chains. IKEAs team works actively with their
partners to spread better management practices in cotton cultivation, and to increase the
availability of certified wood from responsibly managed forests. IKEA also purchases
Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) Certificates to cover the palm oil volume used
by IKEA in order to help stimulate more sustainable palm oil production. All coffee sold and
served at IKEA is UTZ Certified. That means it has been produced with care for people and
the environment, and that you can trace the beans all the way back to the plantations through
a code on the packaging. UTZ Certified is an independent non-profit organisation that sets
social and environmental standards for sustainable coffee growing and distribution, and now
also cocoa and tea. Also all stores must offer at least one food dish based on exclusively
organic ingredients. In addition, many markets source organic food for their national menu in
the restaurants. IKEA reduce carbon dioxide emissions from all aspects of operations,
including raw material extraction, product manufacturing, transportation, energy usage in
IKEA buildings, how people are transported to stores, the use of products in customers
homes, and finally at the end of a products life-cycle. This is a great challenge, om which
IKEA team is making progress. IKEA defines renewable energy as energy derived from
resources that are regenerated naturally or cannot be depleted. IKEA has decided not to pay
premium prices for grid electricity from renewable sources. This is one of the reasons why
IKEA invests in alternative solutions, such as solar panel systems and wind turbines, to
supply its buildings with renewable electricity. Investments in more sustainable energy
solutions often represent significant cost savings and relatively short payback periods. Each

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IKEA market is responsible for reducing carbon dioxide emissions from its buildings and for
increasing its use of renewable energy (IKEA, 2011).
Hewlett-Packard has been evolving through three distinct phases of environmental
sustainability over the past two decades. In the 1980s, the environmental concerns were
primarily pollution control and prevention with a focus on reducing emissions from existing
manufacturing processes. During the 1980s, HP made great strides in pollution control and
prevention, risk management, and facility improvements such as reducing toxic materials and
emissions. In the 1990s, the focus shifted to product stewardship, which focuses on earlier
intervention to minimize environmental impacts associated with the full life cycle of a
product. HP established a Product Stewardship function which focused on developing global
processes for tracking and managing regulatory compliance issues, customer inquiry response
systems, information management, public policy shaping, product take back programs, green
packaging, and integrating "design for the environment" and life cycle analysis into product
development processes. Today, sustainability is about developing technologies that actually
contribute a positive impact to environmental challenges. HP has recognized that pollution
prevention and product stewardship have become baseline market expectations. To be an
environmental leader in the 21st century, HP needs to integrate environmental sustainability
into its fundamental business strategy (Preston, 2001).
Microsoft (Microsoft, 2012) recognizes the tough challenges that data center managers,
cloud and IT service providers face today as they struggle to support their businesses in the
face of rising costs and uncertainty about how to efficiently provide web-scale cloud
infrastructures. Microsoft has followed the practices below for several years now and found
that in addition to helping protect the environment, they lead to optimal use of resources and
help teams stay aligned with core strategies and goals. Provide incentives that support
primary goals: Incentives can help to achieve remarkable results in a relatively short period if
apply them properly. Microsofts charge back mechanism for online services is based on
energy capacity allocation and usage instead of floor space. This provides incentives for
business managers to purchase lower power servers, increase utilization with virtualization,
and defer purchases until they are absolutely needed. Microsoft (according to the same report)
has achieved significant reductions in energy consumption (Figure 1) at its data centers by
providing incentives to data center managers, not just for uptime, but also for improving
energy efficiency as measured by the power usage effectiveness (PUE) of the data center.
PUE is a metric that measures the ratio total data center power consumption relative to the
power used by the IT infrastructure. This metric effectively determines additional power
consumption over and above the power needed to run the servers. The goal for data center
operators is to eliminate as much of this additional power consumption as possible (i.e. to
achieve a PUE as close to 1.0 as possible).
The average Power Usage Effectiveness in 2011 was 1.40 across all of our cloud
infrastructure properties, compared with an estimated industry average of 2.0. Our goal by the
end of 2012 is to construct new data centers that average 1.125 PUE and use 30-50 % less
energy than traditional industry data centers (Microsoft, 2012). They continue to monitor the
existing data center operations and tune our control systems. These efforts have resulted in
some dramatic improvements, for example in Chicago data center they are achieving an
average PUE of 1.07 in the container area for the first half of 2012, compared to the initial
PUE of 1.25 in 2009 (Figure 2).

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Total Facility Power

PUE =

IT Equipment Power

Building Load (Demand from Grid)


Power (switch Gear, UPS, Battery Backup,
etc)
Cooling (Chillers, CRACs, etc)

IT Load
Demand
from
Servers
Storage, Telecom Equipment
etc

Figure 1. Microsoft Facility Power.

Figure 2. Continues Improvement of PUE.

While the industry improvements in PUE are well documented, Microsoft beginning to
reach a point of diminishing returns where each dollar invested to achieve an incremental unit
of PUE reduction achieves a smaller return. In order to continue to drive incentives for
improvements in energy efficiency, Microsoft is one of the first data center operators to
implement an internal carbon fee.
Focus on effective resource utilization: Energy efficiency is an important element in
Microsoft business practices, but equally important is the effective use of resources deployed.
For example, if only 50 % of a data centers power capacity is used, then highly expensive
capacity is stranded in the uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs), generators, chillers, and so
on. In a typical 12 Megawatt data center this could equate to $4-8 million annually in unused
capital expenditure. In addition, there is embedded energy in the unused capacity since it
takes energy to manufacture the UPSs, generators, chillers, and so on. Stranding capacity will
also force organizations to build additional data centers sooner than necessary. This wouldnt
happen had they fully utilized existing data center infrastructure first (Figure 3).
Use virtualization to improve server utilization and increase operational efficiency
(Microsoft, 2012): As noted in the point above, underutilized servers are a major problem
facing many data center operators. In todays budgetary climate, IT departments are being

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asked to improve efficiency, not only from a capital perspective, but also with regard to
operational overhead.

Reduce
power and
cooling cost

Figure 3. Data Center Capital Costs in the United States Focus on mechanical and electrical expense to
reduce cost significantly.

By migrating applications from physical to virtual machines and consolidating these


applications onto shared physical hardware, Microsoft data centers are increasing utilization
of server resources such as central processing unit (CPU), memory, and disk input/output. It
is quite common to see several instances in data centers where server resources are underutilized. Industry analysts have reported that utilization levels are often well below 20
percent. Microsoft is using technologies such as Hyper-V to increase virtualization and thus
utilization year over year, which in turn helps increase the productivity per watt of our
operations. GFS is also actively working on broad-based adoption of Microsofts Windows
Azure cloud operating system, which uses virtualization in its core. On Windows Azure, an
application typically has multiple instances, each running a copy of all or part of the
applications code. Each of these instances runs in its own virtual machine (VM). These VMs
run 64-bit Windows Server 2008 R2, with a hypervisor specifically designed for use in the
cloud (Figure 4).
Consolidating virtualized applications onto shared hardware increases the utilization of
server resources (Figure 5). One immediate benefit of virtual environments is improved
operational efficiency. Microsoft operations teams can deploy and manage servers in a
fraction of the time it would take to deploy the equivalent physical hardware or perform a
physical configuration change. In a virtual environment, managing hardware failures without
disrupting service is as simple as a click of a button or automated trigger, which rolls virtual
machines from the affected physical host to a healthy host (Microsoft, 2012).

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Business behind Sustainability

Figure 4. Server utilization.


Performance
Target Load

Actual Load

100%
99.6%
90%
90.6%
80%
80.0%
70%
70.2%
60%
60.3%
50%
50.2%
40%
39.9%
30%
30.1%
20%
20.2%
10%
10.1%
Active idie
ssj_ops/ power

ssj_ops
725,620
659,864
583,048
511,207
439,188
366,118
290,866
219,614
147,012
73,322
0

Power
Average Active
Power (W)
172
160
147
136
128
120
112
105
96.6
85.8
53.6

Performance to
Power ratio
4,230
4,136
3,962
3,760
3,428
3,045
2,589
2,097
1,522
854
0
3,052

Figure 5. (Continued).

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Antonis A. Zorpas, Irene Voukkali and Vasilis J. Inglezakis

Figure 5. Servers consume a significant amount of power when they are idle, often more than 50% of
peak power. As shown above, moving from 10% load to 50% load delivers 5x the performance for 40%
more power.

A server running virtualization will often need more memory to support multiple virtual
machines, and there is small software overhead for virtualization. However, the overall value
proposition measured in terms of work done per cost and per watt is much better than the
dedicated underutilized physical server case. At times, one data center might have excess
capacity while another has workloads reaching capacity. Microsoft has deployed a very high
bandwidth data center-to-data center network that allows processing mobility to reduce the
stranded capacity and wasted energy used to power idle server. Key benefits of virtualization
include: Reduction in capital expenditures, Decrease in real estate, power, and cooling costs,
Faster time to market for new products and services, Reduction in outage and maintenance
windows. Microsofts Global Foundation Services team is taking significant steps in four
areas important to environmental sustainability (Microsoft, 2012):
(a) Using recycled resources whenever practical: The Microsoft data center in San
Antonio, Texas, for example, uses approximately eight million gallons of recycled
water a month from the citys waste water system during peak cooling months. Our
Quincy, Des Moines, and Boydton data centers building shells are made from
recycled steel. They are also twice as efficient and use only one percent of the water
consumed by more traditional, water-cooled data centers that are still the industry
standard. They also use recycled fiber cement in the new construction projects to
help improve air quality and reduce carbon. For example, one of the data centers
realized a savings of over 198 tons of CO2, the equivalent of taking 90 cars off the
road a year. Additionally, as part of the community commitment to Quincy,
Microsoft entered a public-private partnership with the municipality that enables the
reuse of water from local food processing plants to meet the cooling needs of data
center. This eliminated the need for potable resources while also significantly
recharging the supply returned to ground water with approximately 80 percent of the
treated water now going back to the community aquifer. In October 2011, Microsoft
transferred the plant to the city to extend these sustainability benefits to other
industries in the region. This was the first known transfer of a water treatment plant
to a municipality and is valued at tens of millions of dollars.

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(b) Using renewable resources to power our data centers: Microsofts commitment to
carbon neutrality means that for every unit of energy that is not already provided by a
renewable generation resource (hydro, wind, solar), Microsoft will purchase
renewable energy to insure that 100 percent of the data center energy consumption is
carbon-free. In addition, the company are actively working on projects that will
demonstrate the ability of Microsoft data centers to run directly on renewable power
resources. Today, the facility in Quincy, Washington, uses 100 percent renewable
hydropower from the Columbia River Basin, and our data center in Dublin, Ireland,
uses outside air for cooling.
(c) Reducing waste in operations: There is opportunity to optimizing supply chain
logistics by not shipping full-assembled racks, which reduces packing materials,
transportation, and shipping wastes and costs, and allows for simplifying the rack
design and manufacturing. In some cases the engineering to protect fully loaded
racks in shipping can add up to 2x the rack cost and adds considerable weight.
Further, the companys found efficiencies in retaining the electrical and mechanical
rack infrastructure when decommissioning the servers themselves, saving the
obvious costs and accelerating the deployment schedule.
(d) Recycling all our servers and electronic equipment: Company send 100 % of their
equipment to a third-party vendor that recycles and/or resells it.
BM&FBOVESPA, Latin Americas leading exchange in number of transactions and one
of the worlds largest in market value, created the Corporate Sustainability Index (ISE
ndice de Sustentabilidade Empresarial) in 2005 with financial support from the International
Finance Corporation (IFC). According to the World Federation of Exchanges, there are now
more than 50 sustainability indexes around the world, across their 51 member exchanges
(World Federation of Exchange, 2009; IFC, 2012). In launching the ISE, BM&FBOVESPA
and its technical partner Fundao Getlio Vargas (FGV) sought to develop an investment
product that could be used by responsible investors to facilitate the investment process, either
by buying securities issued to track the ISE, or by using the analysis performed by the Index
managers as proxies in their own investment decisions. The ISE was designed to create an
efficient investment mechanism to group companies with superior performance that manage
environmental, social, and governance risks and opportunities. ISE has been one of the many
efforts undertaken in Brazil to promote sustainable practices. However, 64 percent of group
companies (always listed on the Index) stated the ISE was the most important factor in
developing sustainable practices over the past five years. Sustainability indexes are
constructed to act as independent, consistent, and rational benchmarks for private and institutional investors on the evaluation of the performance of their sustainability investments
(including funds focused on sustainability companies). As such, liquidity, access to capital,
and stock prices are expected to be favorably impacted. However, in the case of the ISE, no
such evidence could be found (IFC, 2012).
Since the launch of the Index in 2005, sustainability in Brazil made significant progress
overall. This is evidenced by the growth of the Instituto Ethos (an institution promoting
corporate responsible practices in Brazil and Latin America) member companies, which
increased from 200 companies in 2000 to almost 1400 in 2010. It is also reflected in the
number of signatories to the Global Compact (The United Nations Global Compact is a
strategic policy initiative for businesses that are committed to aligning their operations and

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Antonis A. Zorpas, Irene Voukkali and Vasilis J. Inglezakis

strategies with 10 universally-accepted principles in the areas of human rights, labor,


environment, and anticorruption) : in 2006, approximately 92 out of 3,200 (~3 percent)
signatories were from Brazil, while in 2010 the number had jumped to 354 out of 7,700 (~5
percent). Moreover, Brazil is the developing country with the largest number of financial
institutions that are members of the Equator Principles (The Equator Principles are a
voluntary set of standards for financial institutions used for determining, assessing, and
managing social and environmental risks in project financing. They are based on World Bank
Group guidelines and criteria) (eight out of a total of 68 members in 2010) (IFC, 2012). The
expectation that the ISE would contribute to increased sustainability awareness and
improvements in the responsible practices of listed and non-listed firms in Brazil, as well as
broader awareness of sustainability in Brazil has been confirmed. Figure 6 presents the results
of the evaluation of Sustainability in ISE group. The major benefits seem to be in terms of the
companies own review of their sustainability practices, leading to increased competitiveness,
satisfaction of being a responsible company, and an improved reputation. Looking to the
future, for the Index to continue to have an impact on the companies sustainability practices,
it must have an impact on the financial community as well (IFC, 2012).
No expectation
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Better Sustainability
Performance

Access to Capital

Low expectation

Improved
competitiveness

Figure 6. Responses To Evaluation Questionnaire On The Perceived Benefits Of The Index (Companies
That Have Always Been In The Index).

This ninth edition of the BMW Group Sustainable Value Report has been published to
provide stakeholders with comprehensive information about further refinements to the
companys sustainability strategy and the progress made in integrating sustainability into its
corporate processes. Focusing on present and future challenges in the areas of Sustainability
Management, Product Responsibility, Groupwide Environmental Protection, Supply Chain
Management, Employees and Corporate Citizenship, the Sustainable Value Report 2012
describes BMW management approach, the objectives, key figures and specific programmes
making up the companys sustainability performance (BMW, 2012). BMW group review

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every five year key performance indicators like Return in Capital Employed in %, CO2
emissions of BMW Group vehicles (g/Km) in 27 EU, Research and development expenditure
(in million), Energy consumption pre vehicle produces (in MWh/vehicle), Water
consumption per vehicle produced (in m3/vehicle), Waste for disposal per vehicle produced
(in kg/vehicle), Volatile organic compounds (Voc) per vehicle produced (in kg/vehicle),
Share of women in total workforce of BmW ag (in %), accident frequency at BmW group
(per one million hours worked), expenditure on corporate citizenship by the BmW group in
2012 (in thousand) etc. Sustainability has also been established as a strategic corporate
objective in the BMW Group Balanced Scorecard since 2009. This means that every project
must be measurable in terms of Sustainability as a corporate objective, ensuring that, in
addition to economic factors, environmental and social aspects are also accounted for in the
decision making process, due BMW know that today, the value of a company is not measured
solely by direct financial indicators but also by so-called non-financial performance
indicators. By setting the right course in the early stages of a project, the company saves
resources and any necessary corrective measures down the line, which often entail much
higher costs. In addition, sustainability as a corporate objective cascades down to personal
target agreements for managers and is thus part of their performance-based remuneration
(BMW, 2012). BMW are already demonstrating how sustainability measures have led to cost
savings or generated revenue. Between 2006 and 2012, BMW invested in environmentally
friendly plants and technologies as part of our Clean Production Strategy throughout the
BMW Groups production network. The resulting reduction in energy, water, waste and VOC
emissions of around 36% per vehicle produced led to cost savings of around 100 million.
Due to global megatrends (e. g. urbanisation, climate change and regulation) customer
mobility requirements are also shifting. A range of studies has already shown that
environmental awareness on the part of customers is coming more and more to the fore, while
at the same time their focus remains on design, dynamism and comfort (this creates new
business potential for the BMW Group). Respect for human rights is integrated in the strategy
and culture of the BMW Group. The management process is aligned with the requirements of
the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, which were passed by the United
Nations in 2011. They use these principles as the main guide to critical reflection and
continuous improvement of how they entrench human rights requirements within the
company. To ensure that the due diligence processes set down in the UN Guiding Principles
are implemented, a comprehensive internal risk analysis along the entire value chain of the
BMW Group was carried out in the 2012 financial year. To avoid human rights violations, all
employees can consult their line managers or the BMW Group Human Rights Contact
helpline if they have any questions. Employees also have the opportunity to submit
information anonymously and confidentially via the BMW Group SpeakUP Line about
possible human rights violations within the company. The BMW Group SpeakUP Line is
available in a total of 34 languages and can be reached via local free-of-charge telephone
numbers in all of the countries in which BMW Group employees carry out activities.
Looking through the creative lens of innovation, NIKE aim to create breakthroughs that
improve the world and are also better for the athletes and the investors. This is a fundamental
re-writing of the old belief system in which sustainability was so often cast as a cost to
business, or a drag on performance. The evidence tells us this simply does not need to be the
case, and indeed, the combining of sustainability and innovation can trigger advances in both.
A great example is that Nike Flyknit technology. Its a new way to knit a shoe upper out of

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Antonis A. Zorpas, Irene Voukkali and Vasilis J. Inglezakis

what is essentially a single thread. Its great for the athlete because it is lighter and offers a
more custom fit. Its good for the planet because it drastically reduces waste from the upper
production process. And shareholders benefit from the reduced cost of production and
increased margins. Its a nascent technology that holds tremendous opportunity to be scaled
over time (NIKE, 2012). At Nike, one way we seek to deliver shareholder value is through
sustainable growth. For NIKE, sustainable growth means the long-term vision to deliver
profitable growth decoupled from constrained natural resources, even as NIKE work to
deliver value to their shareholders in the near term. Meeting these two objectives requires a
careful balance one is what stakeholders expect of NIKE and it remains NIKEs
commitment. NIKE attempt to strike this balance by leveraging significant competitive
advantages, including authentic, emotional connections with consumers; innovative product
and retail experiences that lead the industry; and a strong NIKE, Inc. portfolio that gives
NIKEs tremendous opportunities for growth and profitability (NIKE, 2012). Sustainability
plan in NIKE includes (a) Plan : At the core of business is a plan opportunities, resources
and values; (b) DESIGN: Form. Function. Superior performance. Minimal impact. While the
designers always strive to create products that are faster, lighter and stronger, they also pay
close attention to smarter; (c) MAKE: Ideas dont become reality by magic. For a global
business, it requires people, materials, tools, knowledge, skill and a whole lot of coordination.
NIKE, contract with more than 900 factories globally to make products from their designs;
(d) MOVE: Nike ship products wherever and whenever they are needed, to get to thousands of
partners and millions of consumers around the world. Airplanes, boats, trucks and trains are
the tools NIKE transport providers use to overcome the obstacle of distance every day; (e)
SELL: Nike operates more than 750 retail stores around the world across all NIKEs brands.
Beyond selling products, each location strives to be a rewarding experience for its consumers
and an asset to its community. The stores are in leased space. While NIKE and Affiliate
brands sell primarily through retail partners not owned by NIKE company, NIKE focus is on
the impact of the selling they do in Their own stores; (f) USE: Once you bring home your
new shoes, shirt or shorts, a different footprint starts to take shape. This one belongs to you
according to NIKE; (g) REUSE: Finding innovative ways to reuse NIKE products creating
running tracks, sport courts and even new shoes and clothing helps minimize NIKEs impact
on the environment. At the end as a commitment the companys vision is to build a
sustainable business and create value for Nike and their stakeholders by decoupling profitable
growth from constrained resources (NIKE, 2012).

4. SUSTAINABILITY DECISION DRIVERS


There has been considerable research on the rationale that influences firms to invest in
developing sustainability capabilities. Resource allocation decisions to support specific
actions derive from a process of setting strategic priorities that shape an organizations action
agenda (Porter, 1998). Thus, the extent to which an organization implements specific
sustainability practices will be strongly driven by the importance it places on various
sustainability issues perceived as vital to its identity and success. From a resource-based view
of the firm (Barney, 1991), sustainability may constitute a valuable, rare (innovative), and
hard to imitate resource or capability that leads to competitive advantage (Hart, 1995;

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McWilliams & Siegel, 2001). From the perspective of industry and competitive dynamics
(Porter, 1998), benefits may accrue from advantageous effects of sustainability on market
structure including degree of industry consolidation, entry barriers, rivalry dynamics, and
first-mover potential (Porter &. Van der Linde, 1995). From a stakeholder view of the firm
(Freeman, 1984), the potential for sustainability benefits can be understood in terms of
addressing demands from customers, investors, suppliers, governmental and nongovernmental organizations, and activist groups (Clarkson, 1995). Institutional theory (e.g.,
Scott, 1995) draws attention to the potential legitimation benefits of conformance to
sustainability-oriented normative social rules and belief systems prevailing in the
environment (Bansal & Clelland, 2004; Doh, Howton, Howton & Siegel, 2009; Marquis,
Glynn, & Davis, 2007).
Several of these theoretical perspectives on competitive opportunities, stakeholder
pressures, and ethical values informed recent studies specific to sustainability strategy. Basu
& Palazzo (2008) theorized that sustainability decision-making is likely to be influenced by
three types of drivers: performance drivers, using social or environmental investments to
boost performance; stakeholder drivers, meeting specific demands of external stakeholders
and institutions; and motivation drivers, either extrinsic reasons such as to pre-empt legal
sanctions or enhance reputation or intrinsic ones grounded in virtue ethics. This closely
mirrors the empirical findings of Bansal and Roth (2000), who studied the responses of 53
firms to environmental needs and induced three drivers: competitiveness, legitimation (to
burnish their credibility or avoid penalties), and social responsibility. In terms of competitive
advantage, a good sustainability strategy must first be a good business strategy that fits an
organizations unique value-chain opportunities and threats (Porter & Kramer, 2006; Siegel,
2009). What is distinctive about a sustainability strategy is that strategic thinking and action
become more holistic, balanced and complex (Mirchindani & Ikerd, 2008). Planning takes on
a more balanced short and long term view (Slawinsky & Bansal, 2009). A more diverse array
of external stakeholders becomes deeply engaged so that the organization can better discover
opportunities, anticipate challenges, and create mutuality (Mirchindani & Ikerd, 2008). For
instance, a large retailer such as Wal-Mart has to consider not only the design and cost of its
imported merchandise but also the labor practices of its suppliers, the carbon footprint of its
products, the benefit of having its brand associated with green values, and the potential for
public relations embarrassments due to government actions or civic watchdogs (Laszlo,
Sherman, & Whelan, 2005; Sachs, 2007).
Stakeholder and institutional legitimation also is an important motivation for corporate
sustainability, both on the upside of reputation as well as the downside of unprecedented risk.
Many organizations need to beware of violating new regulations, falling into public relations
embarrassments or becoming a target for activist groups. For example, Monsanto saw its
multibillion dollar investment in developing genetically engineered foods derailed by an
unexpected, highly-effective campaign among European consumer groups and farmers in
developing countries that resulted in prohibitive regulations by European Union institutions,
an outcome that Hart & Sharma (2004) suggest might have been avoided if Monsanto had
built bridges to these seemingly fringe stakeholders. The third driver of sustainability
business decisions, social responsibility and virtue ethics, appears to operate more in
conjunction with the other two drivers rather than as the sole basis for action. Very few
companies in Bansal and Roths (2000) study reported social responsibility as the only
motivation. More often it was cited in connection with competitiveness or legitimation. For

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Antonis A. Zorpas, Irene Voukkali and Vasilis J. Inglezakis

example, Whole Foods developing networks of local growers to supply produce to its stores
aids the local economies of its own customers in a socially responsible way. Meanwhile the
company publicizes its programs while reducing the cost of inbound shipping and greenhouse
gas emissions from long-distance transport, potentially enhancing its legitimacy and
bolstering its competitive advantage. This integration of social good with enlightened selfinterest is reflected in Goldman Sachs directing investors to consider both
social/environmental indicators as well as financial ones, and in academicians urging
companies to focus on those societal issues instrumental to their own value chains (Porter &
Kramer, 2006; Ambec & Lanoie, 2008)

5. SUSTAINABILITY AND PERFORMANCE


Measuring performance is a vital management tool towards the control and
implementation of initiatives. What is measured appears important and therefore
measurement accords importance. Managers need to have goals, measures and targets to
incorporate within their functions to assess levels of achievement, re-assess priorities and
assign resources to strategic goals and objectives. In this respect sustainability performance
should be no different. The appropriate use and application of measures are vital for the
creation, verification and development of Sustainability Performance. Before embarking on
the design of such metrics it is useful to understand, from the NFP field, the challenges in
designing performance measurement systems for both the measure characteristics and for the
system itself. A considerable amount of research has been undertaken in the performance
measurement field, and some of the key issues and aspects have been highlighted for
consideration by CR (corporate responsibility) practitioners and managers involved in this
process.
With regard to performance measures which are appropriate to a company, the selection
criteria should reflect the stakeholder analysis and the companys strategic sustainability
performance intentions. These criteria will have been created to suit the competitive
environment within which the company operates, and the kind of business that it is. Within
the CR Value-Chain Process (CRV Process), the stakeholder profiling and CR sector themes
have created this platform, and the business benefit and shareholder-value mapping has
helped to develop the understanding and priorities of the CR themes and stakeholders. A
broad range of measurement areas and measures have been developed through external
standards and protocols from NGOs, government departments, business membership groups,
trade associations and multi-stakeholder initiatives. These include the Global Reporting
Initiative (GRI), Business in the Community (BiTC), The Natural Step, ISO14000 and the
UN Global Compact. Generally these standards seek to improve the materiality, quality,
consistency, accountability and comparability of sustainability performance in either a
general or industry-specific sphere. These standards can be useful sources for identifying
performance measures that support the CR themes and stakeholder relations, as they
themselves are developed in consultation with stakeholders needs with particular focus on
CR themes. For the CRV Process, one starts with the company-centric stakeholder and CR
theme priorities and then seeks to determine appropriate performance measures and
performance indicators that are orientated to deliver on value drivers and are specific to the

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Business behind Sustainability

company. With regard to generic ESG measurement aspects, the World Business Council on
Sustainable Development, following a pilot initiative with twenty-two companies from ten
sectors, identified a set of generic standardised measures for eco-efficiency around five key
areas: energy consumption, materials consumption, water consumption, greenhouse gas
emissions and ozone depleting emissions (WBCSD, 2000). Other practitioner research
activities have complemented this view of environmental sustainability indicators by
highlighting the effectiveness of using production-based process output ratios as a
standardised method of presenting sustainability intensity performance, as illustrated
(Schwarz, J., Beloff, B. & Beaver, E. 2002; Ferguson, 2009).
The environmental measures (Table 1) are appropriate for a range of eco-efficiency
attributes, with examples that cover the input, process and output aspects of the companys
possible impacts. The social measures provided illustrate the social impacts from
employment, the impact of the companys product and service, employee welfare and
diversity, and aspects of employee engagement within society-orientated initiatives. The
economic measures illustrate the movement of finance in relation to measuring cost, returns
and payments that relate to stakeholders such as suppliers, government and shareholders. The
governance measures reflect mechanisms that indicate the level of sound corporate
governance activities within the company, which is of interest to institutional investors,
employees and directors. The stakeholder relations measures are an important consideration
for the CRV Process as they measure or describe the strength of stakeholder relations. For the
company, more specific measures should be developed that are orientate towards each of the
prioritised stakeholder relations (Ferguson, 2009).
Table 1. Sustainable Performance Measures
Environmental
Measures

Social Measures

Economic
Measures

Governance
Measures

No of products
with life cycle
assessments
% of recycled
materials used as
inputs
Volume of air and
water emissions

% of Suppliers
covered by ethical
procurement
No of product
recalls

Cost saving from


reductions in
energy cost
Cost of
fines/penalties

% of businesses
with collective
bargaining
No of employee
volunteer hours

Average payment
times for suppliers

% of indented
directors on the
Board
Existence of
Code of Conduct
for Directors
No of Ethical /
Legal Violations

No of hazardous
materials used in
processes
Volume of landfill
use

% of companies
covered by
EMAS/ISO 14001

No of local jobs
created

% employees with
disabilities

Monies paid in
government tax
contributions
Income generated
from retailing
recycled waste
products
Cost of waste
disposal

% of major
projects meeting
operational goals
% of
compensation
linked to
performance
No of policies
and codes of
conduct in the
company

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Stakeholder
Relation
Measures
Employee
satisfactory rates
No of community
complaints
Customer
satisfaction
survey scores
No of awards
received
Rates of +ve/-ve
media coverage

No/type of
challenges from
government

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Antonis A. Zorpas, Irene Voukkali and Vasilis J. Inglezakis

A large body of evidence has accumulated from survey and case study research
documenting the benefits that organizations are achieving from implementing sustainability
practices (Willard, 2002; Blackburn, 2007; Esty & Winston, 2006). These can be summarized
as improvements in reputation, productivity, talent acquisition, employee retention and
engagement, cost effectiveness, risk avoidance/mitigation, innovation and market expansion,
and access to capital. A growing set of financial and econometric studies have examined the
relationship between sustainability investments and firm performance. The findings from this
literature can best be described as equivocal. On the one hand, firms specializing in
sustainability metrics such as Innovest Strategic Advisors, Smith Barney, and Dow Jones
(Sustainability Index) all have presented evidence that companies regarded highly for
sustainability management outperform other firms and that an eco-efficiency premium is
more often being built into the stock price of deserving companies (Cohen, 2006). Such
performance has prompted socially responsible investment (SRI) mutual funds to attract
several billions of dollars under management. Several meta-analytic reviews confirmed the
connection between investment choices linked to responsible environmental and social aims
and above average returns, suggesting that firms indeed can do well by doing good (Ambec
& Lanoie, 2008; Guenster, Derwall, Bauer, & Koedijk, 2005; Orlitsky, Schmidt, and Rynes,
2003). On the other hand, a separate meta-analysis of 127 studies did not confirm a
sustainability performance relationship (Margolis & Walsh, 2003). Others suggest that the
key factors driving the sustainability (performance association are strategic and complex)
including degree of industry maturity, market structure, customer demand, institutional
intermediation, and type of business strategy (Siegel, 2009). Barnett (2007) argued for a more
nuanced view of socially responsible investing, particularly in regard to the need for
organizations to assess and properly weight the diverse CSR demands and influence
capacities of various stakeholders to predict the ROI of CSR investments. A report by
Goldman Sachs (2007) found no evidence of a main effect for sustainability strategies alone
but did find better-than-expected returns when factoring in the interaction of sustainability
with such traditional factors as industry positioning, cash flow, and the like. As the urgency
of issues concerning sustainability increases, investors may well pay an increasing premium
for the shares of companies that are capitalizing on such externalities (Mackey, Mackey, &
Barney, 2007). In the meantime, the best conclusion seems to be that sustainability
investments often improve and almost never detract from financial performance (Siegel,
2009).
ABB took further steps in 2012 towards achieving companys strategic goal of becoming
a leader in the field of sustainability through measures to improve our environmental, social,
health and safety and security performance. Some of those steps were unspectacular but vital;
others demonstrated how sustainability considerations are increasingly becoming part of our
day-to-day business and are essential to overall success (ABB, 2012). ABB is a leader in
power and automation technologies that enable utility and industry customers to improve their
performance while lowering environmental impact. The ABB Group of companies operates in
around 100 countries and employs about 145000 people.
In 2012, this progress was evident in different aspects of companys business: (a)
Resource efficiency and emissions reduction have increasingly become a consideration across
ABBs value chain, from research and development and supply chain through to sales (b)
Sustainability experts worked on numerous occasions with sales teams to engage with
customers or respond to customer queries, and to carry out risk assessments of proposed and

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existing projects (c) Business units increasingly factored in health, safety and security training
and measures as part of their duty of care to employees and contractors, particularly in highrisk environments (d) Sustainability specialists worked more frequently alongside Investor
Relations colleagues to engage with investors on the companys sustainability agenda (e)
Dedicated sustainability staff are now embedded in functions such as supply chain
management, delivering a Supplier Sustainability Development Program, and the mergers and
acquisitions process, carrying out due diligence on the sustainability performance of targeted
companies (ABB, 2012).

CONCLUSION
A variety of concerns, including pollution, climate change, human rights issues and
economic crises, have prompted the development of ongoing public discourse about the role
of business in society and the need for greater transparency, sustainability and responsibility
in business. Many firms that produce sustainability reports have found that doing well and
doing good are not mutually exclusive propositions. By releasing their reports, they engage
with stakeholders outside the company, integrate with local and global communities, and
participate in inclusive discourse that can lead to investments that benefit the company and its
operating environment. Implementing sustainability strategies can usefully be viewed as a
strategic transformation intervention, albeit involving more complex issues and a broader
array of stakeholders than most. Organizations are largely muddling along on their
sustainability journeys. This model identifies how influences outside the direct control of
executives, along with internal factors and decision considerations, are associated with a
variety of sustainability management actions that seem to translate into performance
improvement.

REFERENCES
ABB, 2012. ABB Group Sustainability Performance 2012 Building on strong foundations
https://www02.abb.com/global/abbzh/abbzh258.nsf/0/2d86b807b5ff30f9c1257b27004e2
62a/$file/ABB+Group+Sustainability+Performance+2012.pdf (access on Feb 2014).
Ambec, S., & Lanoie, P. (2008). Does it pay to be green? A systematic overview. Academy of
Management Perspectives, 22, 4, 45-62.
Bansal, P. & Clelland, I. (2004). Talking trash: legitimacy, impression management, and
unsystematic risk in the context of the natural environment. Academy of Management
Journal, 47(1): 93-103.
Bansal, P. & Roth, K. (2000). Why companies go green: A model of ecological
responsiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 717-736.
Barnett, M.L. (2007). Stakeholder influence capacity and the variability of financial returns to
corporate social responsibility. Academy of Management Review, 32, 3, 794-816.
Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of
Management, 17, 99120.

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Basu, K. & Palazzo, G. (2008). Corporate social responsibility: A process model of


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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 6

ANCIENT SUSTAINABILITY USE OF THE PALMERAL


OF ELCHE AND THE CURRENT UNSUSTAINABILTY:
REASONS FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Encarni I. Hernndez, M. T. Ferrer, Jose Navarro-Pedreo,
Ignacio Melendez-Pastor and Ignacio Gmez
Department of Agrochemistry and Environment, University
Miguel Hernndez of Elche, Elche (Alicante), Spain

ABSTRACT
The urban palm groves of Elche (Alicante, Spain) were recognized as World
Heritage by the UNESCO in 2000: The Palmeral of Elche (n 930). The origin of this
landscape in the municipality of Elche is from Muslims that elaborated and developed an
important irrigation system and the cultivation of palm trees (Phoenix dactylifera L.). The
use of this agricultural structure is based on the benefices obtained and the sustainable
adaptation to the semiarid conditions of this area. The plants of interest for agriculture
were cultivated inside a square orchard where the palm tree constitutes the marginal
plant. However, from the palm trees many materials were obtained and the use of them
was a sustainable practice over nine decades. The industrial revolution in Spain and the
increment of the town joined to the presence of new materials collapsed The Palmeral
and nowadays, poor sustainable use is associated to this agrosystem added to the poor
economic benefit. Moreover, imported palm trees from other parts of the world have
produced the arrival of new plagues in Spain, which were not presented in this area
constituting a new risk. Therefore, new sustainable uses can be implemented in order to
protect The Palmeral and guarantees a future of this World Heritage serving as an
example for other palm groves situated along the world.

Corresponding author: Jose Navarro-Pedreo. E-mail: jonavar@umh.es.

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1. INTRODUCTION
The Phoenix dactylifera L. (date palm) has been known as long as recorded history for its
important uses as a food and fiber source, and also in medicine, chemistry, and religion.
Palm trees are believed to have originated around the Persian Gulf area and in Western India.
Little is known about the origin and ancient history of the date palm. It is difficult to establish
the exact origin because apart from some wild plants still presented in areas around Jordan
and the Iraq-Iran border, all date plants known nowadays are fully domesticated. In general,
the origin and domestication of date palm is still problematic mainly because its wild ancestor
has yet not been clearly identified. On the one hand, it has been suggested that the cultivated
date palm may have its ancestor from a wild species of the Phoenix genus, different from
dactylifera. Phoenix sylvestris L. Roxb., the sugar date palm, has been considered as a
possible ancestor because of its proximity in morphological and genetic characters with the
cultivated date palm. On the other hand, it has been suggested than date palm resulted from
the hybridization of wild Phoenix dactylifera species (Tengberg, 2012) due to a high number
of private alleles detected in recent genetic works. Despite its economic and symbolic
importance in the arid regions little is still known about the early cultivation of the date palm
(Tengberg, 2012). The earliest cultivated finds dated around 4000 BC were from Eridu,
Lower Mesopotamia in the Bronze Age (Kwaasi, 2003). The earliest examples of the use of
date palm in the Middle East come from two sites in the Persian Gulf region, island of Dalma
and Sabiyah in Kuwait, and dated in the Mid-Holocene (Beech, 2003; Tengberg, 2012). The
date palm was naturalized in Arabia and spread through Northern Africa, Spain, the drier
parts of the Nile valley, and around the Euphrates River. From Spain and the Barbary Coast
(Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) Phoenix dactylifera planting material was introduced to
America, until the late nineteenth century that were introduced in the US, plants from Iraq
and other Middle East countries (Rivera et al., 2012).
Date palm is the most common fruit tree grown in semiarid and arid-regions of the
Middle East and North Africa (Kassem, 2012). Agrosystems with high water requirements
under the increased occurrence of extreme drought events have forced irrigation with poor
quality water from both irrigation drainage and groundwater sources (Prez-Sirvent et al.,
2003). Salinity causes osmotic imbalance, reduces water uptake and transpiration, and
reduces yields of crops (Grattan and Grieve, 1999; Dogan et al., 2010). Thus, agriculture in
arid and semi-arid zones characterized by salinity is limited by the salt tolerance of the plant
with specification to agricultural management.

1.1. The Palmeral of Elche


The date palm is cultivated as an ornamental plant in South Europe, where it rarely
matures into fruit, except in southern Italy and Spain.
According to FAO statistical data, Spain has a date palm area harvested of 850 ha and
5354 tons of date fruits have been produced in 2011 (FAO, statistics, 2011).
The Palmeral of Elche is located at the third largest city of the Autonomous Community
of Valencia (389 N, 043 W, Alicante province, Spain) with a total area of 507.4 ha and
181,138 registered palm trees according to the General Urban Plan of 1997.

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The most of the urban area of The Palmeral is recognized by UNESCOs World
Heritage List under the common label The Palmeral of Elche. World Heritage List
recognizes the great diversity of the interactions between humans and their environment in
order to protect living traditional cultural landscapes. The uniqueness of this area was
classified in the category of cultural property, the only Spanish cultural landscape with this
distinction. The Palmeral agrosystem takes up about 1% of the municipality surface (urban
and rural palm orchards). The Palmeral of Elche is a landscape of palm groves, which
presents a definite pattern linked to the irrigation channels (Gracia, 2006). Most of the
traditional date palm groves are rectangular plots bounded by single or double palms along
the channels in order to generate a microclimate for hosting a wide array of associated crops
such as Medicago saltiva L. and Punica granatum L. inside, organized horizontally and
vertically. This type of organization in the landscape has been described in the date palm
garden cultivation in the Middle East (Tengberg, 2012). The uppermost level consists of date
palms, and fruit trees of lower growth and low-growing annual crops from the second and
third level respectively below the date palms. This type of landscape is believed to be
structured in the VIII century A.D., when a large part of the Iberian Peninsula was under
Muslim rule (Glick, 1991). This area is a unique example of Arab agricultural techniques in
Europe. The main recognized values of the palm grove in Elche are the transfer of a typical
landscape from Africa to Europe and the conservation of its operation to this day.

1.2. Ancient Irrigation System


Dates can tolerate annual precipitation between 31 and 403 mm, with flowering stage
favored by dry periods (Kwaasi, 2003). The Palmeral is under a climate arid to semiarid
Mediterranean with an average annual rainfall of 250 mm and a thermal regime of
temperature warm with an average annual temperature of 19 C.
These climatic conditions are suitable for cultivation of the date palm with a vegetable
activity throughout the year. However, the plants cultivated inside the system have water
requirements so irrigation system is the key of these agrosystems.
The history of the city of Elche has always been associated with irrigated agriculture. The
traditional farming developed in the city of Elche and its surrounding agricultural areas has
always been subjected to harsh environmental conditions. It is an area with very pronounced
summer drought and interannual irregularity and there has always been a difficulty the use of
springs or deep-water deposits. The unique inputs of water for irrigation were the scarce river
water contribution from Vinalop River and several groundwater emergences.
This remarkable lack of water was the reason to develop a very careful and sophisticated
use of scarce water, whose first evidences are accredited from the time of the Muslim
occupation in the middle Ages (Bru, 1992). These conditions forced the inhabitants of Elche
to transport the water from remote areas and to create a system of distribution, purchase, and
sale that determines a culture, which has been recognized and protected by UNESCO
declaring cultural place (Municipal Archives of Elche, 2003).
Irrigation system in this area is traditionally composed of a network of channels (Figure
1), where water flows due to gravity. Its origin dates from about the tenth century, mainly in
times of Muslim rule (Gonzlvez, 1974). This ancestral time the irrigation water came from
Vinalop River, which crosses the city.

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The customs and practices on the management of irrigation water were introduced during
the period of Arab rule and they were assumed with poor modifications by the Christian
conquerors from the XIII century (Gonzlvez, 1977). It is possible to distinguish two periods
related to the irrigation system of Elche. There was a fundamental historical irrigation system
with a great social complexity, based on the utilization of the waters from the Vinalop River
by Mayor and Marchena channels from the Islamic period to the nineteenth century, and
other contemporary irrigation system developed since the early twentieth century to the
present (Guinot Rodrguez and Selma Castell, 2002). The collection and distribution in the
systems of irrigation have been diversified and expanded significantly since the beginning of
last century, with new water supplies from outside (new irrigation communities and waters
with waters coming from the Segura River or the transfer of the Tagus River and aquifers).
There was a strong link between land and water at the Islamic period, but after the
Reconquest this situation began to disappear, turning the water into a separate property
susceptible of commercial traffic.
There was a small amount of water of public property and private use for sale or leasing.
The water from the Mayor and Marchena channels was distributed among the owners. The
water distribution was equivalent to the proportions of land, being both properties together.
Water equitable was made daily in a public place, in which irrigators gathered for the sale of
lots of water. This situation lasted until 1906, when it was introduced the daily sale of the
waters at public auction, thus reaching the full separation of land and water (Bru, 1992;
Municipal Archives of Elche, 2003).
The irrigation system is linked to The Palmeral setting its landscape. During the Muslim
period landscape perspective was different because the arrangement of the date palms was
more open than at present. From the Christian period there was a process of date
concentration around the city. Moreover, there was a great development of the palm groves
from the construction of the reservoir in Elche and especially in the eighteenth century,
increasing the date palm activity. This development resulted in an image of an agricultural
crowns system departing from the downtown described by Madoz (1847).

1.3. Soils and Waters


The development of the city of Elche has always been linked to the use of the waters of
the Vinalop River for agriculture. However, this river is characterized by low water flow and
low quality water. The average annual contribution from the river to the reservoir of Elche is
76 hm3 year-1, the 17% is from surface origin and the remaining 83% is from groundwater.
Moreover, the river presents serious salinity problems, which make their use impractical
for human consumption. The origin of these salts is due to the massive presence of evaporite
materials in the basin. Thus, river salinity increases progressively from its source to the
mouth. The salt concentration in the water is about 0.6-0.9 g l-1 in the river source and above
10 g l-1 in the water from the reservoir of Elche, due to the returns on irrigation, evaporation
and runoff from the above evaporite formations.
In addition to the progressive increase in salinity along the river course, chemical
variations in the water were found. In this sense, anionic facies from bicarbonate-chlorinated
type, with a concentration of anions of 65% and 23% meq l-1, respectively, was determined in
the upper parts of the river course.

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Figure 1. Historical distribution of the irrigation channels and the urban palm groves of Elche.

However, chlorinated-sulfated type with a concentration of anions of 80% and 20%


meq l-1, respectively, was analyzed in the lower parts of the river (Diputacin Provincial de
Alicante, 2003). The irrigation system in the heritage area consists of a main channel called
Mayor Channel and different ramifications of channels (Figure 1). The water is distributed
using a system of splitters, dividing the flow rate. There are both fixed and mobile splitters.
Irrigation water in this area has two limiting factors of quantity and quality for agricultural

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Encarni I. Hernndez, M. T. Ferrer, Jose Navarro-Pedreo et al.

production. Thus, this traditional irrigation system fully adapts to conditions of severe water
shortage. The irrigation water conductivity is about 14 S cm-1 with a salt content of 9 g l-1.
Salinity causes osmotic imbalance, reduces water uptake and transpiration, and consequently
reduces yields of crops (Tripler et al., 2011). Information regarding the response of each
specific crop to the conditions of salinity is therefore essential for understanding plant-soil
interactions and proper management of saline irrigation water (Tripler et al., 2011).
Date palm has been classified as a perennial crop tolerant to salinity with a threshold of
4.0 dS m-1 in soil saturated paste electrical conductivity under which there is no significant
response to salinity (Carr, 2013), and a subsequent reduction of 3.6% in biomass production
for every increase of saturated paste electrical conductivity equals 1 dS m-1 (Tripler et al.,
2011). In this sense, Furr et al. (1966) did not find relationship between soil water salinity and
Na and Cl concentration in leaf matter, suggesting an inherent ability for the palm to inhibit
uptake of salt into plant tissues. However, prolonged irrigation with very high electrical
conductivity of irrigation water (8 and 12 dS m-1) was found to be commercially impractical
as growth and yield, since salinity acted with a long-term consequence of increasing relative
negative response to water consumption and plant growth.
This negative response may be explained either as an accumulated effect or increasing
sensitivity to salinity (Tripler et al., 2011).
The soils in this area are characterized by unorganized raw soils, developed on calcium
substrate in most of the municipality. The soils in this area are classified as Fluvisols and
Calcisols (European Commission, 2005) according to FAO/ISRIC/IUS and the nomenclature
revision (IUSS Working Group, 2006), with a clay loam-texture based on the Bouyoucos
method (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Moreover, the soils near the wetlands of the municipality (El
Hondo and Las Salinas de Santa Pola) have high concentrations of salts, with more
difficulties for the development of crops that have low resistance to these salinity conditions.

2. SUSTAINABLE USES OF THE PALMERAL ALONG CENTURIES


The possibilities of growing date palms in the saline conditions of Elche was the first
useful sustainable activity joined to the generation of special microclimate conditions for the
plants cultivated inside the square orchard created by the palm trees.
These palm groves have a special structure where the palm trees are around the square as
marginal plants, close to the irrigation channels that were open or closed to add water inside
the orchard for the other cultivations (Figure 2). This system generated an adequate and
sustainable use of the available resources, specially the saline water, reducing the impact of
arid climate and controlling the evapotranspiration and water losses.
Palm parts were extensively used in the past, with a great importance in the economic
source in Elche. The palm groves were considered main units of farm production in order to
obtain food and resources to the population in a model of society in which the agriculture
accounted for the core of economic activity.
As a result of the long history of cultivation of date palms, almost every part of the date
palm (Figure 3), except perhaps the roots, can be used for some purpose (Chao and Krueger,
2007).

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Figure 2. Structure of a traditional date palm orchard.

The date palm crops over the centuries have provided many products derived from stipes
(trunks), date fruits and leaves (whole leaves and the sheath at the leaf base) that are useful.
Through the centuries the use of palm products equaled or even became more important than
the date crop (Barreveld, 1993). The main use of the stipe is as wood due to the great tensile
strength. Its use is therefore oriented to exploit this characteristic: furniture, poles, beams,
rafters, lintels and pillars have been manufactured with the palm trunk for both outdoor and
indoor uses. The trunks have been also used as firewood. In addition to these uses, in time of
food scarcity the inside of the trunk was used for human consumption.
The leaves are the part with most profitable uses. Each date palm produces between 1020 leaves per year (Pahsa, 1998). Whole palm leaves have a special meaning at religious
festivals, being white palm which has produced the biggest agricultural benefits in this area.
Date leaves have also been used traditionally to manufacture roofing to give shade and other
crafts. Where mud is used in house construction whole date leaves may be laid across the
beams, that are made of the stipe, in a thick bedding upon which a layer of mud is poured to
form the first floor or roof cover (Barreveld, 1993).
Leaves are used in plaits which are sewn together to obtain woven products such as a
wide array of baskets, sacks, mats and hats between others. Using the same raw materials,
sturdy baskets, vase shaped containers and trays have been made by a different technology. In
this sense, this technique consists of first forming cores of finely divided fibers of the date
fruit stalk. These cores are wrapped over with shredded leaflets at the same time linking them
with the former spiral.

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Figure 3. a) Parts of a date palm and b) Date palm leaf characteristics.

Therefore containers for domestic use with many types of shapes have been made
(Barreveld, 1993). The leaves have been also used for making strings after plaiting for
temporary fixing jobs in horticulture.
Usually, a two-strand string is made with a thickness of about 7 to 10 mm. When new
date palm leaves come out from a tender cover tissue remains at its base attached to its lateral
edges, and surrounding the trunk of the palm. Many types of rope of different diameters were
made from sheath fiber from the leaf base. These ropes were widely used for transport and
reinforcement of baskets among others. Other utilities of the date leaves were to make brooms
by arranging and tying the leaves in flat bundles and also used as bedding for animals. Spines
are situated at the lower end of the leaves with the function of protecting the central tender
parts of the palm. These parts have been used in the making of utensils where a sharp pointed
is needed as toothpicks or fishing traps (Barreveld, 1993).
Reproductive organs from the date palm have been also used over the centuries. Spathes
have been boiled and distilled resulting in a liquid used for flavoring hot or cold drinks.
Spathes can be also effective as a digestive (Mikki et al., 1989). Indeed, empty bunches like
the other fibrous parts of palm have a fuel value (Chao and Krieger, 2007).
The primary product from the date palms is the date fruit, which can be eaten in various
processed forms. Date fruit is available in different forms, including fresh, dehydrated pieces,
diced, extruded date pieces, and macerated fruit. Dates have played significant roles in the
economy, society and environment in many areas (Chao and Krieger, 2007).

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Dates are used for human consumption but also if the date quality is low, these are a
useful source for animal feeding.

3. UNSUSTAINABILITY AND NEW USES OF THE PALMERAL


A transition from a rural to an industrial society which began from the Spanish industrial
revolution at the end of the nineteenth century has affected to The Palmeral of Elche (Jan,
1994). The changes in the socioeconomic structure and the cultural habits have modified the
traditional values recognized in World Heritage distinction of The Palmeral of Elche.
Indeed, although the palm has been known for many years to be one of the most disease
resistant and hardy plant, nowadays date palm is under threat from new and old pathogens
(Kwaasi, 2003). These changes have induced to obtain an agrosystem with loss of their
functionality and many difficulties to produce economical benefits.
Ecological, socio-cultural and economic values of the landscape have to be fully
considered in planning and decision-making in order to preserve the traditional cultural
landscape despite of changing demands on land use and natural resources (De Groot, 2006).
Ways how valuable elements and areas can be preserved and become embedded functionally
in the modern urbanized and globalized society must be studied. In the current society there
has been an overall decline in the application of the palm products development due to
alternative materials which provide better or more convenient for the different uses.

3.1. New Perspectives and Traditional Uses


Nowadays there are three major uses of the palm crop in Elche: to obtain fruits, white
palm and ornamental use for gardening. Although the best climatic conditions to the date
palm crop are concentrated in the Southeast of Spain, dates are collected as fresh fruit because
they are not able to reach the optimal mature state on the tree. In recent years, the average
production in the main grove (Elche) is around 4000 tons per year (Martn-Snchez et al.,
2013). Moreover, about 2% of total registered palms, i.e. 3000 palms, produce dates with
certain quality, with an annual production of 100 tons, which can be commercialized as fresh
dates. Therefore, the production and sale of date fruits are in recession due to the imports
which dominate the distribution of these fruits in Spain (Greiner, 1994). So new uses can be
implemented to the large amount of dates produced as liqueurs and spirits, animal breeding
(directly or making flour for fisheries and farms) and derived products for food production
(biofunctional molecules) and/or cosmetic industry (peeling materials and flavours).
White palm is still made by traditional methods which can be considered associated with
the heritage of The Palmeral of Elche. This use generated more annual income to certain
farmers but with a high impact on the landscape. In recent decades, traditional methods to
obtain white palm in this area have been changed with sustainability criteria to avoid the
mortality of palms and the high negative impact on the landscape.
Ornamental use of palm trees is the main economic activity. Although the unregulated
sale of palms for ornamental and landscape purpose has also been a destructive practice of the
orchards structure.

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At the present time, the palm sale is regulated and consequently the number of nurseries
dedicated to the palm production with the purpose of marketing has increased. Landscape
parameters in these nurseries are completely different from the characteristic parameters of
the traditional palm groves. In these nurseries, the palms are placed in parallel rows very
close together and are characterized by a very high density of plants.
Therefore, the profits of the palm groves as an agrosystem are low and the maintenance
cost is high. Many old cultural landscapes have high qualities, but the management regime is
no more feasible economically. This poses a complex pressure on cultural landscapes,
threatening landscape qualities (Vos and Meekes, 1999). The increase of urban land surfaces
at the expense of a large loss of quality agricultural soil is a process that higher threat to many
environments including The Palmeral. Cultural landscapes are the result of reorganization of
the land in order to adapt its use and spatial structure better to the changing societal demands
(Antrop, 2005). Landscapes always change because they are the expression of the dynamic
interaction between natural and cultural forces in the environment.
These landscape changes are seen as a threat, a negative evolution, because the current
changes are characterized by the loss of diversity, coherence and identity, which were
characteristic for the traditional cultural landscapes (Antrop, 2005). Urban palm grove must
be maintained as a cultural landscape but soft uses may be improved, mainly the use as a
cropping system joining the society to the palm care. Neighborhood associations, retirees and
school can take advantage of urban gardens and keep inside the city the ancient system while
rural orchards can still be used as agrosystems with important benefits.
In consequence, there have been several purposes to find new outlets for the products
derived from the date crop. Utilization of date crop and processing waste products is
important because they can become low-value products (Johnson, 2012). Technical research
on the utilization of palm by-products has been focused on using the palm oil fruit bunches as
fuel, often mixed with other combustible material, to generate electrical energy and yield a
fine ash with industrial uses due to its exceptional qualities (Johnson, 2012).
The biomass of agricultural waste is one of the most important sources of energy, being
considered the first renewable resource that has been used to produce heat on the human
evolution. In this sense, the main purpose of many studies is to transform the biomass found
in agricultural residues in biogas (Cioabl et al., 2009) and other resources as fuel. The
possibility of using date seed as a cheap feedstock for biodiesel production has been also
investigated, concluding that date seed oil can be successfully used as biodiesel in the internal
combustion engine (Amani et al., 2013). Indeed, date palm leaves and stems have shown
potential in the manufacture of paper, panel board and particle board among others (Johnson,
2012).
Another possible alternative to the use of palm byproducts could be as soil amendments
after application of the shredded date palm leaves, which could provide a good horticultural
substrate with high crop yield. Abo-Rady et al. (1987) obtained positive results in growth and
yield of tomato by the use of shredded date palm leaves as a substrate in horticulture. In this
sense, Ali (2008) also reported that the use of date palm leaves from agricultural waste for the
preparation of compost showed a significant impact on seed germination, plant growth and
production of many ornamental plants.
Recently, it has been reported the potential of date palm leaf ash obtained from the
agricultural waste as adsorbent for the removal of Pb ions from aqueous solutions (Ghorbani
et al., 2012).

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The main advantages of this agricultural waste in the form of residue are its abundant
availability, high adsorption capacity and low cost (Ghorbani et al., 2012) allowing the use of
palm ash for cleaning up.

CONCLUSION
The socioeconomic changes in Elche along the past century have derived in risks on the
preservation of the palm groves and many losses of the area dedicated to The Palmeral. A
proper landscape management and the maintenance of several traditional uses with new
alternative sustainable uses of the date crop are necessary for a sustainable future of these old
cultural landscapes. The distinction received by The palmeral and the protection derived
(Law 1/1986, may 9th of the Valencian Government) should avoid the actions that undermine
the groves and involve loss of historical authenticity. This statement recognizes the whole
landscape and the historical infrastructures which have enabled its functionality for centuries,
including the cultural influences throughout its history.

REFERENCES
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leaves as a substrate in horticulture. Growth and yield of tomato and cucumber. Date
Palm Journal, 5 (2): 153-163.
Ali, Y. S. S. (2008). Use of Date Palm Leaves Compost as A Substitution to Peatmoss.
American Journal of Plant Physiology, 3 (4): 131-136.
Amani, M. A., Davoudi, M. S., Tahvildari, K., Nabavi, S. M., and Davoudi, M. S. (2013).
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Antrop, M. (2005). Why landscapes of the past are important for the future. Landscape and
Urban Planning, 70 (1-2): 21-34.
Barreveld, W. H. (1993). Date palm products. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
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Beech, M. (2003). Archaeobotanical Evidence for Early Date Consumption in the Arabian
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Cioabl, A. E., Ionel, I., Padurean, I., Tenchea, A., Popescu, F., and Savu, A. (2009). Biogas
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De Groot, R., (2006). Function-analysis and valuation as a tool to assess land use conflicts in
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Ghorbani, F., Sanati, A. M., Younesi, H., and Ghoreyshib, A. A. (2012). The potential of
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Madoz, P. (1847). Diccionario Geogrfico-Estadstico de Espaa y sus posesiones de


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Martn-Snchez, A. M., Ciro-Gmez, G., Sayas, E., Vilella-Espl, J., Ben-Abda, and J.,
Prez-lvarez, J. A. (2013). Date palm by-products as a new ingredient for the meat
industry: Application to pork liver pt. Meat Science, 93 (4): 880-887.
Mikki, M. S., AL-Taisan, S. M. A. and Abdul Azziz, A. (1989). Isolation and identification
of the chemical constituents of the spathe of the date palm. Al-Hassa Regional
Agricultural Research Centre, Hofuf, Saudi Arabia.
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Pahsa, M. A. A. (1998). Fruit production in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Technical
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Prez-Sirvent, C., Martnez-Snchez, M. J., Vidal, J., and Snchez, A. (2003). The role of
low-quality irrigation water in the desertification of semi-arid zones in Murcia, SE Spain.
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Rivera, D., Johnson, D., Delgadillo, J., Carrillo, M. H., Obn, C., Krueger, R., Alcaraz, F.,
Ros, S., Carreo, E. (2012). Historical evidence of the Spanish introduction of date palm
(Phoenix dactylifera L., Arecaceae) into the Americas. Genetic Resources and Crop
Evolution. In Press.
Tengberg, M. (2012). Beginnings and early history of date palm garden cultivation in the
Middle East. Journal of Arid Environments, 86: 139-147.
Tripler, E., Shani, U., Mualem and Y., Ben-Gal, A., (2011). Long-term growth, water
consumption and yield of date palm as a function of salinity. Agricultural Water
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Perspectives for a sustainable future. Landscape and Urban Planning, 46 (1-3): 3-14.

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 7

AFRICA AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT


Antonis A. Zorpas
Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Science,
Environmental Conservation and Management,
Latsia, Nicosia, Cyprus

ABSTRACT
In 1992, for the first time, the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) gave an analytical approach to the concept of sustainable
development while the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), in 2002,
further provided its analytical tool. The multiple challenges to development in Africa
have necessitated the use of a holistic approach that integrates economic, social and
environmental dimensions, and generates new knowledge, policies and actions. African
countries have been growing at a relatively fast rate since the beginning of the new
millennium, which in turn has led to improvements in several areas such as trade,
mobilization of government revenue, infrastructure development, and the provision of
social services and vice versa. Africa is endowed with rich and diverse renewable and
non-renewable natural resources, yet its people remain among the poorest in the world.
Improving the welfare of people in Africa requires sustainable development supported
with peace and stability, and with human, institutional and organizational capacities to
address immediate challenges, such as poverty and diseases.

1. INTRODUCTION
African countries have been growing at a relatively fast rate since the beginning of the
new millennium, which in turn has led to improvements in several areas such as trade,
mobilization of government revenue, infrastructure development, and the provision of social
services and vice versa. Indeed, over the period 20012008, Africa was among the fastest
growing regions in the world economy, and it is interesting to note that this improvement in

P. O. Box 12794, 2252, Latsia, Nicosia, Cyprus, +357-99532025, +357-22411600 antonis.zorpas@ouc.ac.cy,


antoniszorpas@yahoo.com.

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growth performance has been widespread across countries. Despite the progress that has been
made by the region over the last decade, the current pattern of growth is neither inclusive nor
sustainable. There are various reasons for this.
Firstly, African countries are heavily dependent on natural resources as drivers of
economic growth. But most of these resources (fossil fuels, metallic and non-metallic
minerals) are non-renewable and are being depleted at a very rapid rate with negative
consequences for future growth and sustainability. The dependence on resource-based growth
is also of concern to African policymakers because commodity prices are highly volatile and
subject to the caprices of global demand. Such price instability has negative consequences for
investment and makes macroeconomic planning challenging.
Secondly, per capita agricultural output and productivity in the region are still low
compared to the global average, with dire consequences for food security and social stability.
The African Development Bank estimates that Africas per capita agricultural output is about
56 per cent of the global average. Furthermore, about 30 per cent of sub-Saharan Africas
total population is estimated to have been undernourished in 2010 (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Food Programme (WFP), (FAO and
WFP 2010). There have been some positive signs of rising agricultural productivity during
the last decade (Block, 2010). But in the past, agricultural output growth has been driven
largely by an expansion of cropped area rather than an increase in productivity. With rising
rural population densities, farm sizes have been declining and more and more people have
been compelled to move to more fragile lands. The sustainable intensification of agricultural
production is necessary to boost agricultural productivity and output and enhance food
security in the region.
A third feature of Africas current pattern of growth is that it has been accompanied by
deindustrialization, as evidenced by the fact that the share of manufacturing in Africas gross
domestic product (GDP) fell from 15 per cent in 1990 to 10 per cent in 2008. The most
significant decline was observed in Western Africa, where it fell from 13 per cent to 5 per
cent over the same period. Nevertheless, there has also been substantial deindustrialisation in
the other sub-regions of Africa. For example, in Eastern Africa the share of manufacturing in
output fell from 13 per cent in 1990 to about 10 per cent in 2008 and in Central Africa it fell
from 11 to 6 per cent over the same period. Furthermore, in Northern Africa it fell from about
13 to 11 per cent and in Southern Africa it fell from 23 to 18 per cent. The declining share of
manufacturing in Africas output is of concern because historically manufacturing has been
the main engine of high, rapid and sustained economic growth (UNCTAD and the United
Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIDO, 2011).
Furthermore, Africa has experienced rapid urban growth. The share of the urban
population in total population is currently about 40 per cent and is projected to rise to about
60 per cent by 2050.1 Historically, industrialization and an industry-led agricultural
transformation have been important drivers of urbanization, making it possible to absorb
labour moving from the rural to the urban and modern sectors of the economy. However,
Africas urbanization has not been driven by either industrialization or an agricultural
revolution. Jedwab (2012), state that the dramatic urban growth observed in Africa over the
past few decades has been driven by natural resource exports rather than an industrial or
agricultural revolution. He argues that, because natural resource rent in Africa are spent
mostly on urban goods and services, they make cities relatively more attractive and pull
labour out of the rural areas.

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The current pattern of Africas economic growth is particularly worrisome given the fact
that the region has a young and growing population and will, according to the United Nations
Population Division, account for about 29 per cent of the worlds population aged 1524 by
2050. Furthermore, population projections indicate that the working age population in Africa
is growing by 15.3 million people per annum, and this number is expected to increase over
the coming decades. While having a young and growing population presents opportunities in
terms of having an abundant labour supply with much creative potential, it also means that
African countries will need to engage in growth paths that generate jobs on a large scale to
absorb the additional labour. In particular, they will need to move away from jobless growth
strategies and towards inclusive growth paths that are labour-intensive and create learning
opportunities for young people. Recent events in North Africa, have shown that a
development pathway that generates growth without significant improvements in employment
has the potential to create social and political unrest with dire consequences for efforts to
promote sustainable development (UNCTAD, 2012a).
Also, Africa has experienced a process of structural change over the last 30 years, but
that it has not been productivity-enhancing structural change. This is because it has been
associated with the increasing importance of the commodity economy and also the rising
importance of low-productivity informal economic activities in the service sector. Such
structural change has actually slowed rather than enhanced the economic growth process, as it
has not involved a shift from low-productivity to high-productivity sectors (McMillan and
Rodrik, 2011). Consequently, if African countries want to achieve high and sustained
economic growth, they have to go through the process of structural transformation involving
an increase in the share of high productivity manufacturing and modern services in output,
accompanied by an increase in agricultural productivity and output.
In recent years, African leaders have responded to the challenge of resource-based
growth by renewing their political commitment to structural transformation and adopting
several initiatives, at the national and regional levels, aimed at diversifying their production
and export structures (UNCTAD and UNIDO, 2011). But structural transformation is a
double-edged sword: while it is necessary for sustained growth and poverty reduction, it also
imposes significant costs on ecological systems, especially when deliberate and appropriate
actions are not taken by governments to reduce environmental damage to protect the
environment. Fischer-Kowalski and Haberl (2007) argue that, historically, the transition from
an agrarian to an industrial socio-ecological regime has been a major factor behind the rapid
increase in environmental pressures. Resulting problems range from climate change, waste
pollution, deforestation, desertification and degradation of freshwater resources, to the loss of
biodiversity. It is crucial that the renewed focus on structural transformation in Africa is not
achieved at the expense of social and environmental sustainability. Therefore, as they ratchet
up efforts to transform their economies, African governments should also seek to improve
resource use efficiency and address the adverse environmental impacts of structural
transformation.
In summary, Africa needs to rethink its growth strategies and find ways and means to
make them more compatible with the objective of sustainable development. Sustainable
development as recognized in the Brundtland report amounts to development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs, (Brundtland et al (1987). As acknowledged at the United Nations World Summit in
2005, sustainable development consists of three interdependent and mutually reinforcing

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pillars: economic development, social equity and environmental sustainability. In particular, it


requires that policymakers take into account the consequences of their choices and decisions
on future generations and that social welfare is maximized inter-temporally rather than
currently.

Africas Sustainable Development Challenges


The overriding sustainable development challenge in Africa is poverty eradication.
Indeed, the African Ministerial Statement to the World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD) identifies poverty eradication as an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development. Africa is the only region in the world where poverty has increased both in
absolute and relative terms. Apart from being the poorest region in the world, Africa remains
the least developed, the most technologically backward, the most indebted, the most foodinsecure and the most marginalized. Furthermore, malnutrition, disease, environmental
degradation, natural resource depletion, poor and inadequate infrastructure, unemployment
and weak institutional capacities continue to pose serious development challenges for Africa.
This state of affairs is exacerbated by recurring natural disasters and the AIDS pandemic,
which is reversing decades of economic gains and imposing costs on Africa at least, twice
those in any other developing regions, thus undermining sustainable economic growth. It is
striking that Africa is the only continent not on track to meet most of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015. Sustainable development thrives best in an
environment of good governance, peace and security, but armed conflict remains a major
obstacle to development in several parts of the continent. The maintenance of an environment
of peace and security is therefore one of Africas foremost development imperatives. Apart
from its costs in human and material terms, conflicts impede production, damage
infrastructure, prevent the reliable delivery of social services and disrupt societies. Africa is
the most sub-divided continent, with small and fragmented economies that undermine the
continents position in the global development arena. In spite of the long-standing
commitments and the emphasis placed by African leaders on the process of regional
integration, this has been slow and therefore, remains a major challenge for Africa. It is
therefore no coincidence that the Africa Chapter of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation
(JPOI) of WSSD, states in its preamble that since the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED), sustainable development has remained elusive for
many African countries, with poverty remaining a major challenge.

Sustainability Idea
The international community has come a long way to reach a common global
understanding on the concept of sustainable development that now figures prominently on the
agenda of all significant international development initiatives, in particular the major UN
conferences and summits (see The international agenda on sustainable development,
below). This development paradigm resulted from a gradual shift in development theories and
their focus. In the 1950s and 1960s, development mainly focused on economic growth and
increases in outputs based on efficiency theories. A main tenet of this development concept

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was that strong economic growth would have trickle-down effects thus benefiting all
segments of society. However, observations in the 70s of the growing gap between the rich
and the poor, between and within regions resulted in the shift to addressing equity issues with
emphasis on social development and income distribution as key elements. At around the same
time, observations on the impact of economic growth on the environment brought into focus
the importance of integrating environmental concerns in the development agenda. These
observations led to the questioning of the traditional perception of development, which
jeopardizes the integrity of the environment, fosters social inequalities and injustice and
disregards the welfare and needs of future generations. Therefore, the sustainable
development paradigm took the international community well beyond the traditional
compartmentalized treatment of social, economic and environmental concerns, and advanced
a more holistic and integrated approach to development. It has led to profound changes in the
way development is understood, conceptualized and measured worldwide. Munasinghes
illustration aptly depicts the interlinkages and interactions among the economic, social and
environmental pillars of sustainable development (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Sustainable Development Illustration.

The economic approach to sustainability is based on the Hicks-Landahl concept of the


maximum flow of income that could be generated while at least maintaining a good stock of
assets (or capital), which yield these benefits (Solow 1986, Maler 1990). This is based on the
underlying concept of optimality and economic efficiency applied to the use of scarce
resources. The social concept of sustainability is people-oriented, and seeks to maintain the
stability of social and cultural systems, including the reduction of destructive conflicts
(Munasinghe and McNeely 1995). Equity is an important aspect of this approach.
Preservation of cultural diversity and cultural capital, and the better use of knowledge
concerning sustainable practices embedded in less dominant cultures, are desirable. Modern

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society would need to encourage and incorporate pluralism and grassroots participation into a
more effective decision-making framework for socially sustainable development. The
environmental view of sustainable development focuses on the constancy of biological and
physical systems (Munasinghe and Shearer, 1995). Of particular importance is the viability of
subsystems that are critical to the global stability of the overall ecosystem. Furthermore,
natural systems and habitats may be interpreted broadly to also include man-made
environments like cities. The emphasis is on preserving the resilience and dynamic ability of
such systems to adapt to change, rather than conservation of some ideal static state. Natural
resource degradation, pollution, and loss of biodiversity reduce system resilience. Reconciling
these various concepts and operationalizing them is a major challenge, since all three pillars
must be given balanced consideration. The interfaces between the three pillars are also
important.
The economic and social elements interact to give rise to issues such as intra-generational
equity (income distribution) and targeted relief for the poor. The economic environmental
interface has yielded new ideas on valuation and internalization of environmental impacts.
Finally, the social-environmental linkage has led to renewed interest in areas like
intergenerational equity (rights of future generations) and popular participation. However,
tradeoffs will always be necessary depending on the complexity of issues being addressed, the
circumstances and the current state of knowledge. The foregoing suggests a broad integrated
conceptual approach in which the net benefits of economic activities are maximized, subject
to the maintenance of the stock of productive assets over time, and providing a social safety
net to meet the basic needs of the poor. Sustainable development therefore calls for
integrating economic growth, social development and environmental management as
interdependent, mutually supportive and reinforcing pillars of long-term development. It calls
for participatory and multi-stakeholder approaches to dealing with development issues,
involving a wide range of actors- government, private sector, civil society organizations,
institutions of higher learning and research and development partners. It is therefore
encouraging to note that at WSSD, African Ministers reiterated their commitment to address
all three components of sustainable development in a balanced way, and as interdependent
and mutually reinforcing pillars. The Ministers noted that achieving sustainable development
objectives requires concrete global partnerships between governments on the one hand, and
between governments, business and civil society on the other.

Africas Sustainable Development Framework


The African Heads of State at the African Summit held in Lusaka, Zambia, 2001, adopted
the New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD). NEPAD is a comprehensive and
integrated development plan for the continent that makes peace, security, democracy, good
economic and corporate governance preconditions for sustainable development on the
continent. This continental sustainable development framework outlines the sectoral priorities
for actions and policy interventions, and identifies strategies for resource mobilization (Table
1). The NEPAD Secretariat, established to coordinate the implementation of the NEPAD
Framework, has been working closely with the African Union Commission (AUC) and the
G8 to strengthen mechanisms for supporting peace and security. A critical component of the
implementation plan is the African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) that was approved by

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the Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee (HSGIC) in March 2003
(ECA 2003). With the support of UN Agencies and other development partners, the
Secretariat has elaborated Action Plans in key areas. The seven (see Table 1 at the end) RECs
recognized by the African Union, as the implementing bodies of NEPAD (New Partnership
for Africas Development), have been involved in the design and implementation of
programmes and sub-regional projects. The African Capacity Building Foundation is
conducting capacity building needs assessments for all RECs. This includes determination of
funding required to implement programmes.
Table 1. NEPAD Priorities
a. Establishing the conditions for sustainable development by ensuring:
Peace and security;
Democracy and good, political, economic and corporate governance;
Regional co-operation and integration;
Capacity building
b. Policy reforms and increased investment in the following priority sectorsAgriculture;
Human development with a focus on health, education, science and technology and skills
development;
Building and improving infrastructure, including Information and Communication
Technology (ICT), Energy, Transport, Water and Sanitation;
Promoting diversification of production and exports, particularly with respect to agro
industries, manufacturing, mining, mineral beneficiation and tourism;
Accelerating intra-African trade and improving access to markets of developed countries;
and The environment.
c. Mobilizing resources by Increasing domestic savings and investments;
Improving management of public revenue and expenditure;
Improving Africas share in global trade;
Attracting foreign direct investment; and
Increasing capital flows through further debt reduction and increase ODA flows.
Source: NEPAD http://www.nepad.org/2005/files/inbrief.php
[1 Arab Maghreb Union (AMU); Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS); Common
Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA); Southern African Development Community
(SADC); Intergovernmental Authority for Development (IGAD); Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS); Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa (UEMOA); and the
Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC)].

At the national level, many African countries have taken steps to create national NEPAD
focal points for co-ordination, monitoring and integrating NEPAD programmes and their
national development plans at country level. Examples of these countries include Algeria,
Rwanda, Nigeria, Mozambique, South Africa, Senegal, Ghana, Kenya and Gabon. These

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countries have designated ministers or set up ministries as focal points for NEPAD in their
respective countries, (NEPAD Secretariat, 2004).
The transformation of the organization of African Unity (OAU) to the African Union
(AU) in July 2002, under the banner Peace, Prosperity, and Development (NEPAD
Secretariat, 2003), is a significant development in the implementation of Africas sustainable
development agenda. The Union has made key changes in the way it leads the resolution of
conflicts and manage peace building in war torn and conflict countries. Key organs of the
Union have been reinforced in terms of their mandates, budgets and leadership (Nkuhlu, WL,
2005). African Civil Society Organizations (ACSOs) have over the years, become more
involved in sustainable development issues. The Informal Regional Network of African NonGovernmental Organizations was launched in 2002. The WSSD process served as a valuable
lesson for African CSOs on the need to be better organized in terms of pushing the
continental agenda forward, (NESDA/WSSD Civil Society Secretariat, 2003). Furthermore,
the NEPAD Secretariat continues to interact with civil society groups at various levels.
A civil society desk has been established at the NEPAD Secretariat with a view to having
a one-stop focal point for civil society (NEPAD Secretariat, 2004). The NEPAD Business
Group (NBG) was also launched in 2002 under the leadership of the African Business
Roundtable. As the regional arm of the UN in Africa, ECA has supported these initiatives and
has played an important role in fostering Africas development within the United Nations
system. In addition to the national and regional initiatives, the international community has
reaffirmed, in the context of several major conferences and summits, its determination to
support these efforts. So far, these initiatives have led to some improvement.
African countries have recorded higher growth rates since the late 1990s; they have held
many democratic elections and overall improved their governance structures. However, for a
majority of countries, and more specifically sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the progress achieved
remains insufficient to reach the development goals of the region, including the MDGs.
Therefore, it is imperative to strengthen these efforts and strive for better outcomes.

Intangible Issues Concerning the Green Economy and Green Growth


It is against the background of these alternative views of the relationship between the
environment and the economy that the new policy concepts of the green economy and
green growth have been introduced. There is no consensus on the meaning of these terms.
But, rhetorically, being green connotes being good to the environment. UNEP (UNEP,
2011) defines a green economy as one which is low-carbon, resource-efficient and socially
inclusive, or to put it in other words, a green economy is one that results in improved
human well-being and social equity while significantly reducing environmental risks and
ecological scarcities. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD, 2011) states that green growth means fostering economic growth and development
while ensuring that natural assets continue to provide resources and environmental services
on which our well-being relies.
The major point of introducing these concepts has been to sharpen the focus on the
relationship between the economy and the environment within a policy discourse, where the
concept of sustainable development has been in long use. Neither UNEP nor OECD sees
these concepts as replacements for the idea of sustainable development. According to OECD

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(2011), green growth is a subset of the idea of sustainable development, narrower in


scope, entailing an operational policy agenda that can help achieve concrete, measurable
progress at the interface between economy and environment; whilst UNEP (2011) sees the
usefulness of the concept of a green economy stemming from a growing recognition that
achieving sustainability rests almost entirely on getting the economy right.
However, there is also a significant difference between these new concepts and the old
concept of sustainable development. In general terms, sustainable development has been
defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs. But such development rests on three pillars
(economic growth, social equity and environmental sustainability) and it was explicitly
recognized that in achieving sustainable development there would be potential trade-offs
amongst them. In contrast, the concepts of green economy and green growth place greater
emphasis on the potential synergies between economic growth and environmental
sustainability. These synergies definitional constitute what a green economy is in the UNEP
Green Economy Report (UNEP, 2011). With regard to green growth three basic positions
have been identified in the literature (Huberty et al., 2011). The first, and weakest, argues that
greening the economy does not inhibit economic growth and employment creation; the
second argues that there are significant new opportunities for growth and jobs in green
sectors; and the third, and strongest, argues that new environmental technologies and
renewable energy systems will provide the basic sources of economic growth in the coming
long-wave of economic growth.

2. RESOURCE USE AND PRODUCTIVITY IN AFRICA:


SOME FORMALIZED EVIDENCES
The key stylized facts on resource use and productivity in Africa identified in the data
analysis are as follows: The level of domestic material extraction per capita in Africa is very
low compared to the global average.
In the period from 1980 to 2008, the levels of domestic material extraction per capita in
Africa were very low (Table 2). In 2008, the average domestic material extraction per capita
in Africa was 5.4 tons, which is quite low compared to the global average of 10.2 tons. There
are nevertheless major differences between African countries. For example, Algeria and
South Africa had per capita extraction levels of 10.4 and 14.4 tons respectively, which are
higher than both the African and the global average. However, countries such as Cte dIvoire
and Malawi had per capita extraction levels of 2.7 and 2.0 tons respectively (lower than the
African average).

Measuring Sustainability: Material Flow Accounting and Analysis,


and Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production
Several methods have been developed in order to understand the influence of economic
activities on the environment, as well as to assess the magnitude and effects of an economys
throughput. These include Material Flow Accounting and Analysis (MFA) and Human

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Appropriation of Net Primary Production (HANPP). This Report presents some of the first
Africa-wide applications of these methods.
Table 2. Domestic material extraction per capita from 1980 since 2008
Country
1980
1985
Algeria
7.5
8.7
Cameroon
4.9
5.4
Cted'Ivoire
3.1
2.9
Egypt
3.5
5.0
Ethiopia
6.9
6.4
Kenya
5.4
5.1
Madagascar
7.2
6.6
Malawi
2.2
2.2
Mali
6.5
4.7
Morocco
5.9
5.7
Nigeria
3.8
3.3
Senegal
4.6
4.6
Seychelles
4.8
4.5
South
16.5
16.9
Africa
Sudan
7.1
7.0
Togo
3.9
3.5
Africa
5.9
5.7
World
8.6
8.4
Source: UNCTAD (2012b).

1990
7.9
4.9
2.7
5.0
5.9
5.2
6.0
1.8
5.3
5.2
3.6
4.6
5.1
16.1

1995
7.8
4.4
2.8
5.5
4.6
4.3
5.3
1.7
5.5
4.6
3.7
4.8
5.1
15.0

2000
8.5
4.7
2.8
6.2
4.4
3.5
4.6
2.1
6.1
5.1
3.7
4.8
6.1
14.0

2005
10.0
4.5
2.6
6.2
4.8
3.8
4.0
1.8
6.4
7.2
3.8
5.2
6.7
14.2

2008
10.4
4.2
2.7
7.3
4.8
3.4
3.7
2.0
6.2
6.9
3.6
5.1
6.6
14.4

6.3
4.0
5.4
8.5

6.6
3.1
5.2
8.4

7.6
3.0
5.2
8.7

7.7
3.1
5.4
9.5

7.4
3.2
5.4
10.2

Material Flow Accounting and Analysis


Material Flow Accounting and Analysis (MFA) is conceptually based on the notion that
the economy is an open subsystem embedded within the larger Earth system. Its development
was a response to the need to assess the scale of an economys throughput and the negative
environmental impacts (e.g. climate change) derived from material and energy consumption.
The first material flow accounts started to be developed in the beginning of the 1990s in
Austria and Japan. Since then, MFA has grown rapidly as a field of scientific and policy
interest, and major efforts have been undertaken to harmonize methodological approaches
(OECD, 2008).
In order to create economy-wide material flow accounts and undertake analysis on a
national scale, two main boundaries are determined. The first boundary delimits the economic
subsystem from the larger natural system. The second boundary sets the limits with respect to
other national economies, thus distinguishing the flows of imported and exported materials.
In general, MFA considers four major types of resources, which are accounted in terms of
their weight (measured in tons):
(a) Biomass (from agriculture, forestry, fishery and hunting)
(b) Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas and peat)

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(c) Minerals (industrial and construction minerals)


(d) Metal ores
In this fashion, different resource-use indicators can be constructed from material flow
data:
(a) Domestic extraction (DE), which includes all the raw materials extracted within a
countrys territory
(b) Domestic Material Consumption (DMC), which is calculated as DE plus imports
minus exports
(c) Physical Trade Balance (PTB), which is calculated as imports minus exports
Material flow data is consistent with the System of National Accounts (SNA). The
relationship between material and economic variables allows quantifying, for example,
resource efficiency (i.e. GDP/DMC). This is a suitable indicator to monitor decoupling
processes.

Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production


The Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production (HANPP) is another indicator that
is often used to capture the impact of human activity on the ecosystem. It is defined for a
given land area and is based on the notion that the amount of land, as well as the intensity of
land use by humans, reduces the amount of resources (specifically biomass) left for other
species in the food chain. This indicator is composed of two elements:
(a) Amount of harvested biomass,
(b) Human-induced productivity changes derived from land conversion
HANPP, in this sense, measures the extent to which plant harvest and land conversion
alter the availability of Net Primary Production (NPP) (the net amount of biomass produced
each year by plants) in ecosystems (Haberl, Erb and Krausmann 2010). In other words, there
are two ways through which NPP of biomass is appropriated by humans: directly through
harvest, and indirectly through changes in productivity associated with processes of land
conversion, such as land cover change and human-induced land degradation. Harvest is the
fraction of HANPP which comprises all assets for human survival on earth, namely food,
fodder, fibres, biofuels and wood products. In turn, the second component of HANPP (the
amount of biomass appropriated through human-induced productivity changes) generally
reflects productivity losses and hence inefficiency in land use. This second component
represents the amount of appropriated NPP that does not enter the socio-economic system and
has no further societal use. High fractions of productivity losses are generally associated with
less efficient land use systems, often as a result of climatic constraints that go hand in hand
with low agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers, irrigation and pesticides. Human-induced soil
degradation is a crucial factor when it comes to productivity losses and is closely related to
unsustainable land use practices.

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The relationships between HANPP and its components are useful in various manners.
The ratio of harvest per unit of HANPP serves as an indicator of efficiency. In turn, the ratio
of productivity losses to harvest is a stringent indicator for the efficiency of the land use
system. Increasing the harvested fraction and minimizing land change productivity losses can
therefore help in limiting the expansion of agricultural systems into sensitive natural
ecosystems (e.g. forests and drylands) by increasing the harvest output of already existing
agricultural land. This is particularly crucial for countries where food security will be
jeopardized in the coming decades and which are currently facing high productivity losses.
HANPP also allows accounting for trade. Embodied HANPP (or eHANPP) is the amount
of net primary production consumed within a country. In this sense, it accounts for the
domestic appropriation (extraction) plus imports minus exports. Embodied HANPP is a
means for calculating the magnitude of all organic flows produced in the global production
chain of traded biomass.
Domestic material extraction in Africa has increased by 87 per cent over the past three
decades, but has declined in per capita terms.
Although Africa has very low levels of domestic material extraction per capita, total
domestic material extraction in the region increased from 2.8 billion tons in 1980 to 5.3
billion tons in 2008, representing an approximately 87 per cent increase in resource use over
the past three decades (Table 3). It should be noted that a large part of this increase occurred
after 1995. Furthermore, the increase in material extraction is evident in all material
categories, as well as in most countries in the region. It is interesting to note that the absolute
increase in material extraction in Africa is in line with trends in material extraction at the
global level, although the growth in extraction in the former has been slightly faster than in
the latter. Consequently, Africas share in global extraction increased marginally from 7.5 per
cent in 1980 to 7.8 per cent in 2008.
Table 3. Global and African material extraction, 19802008

1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2008

Global extraction Global


(billions of tons) extraction
(1980=100)
37.9
100.0
40.5
106.8
44.8
118.1
47.9
126.3
52.7
138.8
61.6
162.3
68.1
179.6

African
extraction
(billions of tons)
2.8
3.2
3.4
3.7
4.2
4.9
5.3

African
extraction
(1980=100)
100.0
111.7
121.2
130.9
148.5
173.8
186.8

Africas share in
global extraction
(%)
7.5
7.8
7.7
7.7
8.0
8.0
7.8

Source: UNCTAD (2012b).

While there has been an absolute increase in domestic material extraction in Africa, per
capita extraction decreased by about 8 per cent over the past three decades due largely to high
population growth. Interestingly, Africa also experienced deindustrialization during this
period of declining per capita extraction. The share of manufacturing in Africas GDP fell
from 12 per cent in 1980 to about 10 per cent in 2008. The decline in the share of
manufacturing in GDP is more pronounced in West Africa, where it fell from 17 per cent to 5
per cent. Central Africa also experienced a significant decline, from 12 per cent to 6 per cent
over the same period (UNCTAD and UNIDO, 2011).

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Biomass accounts for over half of the material extraction in Africa, but the share of nonrenewable resources in total material extraction has increased from 38 per cent in 1980 to 47
per cent in 2008. In terms of the categories of materials extracted, biomass (from agriculture,
forestry and fishing) is the most dominant, accounting for 53 per cent of overall material
extraction in Africa in 2008.
However, there has been a significant change in the composition of material extraction in
Africa in recent years, with non-renewable resources playing a relatively more important role
in extraction than in the past. The increase in biomass extraction in Africa from 1.7 to 2.8
billion tons between 1980 and 2008 is mainly driven by an increase in the category of animal
feed, particularly grazing activities, which accounted for 58 per cent of biomass extraction in
2008. The largest extractions for feed in absolute terms are in countries with savannah areas,
where livestock breeding accounts for a high share in total land use. For example, Ethiopia,
Nigeria and Sudan extracted 257, 133 and 228 million tons respectively in 2008, which is 36
per cent of total grazing and 21 per cent of total biomass extraction in Africa. Although
biomass is the dominant form of domestic extraction in the region, its share of domestic
extraction varies across African countries. For example, while biomass is the dominant form
of extraction in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria and Sudan, in countries such as Algeria, Egypt and
Morocco, non-metallic minerals dominate other material categories in terms of domestic
extraction (Table 4).
Table 4. Materials extraction in several African countries in millions of tons
for the year 2008

Algeria
Cameroon
Cte dIvoire
Egypt
Ethiopia
Kenya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Morocco
Nigeria
Senegal
Seychelles
South Africa
Sudan
Togo
Africa
World

Biomass
53.0
59.6
37.4
161.1
358.0
109.7
66.1
24.2
72.8
66.4
347.7
37.6
0.1
178.6
261.5
12.7
2,827.4
18,827.3

Fossil Fuel
145.3
4.6
3.4
76.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
129.5
0.0
0.0
254.7
23.9
0.0
887.4
12,710.4

Metals
2.1
37.4
1.1
1.9
0.9
0.1
0.1
0.0
10.3
2.5
0.4
0.2
0.0
140.4
0.7
3.0
329.0
6,614.2

Others
156.7
0.2
10.3
333.1
20.7
21.7
5.8
4.5
6.8
147.9
67.9
22.5
0.5
127.6
19.9
2.8
1,245.6
29,966.8

Source: UNCTAD (2012b).

Fossil Fuels Are the Dominant Material Export and Import of Africa
Fossil fuels, dominated by petroleum (crude oil), hard coal, and for a short time natural
gas, are African countries main exports in physical terms. After a decrease during the first

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half of the 1980s, exports of fossil fuels reached a peak in 2005, and amounted to 534 million
tons in 2008. The share of fossil fuels in total exports increased from 72 per cent in 1980 to
75 per cent in 2008, which is well above the global average of 50 per cent. In physical terms,
all African countries account for about 10.5 per cent of fossil fuels supply to the world
market. This represents a decline in Africas share relative to the situation in 1980, when the
region accounted for 13.2 per cent of global supply. Metals, clearly dominated by iron ores
and concentrates, and followed by manganese and chromium ores and concentrates, are
Africas second-largest export flows, with around 78 million tons exported in 2008. South
Africa is the dominant exporter, with around 55 million tons of exports in 2008. It is
interesting to note that the share of metal exports in total exports declined from 13 per cent in
1980 to 11 per cent in 2008, due, in part, to rising exports of fossil fuels. Furthermore,
Africas share of global metal exports fell from 8 per cent in 1980 to 3.8 per cent in 2008.
Mineral exports are African countries third-largest export group, with a volume of 52.3
million tons in 2008. The main exporter is Morocco, which mainly exports natural calcium
phosphates and phosphatic chalk, followed by Egypt, Tunisia and South Africa. The share of
mineral exports in Africas total exports decreased from 10 per cent in 1980 to 7 per cent in
2008. At the global level, the share of minerals in total exports has been relatively constant, at
around 12 per cent. In 2008, African countries accounted for around 4.4 per cent of global
mineral exports, compared to 8.8 per cent in 1980. The last material category, biomass, has
the lowest share of African exports. The region exported about 14.5 million tons in 2008,
representing about 2 per cent of total exports. Fruits, timber, products made of biomass (e.g.
paper and paperboards), and crops (e.g. coffee, cocoa and tobacco) are the main biomass
exports (UNCTAD, 2012a).

Africa Is a Net Exporter of Non-Renewable Resources and a Net Importer


of Renewable Resources
An examination of physical trade balances (PTBs) -defined as imports minus exportsindicates that African countries are net suppliers of resources to the world. In 2008, net
exports of materials by the region were 409 million tons, compared to 284 million tons in
1980. According to UNCTAD (2010a) the increase in net exports has been quite high since
2000, reflecting the significant increase in demand for Africas resources by non-African
developing countries such as Brazil, China and India. In terms of material composition,
Africa is a net importer of renewable resources (biomass) and a net exporter of non-renewable
resources. However, within the non-renewable resources material category, it is a net exporter
for fossil fuels and metals and not for non-metallic minerals. In general, the PTBs of Africa is
a reflection of its endowment, production and consumption structure. The region is endowed
with significant amounts of fossil fuels and mineral resources, and so its production and
exports are dominated by resources and resource-based products. The region accounts for 41
% of world reserves of cobalt, 56 % of reserves of diamond, 34 % of reserves of gold, 10 %
of reserves of oil, 12 % of reserves of chromites, and 53 % of reserves of phosphate rock. It
also accounts for significant amounts of the world output of other resources (Table 5).
DMC (domestic material consumption) per capita in Africa is very low compared to the
global average. In 2008, per capita DMC in the region was 5.3 tons, compared to the global
average of 10.4 tons per capita. Furthermore, there has been no significant change in DMC

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per capita in the region, due largely to high population growth. While average per capita
DMC in Asian and Latin American countries increased during the period under consideration,
it decreased slightly in Africa-from 5.6 tons in 1980 to 5.3 tons in 2008. In fact, since 1995,
Africas average per capita DMC has been the lowest, compared to all other regions of the
world. Within Africa, there are countries that have very high DMC per capita. For example,
Seychelles and South Africa have higher DMC per capita than the global average.
Table 5. Africas share of global production and reserves of selected minerals
Mineral
Aluminium
Cement

Share of World
% Reserves
3
-

Share of World
% Production
4
4

Chromites
Coal
Cobalt

12
4
41

37
3
60

Copper

Iron ore
Diamond

1
56

3
49

Gold
Graphite
Lead
Natural gas
Manganese
Oil
Phosphate rock
Raw steel
Uranium

34
0.4
1
8
10
53
15

18
1
3
6
23
12
25
1
17

Main African producer Countries


Mozambique, Egypt, South Africa
Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, Libya,
Tunisia
South Africa, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Sudan
South Africa, Zimbabwe
Democratic Republic of the Congo, South
Africa, Zambia
Zambia, South Africa, Democratic Republic of the
Congo
South Africa, Algeria, Mauritania
South Africa, Botswana, Democratic
Republic of the Congo
South Africa, Ghana, Mali
Zimbabwe, Madagascar
Namibia, South Africa
Algeria, Egypt, Libya
South Africa, Ghana, Gabon
Nigeria, Angola, Algeria, Libya
Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt
South Africa, Egypt, Libya
South Africa, Niger, Namibia

Source: Computed on the basis of data from U.S. Geological Survey, British Petroleum, and OECD.
The level of domestic material consumption (DMC) per capita in Africa is about half the global
average (10.4 tons per capita), and has decreased slightly from 5.6 tons per capita in 1980 to 5.3
tons per capita in 2008.

Energy Use in Africa Is Low and Has Been Increasing Much Less Rapidly
Than Material Use
Energy use in Africa is quite low relative to other regions of the world. For example, in
2009, per capita electricity consumption in Africa was only 561 kilowatt-hours (KWh),
compared to 741 KWh for Asia, 1,884 KWh for Latin America, and 2,730 KWh for the world
(IEA 2011). Although the level of energy use in Africa is low, it increased by about 16.3 per
cent in the period from 1980 to 2008. Interestingly, the increase in energy use observed in
Africa in 19802008 is far below the 92 per cent increase in material use over the same
period (Figure 2).
It should be noted, however, that the low energy use observed in Africa reflects the fact
that the region has a very low level of industrial development. The experience of
industrialized economies suggests that industrialization is typically associated with high use

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of modern energy. This implies that if African countries want to successfully promote
industrial development, they will have to improve access to modern energy and increase its
use.

Figure 2. Trends in GDP, material use and energy use, in Africa, 19802008(Index 1980 = 100) Source:
UNCTAD (2012a).

Africa Has Contributed the Least to Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions


but is the Region Most Affected by Climate Change
Africas contribution to GHG in the atmosphere has been relatively small. In 2009, the
total of CO2 emissions in the region was 928 million tons compared to 10030 million tons and
12045 million tons for Asia and the OECD countries respectively (Table 6). In fact, Africa
accounted for only 3.2 % of global CO2 emissions in 2009, reflecting the fact that it is at a
much lower level of industrial development, and so has lower levels of income and of energy
consumption. In per capita terms, the region emitted 0.9 tons of CO2 per capita in 2009. This
compares with 4.3, 9.8, 2.8 and 2.2 for the world, the OECD countries, Asia, and Latin
America, respectively (IEA 2011). That said, the carbon intensity of output in Africa is higher
than the average for the OECD countries and the world, but less than for Asia and the Middle
East. Within Africa, Libya and South Africa have the highest per capita emissions of CO2. In
2009, they had 7.9 and 7.5 tons per capita respectively, which is higher than the global
average of 4.3 but less than the OECD countries average of 9.8. Other African countries that
have per capita emissions that are higher than the African average of 0.9 include Algeria,
Botswana, Egypt, Gabon, Morocco, Namibia and Tunisia.
With regard to the impact of climate change, recent research indicates that this has and
may continue to have a more severe impact in the region because of Africas geography, its
high level of dependence on agriculture, and the fact that it has less capacity to adapt. Boko et
al. (2007) suggest that the projected reduction in agricultural yields in some African countries
is likely to be as high as 50 % by 2020, and that net crop revenue could decline by as much as

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90 % by 2100. It is also estimated that the proportion of arid and semi-arid lands in the region
may increase by 5-8 % by 2080. Furthermore, the study suggests that between 75 and 250
million people in Africa are expected to be at risk of increased water stress by 2020.
Table 6. Population, output and carbon emissions, across regions in 2009
Population
(millions)
World
OECD
countries
Middle East
Asia
Latin America
Africa
Africa
(share of
global)

CO2 emissions
(Mt of CO2)

CO2 per capita


(t of CO2 / capita)

CO2 / GDP
(Kg CO2/2000$)

6,761
1,225

GDP
(Billions of
2000 $)
39,674
29,633

28,999
12,045

4.3
9.8

0.7
0.4

195
3,546
451
1,009
15 %

782
5,655
1,957
896
2.3 %

1,509
10,030
975
928
3.2 %

7.8
2.8
2.2
0.9

1.9
1.8
0.5
1.0

Source: International Energy Agency (2011), Key World Energy Statistics. Notes: Mt = million tons; t
= metric ton; kg = kilogram.

Other studies have estimated the impact of climate change in Africa too, and have arrived
at qualitatively similar results (Boyd and Tompkins, 2009). For example, Wheeler (2011)
provides an estimate of the vulnerability of countries to climate change resulting from
increasing weather-related disasters, sea-level rise, and loss of agricultural productivity. The
results show that the loss of agricultural productivity will be higher in Africa compared to
other regions. In particular, the loss is expected to be higher in Central Africa, with a loss in
agricultural productivity over the period 20082050 of as much as 20 %. Collier, Conway and
Venables (2008) have also argued that Africa is likely to be affected more severely by climate
change than other regions.
The loss of biological diversity - encompassing the total variety of plant and animal
species- is increasingly a major concern for African governments and the international
community. Africas social and economic systems depend heavily on the continents rich and
varied biological resources. These resources are important sources of food, energy,
medicines, and clean air and water. They also contribute to industrial production,
construction, tourism and psychological well-being. Africa accounts for one third of global
biodiversity. In particular, one quarter of the worlds mammal species and one fifth of the
existing species of birds are in Africa. Furthermore, the region is home to between 40,000 and
60000 plant species. Despite its rich biological resources, there are indications that human
activities have led to significant declines in biodiversity in Africa. It is estimated that over
120 plant species in the region are extinct, and that about 1771 are under threat. African
forests are also disappearing at an alarming rate, and several birds and animal species are
either under threat or have been driven to extinction (UNEP, 2008 and 2010). For example, in
Egypt, the expansion of economic activities is creating significant hazards to birds. In
Comoros and Seychelles, large numbers of bird species are now classified as endangered. In
Somalia, overhunting, drought and loss of habitat have resulted in a significant reduction in
the species of long-necked antelopes (gerenuks). Africa is also experiencing a decline in its
fish stocks, because of illegal fishing by foreign vessels coupled with excessive fishing by

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Antonis A. Zorpas

local fishermen and legal commercial fleets. It is estimated that illegal fishing costs Africa
about $1 billion every year (United Nations, 2009). In recent years, efforts have been made at
different levels to protect Africas biodiversity through an increase in the number of protected
areas. However, the percentage of protected areas remains low in a large number of countries.
In 2009, the proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected to total territorial area was
less than 10 % in 31 of the 54 African countries. In particular, the ratio of protected to total
area was less than 1 per cent in Djibouti, Lesotho, Libya, Mauritius, Seychelles and Somalia.
Land degradation - defined as a reduction in the capacity of the land to provide
ecosystem goods and services over a period of time - is one of the key environmental
sustainability challenges facing the Africa region. UNEP (2008) argues that 65 % of Africas
agricultural land, 31 % of its pasture lands, and 19 % of its forests and woodlands are
degraded. Furthermore, Requier-Desjardins (2006) shows that the economic cost of land
degradation in Africa ranges from 1-18 % of GDP. Land degradation has very serious
consequences for Africa, given its heavy dependence on its natural resource base. Although
natural events (such as droughts) can exacerbate land degradation, it is generally assumed that
the main causes are deforestation, desertification, erosion (water and wind), and poor
agricultural practices such as the unbridled use of irrigation and fertilizers. However, it should
be noted that high population growth (and hence density) are important drivers of these
human activities associated with land degradation. Although Africa has a significant amount
of forest resources, it also has a very high rate of deforestation. In 2010, Africas forest area
was 674 million hectares, representing 16.7 % of the worlds total forest area of about 4
billion hectares. However, the region lost about 10 % of its forest area between 1990 and
2010. A large part of this loss occurred in the period 1990-2000 when the total forest area
declined by 4.1 million hectares per year, compared with a decline of 3.4 million hectares per
year in the period 20002010. In fact, Africa and South America are the only regions in the
world where forests are disappearing at a rapid rate. South America lost about 4 million
hectares of forest area per year between 2000 and 2010 (United Nations, 2011). Within
Africa, Burundi, Comoros, Ghana, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Togo and Uganda are the
countries with the highest net loss of forest area in percentage terms. However, in absolute
terms, the most significant losses were observed in Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, the United Republic of Tanzania, and Zimbabwe.
The main causes of deforestation in Africa are logging, land conversion for agriculture and
settlements, wildfires, cutting for firewood and charcoal, and civil unrest (UNEP, 2008).

Water Use and Sustainability in African Countries


Water scarcity and stress are major environmental sustainability challenges in Africa.
UNEP (2008) suggests that over 300 million people in Africa experience water scarcity and
that by 2025, eighteen countries in the region will experience water stress. A country is
considered to face water scarcity if it has less than 1000 cubic meters of water available per
person in a given year. In the case of water stress, the threshold is 1700 cubic meters. In 2007,
renewable internal freshwater resources per capita were less than 1,000 cubic metres in the
following African countries: Algeria, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea,
Kenya, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tunisia and
Zimbabwe. In terms of absolute water withdrawals, Egypt, Madagascar, Nigeria and Sudan

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are the African countries with annual freshwater withdrawals of more than 10 billion cubic
metres over the period 2000-2005. Furthermore, in 2008, only 60 % of the population of subSaharan Africa had sustainable access to an improved water source, compared with 92 % in
North Africa. An increase in water consumption and withdrawal, due largely to population
growth and decreasing water supply, are the main reasons for water scarcity and stress in
Africa. In general, water consumption and withdrawal could be for agriculture, industrial or
domestic use. However, given Africas low level of industrial development, a large part of
water use is for agriculture (Table 7). Nevertheless, there are differences across countries in
terms of the importance of these sectors in water use. For example, in Lesotho 40 per cent of
water use is in industry, and in Seychelles and Togo, domestic use accounts for 65 per cent
and 53 per cent of water use respectively.
Table 7. Depletion and Forest Area in Africa

Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
Dem. Rep. of Congo
Cte d'Ivoire
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique

Agricultural
64.9
60.0
45.4
41.2
86.3
77.1
73.7
90.9
4.0
82.6
47.0
8.7
30.6
64.5
86.4
0.9
94.5
93.6
41.7
65.4
66.4
90.1
82.3
79.2
20.0
54.5
82.8
95.7
80.2
90.1
88.2
67.7
87.4
87.3

Industrial
13.2
17.1
23.1
18.0
0.8
5.9
8.1
1.8
16.0
5.0
21.7
16.7
11.8
5.9
15.7
0.2
0.4
8.3
11.8
9.7
2.0
4.6
3.7
40.0
18.2
3.1
1.5
5.0
0.9
2.9
2.8
2.9
1.6

Domestic
21.9
22.9
31.5
40.7
13.0
17.0
18.2
7.3
80.0
17.4
48.0
69.6
52.8
23.7
7.8
83.3
5.3
6.0
50.0
22.9
23.9
7.9
13.1
17.2
40.0
27.3
14.1
2.8
14.9
9.0
8.8
29.5
9.8
11.1

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Table 7. (Continued)

Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
World
Source: FAO, Statistical Yearbook 2010.

Agricultural
71.0
95.4
68.8
68.0
93.0
7.3
92.1
99.5
62.7
96.7
96.5
45.0
76.0
40.0
89.4
75.9
78.9
70.0

Industrial
4.7
0.5
10.1
8.0
2.6
27.6
2.6
0.1
6.0
0.7
1.2
2.4
3.9
16.7
0.5
7.5
7.1
20.0

Domestic
24.3
4.1
21.1
24.0
4.4
65.0
5.3
0.5
31.2
2.7
2.3
52.7
12.8
43.3
10.2
16.7
14.0
10.0

CONCLUSION
Where should Africa fit into this global context? How should African policymakers
position themselves in relation to negotiation of such a global consensus on material resource
use? What national policies should they adopt in relation to the decoupling of natural resource
use and environmental impacts from economic growth?
From the outset, it must be stressed that given the current living standards of the majority
of the population in Africa and also the urgency of creating jobs for its growing young labour
force, it is critical that African countries seek to achieve accelerated economic growth and a
type of economic growth that maximizes broad-based improvements in human well-being.
Notions of no growth or degrowth, which are sometimes put forward in sustainability debates,
are simply not relevant in Africa.
Given this development imperative, one option for African countries would be to
prioritize economic growth, catching up and structural transformation, ignoring
environmental constraints, a strategy some describe as grow now, clean up later. Not only
are the livings standards of the majority of the population in Africa extremely low but levels
of material consumption are too. It could be argued therefore that there is scope for Africa to
go for economic growth without the continent impinging unfairly on global ecological
sustainability. Further, taking account of the environment now may be costly and thus could
slow down economic growth and poverty reduction. This would occur, for example, if the
adoption of decoupling policies forces producers to use more expensive or less productive
technologies. It is difficult to make estimates of the additional costs associated with structural
transformation with decoupling policies, compared with structural transformation with no
decoupling. However, such costs are recognized as significant in the economic debate on

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climate change mitigation, which is conceptualized in terms of the additional short-term


investment costs required to offset the long-term costs of different degrees of climate change.
Since most of Africas infrastructure will be built in the next decades, the continent faces
today the chance of developing in a clean and efficient manner.

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Boyd, E., and Tompkins, E. (2009). Climate change: A beginners guide. Oneworld
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Collier, P., Conway, G., and Venables, T. (2008). Climate change and Africa (Summer 2008).
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Haberl, H., Erb, K., and Krausmann, F. (2010). Global Human Appropriation of Net Primary
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Munasinghe, M., and Shearer, W. (1995). Defining and Measuring Sustainability: The
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Washington D.C.

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 8

RECONCILING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT


WITH NATURE CONSERVATION
THE NATURA 2000 PARADIGM
Maria Zomeni
Open University of Cyprus, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences,
Environmental Conservation and Management, Cyprus

ABSTRACT
The continuous loss of biodiversity has mobilized the international community
towards the formulation and implementation of conventional frameworks for the
conservation of biodiversity across all scales. The Natura 2000 network is the European
Unions major contribution to implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity for
the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in protected areas, by setting up wellmanaged national and regional systems of protected sites on land and in marine areas.
Natura 2000 is an example of mixed blessing in nature conservation with documented
successes and failures, responsible not only for intensifying existing conflicts between
sustainable economic development and biodiversity conservation, but for creating new
ones as well. The top-down approach on designating and managing the Natura 2000 sites,
the lack of transparency and landowners involvement, the inadequate cross-sectoral
coordination and poor funding are the foremost important factors impeding the
implementation of the process hitherto. Nature protection is strongly affected by decision
making in other sectors and so far the insufficient integration of biodiversity issues into
broader policies, strategies, programmes and actions, is largely responsible for failing to
halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010. Future challenges in reconciling sustainable
economic development with nature conservation at all ecological and administrative
levels dictate the need for a better understanding of the underlying drivers of conflict that
lead to biodiversity loss, along with new approaches to governance, management and
physical planning in protected areas and their surrounding landscapes. Protected areas
worldwide have a valuable contribution to the efforts for halting the loss of biodiversity
whilst their role as instruments in ensuring sustainability is strategic. Thus, for landscapes

Email: maria.zomeni@ouc.ac.cy.

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Maria Zomeni
with balanced socio-economic development and nature conservation in the present and
most importantly for the future, more work is needed to earn local communities support
and appreciation for the benefits brought by protected areas whilst providing them the
opportunity to be included in their management.

1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development, a concept introduced in the Brundtland Report, has been
dominating the global agenda for more than two decades (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
eussd/), aspiring to ensure a socially balanced and environmentally sustainable model for
economic development that will improve the living conditions for humans whilst
safeguarding the natural environment for the present and more importantly for the future
(WCED, 1987). Many conceptual frameworks are available aiming to define, explain and
represent the three commonly accepted components of sustainability and their interrelations.
The three pillars of sustainability i.e. economy, society and the environment are usually
depicted in the triple-bottom-line with intercepting circles (Elkington, 1997), while recently
new concepts have been introduced such as the 3-D sustainability concept (Mauerhofer,
2008) and the five-dimensional sustainability framework that includes space, time (fourth
dimension), persons (a fifth human dimension), and the relationships amid them (Seghezzo,
2009) (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Conceptual frameworks of sustainability (Elkington, 1997; Mauerhofer, 2008; Seghezzo,


2009).

The multitude of different frameworks, along with issues of time, scale and context
perplexing the decision making process even more, basically underline the great difficulty of

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setting sustainability as a goal in explicit terms (Dobson, 1996). In most frameworks


sustainability is situated at the intersection of the three pilars incorporating some balance of
economic, environmental and social priorities. Differences are found not so much in their
constituents but in how they might put more weight to any of the three poles i.e. if one
component of sustainability is considered or pursued as more important than the other, and
whether these are treated as interdependent or if they are pursued separately. As a result, the
suitability of such frameworks for solving environmental, economic and social problems is
still examined (Connelly, 2007; Mauerhofer, 2008; Seghezzo, 2009).
A wide range of EU policies exist addressing the socio-economic, and environmental
dimensions of sustainability, however, synergies among them are frequently lacking, leading
to longstanding conflicts and unsustainable trends (Sarvaov et al., 2012). Biodiversity
conservation strategy has a long precedence of setting aside protected areas, with a major
contribution to biodiversity protection and human well-being. However, despite the progress
reached with presently more than 150,000 designated protected areas covering 12.7% of the
worlds terrestrial area and 1.6% of its seas (http://www.wdpa.org/), the situation does not
feature entirely sustainable. This mainly stems from the exclusion of local people from the
protected areas, which are then planned and managed centrally by the government as
protected islands isolated from their biogeographical surroundings whilst disregarding the
wider ecological, economic, social and political driving forces affecting them (Crofts, 2004;
Apostolopoulou & Pantis, 2010). Nature protection in particular is a policy sector extremely
influenced by decision making in other sectors such as forestry, water management, rural
development, and energy (Young et al., 2005). In effect, one of the reasons for not achieving
the target of halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010 is the insufficient integration of
biodiversity related issues into broader policies, strategies, programmes and actions and hence
the failure to address the underlying drivers of biodiversity loss (COM, 2011).
The establishment of an ecological network of special protected areas, known as Natura
2000 stands out as the leading firm legal act for biodiversity conservation at European level
(COM, 2011). Currently, Natura 2000 covers almost 18% of EU land area and more than
130,000 km2 of its seas. The network is composed of Special Areas of Conservation (SAC),
designated under the Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC), and of Special
Protection Areas (SPAs), designated under the Birds Directive (Council Directive
79/409/EEC) (Figure 2), and aspires to a favourable conservation status for Europes natural
habitats and wild species.
The Birds and Habitats Directives offer an integrated legal framework for the
identification and protection of sites of high biodiversity value thereby contributing to the
achievement of international biodiversity policy commitments such as the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), whilst for the first time standardized ecological monitoring of
biodiversity becomes legally binding (EC, 2006). The Directives have been of major
contribution to the realization of the sustainable development strategy through their
provisions aiming for solutions that compromise economic development and rational use of
natural resources (Young et al., 2005; IEEP, 2013). Guidelines are continuously developed
towards improving the chances that the Natura 2000 network of protected areas will
effectively stop biodiversity loss.
But how does the Natura 2000 network work in practice? What kind of economic
development is considered acceptable/sustainable and how is the fate of any planned activity
in or close to Natura 2000 sites ultimately judged? What sort of problems rise during the

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implementation of Natura 2000 and what are the drivers of conflict between nature
conservation and development? These questions, dominating the European agenda, are
introduced in the next sections followed by some examples of balanced nature conservation
and economic development and future challenges.

Figure 2. The Natura 2000 network across the EU; SCIs (Habitats Directive sites) are shown in blue
and SPAs (Birds Directive sites) in red (http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/).

2. SPATIAL PLANNING IN NATURA 2000


The Habitats Directive is viewed as the comprehensive and effective tool that can bring
to a halt biodiversity loss on a European wide scale by pursuing a fair balance between nature
conservation and economic development in Natura 2000 areas. People and economic
activities, including sustainable farming, tourism, fishing, forestry, sustainable hunting,

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recreation and infrastructure projects, are not ruled out of the sites that are part of the Natura
2000 network (Bastian et al., 2010). Instead, they are allowed to the extent that they can be
reconciled with the nature conservation priorities of the Natura 2000 site for the protection of
species and their habitats without causing harm. On the contrary, the scheme does not endorse
planned activities that are ascertained to put the sites conservation objectives in danger and
for this purpose assessment reports, called Appropriate Assessment (AA) reports, have to be
prepared before decision-making. Judging the impact of human activities on Natura 2000
sites is not an easy task, whereas uncertainty due to insufficient knowledge, the stochasticity
of natural systems and the sciencepolicy debate (Opdam et al., 2009) impede the process
further. In fact, the Habitats Directive has received much criticism particularly for its vague
definition of sustainable development (Pinton, 2001). Nevertheless, the Habitats Directive
makes implicit use of the precautionary principle by stating that the conservation objectives
of the Natura 2000 site must prevail where there is uncertainty. Article 6 of Habitats Directive
(reconciling Natura 2000 and development) sets out the decision-making process to be
followed for planned projects, by promoting a hierarchy of avoidance, mitigation and
compensatory measures (EC, 2002). In other words, the aim of the AA process is to avoid or
mitigate negative impacts of the project so that it can be carried out without harming the
Natura 2000 site (Article 6.3). However, a plan or project assessed negative, can proceed if
there are no alternative solutions and the plan or project is considered to be of overriding
public interest. In such cases the negative effects must be compensated (Article 6.4).

3. CONFLICTS BETWEEN NATURE CONSERVATION


AND DEVELOPMENT WHAT DRIVES THESE CONFLICTS?
Undeniably, the somewhat strict regulations of human activities inside protected areas
have been beneficial for biodiversity and nature conservation worldwide (e.g. Bastian et al.,
2010); alas they are also responsible for creating social conflicts (Grodzinska-Jurczak & Cent,
2011). Continuing biodiversity loss at global level, has urged scientists to identify the drivers
responsible for the conflicts between human activities and biodiversity conservation and
encourage their management. The Natura 2000 network is an example of mixed blessing in
nature conservation because despite numerous socio-economic benefits (IEEP, 2013) it is
responsible for intensifying standing conflicts between sustainable economic activities and
biodiversity conservation and for creating new ones as well (Hiedanp, 2002; Rosa & da
Silva, 2005; Young et al., 2005; Apostolopoulou & Pantis, 2010). Human activities are not
excluded altogether, but the Birds and Habitats Directives do force constraints on land use
and management practices in a site (Sarvaov et al., 2012), or activities such as fishing or
hunting and they specify where economic exploitation is possible and where other priorities
regarding the protection of species or habitats prevail (Krott et al., 2000).
The implementation of the Directives has been problematic in many EU member states
from the very beginning. The centralised character of the programme, namely the top-down
approach on designating and managing the Natura 2000 sites, with no transparency and
landowners involvement has been the main responsible factor impeding the effective
implementation of the Natura 2000 network and generating multilevel conflicts across the EU
(Alphandry & Fortier, 2001; Paavola, 2004; Beunen, 2006; Apostolopoulou & Pantis, 2009).

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Typical clashes occur during the designation of site boundaries, in cases where nature
conservation is to be forced on private land and over the management restrictions within the
sites (Krott et al, 2000; Visser et al., 2007; Grodzinska-Jurczak & Cent, 2011). One of the
most extreme examples of opposition occurred in Finland, where local landowners went on
hunger strike to protest against the designation of a specific area (Hiedanp, 2002). The
hunger strike received ample public attention and resulted in the withdrawal of almost half the
areas from the Natura 2000 proposal.
Inadequate cross-sectoral coordination is also a factor responsible for the problematic
implementation of the Directives leading to failed enterprises of joint sustainable
development and biodiversity protection (e.g. Papageorgiou & Vogiatzakis, 2006; Sarvaov
et al., 2012). Nature conservation cannot be pursued as a detached policy goal, but has to be
incorporated into other interrelated land-use policies in order to bring the anticipated
outcomes. Poor funding is also considered accountable since thus far, within Natura 2000 no
attractive compensation programme has been developed for the owners of private land that is
included in the network (with only some exceptions e.g. Alphandry & Fortier 2001). The
case of Schinias, a Greek Natura 2000 site and also a national park and Olympic canoeing
centre, is a case of conflict between development and conservation as well as a failed example
of collaborative governance for sustainability as the government deliberately concealed the
environmental and socioeconomic consequences of the project during the assessment process
in order to launch the event as `Green Olympics' (Apostolopoulou & Pantis, 2010).
Major drivers of biodiversity conflicts in Europe include agricultural and silvicultural
intensification, land abandonment, recreation and hunting, alongside with policies for
agriculture and forestry (Young et al., 2005). The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the
oldest common policy of the EU and probably the most controversial, accountable for the
polarity between high-intensity agriculture and land abandonment (Zomeni et al., 2008).
Despite CAP reforms aiming to decouple subsidies from agricultural production, conflicts are
common between farmers and conservationists. The case of turloughs in Ireland, a marginal
grazing land of high ecological value also included in Natura 2000 as a Priority Habitat
(Annex I of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC) is such an example (Visser et al., 2007).
Forestry and Natura 2000 interact, in such a way that for both to coexist one must not
negatively affect the other. The Birds and Habitats Directives are the major EU laws for the
conservation of high nature value forests. Conflicts with protection of forest biodiversity in
Europe are mostly due to changing demands concerning forests and forestry, changes in
ownership patterns, transportation systems and planning strategies, along with a futile
compensation process that so far has failed to provide sufficient payments for the restricted
management of forest land in protected areas (Young et al., 2005; Mola-Yudego & Gritten,
2010). Although the designation of forest areas in the Natura 2000 focuses on implementing
activities that are compatible with habitats and species conservation without banning all
economic activities in and around forests, still, conflicts between users (owners) and nonusers (ecologists/conservationists) do arise. Examples exist when human activity and in
particular forestry is considerably limited or even banned in Natura 2000 sites e.g. in Slovakia
where non-intervention zones have been imposed (Sarvaov et al., 2012).
Tourism is consistently referred to as one of the biggest threats to nature conservation and
protected areas, yet one of the largest opportunities to provide additional funding for local
people and protected areas (Bonilla-Moheno & Garca-Frapolli, 2012; IEEP, 2013). Although
ecotourism may represent one of the best options for the economic improvement in protected

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areas by creating investment opportunities and employment, however, experience so far has
shown that balancing the socioeconomic benefits and the costs in biodiversity conservation
has not been as fertile as anticipated (Lpez-Espinosa de los Monteros, 2002). Among the
negative impacts of tourism are vegetation trampling, wildlife disturbance, littering, transfer
of pathogens and weeds, exportation of protected and endangered species, climate change and
dissemination of invasive species (Pickering & Hill, 2007).
Failed examples of coupling sustainable development and biodiversity conservation are
also related to the wind energy problem and the trend of European energy policy toward
sustainable renewable energies. Suitable locations for wind farms can, and often do, overlap
with regions of special environmental status (Ariza-Montobbio & Farrell, 2012) and have
documented effects on nature and biodiversity, such as disturbing birds and bats.
And the list of conflicts continues. But how do we move on and turn conflict into
compromise?

4. CONFLICT RESOLUTION
People are positive towards nature conservation and do not usually oppose such activities
given they do not affect their constitutional right to use their land, and profit from economic
development (Young et al., 2005; Allendorf, 2007; Bonilla-Moheno & Garca-Frapolli, 2012).
The fears and doubts of local people about nature conservation activities either justified or
merely ascribed to ignorance, can play a major role in nature conservation by affecting their
acceptance for the protected areas boundaries or management restrictions. Overlooking the
cultural differences of various stakeholders including local communities, or the mechanisms
and drivers of biodiversity loss is most certain to result in conflict. Obviously, being proactive
is important seeing that averting the rise of a conflict is more sensible and can be more
effective that trying to resolve it. This can be achieved by increasing our understanding of the
requirements of the habitats and species affected, and the social and cultural context of both
the potential conflict and the options for managing it (Alessa et al., 2008; Bouwma et al.,
2010; Mola-Yudego & Gritten, 2010). In order to reach a sustainable management of conflict,
the components of conflict must be identified at an early stage, and the early involvement of
all key stakeholders must be supplemented with effective two-way communication and
knowledge sharing between parties, awareness raising and supported processes for their
continued involvement (Krott et al., 2000; Berkes, 2009). The public has to be included in the
decision making process and have a genuine opportunity to express their own views on the
aims of planning, the alternatives available and expected impacts. Public participation is
encouraged towards a more democratic policy making process anticipated to alleviate existing
conflicts between development and conservation (Apostolopoulou & Pantis, 2009; Buono et
al., 2012).
Legislation also has a prevalent role in conflict management. In Europe, policies
providing incentives for biodiversity conservation and directives carrying legislation for the
conservation of biodiversity are used in attempts to reduce conflicts. The most important
incentives are agri-environmental schemes that have been in place under the CAP by
reallocating financial incentives that encourage environmental measures rather than
production support. Despite the negative side of CAP and its role in creating conflicts

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between farmers and conservationists, these schemes have been recorded with biological
benefits e.g. increase in population numbers of sensitive species (Kleijn et al., 2006), as well
as social benefits such as extending knowledge networks (Mills, 2012). Visser et al. (2007)
highlight the importance of communication as it allows for genuine bottom up decisionmaking in agri-environmental policies. They also propose a marketing approach that values
agricultural produce from marginal land for its intrinsic qualities; this has the potential to turn
the conflict between production and conservation into a compromise. However, what is
troubling is the recognition that balancing biodiversity conservation and agricultural
production outside Natura 2000, or other protected areas in general, seems rather idealistic
since the proper rural practices for maintaining a favourable conservation status of high
nature value farmland in Natura 2000 are not expected to be adopted or continued outside the
network particularly in those areas focusing on food production. This highlights the
importance of incorporating nature conservation goals into other relevant policies for
sustainable land use.
Sustainable tourism is used extensively as a framework for balancing economic
development and biodiversity conservation. It is promoted and supported though several
European initiatives with explicit reference to the protection of endangered habitats and
species. The Protected Area Network (PAN Parks) (http://www.panparks.org) and The
European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas (http://www.europeancharter.org) are the two most relevant initiatives offering a framework for synergy between
nature conservation and sustainable tourism in Natura 2000 sites. Tourism, by bringing
economic benefits to local communities, can win more local support for the designation and
management of Natura 2000 sites. By promoting and increasing accessibility to specific sites
and aspects of nature it can also contribute to a wider understanding and appreciation of
nature conservation while at the same time it improves the management of visitors and
minimizes adverse impacts from visitor pressure (EC, 2001).
In the case of infrastructure plans, environmental assessments can help solve or reduce
conflicts by identifying early on the causes of potential clashes and searching for alternative
solutions. Therefore, environmental assessments can help avert negative effects of a project,
both long-term and short-term (EC, 2002).
Moreover, one must not overlook the significant role of scientific research and
knowledge in conflict identification, management and monitoring (Opdam, 2009; MolaYudego & Gritten, 2010).

5. BALANCING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT


AND NATURE-BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
The Habitats Directive is regarded as a promising framework to address the biodiversity
loss crisis flexible enough to recognize the interplay between the needs of biodiversity and the
needs of economic development, by encouraging and allowing sustainable economic planning
and practice. A range of good examples are available of it working in practice by stopping illjudged development proposals and prompting consideration of alternative solutions (EC,
2001; Bouwma et al., 2010). Low intensity agricultural practices in or close to Natura 2000

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network sites that help maintain a favourable conservation status for these sites is one of
many such examples (e.g. Litskas et al., 2013).
The merging of development and conservation has given rise in the past few years to
community-based natural resource management (Berkes, 2009). Pacheco et al. (2012) use a
case study from Senegal to present different ways on sustainable resource conservation in
Community Nature Reserves. The examples offered prove that, combining local peoples'
traditional knowledge of their environment and scientific knowledge can lead to increased
biodiversity and better management of the protected areas, whilst at the same time it improves
socioeconomic development and human well-being. Live fencing, namely linear strips of
planted trees, is presented as an alternative to current fencing options with numerous benefits
such as the protection of high-value agricultural products, the trade of live fencing byproducts that offers communities direct income, and biodiversity protection by providing
habitat and movement corridors to birds and other animal groups.
Ecologically based land-use planning is strategic but considering the wide range of
conflicting land uses in the present and the uncertainty entailed in projecting different landuse settings in the future, essentially connecting nature and development is not an easy task at
the landscape scale. The two networks strategy is proposed as a new sustainable way of
development that represents a blue and grey approach (as opposed to the red and green
approach i.e. the culture vs. nature paradigm), in which carrying structures constitute a frame
for economic and ecological processes. The Chaining Waters case described in Tjallingii
(2000) shows the potential of using the water and traffic networks as instruments of spatial
planning for sustainable development. The traffic network is seen as a carrier of
manufacturing industry, trade and commerce, mass recreation and most types of agriculture,
whilst the water network is seen as a carrier of functions like quiet recreation and wildlife, for
sustainable production of drinking water etc. With this approach ecology can function as a
tool for working with nature in all land-use functions; away from the strict nature vs. urban
model and forward collaborative nature conservation.
The concept of coupled socialecological systems (SES), with a long history in resourcedependent societies but rather novel to the West world, is proposed as a tool with managerial
and ecological implications (Alessa et al., 2008). The method, by being transparent and more
inclusive of the communities of interest, focuses on avoiding rather than trying to resolve
conflict. Socialecological hotspots i.e. areas where physical and ecological values overlap
those perceived by people (i.e. aesthetic, cultural, economic, historic, recreation and
wilderness values), are spatially denoted as a first step towards developing sustainable land
management plans. The approach carries the potential to cope with the complexities of the
systems and changing social values and emphasizes the crucial role of areas with lower risk
of conflict for conservation called SES warm spots, as they are characterized by high
ecological value and low expressed social value.

6. SUSTAINABILITY: WHAT ARE THE FUTURE CHALLENGES?


The sustainability of development has been criticized at large; contradictory opinions
antagonize in the decision making arena regarding which societal needs sustainable
development should aim for (Dobson, 1996; Ariza-Montobbio & Farrell, 2012). Others fear

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that both the vague character and the anthropocentrism of the concept that favors economic
benefits over environmental or social ones could lead to policy making with detrimental
consequences for environmental sustainability and social justice (e.g. Pinton, 2001; Rosa &
da Silva, 2005). Although the three components of sustainability are commonly accepted, it is
extremely difficult if not impossible to define true sustainable development by different
parties/actors fighting for conflicting land-uses (Connelly, 2007; Mauerhofer, 2008). The
strong competition between different land-uses is the ultimate predicament in conservation in
our fast changing landscapes, because apparently only certain human activities and land uses
may be suited for sustainable and resilient systems.
The Natura 2000 network is viewed as a starting point in the process of land-use
allocation and regulation, giving the opportunity to stakeholders to interact and negotiate
(Bouwma et al., 2010). However, because of the multitude of interests involved, sustainable
outcomes risk being a fantasy, unless more attention is drawn to the human/landscape
relation. It is now a commonly shared belief that managing biodiversity protection has to be
complemented with significantly more effective interdisciplinary initiatives that involve the
widest possible group of actors at various levels (Paavola, 2004; Grodzinska-Jurczak & Cent,
2011). Successful conservation enterprises, including Natura 2000, require the active
participation of local communities as well as other members of society (e.g. tourists) in the
decision-making processes and the management of protected sites (Berkes, 2009; Buono et
al., 2012). It is crucial that planners and decision makers have a concrete idea about the
perceptions and attitudes of local communities in relation to economic development
combined with biodiversity conservation and their willingness to get involved in such joint
efforts (Allendorf, 2007). Public support and full transparency are necessary for the scheme to
succeed. Inter-sectoral coordination and collaboration are essential for sustainable solutions
(Papageorgiou & Vogiatzakis, 2006), building more effective relationships and
communication between science, policy and justice (Bonilla-Moheno & Garca-Frapolli,
2012). The effective integration of nature conservation goals and biodiversity concerns in all
EU land planning policies (Beunen, 2006; Sarvaov et al., 2012; Litskas et al., 2013) is of
crucial importance for environmentally and socially sustainable solutions.
Finally, harmonizing nature and biodiversity conservation with sustainable development
has much to benefit from using the EU programmes resources more efficiently, particularly
by wider and more active participation in communication programmes such as the LIFE+
programme (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life) (Krott et al., 2000). The LIFE+ programme
plays an important role in the practical implementation of EUs biodiversity policy goals as
expressed in the EU Biodiversity Action Plan and the Birds and Habitats Directives (Silva et
al., 2009). It works as a tool for integrated land use planning and nature conservation that
does not reject development and by better informing all groups of people about Natura 2000 it
can reduce opposition and conflict and improve the schemes success through the continuous
documentation and exchange of experiences and best practices.

CONCLUSION
Sustainability is commonly placed at the intersection of three pillars combining
economic, environmental and social priorities, aiming for them to coexist, in balance and with

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consideration for future generations (Connelly, 2007; Seghezzo, 2009). But how realistic or
practical is it aiming equally for social equity, environmental sustainability and economic
growth? Moreover, considering issues of scale, time and changing social values it becomes
easier to comprehend the underlying difficulty in defining sustainable development
accurately. Nonetheless, the continued loss of biodiversity worldwide forces us to distance
ourselves from trying to explain sustainable development in strict terms and invest more time
and effort to gaining better understanding of the manifold objectives of sustainability. In the
case of nature conservation, the guiding principle of sustainable development that certain
development activities can secure environmental sustainability, highlights its role as a
strategy for environmental sustainability (Dobson, 1996). However, sustainable development
must be defined in the context of specific areas and objectives, depending on the priorities in
place. In addition, signs of conflict between development and conservation can be
constructively used as they can provide guidelines for sustainable development in the future.
The Birds and Habitats Directives have increased the scope for nature conservationists to take
legal action against plans and projects with possible negative effects on nature values. In the
vast majority of cases, with careful planning and involvement of all stakeholders early in the
development debates, harmful activities are avoided, alternative solutions are found and
negative impacts are compensated (Bouwma et al., 2010). However, the sustainability of
current practices and the longevity of recent successes in nature-biodiversity conservation
will be an ongoing matter of examination to be appraised ultimately by future generations.

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 9

NATURAL VEGETATION AS A KEY


TO SUSTAINABILITY OF AGROECOSYSTEMS
D. J. Bilalis, I. S. Travlos and P. Papastylianou
Laboratory of Agronomy, Faculty of Crop Science,
Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT
Genetic resources of wild species are often used as donors of valuable characters for
cultivated species. Furthermore, natural vegetation creates a safe habitat for many
beneficial organisms and often has an exceptional medicinal and aromatic interest. Many
wild species are already used as human or domestic animal food especially when grown
under extremely unfavourable conditions, while some of them can be also used as
phytoremediants to collect and remove toxic substances such as heavy metals from the
environment. In the bottom of the line, the presence of rich and diverse natural vegetation
can be potentially useful and provide sustainability to agroecosystems. Moreover, in all
similar approaches, the potential economic value of the in situ conservation and
management of natural vegetation and genetic resources is a realistic challenge and
should not be overlooked, especially for regions with exceptional biodiversity like the
Mediterranean basin.

1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, there is a big discussion about the worth of natural vegetation not only for the
environment but also for the agroecosystems themselves. Therefore, a balance between
conservation of diverse natural vegetation but in a way that would not harm but rather benefit
the main crop is of major importance for enabling farmers to move towards more sustainable
land use options. Interest in integrated approaches to crop and pest (including natural
vegetation) management should be driven not only by declining crop prices coupled with

email: bilalis@aua.gr.

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increased input costs but also by consumer concerns about the environment, and health effects
of pesticides. In particular, Integrated Weed Management (IWM) essentially means the
integration of several practices, to reduce the negative impact of weeds on crops (Anderson,
2007). Weed management in agriculture aimed at the reduction of herbicide use needs to
comprise multiple strategies, among them the use of plant species with improved competitive
traits or enhanced allelopathic activity and the maintenance of natural vegetation among the
lines of perennial crops (Jordan, 1993; Christensen, 1995; Didon and Hansson, 2002; Travlos
et al., 2008; 2011).
Especially some specific regions, such as the Mediterranean Basin, are among the
worlds richest places in terms of plant diversity. The Mediterranean is particularly noted for
the diversity of its plants, since more than 20,000 species are native to the region, and more
than half of these are endemic. Consequently, the Mediterranean is recognized as one of the
first Global Biodiversity Hotspots (Myers et al., 2000; Cuttelod et al., 2008) and this is an
additional reason for higher attention to be paid to the management of natural vegetation in
the agroecosystems.

2. BENEFITS OF NATURAL VEGETATION


Wild plants with their presence often protect the soil against water and wind erosion,
which is especially important on slopes, where many orchards or other perennial crops are
planted. This is crucial especially for several vulnerable Mediterranean regions. Natural
vegetation also protects the soil against mechanical compaction, since bare soil is much more
prone to compaction than soil covered by plants. Polygonum aviculare L. is an example of a
plant which grows very well on compacted soil. Weeds, especially members of Fabaceae
family are sources of organic matter and nitrogen for the soil, which improves soil properties
(Travlos, 2013). Under that point of view, plants such as Medicago arabica, M. polymorpha,
Trifolium repens, T. pratense, Vicia villosa and many more common and usually found plants
in the orchards of Greece (Travlos, unpublished data) could have a crucial role and many
beneficial effects. Nutrients absorbed by weeds are returned to the soil and this is very
important especially for perennial crops like trees.
Many of these plants also have medicinal value, such as Equisetum arvense L. and
Conyza canadensis L. (Saluk-Juszczak et al., 2007; Cetojevic-Simin, 2010). Many other wild
plants are known to possess therapeutic properties and used for a wide range of human
diseases (Ibrara et al., 2003). In recent years, several efforts to systematically record medical
uses of plants from various countries have received close attention (Singh and Khan, 1989;
Yadav and Patel, 2001; Chaudhary, 2011). Many Mediterranean plants have been also used in
the development of modern pharmaceutical products and crop varieties, and a high number of
wild plants in the Mediterranean are known to be of potential value in fields such as
medicine, biotechnology and crop improvements (UNEP, 2006). However, increased demand,
coupled with unsustainable collection from the wild has led a number of important plant
species to become scarce in areas where they were previously abundant (Cuttelod et al.,
2008).
In addition, some wild plants are indicators of the chemical or physical properties of the
soil. For example, Papaver rhoeas L. and Lathyrus tuberosus L. indicate neutral or even basic

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soil pH. Chenopodium album L., Amaranthus retroflexus L. and many other weeds indicate
soils rich in nitrogen. Natural vegetation is often used as human or domestic animal food and
many wild plants can grow under extremely unfavourable conditions, under which cultivated
plants cannot be grown (Lipecki, 2006). Weeds such as Amaranthus sp., Sonchus oleraceus,
Portulaca oleracea belong to this category. In general, wild plants preserve the biological
balance in orchards and other crops. The presence of vegetative cover provides habitats to
encourage biodiversity. The wildlife will include predators of insect pests, which would
otherwise have to be controlled chemically.
Natural vegetation creates a safe habitat for many beneficial organisms (even some
harmful, too). The use of beneficial insects is one of the main techniques of Integrated Pest
Management (IPM), which is the employment of environment-friendly methods to control
plant insects and disease. Thus, the use of beneficial insects and good horticultural practices
can often replace the application of chemical pesticides for certain pests. Many predators and
parasitoids are attracted to flowering plants and the role of natural vegetation seems to be
very important. Pollinating insects also play a critical role in maintaining natural plant
communities, and they also pollinate most crop plants grown for their fruits, vegetables, nuts,
seeds, and fiber (Flint and Dreistadt, 1998; Gardiner et al., 2006).
There is much evidence that native vegetation acts as a reservoir of natural enemies,
which have the potential to colonize and suppress pest populations in crops. Predator densities
in native vegetation are in many cases consistently higher throughout the year in native
vegetation than in crops and beneficial insects (e.g. whitefly parasitoids and flying egg
predators) inflict higher pest mortality in and near native vegetation than in fields far from
native vegetation. In many major crops like cotton native vegetation is associated with
reduced colonization rates of thrips and aphids, and has a neutral effect on colonization rate of
Helicoverpa species, leaf hoppers and whiteflies. Thus, native vegetation is not a source for
cotton pests and, depending on the species, can result in reduced pest colonization in fields
(Schellhorn et al., 2008).
Many other studies reveal that non-crop areas can increase the abundance of natural
enemies and assist in invertebrate pest control. Thomson and Hoffmann (2009) investigated
the abundance of natural enemies in vineyards with edges consisting of different types of
vegetation. There was a positive influence of adjacent wooded vegetation on several
beneficial insects such as predatory thrips, predatory mites, spiders, ladybird beetles and
Hymenoptera parasitoids including Trichogramma egg parasitoids in the canopy and/or at
ground level. Moreover, it was shown that the abundance and distribution of vineyard natural
enemies and parasitism of pest moth eggs is increased adjacent to edges with wooded
vegetation, leading to beneficial effects for pest control. The conservation of natural
vegetation around vineyards may therefore have direct economic benefits in terms of pest
control, whereas on-crop pasture may not produce such benefits (Thomson and Hoffmann,
2009). Various types of local vegetation may therefore encourage a range of predators and
parasitoids, increasing predation and control of a common vineyard pest and similar results
can encourage individual landholders to maintain vegetation even when there are costs in
terms of a reduction in crop area as well as maintenance of the vegetation (Thomson and
Hoffmann, 2010).
Many crop wild relatives are found as weeds of agriculture. As a consequence, especially
in the areas where the crop was first domesticated, a weed may be of the same species as the
crop with which it grows. In such close proximity crop plant and weed may interbreed. The

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crop and its weedy wild relative are therefore not genetically isolated and form a crop-weed
complex with an extended gene pool and a shared evolutionary history (Hawkes 1993).
Therefore it is necessary to broaden the genetic base of crop plants requiring access to a large
amount of genetic diversity. Although, the results of some surveys (Brown, 1983; Chang,
1994) indicate that the genetic base of several important crops has begun to increase over the
years, breeding programmes of many important crops continue to include only a small part of
genetic diversity available (Ramanatha Rao and Hodgkin, 2002). In our days, plant genetic
resources are considered to be among the most essential of the worlds natural resources and
during the last decades, major advances have been made in conserving them (Frankel and
Bennet, 1970; Holden and Williams, 1984; Plucknett et al., 1987). Consequently, a key issue
with direct practical implications for conservation management is the relation between crop
species and their wild relatives (Jarvis and Hodgkin, 1999) and it should be clearly taken into
account.
For most species it is likely that wild populations contain far more genetic diversity than
the crops themselves. This is because they have not been selected from a larger population to
be domesticated, and may occur in a wide range of environments with contrasting soils,
climate and other factors. In addition wild species must continue to adapt to the environments
they are found in, as climate and other environmental factors change (Hopkins and Maxted,
2010). Gene Pool 1 as defined by Harlan and de Wet (1971) contains the crop itself and the
close related wild forms of the crop including those which grow as agricultural weeds. The
exchange of genetic material between species by hybridisation is increasingly being
recognised as an important process in the natural evolution of wild plants and therefore
conservation of natural vegetation is essential (Arnold, 2006).
As stated by Hopkins and Maxted (2010): the most widespread use of Crop Wild
Relatives has been and remains in the development of disease and pest resistance, with 39%
of use associated with improving disease resistance, 17% with pest resistance, 13% with
abiotic stress, 10% with yield increase, 11% with quality improvement (Maxted and Kell,
2009). Large-scale cultivation of genetically uniform cultivars has increased the genetic
vulnerability of many major agricultural crop species, often with serious consequences
(Ramanatha Rao and Hodgkin, 2002). A well-known case is the Irish potato famine of 1840s,
because of the sensitivity of potato varieties to the leaf blight disease. Unfortunately,
increasing uniformity continues and more unpleasant cases may occur. For example, the
vineyards in California are being invaded by new biotype of phylloxera. Since many wine
grapes in specific regions are grafted on susceptible rootstock, the grape crop is seriously
threatened and the possibility of the spread of the disease is considered very likely (Granett et
al., 1991). An early example of such successful breeding is the crossing in the 1900s of
domesticated potatoes with the wild Mexican potato species Solanum demissum to produce
varieties resistant to potato blight, which in the mid19th century caused famine in Ireland and
parts of Scotland (Hawkes, 1990). In the 1970s corn blight Helminthosporium maydis in the
USA destroyed maize production and the problem was solved by introducing blight resistance
genes into the crop from wild Mexican maize plants (Shand, 1993). Sources of resistance of
sugar beet to rhizomania were found in wild sea beet Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima (Doney and
Whitney, 1990). Indicative of the rising attention to the wild plants as gene donors is the
observation of Maxted and Kell (2009) that there were only five reported uses of wild plants
in the 1960s rising to over 100 cited uses since 2000.

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Natural vegetation can be also used to collect and remove toxic substances such as heavy
metals from the environment (Baker and Brooks, 1989; Reeves and Baker, 2000).
Phytoremediation can be considered as the use of vegetation to treat, in situ, soils, sediments
and water that have been polluted with organic matter, nutrients or metals and has been
suggested as a promising and relatively cheap method to clean up contaminated soils (Salt et
al., 1998; Pilon-Smits, 2005). In phytoremediation the microorganisms are commonly used to
treat organic soil pollution, while the plants are mainly utilized for heavy metals removal
(Lasat, 2002; Gardea et al., 2005). More than 400 plant species from about 45 families have
been reported as heavy metals hyper-accumulators or phytoextractors by now and many of
them are capable of accumulating more than one heavy metals (Lasat, 2002; Gardea et al.,
2005). Pesticides have become an integral part of todays intensive agriculture. Widespread
and large scale use of pesticides during the past decades has led to global problem of
pollution of soil and water resources, while there are many long-term contaminated sites with
abnormally high levels of pesticides (Wehtje et al., 1983; Perkovich et al., 1996). Vegetation
also has a decisive effect on the fate of soil-applied pesticides and organic contaminants often
disappear quickly from the planted soil compared to unplanted soil (Reddy and Sethunathan,
1983; Cunningham et al., 1996). Trace element levels in soils have increased in many soils
since the beginning of human industrial activity. Trace element-contaminated soils can pose
an environmental risk for humans and other organisms: thus, reclamation activities are
frequently recommended (Mench et al., 2010). Revegetation is the main aim of ecological
restoration projects, and in Mediterranean environments native plants are desirable to achieve
successful restoration (Moreno-Jimnez et al., 2008). Several phytoremediation experiments
to assess the potential use of native shrub species such as Myrtus communis, Retama
sphaerocarpa, Rosmarinus officinalis and Tamarix gallica have been conducted were planted
and left to grow without intervention (Moreno-Jimnez et al., 2011).
It has also to be noted that the inclusion of plants like legumes is even more critical for
sustainable production of the infertile savannah soils and agroecosystems of the tropics and
subtropics but still being lagged due to lack of information, seed costs etc. (Graham and
Vance, 2003). Species from several genera (Aeschynomene, Arachis, Centrosema,
Desmodium, Macroptilum and Stylosanthes) offer promise for improved tropical pasture
systems. Moreover, presently underutilized and neglected crop and pasture crops could still
emerge. Plants such as marama bean (Tylosema esculentum), sword beans (Canavalia
gladiata) and annual medics could offer solutions (Dakora et al., 1999; Howieson et al. 2002;
Travlos et al., 2007). For example, marama bean, a wild perennial legume indigenous in
southern Africa, produces protein- and oil-rich seed (comparable to soybean and groundnut
respectively) and tubers of relatively high protein and carbohydrate content. Moreover, it is a
typical drought-avoiding species since it uses its tubers as water reservoirs and its stomata and
leaflet closure to save water. Therefore, it has been characterized of great potential for use as
human food and animal fodder (Dakora et al. 1999; Travlos et al. 2007). According to
Graham and Vance (2003) legumes play a critical role in natural ecosystems, agriculture,
and agroforestry, where their ability to fix N in symbiosis makes them excellent colonizers of
low-N environments.
Another noticeable case is that of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a pseudocereal
that has been cultivated in Andean region for thousands of years, which is believed to have
been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild populations of Chenopodium quinoa
(Bhargava et al., 2006). There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (Chenopodium quinoa var.

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melanospermum) which grow in the same area where it is cultivated. Quinoa is an excellent
example of functional food that aims at lowering the risk of various diseases (Vega-Glvez
et al., 2010). It has remarkable nutritional properties; not only its protein content (15%) but
also its great amino acid balance. It is an important source of minerals and vitamins, and it
has been found to contain saponins and compounds like polyphenols, phytosterols, and
flavonoids with possible nutraceutical benefits (Abugoch James, 2009; Bilalis et al., 2012b).
The objectives of conserving crop genetic resources and managing natural vegetation
should not stay in a theoretical level but to take advantage of natural vegetation and genetic
diversity. In several cases indices for species number, distribution and abundance have been
used in the analysis of resources (Krebs, 1978; Booth et al., 2003; Bilalis et al., 2012a).
Increased awareness for a systematic vegetation management is especially required due to the
widely adopted techniques of conservation tillage techniques (including minimum tillage and
no-tillage) which minimize the impact on soil structure and CO2 emissions compared to
conventional tillage (Cook, 2006; Hernanz et al., 2009). Conservation of weed diversity on
agricultural systems is of great importance as plant diversity is generally low and mostly
enhanced by weed occurrence (Hernandez Plaza et al., 2011). Weeds are also known to
represent valuable resources for other taxa (food, cover or reproductive sites) as described by
Storkey and Westbury (2007) and could be certainly considered as ecological goods
(Gerowitt et al., 2003). The use of conservation tillage techniques in semiarid soils in
southern Europe has evolved over the last decades, largely as an effort to reduce soil erosion,
as well as to increase soil moisture availability and crop yield (Dorado and Lopez-Fando,
2006). The adoption of conservation tillage practices such as no-tillage (NT) or minimum
tillage (MT) has been shown to shift weed communities (Bilalis et al., 2001; Blackshaw et al.,
2001; Shrestha et al., 2002; Legere and Samson, 2004) or in other cases not to affect at all
weed flora (Derksen et al., 1993; McCloskey et al., 1996).
Another typical example of management of natural vegetation towards sustainability is
the maintenance of plant cover between olive grove lines (and other perennial crops) until the
beginning-middle of spring as a soil management alternative that is gradually being adopted
by olive growers. As well as protecting the soil from erosion, plant covers have other
advantages such as improving the physicochemical properties of the soil, favouring its
biodiversity and contributing towards the capturing of atmospheric carbon and its fixation in
the soil (Repullo-Ruiberriz de Torres et al., 2012).

CONCLUSION
Natural vegetation creates a safe habitat for many beneficial organisms and often has
high medicinal and aromatic interest. Many wild species are used as gene donors, human or
animal food and phytoremediants. The presence of rich and diverse natural vegetation can be
potentially useful and provide sustainability to agroecosystems. Consequently, in all similar
approaches, the potential economic value of the in situ conservation and management of
natural vegetation and genetic resources is a realistic challenge and should not be overlooked,
especially for regions with exceptional biodiversity like the Mediterranean basin. However,
any models focusing on sustainability through natural vegetation management should be casespecific taking into account several interacting factors such as the main crop, the plant

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species, their density and abundance, the soil and climatic conditions, the year season, social
and other factors. Sometimes, there may be some level of conflict between the perception of
both agricultural and ecological value in sites with natural vegetation.
As stated by Cary and Williams (2000): a strategy sometimes observed within
agricultural and environmental extension is to initially emphasise the agricultural value of
native vegetation systems to landholders, and then gradually introduce information
concerning the ecological concerns.
In all cases, plant species are part of our natural heritage and we owe it to future
generations to preserve and protect them (Cuttelod et al., 2008) and furthermore to manage
them in a profitable and sustainable way.

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 10

WASTE TREATMENT SUSTAINABILITY


Muhammad H. Al-Malack1* and Muhammad Muhitur Rahman2
1

Civil Engineering Department,


King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
2
School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics,
University of Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

ABSTRACT
A significant development has been achieved at present for the treatment of waste.
This achievement was attained because of the increased concern of protecting the
surrounding environment. With the improvement and availability of different treatment
technologies, waste treatment sustainability has reached a new era. Waste treatment
sustainability depends on several associated factors including waste characteristics and
volume of generation, waste collection system, and treatment method of wastes. Waste
characteristics and generation is highly heterogenic in nature and varies in context with
demography, user pattern, and geography. In this chapter, waste disposal and treatment
systems are summarized with an introduction to waste characteristics and waste
generation. Design sustainability or improvement of process design of different
municipal solid waste treatment systems is discussed in an easy to understand manner.
Sustainability in resource recovery from municipal solid waste is also discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION
Waste is an integral part of human society. Wherever in the world there is a community,
there is generation of waste. Waste is generated from every possible consumable. The aspect
of waste type and generation is unique to economic, demographic and geographic factors, so
are the treatment methods. Because of these reasons indicators of waste treatment
sustainability varies country to country.

* Email: mhmalack@kfupm.edu.sa.

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Waste is generally the most unwanted substance that people or organizations want to get
rid of. Waste excludes products or materials that are reused by the people or organization that
generated them. Waste might be generated during the extraction of raw materials, during the
processing of those materials to intermediate and final products, and the consumption of final
products.
Disposal methods of waste have changed considerably. In the 19th century in the United
States, refuse was dumped into the sea at some distance from the bay. But now after decades,
the public is aware of the problem of solid waste disposal and a degree of technological
sophistication has been achieved to manage waste in a sustainable manner. The concept of
sustainability has compelled the scientists, engineers and policy makers to come up with a
solution to reuse and treat the wastes and to protect the environment. In developed countries,
such as Australia, governments have recognized the difficulties of high consumption patterns
of waste generating consumables, and among other policy responses, have either adopted
ambitious targets for reducing waste to landfill or adopting zero waste policies. Solid waste
should be managed in a sustainable way. For example, if more waste is recycled, this may
have a negative impact on the landfill economy because less waste will be landfilled. As
landfill has some fixed cost to carry on, a drop in incoming waste can have severe monetary
consequences. A strategic decision should be taken by regulatory authorities to form and
implement an integrated solid waste management system (Australian Bureau of Statistics,
2006; Vesilind et al., 2002).

2. SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISTICS AND ITS IMPACT


ON ENVIRONMENT
2.1. Characteristics and Generation of Waste
To understand the sustainability behind the solid waste treatment and disposal system, we
need to know the sources and types of solid wastes along with data on the composition and
rates of generation. Solid wastes have many source classifications but can be limited to the
following three categories:
a.

Municipal solid waste: Waste from this category includes mixed household waste,
recyclables such as cardboard and newspaper, glass, aluminium and steel cans,
plastic bottles and container, plastic bags, food scraps and waste and garden waste
and cuttings.
b. Commercial and industrial solid waste: This category of waste is composed of metal,
plastic and timber
c. Construction and demolition solid waste: Wastes from this category are mainly inert
material such as timber, bricks, plaster off cuts, concrete, rubble, steel, and excavated
earth.
Composition and quantity of generation of waste depends on characteristics and number
of population, gross domestic product (GDP) and location (Sharholy et al., 2007; Wang and
Nie, 2001; Ogwueleka, 2009; Sujauddin et al., 2008). Even in the same country, generation

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and composition of waste may vary among different territories. Figure 1 shows a typical
composition of solid waste characteristics in a developed country.
Typically, municipal solid waste composition is mostly dominated by organics such as
food and garden waste (46%) followed by different types of paper (22%). In commercial
waste, contribution of organic waste is only 13% and metals and paper (both 22%) constitutes
most of it. Construction and demolition waste composition is dominated by concrete (82%),
whereas the organic contribution is only 1%. The typical solid waste generation rate of
Australia is shown in Table 1.
Timber
1%
Concrete
3%
Metals
5%
Glass
7%

Organics
13%
Other
12%

Other
23%

Organic
s (Food
and
garden)
46%

Paper
22%

Timber
9%

Plastics
4%

Concrete
3%

Paper
22%

Metals
22%

Plastics
Glass 6%
2%

b
Timber
4%
Other
6%
Organics (Food
and garden)
1%
Concrete
82%

Metals
7%

c
Figure 1. Typical composition of waste in Australia, 2002-03, a. Municipal waste, b. Commercial and
industrial waste, c. Construction and demolition waste (Productivity Commission, 2006).

It is evident from Table 1 that generation of waste varies in different parts of a country. In
Australia for the year 2002-03, New South Wales generated about 30 times more municipal
waste compared to the Capital Territory. The reason for this excessive number is because of

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the variation in population size of these two territories. If compared between the per person
waste generation rate, the Capital Territory has a higher generation rate than New South
Wales. The generation of waste from a community varies throughout the year, even with the
day of the week.
Table 1. Typical solid waste generation in Australia, 2002-03
(Department of the Environmental and Heritage, 2006)
Territory

New South
Wales
Victoria
Queensland
Western
Australia
South
Australia
Australian
Capital
Territory
Total

Municipal
solid waste
(kilotonnes)

Commercial
and industrial
(kilotonnes)

Construction
and demolition
(kilotonnes)

Total

Per person

(kilotonnes)

(kilograms)

3,326

4,196

4,649

12,171

1,820

2,291
1,742

2,743
959

3,575
1,166

8,609
3,973

1,751
1,046

833

744

1,945

3,522

1,804

600

677

2,156

3,433

2,248

111

150

250

674

2,087

8,903

9,469

13,741

32,382

1,629

Waste Generation, Kg/Person

Every country generates waste but it is very difficult to compare the waste generation rate
of one country to others. These difficulties include: differences in economic structures, the
lack of comparable waste data and inconsistencies in the application of data definitions
between countries. Figure 2 shows a waste generation rate of some developed countries.

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Figure 2. Waste generation rate of some developed countries in 2003 (Productivity Commission, 2006).

Collection, classification and reporting issues make waste data difficult to compare
between countries. Waste source and type of classification used in each countrys data

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collections are often inconsistent and do not necessarily match with one other. There are
many other reasons why the weight and composition of waste generated in each country may
differ. These include:

Differences in per person income levels and consumption;


Differences in population density and the size of household yards;
The adoption of alternative waste disposal systems, such as household composting
and in-sink garbage disposal units; and
Prevalence of public parks, sporting grounds and other open spaces.

2.2. Environmental Impact

Megaton CO2 Equivalent

There are a number of concerns related to the environment due to waste generation and
disposal. One of them is greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. GHG emissions from the waste
sector include emissions from landfills, waste incineration and the biological treatment of
solid waste. The emissions mainly consist of methane, which is an end-product of organic
matter decays under anaerobic conditions. Emissions of carbon dioxide from the decay of
organic matter under aerobic conditions do not count in national GHG. This is because an
equivalent amount of carbon dioxide appears to be removed from the atmosphere during the
life cycle of the living biomass. Figure 3 shows typical GHG emissions in Australia.

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Year
Solid waste disposal on land

Waste incineration and biological treatment of solid waste


Figure 3. Greenhouse gas emission from solid waste (Department of Climate Change and Energy
Efficiency, 2012).

In Australia, in the year to September 2012, the waste sector accounted for 3% of
Australias national GHG emission inventory. Before September 2012, annual emissions
from waste increased by 0.2%. Since 1990, emissions from the waste sector have declined by
around 19.1%, to 14.1 Mt CO2-e in the years before September 2012, compared to 17.4 Mt

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CO2-e in 1990 (year to September). Although methane generation has increased since 1990,
emissions of waste methane from landfills have been significantly reduced through growth in
methane recovery (Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, 2012).

3. SUSTAINABILITY IN WASTE MANAGEMENT


With the improvement of technology, solid waste management has improved a lot. The
sustainability of waste management depends on the characteristics of waste and the number of
ways waste can be disposed of without harming the environment. This also depends on the
financial viability of different management methods and policies. Other factors that affect
waste management sustainability include the service providers for waste management, the
type and capacity of waste facilities, government policies, legislations, and other factors like
rural and urban areas. Solid waste management systems are comprised of different phases
including waste generation, waste collection, handling and separation of wastes for recycling
or treatment, and recovery of resources after treatment. After collecting the wastes from their
source, waste and recycle materials are sorted, placed in bags or containers, and transported
either to material recovery facilities, transfer stations or a landfill disposal site. All nonrecycled solid wastes are ultimately disposed to a landfill site, whether they are collected
from domestic sources and transported directly to a landfill site, residual materials from
different treatment processes or other materials from solid waste processing facilities.
Another aspect of waste management sustainability is the waste hierarchy. In many advanced
countries, the waste management strategy is developed based on the concept of their waste
hierarchy (Figure 4). This approach argues that waste avoidance is preferable to reuse, reuse
to recycling, and so on. Disposal seems to be the option most often discouraged. In
compliance with this approach, many state and territory governments in Australia have set
ambitious targets for diverting waste to zero waste to landfill (Scott et al., 2005; Shekdar,
2009).

3.1. Collection of Waste


In most of the developed countries municipal solid wastes are collected by garbage trucks
from curbside disposal bins. In some places, the collection of solid wastes is done by men and
women who transport it in trucks and deliver it to a site where the truck is emptied. The
collection of wastes is done in five separate phases, namely, house to bin, bin to truck, truck
from house to house, truck routing, and truck to disposal (Vesilind et al., 2002). In the first
phase, the homeowner transfers the wastes to individual bins according to the waste type. In
Australia, wastes are collected in three different bins; one bin for waste to landfill, one for
waste to recycling and one for organics for compost.
The second phase of the collection system is the movement of the bins to trucks. In the
waste collection day, bins are moved to the street by the homeowner and later collected by the
collection crew. This process is called curbside waste collection. In some places, fully
automated collection trucks are used for curbside collection where no collection crew is
required. In the third and fourth phases, wastes are collected from houses and moved into

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areas designated by local jurisdiction. The fifth phase of the collection system involves the
location of the final destination such as a materials recovery facility, transfer station or
disposal site.

Avoidance
Reuse
Recycling
Recovery of energy
Treatment

Containment
Maximum
Conservation
of Resources

Disposal

Figure 4. A waste management hierarchy (Victorian Government, 2005).

The waste management process can be divided into three main steps:

Collection of waste
Recycling and reuse of waste
Treatment of waste

3.2. Recycling and Reuse of Wastes


Recycling waste is an indicator of sustainable waste management. The increase of the
amount of recyclables collected from a community indicates that the community is using
waste in a sustainable way. For recycling, the homeowner should separate the useful fraction
of wastes collected from the rest of the waste for collection. A number of recyclable materials
can be collected from solid waste including paper, cardboard or newspaper, glass, aluminum
and steel cans, plastic bottles or containers, and plastic bags. Reuse is the process where
products have utility and value for more than one purpose. For example, the plastic bag that is
obtained in the market can be used to wrap waste for disposal to bins (Muttumara et al., 1994;
Troschinetz and Mihelcic, 2009; Agarwal, 2005; Alhumound, 2005).
Figure 5 shows a variation of typical contribution of households for recycling and reusing
materials in Australia. During the time from March 2011 to March 2012, 98% of Australian
households participated in some form of recycling or reuse for a range of household items.
Almost 97% of households recycled and 73% of households reused at least one of the items.

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% Household

Common items recycled or reused by households were paper, cardboard and newspapers
(95%), glass (93%), plastic bottles or containers (93%), aluminum or steel cans (91%), and
plastic bags (84%).

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1996

2000

2003

2006

2009

2012

Year
Recycling

Reusing

not recycling or reusing

Figure 5. Trend of waste recycling and reuse in Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010).

In Australia, waste is disposed of in three different ways. These include collecting the
waste from the household, taking the waste to a designated area or collection point, and
reusing the waste at home. During March 2011 to March 2012, the most common way for
households to recycle their paper, cardboard or newspapers was to have the items collected
from the house (94%). This method was also the most common for glass (94%), aluminum
cans (91%), steel cans or tins (96%) and plastic bottles or containers (93%). Just over 24% of
Australian households recycled or reused electronic equipment. Of those households, 48%
took their electronic equipment to a special area at the dump or waste transfer station or to a
central collection point, while 30% had the items collected from the house as part of
municipal curbside recycling (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012).

3.3. Disposal of Waste and Treatment


3.3.1. Landfill
Landfill is a long-standing sustainable method for land disposal of solid or hazardous
wastes in a manner that protects the environment. Within the landfill biological, chemical and
physical processes occur that enhance the degradation of wastes and result in the production
of leachate and gas. Leachate is the polluted water that originates from the bottom of the
landfill. Figure 6 shows design components of a typical landfill, which includes the liner, the
leachate collection system, gas management system, groundwater monitoring system and the
final cap. Landfills may be designed with single, composite or double liners, depending on
the criteria of local, state or federal regulations. Each liner is equipped with a leachate

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collection system. The collection system that separates the two liners is a leak detection
system, which consists of placing a series of pipes between the liners to collect and monitor
any leachate that leaks through the top liner. Landfills have low operating costs compared to
waste reprocessing systems and are normally located near the urban centers they serve. When
constructing, landfill siting must take into account soil conditions, hydrology and topography,
climate, local environmental issues, hauling distances, land use and other issues.

Methane
Monitoring

Gas control
Final Cover

Groundwater
monitoring

Waste
Liner

Leachate
collection
Groundwater

Figure 6. A typical landfill design (Vesilind et al., 2002).

The landfill ecosystem is quite diverse due to the heterogeneous nature of waste and
landfill operating characteristics. Figure 7 shows the composition of wastes disposed to
landfill in a developed country. Approximately two-thirds of the landfilled materials are
biodegradable and one-third is recalcitrant. In the biodegradable portion, food and garden
waste can be fractioned as readily biodegradable, and paper and cardboard as moderately
biodegradable.
There exist some real or perceived social disadvantages of landfills such as traffic, noise,
dust, odors and leachate, which may create strong opposition from the surrounding
community. Balancing conflicting considerations may be difficult. While one area may
provide an ideal landfill location from a geological point of view, public concerns over land
use and other impacts may make the selected area unsuitable.
These factors increase the need to maximize the use of landfill space in already approved,
best practice facilities. Problems arising from landfills may depend upon the nature of landfill
controls, the site and the materials disposed. High density, inert materials are likely to be less
costly to manage and cause fewer environmental impacts, followed by less dense and
biodegradable materials, with hazardous household waste likely to cause the greatest impact.
Table 2 lists some of the problems arising from different components of the waste stream.

3.3.2. Incineration
Incineration or burning municipal waste has been accepted for many years as a process to
reduce the quantity of waste generated by households, trades, and agricultural practices.
Incineration is also recognized as a process to provide fuel for heating and cooking.

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Table 2. Behavior of waste component in Landfill
(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006)

Waste component
Plastic bags and film
Timber and wood products
Paper / cardboard
Plastics
Electronics and appliances
Batteries
Garden and food organics
Household chemicals

Impact to environment
Contribute to litter around landfills
Contribute to methane emissions
Contributes to methane emissions
Potential to impact on the health of humans and other
organisms.
Contain heavy metals and flame retardants, which may be
present in leachate.
Contain heavy metals, which may be present in leachate.
Contribute to methane emissions
Oil, paints and pesticides contain toxic substances, which may
be present in leachate.

Glass 7%
106.4 Kilotonnes
Plastics 8%
117 Kilotonnes

Building Rubble
and soil 2%
35.5 Kilotonnes

Other 1%
17.7 Kilotonnes
Metals 7%
109.9 Kilotonnes
Paper and
Cardboard 10%
152.5 Kilotonnes

Food and garden


59%
911.8 Kilotonnes

Timber 6%
99.3 Kilotonnes

Figure 7. Composition of municipal solid waste disposed to a landfill in Victoria, Australia.


(Productivity Commission, 2006).

Incineration has many benefits including

Reduction in the volume and weight of bulky solids, which have high combustible
content.
Destruction and detoxification of some wastes for final disposal, such as combustible
carcinogens, pathologically contaminated materials, toxic organic compounds, or
biologically active materials which might affect the sewage treatment plant.

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Destruction of the organic component of biodegradable wastes, which generates


landfill gas.
Recovery of energy from organic wastes.

Development of incineration has been influenced by concerns related to direct landfill of


clinical wastes, identification of problem wastes like polychlorinated biphenyls and scrap
tyres for which incineration is a feasible option. The perspective of accepting incineration in
different countries has been influenced by the availability of other disposal options and
economic viability.
In spite of the versatility of incineration as a waste treatment method, there are several
environmental impacts especially when the incinerated gas or particulates are not treated
before disposing them into the environment. Poor design, inadequate engineering, and
incompetent operation of incinerators produced ash and smoke that even in the days of little
industrial air pollution control caused many communities to shut down the incinerators.
Currently, incinerators without energy recovery systems are very uncommon. Modern
incinerators are equipped with energy recovery systems and are termed as energy-fromwaste or waste-to-energy combustors (Petts, 1994; Porteous, 2001). Figure 8 shows plant
operation steps of a typical waste-to-energy combustor.

Figure 8. Operational steps of a typical waste-to-energy combustor.

As a first step of waste incineration, solid waste is delivered to a receiving area by a


waste collection vehicle. The waste is then transferred by overhead crane to a solid waste
storage pit. Next, controlled input of solid waste is transferred to a moving grate, where a
forced draught air fan supplies primary air to the burning waste layer on the grate. The
surface of the grate slopes downwards from the feeder end towards the residue discharge end
via a series of alternate steps of fixed and moving grate bars. This ensures both continual
rotation of the burning waste layer to a uniform depth and pushes the red-hot mass back
towards the front end of the grate. This produces an intense combustion zone immediately at
the front end of the grate facilitating all combustion phases (drying, ignition and combustion
itself) to take place more or less simultaneously. By drawing air for the combustion process
from the waste storage pit area, the escape of odors can be prevented. Burned out residues are
transferred to the bottom section of the grate from where an ash discharge system deposits the
incinerator bottom ash into a pit. During transfer to the ash storage pit, ferrous and nonferrous metals are extracted via magnetic and current separation, respectively. The energy
released during the combustion phase is recovered in a boiler. The resulting flue gases are
passed through a cleaning phase. The fine particulate matter in flue gas is removed by passing
the gas stream through bag house filters (periodically pulsed with compressed air to remove
the filtrate cake into a holding silo) after which the cleaned flue gases are released into the
atmosphere by an induced draft fan via the chimneystack. The ash can be processed and

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matured for subsequent use in secondary aggregate applications; whereas the flue gas treated
residues are sent to the landfill (McLanaghan, 2002).
The combustion systems can be of two types, namely, mass burn units or refuse
derived fuel (RDF) units. The difference between these two systems relies on the preprocessing of the wastes. A mass burn system has no pre-processing of the solid waste before
feeding into the combustion unit. In an RDF system the solid waste is processed before
combustion to remove non-combustible items and to reduce the size of the combustible
fraction. This pre-processing provides the production of a more uniform fuel at a higher heat
value and the amount of excess required for combustion is reduced. The amount of
combustion air is essential because if there is insufficient oxygen in the combustion chamber,
a reducing atmosphere is created, which leads to corrosion problems.

4. DESIGN SUSTAINABILITY OF WASTE TREATMENT PROCESSES


Conventional waste disposal or treatment processes have some environmental impact,
which is an obstacle of implementing the sustainable waste management system. The
hierarchy of waste management has led to the development of alternative waste treatment and
disposal options rather than the reliance on traditional options of landfill and incineration.
Alternative treatment options have low environmental impact with the choice of recycling and
reusing. Some of these efforts can be named as bioreactor and pre-treatment landfills,
pyrolysis and gasification, anaerobic digestion, and composting.

4.1. Modification to Conventional Landfills


Bioreactor Landfills
Conventional landfills can be used to promote degradation of organic waste by adding
water and wetting the landfill. This type of landfill is termed a bioreactor landfill. In this
reactor the degradation is enhanced within a reasonable time frame. The conventional landfill
can be transformed into a bioreactor system by providing containment using liners and
covers, sorting and discretely disposing waste materials into dedicated cells. The rate of
stabilization in dry landfills requires many years, thereby extending the acid formation and
methane fermentation phases of waste stabilization over a long period of time. Under these
circumstances, the decomposition of biodegradable fractions of solid waste will be hampered
and incomplete. The scenario can be improved with the addition of water, which ensures that
the decomposition process is increased through an anaerobic component. Other procedures
that assist in the process may include waste shredding, pH adjustment, nutrient addition and
temperature management. The flow rate of the liquid through the landfill must be monitored
and controlled through hydraulic conductivity and effective water introduction technique. To
enhance the effect of water, the recirculation options should be moved from one area to
another, pumping at a relatively intense rate for a short period of time, then moving to another
area. The flow rate should be adjusted according to compaction of the landfill, which changes
over time.

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The main challenges with bioreactor landfills are operational. Existing landfill practices
result in barriers to water contact and moving uniformly through the waste. In some cases the
infiltration of moisture resulting from rainfall is insufficient to meet the desired waste
moisture content for optimal decomposition, and supplemental water may be required. To
confirm the optimal moisture content distribution, all the wastes may need water to bring it to
field capacity. The most efficient approach to reach field capacity is to increase moisture
content through wetting of the waste at the working face and then uniformly to reach field
capacity through water surface application or injection. Furthermore, infrastructure for the
injection and drainage of fluid through the landfill is prone to biochemical fouling. Any
excess leachate requires treatment prior to disposal (Reinhart et al., 2002; Benson et al., 2007)

Pre-Treatment Landfill
Pre-treatment landfills are landfills where the biodegradable waste undergoes mechanical
and biological pre-treatment to reduce the pollution potential of the waste over the lifecycle of
the landfill. Mechanical processes include sorting and shredding of materials with the
extraction of ferrous metals. The shredding of waste is designed to increase the surface area
of materials so as to enhance the biological processes. The screening process separates the
high calorific materials such as plastic and paper from organic components. The product is
ultimately disposed of in a landfill rather than being used as compost or reapplied to land
(Municipal waste advisory council, 2009).

4.2. Advanced Combustion Processes


The advanced combustion processes are becoming more popular day by day as viable
alternative environmental and economic option for waste treatment. This is because these
processes are quite capable of dealing with the poisonous end-product with the help of
sustainable control techniques and equipment. Combustion is sometimes used synonymously
with incineration because both processes are performed in the presence of air or oxygen.

Figure 9. Characteristics of advanced combustion process (Williams, 2005).

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Figure 9 shows the difference among the combustion processes. When the burning of the
wastes is performed in the presence of limited air, the combustion process is called
gasification, and when the combustion process performed in the absence of air or oxygen is
termed as pyrolysis. These processes have a number of advantages over conventional
incineration or landfill disposal of wastes. Depending on the technology, the waste can be
converted to energy, gas or oil products. As shown in Figure 9, the conventional combustion
produces only flue gas and ash. However, from gasification and pyrolysis it is possible to get
gas, ash and tar, and gas, oil and char respectively. It is possible to store and use these end
products later in different industries such as energy production or for the waste treatment
process.

4.2.1. Pyrolysis and Gasification


Pyrolysis is destructive distillation or combustion in the absence of oxygen. In true
pyrolysis, if heat is added to the organic feed such as pure cellulose, the following reaction
occurs:

Among the end products of this reaction, carbon in solid form, ethylene in liquid form
and methane occurs in gaseous form. A wide variety of pyrolysis technologies are available
including fluidized beds, fixed-bed reactors, ablative pyrolysis at hot surfaces, rotary kilns,
entrained flow reactors and vacuum pyrolysis (Vesilind et al., 2002, 25-27). The designs of
these processes are determined by the type of pyrolysis being undertaken, for example, fast or
slow heating rates and temperatures to produce the targeted end product (Table 3).
Table 3. Variables in pyrolysis process (Vesilind et al., 2002)
Heating Rate

Temperature

Slow

<1

Low

500 to 750

Intermediate

5 to 100

Intermediate

750 to 1000

High

1000 to 1200

Very high

>1200

C/sec

Rapid

500 to 10

Flash

>106

Gasification is different from pyrolysis. In this system, air or oxygen is reacted at high
temperatures with the available carbon in the waste producing a gas, ash and a tar product.
Partial combustion occurs to produce heat and the reaction proceeds exothermically to
produce a low to medium calorific value fuel gas. The operating temperatures are relatively
high compared to pyrolysis, at 80011000C with air gasification, and 100014000C with
oxygen. The produced gases are removed by a vacuum pump and condensed to produce an oil
product. Product gases, which are non-condensable are combusted to produce energy (Arena,
2012).

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4.3. Anaerobic Digestion


Anaerobic digestion is a natural biological process of treating biodegradable waste by
means of bacterial action, but in the absence of oxygen. The end product of this process
includes gases as methane, carbon dioxide, and small amounts of hydrogen sulfide, ammonia,
and a few others. In the landfills, a similar process (anaerobic) is present and produces
methane as the end product.
But the anaerobic digestion helps to produce end product gases in an amount sufficient to
consider its conversion to pipeline gas. This is possible because in an anaerobic digestion
system a controlled reactor is used with high gas collection efficiency compared to landfills,
where the collection efficiency is relatively low. Moreover, the process in a waste landfill
typically takes many years to degrade the biodegradable waste anaerobically, but using an
anaerobic digestion system, the process is complete within a period of weeks (McLanaghan,
2002).

Biodegradable waste

Delivery, reception and storage

Pre-treatment by shredding and


homogenization

Anaerobic digestion by heating and


mixing

Biogas

Post-treatment

Heat and power

Compost product

Landfill

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the anaerobic digestion process (McLanaghan, 2002).

The solid residue arising from anaerobic digestion can also be cured and used as a
fertilizer. The process produces energy in the form of a quality natural gas to use as vehicle

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fuel. Biogas can also be successfully compressed for use as an alternative transportation fuel
in light and heavy-duty vehicles. Anaerobic digestion has been used to treat sewage sludge
and agricultural wastes for many years and has also been developed for municipal solid
wastes and industrial wastes.
The microorganisms responsible for anaerobic decomposition can be of two types,
namely, acid formers and methane formers. Acid former microorganisms ferment the
complex organic compounds to more simple organic forms like acetic and propionic acids.
They are either facultative or strict anaerobes. Methane former microorganisms are strictly
anaerobes and have very slow growth rates. Methane formers are very sensitive to various
environmental factors such as temperature change, stable and neutral pH not below 6.8, and
presence of toxic metal such as heavy metals and pesticides.
The process flow diagram of anaerobic digestion is shown in Figure 10. At first,
biodegradable wastes are separated from the main waste stream. The biodegradable waste
fraction is collected at the reception area and stored before processing. Next in pre-treatment
stage, contaminants are removed and waste is homogenized to enhance efficient anaerobic
digestion.
In the anaerobic digestion stage, wastes are heated and mixed to generate biogas. The
biogas is a combination of methane and carbon dioxide. The methane is combusted to
produce energy, which provides heat for the anaerobic digestion process and also for export
to provide heat and power. In the post-treatment phase, more contaminants like glass and
plastics are removed and residue is further stabilized to produce a composted product.

4.4. Composting
Composting is a natural process of solid waste treatment in the presence of air and the
end-product is the partially decomposed organic fraction. Composting is practiced on a small
scale at individual households as well as on a large scale under a composting scheme carried
out by local governments. Composting is an aerobic process where aerobic microorganisms
extract energy from the organic matter through a series of exothermic reactions that break the
material down to simpler materials. A critical variable in composting is the moisture content.
If the moisture content is too low, the microorganisms cannot survive and the biodegradation
stops. If the moisture content is too high, there is lack of oxygen in the soil, as air cannot
penetrate the soil. This will lead to an anaerobic environment. The pH of the compost pile
shows an initial drop and is then increased to between 8.0 to 9.0, and finally settles down to
7.0 to 8.9. The time required for a compost pile to be fully degraded depends on different
factors including decaying of the feed, the insulation and aeration provided, the ratio between
carbon and nitrogen, the particle size, and other conditions. Usually 4-6 weeks time is
considered for the adequate composting of shredded municipal waste (Suler and Finstein,
1977; Strom, 1985).
A process flow diagram of a composting process is shown in Figure 11. For composting,
biodegradable wastes including parks and household garden wastes are first separated from
other inert wastes. The composting process includes three stages (Williams, 2005). In the first
stage, simple carbohydrates and proteins are biologically degraded by mesophilic
microorganisms followed by thermophilic microorganisms and the temperature rises above
450C. The second stage is a stabilization stage where biodegradation occurs by thermophilic

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microorganisms and the temperature reaches up to 700C. The high temperature of this phase
helps to destruct weed seeds and pathogenic microorganisms. In the third stage, which is a
maturation stage, further biodegradation occurs at low temperature and takes several weeks
for completion. Finally, the compost is sieved and graded to remove un-composted materials
as well as contaminants like glass, plastics and metals, and ready to be used as an end
product.

Biodegradable waste

Delivery, reception and storage

Shredding and homogenization

Composting
Stage 1: Decomposition
Stage 2: Stabilization
Stage 3: Maturation

Sieving and grading

Landfill

End product
market

Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the composting process (McLanaghan, 2002).

5. SUSTAINABILITY IN RESOURCE RECOVERY FROM WASTE


Resource recovery from waste disposal and treatment options has become an integral part
of a sustainable waste management system. Material reusing and recycling is one of the
options for resource recovery from waste that enables the removal of usable materials
removed from the waste, which is discussed earlier in this chapter. Other than the recycling,
waste can be converted to usable energy as a by-product of landfill operation, and an endproduct of different thermal and biological treatment. Landfill operations produce leachate
and landfill gas, thermal combustion produces gas, oil, tar and char, and biological treatments

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produce gas and compost. All of these by-products and end-products are commercially
important and have diversified utilization.

5.1. Leachate and Landfill Gas


Leachate is a mixture of water, dissolved organic matter, inorganic macro components,
heavy metals, and xenobiotic organic components, which are produced as water passes
through waste and collects at the bottom of the landfill. Composition of the leachate depends
on the type of waste and its stage of decomposition. Leachate cannot be disposed without
treatment as it contains different contaminants, which are harmful to environment. A common
solution of disposing leachate is to supply it to a local wastewater treatment plant, where it is
treated with the wastewater. But this incurs an increase in the expense of a landfill operation.
Another alternative of leachate management is recirculating the leachate into the landfill. The
recirculation of leachate back through the landfilled waste enhances development of active
anaerobic microbial populations and increases biodegradation reaction rates. Recirculation of
leachate is readily done for bioreactor landfill, where additional water needs to be applied
for wetting the landfill. Using the leachate instead of additional water reduces the landfill
operation cost and solves the problem of a sustainable way of leachate disposal (Kjeldsen et
al., 2002; Reinhart and Al-Yousfi, 1996; Townsend et al., 1996).
Landfill gas is a mixture of carbon dioxide and methane, small amounts of nitrogen and
oxygen, and trace amounts of a wide range of other gases such as benzene, toluene, and vinyl
chloride, which is a product of biodegradation in landfill.
Landfill gas can be burnt at site, which is not a sustainable application of this resource;
rather, it has the following beneficial use (Eklund et al., 1998; Buivid et al., 1981):

Landfill gas can be used in boiler combustion applications including boiler firing,
space heating, cement and brick kilns, sludge drying, and leachate drying and
incineration. This gas can be an alternative to conventional fuel such as oil, propane
and natural gas used for this type of application.
Another use of landfill gas is to generate electricity. Between 1990 and 2003, the
proportion of methane generated in Australia's landfills that were captured for fuel or
electricity generation grew from almost zero to approximately 24%. Up to 75% of
landfills servicing major urban areas and capital cities used gas capture technologies.
Growth in landfill gas capture has occurred for a variety of reasons. These include
government incentives and regulatory requirements promoting the generation of
electricity from renewable resources, and attempts to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions from landfills.
Can be used as vehicle fuel, if upgraded to natural gas quality.
Can be converted to synthetic fuels and chemicals.
The gas can be used for the development of a fuel cell.

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5.2. Energy from Combustion


Waste heat recovered from combustion gases can be used to produce steam. If the heat is
sufficiently available it can be used in the combustion plant itself, in other industrial
processes, for heating residential, commercial, and leisure facilities. The steam can also be
used for electricity generation. The heat value of a substance relates to its energy potential.
Generally, municipal solid waste has a heat value of 10 Gigajoules per tones comparing to
coal at about 26-29 Gigajoules per tones (Petts, 1994). However the heat value of the gas
from municipal waste combustion depends on the composition of individual components of
the waste and is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Heat values of municipal solid waste components (Vesilind et al., 2002)
Component
Food waste
Paper
Cardboard
Plastics
Textiles
Rubber
Leather
Garden Trimmings
Wood
Glass
Nonferrous metal
Ferrous metal
Dirt, ashes, other fine material

Heat Value (KJ/kg dry weight)


4652
16747
16282
32564
17445
23260
17445
6513
18608
140
698
698
6978

Different combustion processes produce end-products of char and oil [25, 36]. From the
pyrolysis of municipal solid waste it is possible to get a 35% char product, which has a high
ash content of 37%. The chars have much beneficial value. Chars can be

used directly as fuel


briquetted to produce solid fuels, and
used as activated carbon

The end-product oil from pyrolysis of waste can be

used in conventional electricity generating systems


used directly as fuel
added to petroleum refinery stock, and
upgraded to premium grade fuel

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5.3. Compost
Compost is the end product of the composting process of municipal waste. The compost
can be added to the soil for improving the soil structure of clay type soils or can be used as
fertilizer for improving the nutrient content in soil. The ranges of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium in finished compost from municipal waste are shown in Table 5. Compost can also
be used for land restoration and landscaping (Oudraogo et al., 2001; Sb and Ferrini, 2006;
Sikora and Enkiri, 2000).
Table 5. Fertilizer value of compost from municipal solid waste (Vesilind et al., 2002)
Nutrient
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium

Range, as fraction of total solids


0.4 to 1.6
0.1 to 0.4
0.2 to 0.6

CONCLUSION
We all want to live in a hygienic world, which is free from pollutants or at least where the
pollution is manageable. Sustainability in waste management systems will hopefully allow us
to achieve this ambition. Municipal solid waste, which was a curse once upon a time, has now
become an asset to many communities. Sustainability is present in every step of a good waste
management system including collection, disposal, treatment and resource recovery from
waste. With the development of waste treatment processes, different options are becoming
available for sustainable use of the end-product. This is why engineers and scientists are
considering using oil and gas converted from waste in vehicles instead of conventional fuel,
using waste treatment combustion heat to warm residential and commercial facilities, and
using compost instead of conventional fertilizer. Thus, waste sustainability is playing an
important role in achieving a sustainable environment.

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Australian Bureau of Statistics.(2012). Environmental Issues: Waste Management, Transport


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Kjeldsen, P., et al., (2002). Present and long-term composition of MSW landfill leachate: a
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Li, A., et al., (1999). Experimental studies on municipal solid waste pyrolysis in a laboratoryscale rotary kiln. Energy, 24(3): p. 209-218.
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Municipal waste advisory council. (2009). Alternative Waste Treatment Technology
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Muttamara, S., Visvanathan, C., and Alwis, K. (1994). Solid waste recycling and reuse in
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Ogwueleka, T., (2009). Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Nigeria.
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Scott, J., et al, (2005). Landfill management, leachate generation, and leach testing of solid
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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 11

ENERGY AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS


(WWTP)
A. Zouboulis1*, P. Samaras2 and A. Tolkou1
1

Laboratory of General and Inorganic Chemical Technology Division of Chemical


Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
2
Laboratory of Water and Wastewater Technologies, Department of Food Technology,
Alexander Technological Education Institute of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

ABSTRACT
Every wastewater treatment plant can have a different flow of incoming wastewater,
quality of sewage, permitted levels of effluent and other local restrictions. These
differences can be large and have a big impact on the type of process used for treating
and to the amount of energy consumed during the processing. The study of energy in a
wastewater treatment plant includes the consumption and the production and/or the
recovery in the plant. The processes of Aeration and Pumping of the liquids use the most
energy in a wastewater treatment plant. The fraction of the energy used in aeration
systems, ranges from 25 to 60% of the total energy use in a wastewater treatment plant.
Also, the process of disinfection in tertiary treatment of wastewater corresponds to 1025% of the total use of energy in a wastewater treatment plant.
The energy optimization of a wastewater treatment plant can be achieved through
good energy management, through implantation of energy saving measures (through
modifications in budget management, through changes of functioning and by
modifications on lighting, heating, ventilation and air conditioning system) and
enhancing the production of the energy required by alterative or renewable sources,
without compromising the efficiency of treatment processes. Enhancing the production of
energy from alternative sources, based on the fact that the wastewater treatment plant has
an important energy source: wastewater itself, while the chemical energy contained in
wastewater, based on the chemical oxygen demand (COD), is approximately equal to
13MJ/kg COD or 36 kWh/kg COD. The produced biogas is also a valuable source of
energy with a calorific value ranging from 20 to 25 MJ/m3, or approximately
6.5kWh/m3, corresponding to 60% of calorific value of natural gas. Moreover, the
*

Email: zoubouli@chem.auth.gr, nancytolkou@gmail.com.


Email: samaras@food.teithe.gr.

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installation of photovoltaic systems in neighboring area adjustment to the wastewater
treatment plant could help both in energy saving in the plant and the possibility of profits
from this.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. General
Every wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) can have a different flow of incoming
wastewater, quality of sewage, permitted levels of effluent and other local restrictions. These
differences can be large and have a big impact on the type of process used for treating and to
the amount of energy consumed during the processing. The study of energy in a wastewater
treatment plant includes the consumption and the production and/or the recovery in the plant.
The consumption and energy saving is presented for a plant using the conventional
method of wastewater treatment and includes the following main stages of processing:
i.
ii.
iii.

iv.
v.

Pretreatment: removing solids with relatively larger diameters (e.g.> 1 mm)


Primary treatment: removal of solids that settle relatively easily - reduce levels of
particulates.
Secondary treatment: removal of biodegradable organic substances with biological
processes (microorganisms consume the contents organics in aerobic or anaerobic
conditions).
Tertiary Treatment and Disinfection: Removal of residual nutrients (N, P) and
destruction of pathogens microorganisms
Sludge disposal: in landfills, composting or by incineration (Zamboulis, 2003).

1.2. Economic and Environmental Aspects of Sustainability


Sustainability can be broadly defined as meeting the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainability meets todays and tomorrows environmental, economic, and social needs.
On the environmental aspect, wastewater treatment obviously needs to protect sources of
drinking water, aquatic life, and recreational uses of waterways. The wastewater industry
must also minimize air emissions (such as methane and nitrogen greenhouse gas) and mitigate
other impacts resulting from energy and chemical use.
Plant managers must weave economic considerations into every decision and find the
best balance between multiple goals: achieving effluent quality requirements, planning for
addons that will meet future effluent requirements, using all resources (i.e., powering
equipment with methane), and optimizing the use of external resources (such as chemicals
and electricity).
Sustainability also has social aspects. The concept may have different meanings for
different stakeholders, but it essentially boils down to education. Wastewater treatment
managers will find community acceptance comes easier when they understand the reasoning
behind technology choices, especially when the decisions are between a fix that is fast and

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159

cheap and something that may take longer to implement but that will prove more beneficial in
the long run (Fillmore, 2008).

Figure 1. The three interconnected spheres of sustainability that describe the relationships between the
environmental, economic, and social aspects of our world (Wanamaker, 2012).

However, sustainability and success of wastewater reuse depends highly on a sound


implementation and management of reuse schemes. Poor planning and management might
bring not only high health and environmental risks, but also undesired economic and social
results.
In a sustainable perspective, wastewater reuse has to respect all three dimensions of
sustainability, namely ecological, social and economic dimension. Therefore an assessment
based on sound indicators for all three dimensions is needed (Figure 1), (zerol and Gnther,
2005).
Sustainability of wastewater treatment systems can be accessed through different
assessment tools such exergy analysis (also called Availability or Work Potential - the
maximum useful work that can be obtained from a system at a given state in a given
environment; in other words, the most work you can get out of a system Surroundings:
outside the system boundaries), economic analysis, and life cycle assessment (LCA), (Muga
and Mihelcic, 2008).

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2. ENERGY CONSUMPTION
2.1. General
The study of energy in a WWTP includes energy consumption and / or production and
energy recovery in the unit itself. Generally, two types of energy required to plant, electrical
and thermal energy. The heat is used to meet the heating needs of various processes (drying
sludge, sludge digestion) and for heating buildings of a WWTP. The energy required for the
operation of the most parts of a plants equipment is electrical. Most WWTPs, medium and
large size, use activated sludge treatment systems. Approximately 95% of the electricity
demand in such WWTP consumed by electric motors of compressors air, aerators, the bellows,
pumps, scrapers, of transport equipment and equipment for sludge treatment systems. The rest
of the energy is consumed by measurement and control systems, electrical systems, heating
and lighting systems (Kapreli, 2011). The water treatment plants and wastewater in the U.S.
consume about 2% of total energy (electricity) produced by country. Typically, 30% of the
operating cost of wastewater treatment plants budgeted for energy use. During the next 30
years, the demand for electric energy in wastewater treatment is expected to increase by 3040% (Metcalf & Eddy, 2007). The energy cost is one of the three highest cost factors in a
WWTP, after labor costs and the cost of disposal and therefore significantly affects the
operating costs of a WWTP. On average, 30% of the operating costs of a WWTP budgeted
for energy use (Kapreli, 2011). The wastewater treatment facilities consume significant
energy, accounting for 3% of total national energy use. The main parts of the equipment that
consume energy of a WWTP are shown in Figure 2.
The pumps

Various engines

The blowers / diffusers

Figure 2. Main parts of the equipment that consume energy of a WWTP.

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The processes of Aeration and Pumping of the liquids use the most energy in a
wastewater treatment plant.
The specific energy consumption of wastewater treatment plants should be between 20
and 45 kWh/(PE) [PE = Population Equivalent or unit per capita loading]. The lower rate
applies to large facilities serving>100.000 PE, while the higher number applies to
approximately 10.000 PE. The smaller the system, higher the specific consumption of energy
(HUBER SE, 2007). In a period where there are concerns about the adequacy of reserves of
fuel, energy costs and ever-higher levels of processing that result in increased energy
consumption, the design and operation of wastewater treatment plants are increasingly
focused on improving efficiency electricity energy use and reduce the cost of processing
(Metcalf & Eddy, 2007).

Figure 3. Energy Factory (Smith et al., 2010).

2.2. Use of Electricity


The functional requirements for collecting systems and wastewater treatment vary
directly as to the load of wastewater. As the load changes during the day, the requirements for
pumping, aeration and treatment of solid varies accordingly. The peak energy demand occurs
from noon until early evening that shows peak electricity demands. Some plants alter the
modes of their equipment to meet the conditions of supply. Other facilities bring the parts of
the systems (such as aeration fans) and running continuously, irrespective of the capacity.
In the conventional secondary treatment, most of the power is used for:
1) The biological treatment with activated sludge process that requires energy for
aeration or for the operation of beds, which in turn requires energy for the pumping
of inflow and for the circulation of effluent.
2) The pumping systems or transferring liquid wastewater, liquid sludge and biosolids.
3) For the dewatering of sludge and drying of biosolids.

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In activated sludge treatment, about 1100 up to 2400 MJ electricity required to process


each 1000m3 of waste water. The percentage of electricity consumed generally varies
depending on plant size and the type of treatment used (Metcalf & Eddy, 2007).

2.3. Pumping System


Appropriate sizing of pumps is the key to efficient operation of wastewater treatment
plants. For existing treatment plants, utilities should evaluate the operation of existing pumps
and identify opportunities for energy reduction. A good starting point is to determine the
efficiency of existing pumping systems, focusing first on pumps that operate for extended
periods presenting the highest potential for energy reduction (EPA, 2010).
Pumping is usually applied in the following stages of a WWTP:

Activated sludge recirculation pumps and pumps for the withdrawal of excess
activated sludge: pumps of internal recirculation of the mixed liquor in the aeration
tanks and pumps of external circulation of activated sludge.
Treated wastewater pumping (effluent): Energy consumption during pumping
depends on the applied pressure, or the height or distance to which the pump must
discharge the sewage.
Other pumping stations and equipment: such as the intermediate pumping lift,
foam removal, oil and grease removal etc., and the pumping of clean liquids (treated)
(Kapreli, 2011).

2.4. Primary Processing


The primary treatment is not one of the larger energy consumers in a WWTP,
nevertheless equipment includes motorized Skim (skimmers), Scrapers an Primary sludge
pump station which although not in permanent operation could be a candidate for
implementing high performance pumps. These components of equipment could be candidate
for high performance engines (MJ Industrial Solutions, 2003).

2.5. Secondary Processing


The secondary treatment it is usually the most energy-intensive unit in wastewater
treatment plants
Reference parameters calculated for the secondary treatment of sewage are:

The energy used per kg of BOD removed (kWh/kg BOD)


Energy used per million m3 of treated wastewater
The energy consumed to oxygen transfer ( - oxygen transfer efficiency) PG&E,
2002)

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Table 1. Summary of Energy Benchmark Parameters and Energy Use Information for
the Secondary Wastewater Treatment Process and for Total Plant Operations
(PG&E, 2002)

Most conventional methods of secondary waste water treatment are aerobic, meaning that
the bacteria used for the decomposition of waste water need oxygen to perform their work.
The advantages of these processes are the high processing performance (95% and above) and
high stability with respect to the toxic compounds and load fluctuations. The disadvantages of
aerobic processes are the high energy requirements for supplying the necessary oxygen for
the bacteria and the production of large volumes of sludge, thus these processes are expensive
and difficult to control (Kapreli, 2011).

2.5.1. Aeration System


The aeration process may account for the greater energy requirement than any other
operation in the installation (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Distribution of energy consumption in wastewater treatment by the activated sludge method
(SAIC, 2006).

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While energy demand is in a particular place and may vary significantly from plant to
plant, the fraction of the energy used in aeration systems, ranges from 25 to 60% of the total
energy use in a wastewater treatment plant.
The wastes are aerated or by form of bubbles or by high purity oxygen through them or
by mixing, such that the oxygen is transferred through the contact with the atmosphere. The
two most common types of aeration are the mechanical aeration, the submerged and surface
aeration.

Tolkou

Tolkou

Figure 5. Aeration Tank (WWTP of Sindos, Thessaloniki Greece) (Tolkou and Zouboulis, 2012).

Table 2. Performance of Aeration at reference conditions and real condition


(Smith et al., 2010)

In aeration systems with diffusion, air is introduced below the surface of water. Important
components of these systems are the air intake system, the blowers, the air piping system and
the diffusers. The air intake systems are usually equipped with filters for the protection of

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blowers and diffusers from airborne particles. The blowers are substantially low pressure,
high volume air compressors.
The surface aeration mixes the wastewater, transferring oxygen from the air, thereby
increasing the interface water-air. Common types of equipment include low-speed mechanical
aeration, direct surface aeration, and brush.
The cost of energy to produce compressed air continues to rise along with fuel costs.
Optimizing the aeration process by measuring and controlling the aeration system's air flow
with an accurate, reliable flow meter reduces energy costs and overall plant operational costs.
The flow conditioner also can reduce piping costs, and the low-pressure drop characteristics
minimize compressor/pump power requirements (Cox, 2012).

2.5.2. System of Anoxic and Anaerobic Conditions


The increasingly stringent effluent limits set for the treated effluent of WWTP, the
limited space and sharp fluctuations in supply and the load of untreated sewage entering in
the WWTP have made aerobic processes as the most widely used methods of biological
treatment, despite high energy requirements.
The process of nitrification-denitrification, applicable for the removal of nitrogen
compounds, which have the effect of increasing the oxygen demand and hence, increase the
energy requirements (Kapreli, 2011).

Tolkou

Figure 6. Tank of anoxic and anaerobic conditions (WWTP of Liti, Thessaloniki Greece 2012)
(Tolkou and Zouboulis, 2012).

2.5.3. Membrane System (MBRs)


Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are becoming more common as WWTPs are required to
meet increasingly stringent effluent limits and in some cases, reuse requirements in smaller
footprints. The unique feature of MBRs is that instead of secondary clarification, they use
membrane treatment, either as vacuumdriven systems immersed in a biological reactor or
pressuredriven membrane systems located external to the bioreactor, for solids separation.
Membranes are typically configured hollow tube fibers or flat panels and have pore sizes
ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 microns.
Although MBRs have many operational advantages, they use more energy than
conventional processes in order to move water through the membrane and for membrane

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scouring and cleaning. WEF (2009) reports that energy requirements of MBR systems may be
twic that of conventional activated sludge systems.
For an MBR system, energy requirements are of primary interest. Aeration energy is the
larger consumer on an MBR system. This comes in two forms: energy/air to provide
oxygen for biological nutrient removal, and energy- to provide scouring of the membrane to
keep it clean. As the air required for biological nutrient removal is calculated in terms of kg of
oxygen, limited optimization can be done (Kippax, 2007).
As illustrated in Figure 7, the primary energy requirements are related to aeration (66%)
with pumping a far second energy requirement (14%). To that end, the key opportunities for
energy reduction center on aeration; however, all energy related elements should be
considered. In order to provide the most cost effective and energy efficient system, it is
important to look at opportunities related to design, operations, and equipment (Wallis-Lage
and Levesque, 2007).

Figure 7. Energy Requirements for an MBR (Wallis-Lage and Levesque, 2007).

The total energy consumption by MBR can in some cases reach values between 6 and
8kWh/m3. In the literature there can be found unequal energy ratios such as 0.14 and
4.0kWh/m3. The energy demand of membrane bioreactors in municipal wastewater treatment
is reported to be a factor of 24 times higher, compared to the conventional activated sludge
process. Overall, it is shown that the energy demand of municipal MBR could be as low as
0.70.8 kWh/m3, which is higher than 0.30.4 kWh/m3 for treated water by traditional
wastewater treatment (Gi et al., 2010).
The energy consumption required for filtration in submerged MBR is significantly lower
(Table 3)
The cost of oxygen demand is superior in MBR. The energy consumption during the
operation of an MBR includes the power requirements for influent pumping and recycling of
the retentate, permeates suction and aeration. The two MBR configurations have substantial
differences in terms of aeration. In the side-stream configuration, aeration is supplied by fine
bubble aerators that are highly efficient for supplying oxygen to the biomass. In submerged
MBRs, the aeration mode is turbulent and cross-flow is generated, which scours the
membrane surface and provides oxygen to the biomass. Aeration cost in the latter-mentioned
configuration represents around 90% of the total costs, whereas in side-stream MBR, only
20% derives from it. However, energy consumption of the side-stream system is usually two
orders of magnitude higher than that of submerged systems (Radjenovi et al., 2008).

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Table 3. Comparison of filtration conditions for tubular and immersed MBRs


(Radjenovi et al., 2008)

A modern method of secondary treatment of wastewater resulting from the populated


centers is represented by the biological aerated filters and membrane bioreactors, which
combines activated sludge technology with activated carbon filtration, or semi porous
membrane (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Membrane Biological Reactor (Isacu and Mirel, 2012).

This method allows the elimination of the colloidal and dissolved substances, processes
which are partly undergoing a process of oxidation in order to form carbon dioxide, partly
undergoing a process of metabolism in order to build up biomass and some absorb matter on
their surface. Modern technologies which ensure simultaneous removal of nitrogen and
phosphorus are characterized by the following attributes:
The membrane filters retain both solids and bacteria from the wastewater;
The activated sludge concentration is 3-5 times higher, leading to a reduction of 20
25% of the tank capacity;

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Power consumption is 40-80 kWh/(PTa), of which approx. 50% is consumed for the
functioning of membranes;
The membrane aeration equipment has a power consumption of cca.10% higher than
conventional equipment and installation of sand filters for disinfection;
Such facilities are recommended to be used if a high quality effluent is needed or
where space is limited (Isacu and Mirel, 2012).

2.5.4. Sludge Treatment


The sludge treatment is complex and involves a large number of functions, such as
Digestion, Incineration and Dewatering.
a) Digestion
The stabilization methods commonly used for the biological stabilization of sludge is
aerobic and anaerobic digestion. As in aerobic biological treatment of wastewater, so the
aerobic digestion of sludge uses equipment (blowers, air diffusion systems) having large
energy requirements. Many WWTP operate aerobic digesters with surface aerators or
diffusers of medium bubble and have limited ability to modify or control the flow of air
supplied. Also often used air from the blowers of secondary treatment process of activated
sludge in the aerobic digestion, allowing little or no control of the flow of air supplied.
Anaerobic digestion is a process that consumes less energy compared to the aerobic
digestion which requires long times of aeration and therefore high energy supply.
Each WWTP, knowing the quality biosolids that wants to produce, can choose the type of
sludge treatment processes to use, as each type treatment process influences the
characteristics of the produced biosolids, which in turn affect production rates and capacities
of thickening and dewatering of the sludge (MJ Industrial Solutions, 2003).
b) Incineration
The energy required for incineration depends on many factors:

The humidity.
The organic content of the sewage sludge,
The air pollution requirements, and
The operating practices.

In recent years, advances in flue gas recirculation and exhaust heat recovery/reuse have
made incineration more economical and less energy intensive.

c) Dewatering
Dewatering of sludge, aims to reduce the humidity so sludge can get half-solid and
facilitate further manipulations. In small installations, this process takes place in drying beds,
and generally is used centrifugation and strap Filter Presses and gives cake with 55-70% of
humidity, and if is used heat treatment, the humidity falls below of 10% (WWT , 2012).

Centrifugation: final product is obtained with a solids concentration of up to 30%


(300 kg/m3), but the energy requirements are significant: from 30 to 80kWh / t DS,
and it is necessary the addition of flocculants,

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Filter press: The filter press is possible to increase the solids concentration in sludge
of 10% up to 20%, depending on the type of sludge and the pressure applied. The
energy consumption is approximately 35 kWh / t DS (dry solids).

Tolkou

(a)

Tolkou

(b)

Figure 9. a) Centrifugation b) Filter press (WWTP of Sindos, Thessaloniki Greece, 2012) (Tolkou and
Zouboulis, 2012).

For satisfactory dewatering, chemical preparation is usually required. The energy


consumption is between 30 and 40 kWh / t DS (Kapreli, 2011).

2.5.5. Tertiary Treatment Disinfection


Tertiary treatment includes the disinfection and there is significant energy consumption.

Figure 10. Disinfection of wastewater with UV (Ntarakas, 2012).

a) System UV
The device of disinfection with radiation UV consists of the following parts:

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1. Source of UV radiation
2. Designated contact
3. Control and regulation of the amount of radiation generated by the transmitted
signals from the flowmeter (Stamou and Vogiatzis, 1986).

Energy requirements for ultraviolet radiation depend on the number, type and
configuration of lamps used.
A study funded by the company Pacific Gas and Electric (PG & E, 2002), found that the
energy consumed during the disinfection with ultraviolet radiation may be responsible for
about 10-25% of total energy use of the wastewater treatment plant.

The energy required for low pressure lamps ranges from about 0.022 0.055
kWh/m3.
The energy required for medium pressure lamps range from 0.101 0.125 kWh/m3
for an installation that requires 109 kWh /kg to achieve very high levels of coliform
inactivation (EPA, 2010).

b) Ozone
Ozone is a very powerful antioxidant that is relatively unstable, therefore, should be
generated in situ in order to be used. The ozonation process (Zouboulis et al., 2007) involves
four steps:

Power and gas preparation


Creation of ozone transport in the liquid phase in the form of dissolved ozone
Contact with ozone treated wastewater and
Release of gas.

The use of ozonation increases energy requirements by 0.037kWh/m3. The magnitude of


this increase is variable (100 to 200 kWh) and depends on:

The capacity of the facility


The flow of incoming wastewater
The dosage of ozone (Petala et al, 2006).
The type of gas supply system (i.e., air, or on-site production of oxygen).
The flow of incoming wastewater (Chang et al., 2008).

Table 4. Energy requirements of the different parts of ozone system (Chang et al., 2008)
System Component
Air Compressors
Liquid ring compressors
Rotary screw compressors
Rotary lobe compressors
Refrigerant Dryers
Desiccant Dryers
Heat reactivated
Heatless
Liquid Oxygen Feed Systems

Electrical Energy Usages


20 25 bhp per 170 Nm3/h
13 17 bhp per 170 Nm3/h
27 33 bhp per 170 Nm3/h
1 3 kW per 170 Nm3/h
2 3 kW per 1.7 Nm3/h
Minimal
Minimal

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System Component
Pressure Swing Adsorption Feed Systems
Ozone Generators
Air feed (low and medium frequency)
Oxygen feed (medium frequency)
Chillers
Off-gas Treatment (destruct & blowers)

171

Electrical Energy Usages


15 18 kW per 1000 kg ozone
6 9 kWh per 0.45 kg ozone
3.5 6 kWh per 0.45 kg ozone
0.7 1.4 kW per 1000 kg cooling
3 kW per 170 Nm3/h

3. ENERGY SAVING
3.1. General
Energy optimization in a wastewater treatment plant may be achieved through:

good energy management


implementation of energy saving measures; and
enhancing production of energy from alternative energy sources, but without
compromising the efficiency of treatment processes.

A WWTP, improving energy efficiency, succeeds not only to reduce energy consumption
but also to reduce its energy costs.
The strengthening of energy production from alternative sources of energy based on the
fact that the wastewater treatment plant has an important energy source: wastewater itself.
With proper treatment can be extracted directly or indirectly, energy from the sewage, which
may be used to meet the energy demand of the unit itself. By recovering energy from its own
resources, a WWTP can significantly reduce energy costs, increase energy autonomy,
reducing its dependence on external energy sources and potentially reduce its energy
consumption. With proper energy management WWTP one can achieve even 100% energy
independence.
Furthermore, improving the energy efficiency of a WWTP mitigates climate change.
Conventionally, for the production of energy (electricity and heat) used fossil fuels like coal,
which in their combustion releases large quantities of carbon dioxide, which is the main gas
that contributes to global warming. Climate change is a global problem range and is therefore
a priority to find alternative energy sources. By reducing the energy consumption of WWTP
reduced the consumption of natural resources needed to produce energy, and energy recovery
from own sources (sewage sludge) replaced part of the required power generated from
conventional fossil fuel energy produced from wastewater, which is considered a renewable
energy source and have reduced carbon dioxide emissions (Kapreli, 2011).
One goal of reducing energy costs is to reduce the total number of kWh required to treat a
given volume of water or wastewater. The amount of energy used by a utility for water and/or
wastewater treatment is a function of various factors, including: topography of the service
area, system size, treatment process, type and condition of equipment, and O&M practices.
Still, no treatment system operates at one hundred percent efficiency, and consequently
opportunities exist to improve energy efficiency and reduce the total consumption of kWh
(NYSERDA, 2010).

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Energy saving measures can be grouped in three categories:
1) Measures through modifications in energy management,
2) Saving measures through operational changes and
3) Saving measures through changes in lighting, heating, ventilation and air
conditioning. (MJ Industrial Solutions, 2003; Malcolm Pirniel, 2005; EPA, 2008).

3.1.1. Measures through Modifications in Energy Management


By the measures through modifications we mean the energy saving opportunities arising
from any kind of equipment replacement and / or modification process. In some cases, there
is a possibility these opportunities to consume more energy than existing processes, but to
improve the whole processing unit, thus saving operating expenses from the total budget of
the unit.
i) Modification of Electric Motors
High performance engines
The term high performance engines refer generally to high performance engines, which
in one WWTP can be pumps of high performance, aeration blowers of energy efficient and
various other engines (such as drive motors of bridges with the scrapers).
The energy-efficient motors should be considered for all new installations, by replacing
these that failed, or as a spare. However, in cases where the higher speed leads to higher
energy consumption without actually offer additional useful work, these engines may not be
an economical option.
Dimensioning of motors
Many motors are oversized for their application, thereby wasting energy unnecessarily.
The sizing can also lead to a low power factor. For these reasons, it is important to the
appropriate size motor and operates primarily in charge of about 65 100%. The motors are
oversized by more than 50% should be replaced with appropriately sized, high-performance
engines. Also, applications that require sizing of engines to meet peak loads should be
considered alternative strategies, such as using a properly dimensioned engine which is
supported by a smaller motor that works only during periods of peak demand. Energy savings
and costs that will result from this application vary depending on engine size and application
(Kapreli, 2011).

ii) Performance Improvement Processes through Automation


The installation of automation systems and control systems in a WWTP can reduce costs,
improve operational efficiency and reliability and to save energy. The energy savings from
the installation of automation and control systems is the ability to adjust the equipment to the
requirements of each system.
Automation and control systems:

Using SCADA;
Control operating parameters processes (e.g. control of dissolved oxygen);

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Variable frequency drivers (VFDs) can save from 15 to 35% energy;


Electrical load monitoring;
Flow meters;
Timers for closure of large parts of the equipment during peak hours, etc.

The main automation systems that can be implemented in a WWTP for the control and
regulation of various operating parameters of individual treatment processes are presented in
Table 5. An example of energy saving by installing an automation system is to regulate the
rate of recirculation of sludge, which allows one WWTP to maintain optimal levels of sludge
bed in the secondary tanks. The consequence is a reduction in the pumping rate of the
recirculated sludge and hence reducing energy consumption.
Table 5. Automation applications at WWTPs
(Federation of Canadian Municipalities and National Research Council, 2003)
Process/Unit
Preliminary treatment
Primary and chemically
enhanced primary
treatment
Biological treatment

Secondary clarifiers
Tertiary filters
Aeration system

Disinfection
(i) Chlorination/
Dechlorination
(ii) UV irradiation
Sludge thickening/
dewatering

Digestion

Application
Automatic screen cleaning based on head loss, total flow treated and/or timers
Flow proportional chemical dosage control
On-line effluent suspended solids/turbidity monitoring
Automated sludge density control of sludge pumping
Automated sludge blanket height control of sludge pumping
On-line respirometry
On-line measurement of BOD load
Automated sludge age (SRT) control
Automated biological sludge wasting control
Automated ORP control in the control of biological nutrient removal processes
On-line measurement of MLSS concentration
On-line dissolved oxygen monitoring and control
On-line measurements of NH3-N, NOx-N and PO4-P concentrations
On-line effluent TSS or turbidity analysis
On-line monitoring of turbidity and/or phosphorus concentration
On-line monitoring of head loss
Automated blower control based on on-line dissolved oxygen sensors
On-off aeration control
Variable speed control of mechanical aerators
Flow proportional chemical dosage
Automated chlorine residual control
Automated ORP control
UV intensity monitoring and control
Flow pacing of UV lamps
Initiation of automatic self-cleaning
Automatic flow pacing of chemical addition
Automatic mass dosage control of chemical addition
Automatic monitoring of solids content of liquid stream
Automatic chemical dosage control based on flocculation properties
Automated control of sludge distribution between multiple reactors based on flow
or solids mass load
On-line monitoring of supernatant quality

SCADA System
To SCADA system is a system of supervisory control and data acquisition. The
installation of a SCADA system to control the central equipment is a significant improvement
for a WWTP and can lead to considerable energy savings.

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In addition to monitoring of treatment processes, the SCADA system can provide


continuous monitoring and control functions of the unit, including:

Wastewater Collection Systems;


Water Distribution Systems;
Remote functions;
Pumping;
Programmable controllers software;
Diversion drains;
Protection against water overflows due to weather (NYSERDA, 2010).

iii) Improvement of Energetic Efficiency in WWTPs through Energy Analyses


The energy analyses basically aim at reducing the energy use and consequently the
energy costs in WWTPs through justifiable changes, without worsening the treatment quality.
The assessment should present tangible optimization steps and their feasibility, so that the
awarding authority can determine the priority works.
The energy analysis is applied in two main steps: rough analyze and fine analyze. Once
the energy saving potential and the required measures are defined, the applications follow.
After the applications, an efficiency check is required to complete the analysis.
Within the rough analyze, a general picture of the WWTP regarding the energy is drawn.
Required parameters are few and easy to collect. They mostly consist of the values recorded
in routine operation. Rough analyze is assisted by the systematized assessment. Above
mentioned handbook defines a number of representative criteria for the assessment of
energetic efficiency as well as benchmark and optimum values of them. The parameters are as
follows:
Specific electricity use is defined as the total annual electricity use in a WWTP per
population equivalent in terms of inflowing BOD5. It varies with the treatment target and the
size of the plant. Also the need for auxiliary equipment, such wastewater lift stations, makes a
difference. The criteria are adjusted for plant size and different treatment targets, yet lifting
equipment are not considered. The parameter is given in kW/(PEa).
Specific electricity use in the activated sludge system is in fact a part of the above
parameter, yet given separately, since the greatest energy consumer in a WWTP is the
aeration requirement.
Biogas utilization ratio is relevant to the WWTPs with anaerobic digestion. It represents
the ratio of the recycled biogas to the produced biogas (%) in a WWTP, independent from the
form of resulting energy.
Biogas conversion ratio too is a biogas related parameter and corresponds to the
efficiency for converting the energy content of biogas into high-level energy, namely
electricity or force.
Specific biogas production symbolizes the biogas production efficiency in the digester. It
is defined as the biogas production per organic dry matter and given in (l/kg DMorg).
Energy supply ratios are described as the self-supply rate of the plant by recovered
electricity and heat energy, respectively, both in per cent.
Rough analyze helps the expert to have a quick look at the energy aspects in a WWTP.
The comparison with the given values in the energy handbook emphasizes the units requiring

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a detailed check. Once the weak points in terms of the energy consumption are determined,
fine analysis can be applied more in detail.
Fine analysis usually requires a detailed acquisition of energy consumption data. Separate
counters must be installed. During a representative period of time, data are recorded. Specific
values are compared with the guide values given in the energy handbook. The problems are
determined, the equipment is examined and solutions are produced. After the application of
the solutions an efficiency control is conducted to prove the savings (Antakyali and Rolle R,
2010).

iv) Covering Tanks to Reduce Energy Needs


In northern climates, often WWTP tanks covered to prevent freezing of the contents. This
practice reduces or potentially eliminates the energy used to reheat the equipment and tanks.
The tanks in areas requiring frequent change of air may be addressed to reduce the required
volume of air. The recovery of waste heat from the flue gases or mixing with the outside air
can result in additional savings.
This practice can be applied to any open tank including tank removal sand size reduction
of solids, sedimentation, aeration, gravity thickeners, aerobic digesters, storage tanks and
reservoirs biosolids disinfection. The limitations of the application associated with the
weather (NYSERDA, 2010).
v) Balance Tank
The provision of balancing daily volume of wastewater is an important intervention
towards normalization and stabilization of wastewater flow to the treatment plants. The
balancing tanks are designed to balance the inlet and to "absorb" the hourly peaks of inlet
flow, allowing a fixed volume pumping sewage during the day.
Using equalization tank has the added advantage of reducing the size of individual
processing plants will need. Generally, the capacity of the treatment plants grows, so there is
a reduction in the variation of flow rates. The temporary storage tanks can also be used to
balance the effluent in WWTP that is required pumping for the disposal of treated waste. In
this case, a WWTP can shift the function of pumping for the disposal of wastewater not
operating during peak hours, where the cost of electricity consumption is lower resulting in
energy cost savings. Finally, balance tanks may be used upstream of the thickening and
dewatering processes of sludge to minimize the fluctuations of flow and tension cord
resulting in improving the performance of processes (Toby Livingston, 2011).
vi) Primary Treatment
Among other advantages of the primary treatment, those related to energy are:

Reduce the need for secondary treatment and consequently reduce energy
consumption in the aeration tanks.
Increase the concentration of dewatered sludge leading to the reduction of energy
costs for incineration of sludge (Kapreli, 2011).
vii) Secondary Treatment
Biological treatment

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The bacteria in anaerobic processes do not use oxygen. Excluding oxygen is easy, and
the energy requirements and sludge production is much less than for aerobic processes making the processes cheaper and simpler. Also, the temperature in which the bacteria like to
work is easy to maintain in hot climates. However, the main disadvantages of anaerobic
processes are that they are much slower than aerobic processes and are only good at removing
the organic waste and not any other sort of pollution, such as nutrients, or pathogens.
Anaerobic processes generally like steady effluents and they are not good with coping with
variations in flow or composition. For example, anaerobic processes cannot cope with shock
loads of heavy metals (from industrial processes, for example).
Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) provide the best option in most cases, good levels of
treatment at low capital and particularly low Operation and Maintenance cost. In addition, it
is one of the few processes which provide good treatment of pathogenic material. This has
significant application potential for re-use of the treated effluent in irrigation. The major
disadvantage is that significant areas of land are needed for treatment. WSPs are used in many
locations worldwide (Papazoglou, 2010; Parr et al., 1999).

Removal of Phosphorus and Nitrogen

One way to reduce the energy consumption of a WWTP, required to implement nitrogen
removal processes, is the integration of process nitrification - denitrification in aerobic
biological treatment, by creating anoxic (oxygen deficient) zone in the center (entrance) of the
aeration tank. This approach is effective in plants using biological activated sludge.
In case the removal of nitrogen combined with biological treatment, the equipment used
is mainly pumps, therefore, the pumps (motors) are high performance energy efficient choices
in this case (Ntarakas, 2011).
Wastewater treatment could become a lot more energy-efficient by changing this
conventional pathway. By altering the biological cascade and start the process with anaerobic
treatment of wastewater, it can potentially reduce oxygen use, and therefore energy use,
through reduced aeration. The theory is straightforward (see Figure 11). Ammonium is
oxidized to nitrite by nitrification bacteria. A relatively newly discovered bacteria, Anammox,
subsequently transforms ammonium and nitrite directly into nitrogen gas. Anammox thus
replaces the aerobic conversion from nitrite to nitrate and partly from ammonium to nitrate.
This alternative route produces nitrogen gas directly from nitrogen-containing compounds.
These conversions use less oxygen and no organic material when compared to conventional
methods. Overall it results in about 60 percent energy saving due to reduced aeration.
Because more organic material is available for anaerobic fermentation, also more biogas is
formed (Hendrickx et al., 2012).
For the same reason that nitrogen is removed the must be removed and phosphorus from
the wastewater stream. The apparatus of biological phosphorus removal depends on the
removal of phosphorus if it is combined with the removal of nitrogen in the tank or not.

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Figure 11. Ammonium oxidation to nitrite by nitrification bacteria (Hendrickx et al., 2012).

One modification that may have potential energy savings is the use of ferric chloride
instead of ferrous chloride as well eliminates the need for oxidation of iron. Consequently, the
cost savings resulting essentially from the electrical energy consumption by the blowers to
produce the necessary amount of oxygen, which is reduced (Hendrickx et al., 2012).

Aeration System

The installation of a monitoring and control of dissolved oxygen in aeration tanks is one
option that almost always proves economically energy efficient. This system uses sensors that
detect an ongoing basis and in no time, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in aeration
tanks, so the operator can directly control the aeration system and reduce energy
consumption. Once installed, a continuous measurement of dissolved oxygen, it is possible to
use the signal (indication) of dissolved oxygen for the automatic adjustment of the aeration
blowers using energy management systems or SCADA. (MJ Industrial Solutions, 2003)
Modern detectors of dissolved oxygen can be floating devices that automatically make
measurements and feed information directly into an automatic control system. The energy
savings resulting from the reduction in demand and thus the power consumption of the
blowers. The energy savings achieved will depend on the existing system and the general
ventilation system is about 20 to 50% (NYSERDA, 2010).
Many WWTP choose the installation and use of high-performance mixer, combined with
aeration devices to improve the aeration process in its entirety. In this application, the mixer
are used during periods that the energy requirements for mixing are high, in order to
maximize processing efficiency while minimizing the total energy demand. (MJ Industrial
Solutions, 2003; Malcolm Pirniel, 2005).

Membrane System (MBRs)

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Minimal aeration for complete nitrification can be adjusted, hence less aeration is
required (energy saving) and the development of anoxic micro zones is promoted, leading to
better nitrogen elimination. Additionally, oxygen transfer to the anoxic zone can be
minimized and the anoxic reactor volume can therefore be reduced. So, less equipment and
energy requirement, as the aerobic/anoxic sludge recirculation loop is not required.
Instead of taking place in two separate tanks, nitrification and denitrification can also be
implemented in one frequently aerated tank providing aerobic and anoxic time phases. In
these systems, nitrogen elimination is connected to aeration control and can reach up to 90%
with an elaborate control concept. This so-called intermittent denitrification is used in a
number of MBR installations (Kraume et al., 2005).
The emergence of submerged MBRs that utilize fairly economical polymer-based
membranes and require less energy than external MBRs has revolutionized municipal
wastewater treatment and has tremendous potential in larger scale, high volume throughput
facilities across the globe. The potential of reusing the MBR product water on-site for
washing or transport purposes offers many cost benefits such as reduced fresh water
requirements, lower sewer costs, and possibility for direct discharge to surface water (Cicek).

Design elements to reduce Energy

There are several areas within the design of an MBR plant which provide the opportunity
for a cost effective design. These include use of primary clarification ahead of the MBR, use
of flow equalization, adjusting the balance of the solids between the aeration basin and the
membrane basins, and pump configuration (Table 6).
Table 6. Design elements to reduce Energy (Wallis-Lage and Levesque, 2007)
Primary Clarification
(1) Reduce the power requirements associated with aeration (a combination of process air and
membrane scour air, with the volume of scour air often equal to or exceeding the process air
requirement); and
(2) Reduce the biological tank volume.
Decreasing the organic loading on the MBR process means that for a given flow rate, the MBR
process can operate at lower MLSS concentration- two benefits:
(1) Decreased membrane fouling tendency, leading to longer cleaning intervals and longer
membrane life; and
(2) Increased oxygen transfer efficiency, leading to lower aeration blower power consumption and
associated operating cost.
Flow Equalization
The combination of a reduction in the membrane surface area and operating with a lower air scour
rate provides the opportunity for a significant energy reduction.
Balance of Solids
MBR systems:
(1) Have been designed o operate at similar MLSS concentrations in both the aeration basins and the
membrane tank;
(2) Tend to be designed using smaller process volumes and higher MLSS concentrations than
conventional biological processes.
The energy reduction is twofold:
(1) Reduction in pumping; and
(2) A potential increase in aeration, which improves oxygen transfer efficiency.

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Pump Configurations
The three key pumping requirements for an MBR are as follows: solids return, nutrient recycles, and
permeate.
Innovative plant configurations using in-wall pumps or low head submersible pumps can minimize
the energy requirements for the nutrient recycle pumps.
Permeate from the membranes may be pumped or flow by gravity depending on the membrane
configuration and hydraulic constraints. The optimum configuration to minimize energy is to flow by
gravity.

Operational elements to reduce Energy

There are various operational elements that influence the overall energy efficiency of the
MBR design. Currently the single largest energy cost is aeration both for the biology and
for the maintenance of the membranes. Hence, opportunities to reduce aeration have the
potential to reduce the overall energy requirements significantly (Table 7) (Wallis-Lage and
Levesque, 2007).
Table 7. Operational elements to reduce Energy (Wallis-Lage and Levesque, 2007)
Membrane Air Scour
Air scour can be one of, if not the single largest, energy use in the process. The following techniques
are used to minimize energy consumption:
(1) Intermittent air scour - based on the rotation of the membrane panels through the aerated portion of
the membrane tank. Also, a combination of air and water are used to scour the membranes, which
results in a significant variation in the energy demand associated with membrane maintenance;
(2) Lower air scour flow rates at lower flux - the change in scour air operation reduced their energy
requirements in the membrane tank to 0.2kWh/m3. Energy Saving by allowing even longer rest periods
between aeration periods when the flux is below the average design condition or by using continuous
aeration but graduates the volume of air based on the flux, e.g., lower air scour rates are used with
lower flux (Wallis-Lage and Levesque, 2007; Radjenovi et al., 2008).
Flux Enhancers
The addition of flux enhancers allows a wider flux operating range and has been used to demonstrate
performance benefits:
(1) If the membrane quantity is driven by peak flow, the flux enhancer allows operation at a higher
flux than traditionally accepted, without excessive or rapid fouling, which results in both an initial cost
reduction based on the quantity of membranes installed as well as an energy savings based on the
reduction in overall air scour requirements;
(2) If the membrane quantity is based on minimum temperature which reduces the design flux, is
indicated that the addition of the polymer based flux enhancer supported operation at a more
aggressive flux at a lower temperature without adverse impact on the membrane performance. By
operating at a higher flux, the membrane quantity and the associated energy requirements can be
reduced (Kippax, 2011).
Optimize Membranes in Service
Matching the number of membrane trains in service with the plant flow is an operating strategy that
can reduce energy, as the membranes which are not in service do not require the same degree of air
scour as those in service. Consequently, taking membrane tanks out of service for portions of the day
when flow is low provides the opportunity to reduce the air scour requirements during the rest period
(Kippax, 2011).

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Table 7. (Continued)

Optimize DO within the Bio Process


With an MBR there are two opportunities to reduce the total aeration demand in the biological
aeration basins:
(1) Operate at the minimum DO required to achieve complete treatment; and
(2) Return the solids from the membrane tank to the oxic portion of the biological basins to utilize the
elevated DO which can occur within the membrane tank from the air scour.
Consequently, aerobic basins could be operated with a residual DO of 1 mg/L, or potentially less, in
order to reduce aeration demands (Kippax, 2011).

Recent models for Energy Optimization of MBRs

The technological improvements of membrane modules resulted in the production of


membranes with less energy requirements, have been a source of interest of many
researchers. Tables below list some of the more recent models used for energy optimization
of MBR Wastewater treatment systems.

Integrated System of MFC and MBR


Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are devices that use bacteria as catalysts to oxidize various
substrates and recover electricity. One approach to reduce the barriers and improve its
applicability is to incorporate MFC into existing wastewater treatment processes.
The MFC has the promise to partially offset the energy consumption in MBR process by
generating electricity, and thus enables a more sustainable wastewater treatment. However,
compared with SBR or other processes, MBR, attributed to the continuous- flow operating
mode, is more suitable to couple with MFC (Wang et al., 2012).

Figure 12. Schematic of the MFCMBR integrated system (Wang et al., 2012).

Staged Anaerobic Fluidized Membrane Bioreactor (SAF-MBR) System


In order to reduce energy costs for membrane fouling control, a staged anaerobic
fluidized membrane bioreactor (SAF-MBR) system has been proposed, as well has excellent
potential as a low-energy high efficiency cost-effective wastewater treatment system. This

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anaerobic system consists of an anaerobic fluidized-bed reactor (AFBR) followed by an


anaerobic fluidized-bed membrane bioreactor (AFMBR).
The major energy requirement is for recycling of reactor liquid to fluidize the GAC
(0.011 and 0.036 kWh/m3 for the AFBR and AFMBR, respectively), resulting in a total
electrical energy requirement for the system of 0.047kWh/m3.
Electrical energy can be produced from combustion of the produced methane. If all of
this methane were recovered for use, the net electrical energy available for system operation
would be 0.082kWh/m3 (Yoo et al., 2012).

Figure 13. Schematic diagram of the SAF-MBR system (Yoo et al., 2012).

Automatic Control System


Automatic control system is an innovative control system that determines a desired
aeration rate to reduce costs using the information from process instrumentation and off-line
data
The membrane-performance-based control system was validated at semi-industrial pilot
scale with different membrane configurations achieving a maximum energy saved of 21%,
with respect to the minimum aeration recommended by membrane suppliers, without visibly
interfering on membranes fouling and without affecting the biological nutrient removal
(Ferrero et al., 2011).
Magnetically Induced Membrane Vibration (MMV) System
A novel magnetically induced membrane vibration (MMV) system is proposed as an
alternative shear enhancement device for fouling control in MBRs.

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As the vibrating engine is integrated into the membrane module, and as movement is
magnetically induced, it is expected to experience less friction, to consume less energy and to
have a very flexible vibration control.
In the MMV system, a magnetically induced vibration of the membrane is applied in
order to provide shear at the liquid membrane interface. The module consists of one or more
membranes that are integrated in the MMV module. The system includes a vibration driver,
an electric wire, a vibration engine and the actual vibrating module.
The movement orientation of the vibrating part faces the narrow face of the module in
order to both prevent the bumping of liquid onto the membrane and minimize the associated
energy loss (Bilad et al., 2012).

Figure 14. Schematic diagram of the (a) HT-MBR setup equipped with the MMV system, (b) MMV
module in front view, and (c) MMV module in side view, showing the parallel position on the multiple
membranes mounted (Bilad et al., 2012).

Other Methods to Control Fouling


To control the fouling that inevitably occurs in MBR operation, several key parameters
can be modified. The most important strategies are concentration polarization suppression,
optimization of physical and chemical cleaning protocols, pre-treatment of feed wastewater,
and mixed-liquor modification.
Fouling related to concentration polarization can be reduced either by promoting
turbulence or by reducing flux. Both MBR configurations need shear over the membrane
surface to prevent this type of fouling.
However, increasing membrane aeration is normally prohibitively expensive. Since
membrane aeration contributes significantly to the energy demand, much development has
been focused on reducing aeration whilst maintaining membrane permeability. A
development has been achieved in aeration efficiency with new jet aeration and cyclic
aeration systems. It is often in practice to use different aeration systems for biological system

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and for membrane fouling control, in order to insure most efficient energy use for both
systems demands (Radjenovi et al., 2008).
Reducing the permeate flux always reduces fouling, but at the same time this strategy
demands a more installed membranes, which then contributes to the capital cost of MBR
installation.
Slug bubbling in flat sheet MBRs seems to be an energy saving bubbling regime to
replace free bubble with SADp (special aeration demand permeate) values reduced
significantly (Zhang et al., 2011).
The use of flocculants and coagulants such as aluminum or ferric chloride has been
investigated in an attempt to minimize fouling. Also, the addition of adsorbent reagents such
as powdered activated carbon (PAC) has been found to improve the membrane performance
by decreasing the level of organic compounds with potential for membrane fouling. The trend
in coagulationflocculation field nowadays is the preparation of new, composite coagulants
by the introduction of several additives to produce the so called pre-polymerized coagulants,
in order to improve their efficiency and to make them equal, or even more efficient than the
commonly applied organic polymers (Zouboulis et al., 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, Tzoupanos et
al., 2009, 2010, Moussas et al., 2008, 2011, 2012; Tolkou et al., 2013).
The cleaning protocol is mainly dictated by designed operational net flux. Usually the
protocol suggested by the manufacturer is followed as a guideline, and the majority of the
installed plants work in the sub-critical regime. However, cleaning protocol has been studied
intensively by many researchers where the key parameters of interest are duration and
frequency of the cleaning and the back-flush flux (Radjenovi et al., 2008).
A novel rotating tubular membrane bioreactor (RTMBR) was employed to achieve shearenhanced membrane filtration and fouling characteristics of the bioreactor were investigated.
Lastly, analysis of energy consumption suggested that increasing rotary speed to mitigate
membrane fouling was much more energy saving and efficient than increasing aeration rate.
When only changing rotary speed to reduce membrane fouling rate, the energy consumption
rose from 1.2 to 2.1 and to 3.0 kWh/m3 product water with rotary speed increasing from 0 to
5 and to 10 rpm, respectively, reducing membrane fouling rate by 9.56% and 19.03%,
respectively. However, when increasing aeration rate in order to achieve same reductions in
membrane fouling rate, the energy consumption increased from 1.2 to 5.4 and to 9.6 kWh/m3
product water, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that, to achieve an equal reduction
in membrane fouling rate, the used energy is much higher by employing aeration than
rotation, suggesting using rotation to mitigate membrane fouling is much more efficient than
using aeration from the energy consumption point of view.
Comparing the energy consumption between the RTMBR and mature, commercially
available MBRs (the energy consumption of which can be as low as 0.4 kWh/m3 product
water), it can be found that RTMBR does not have any advantage on the aspect of energy
consumption. So it is an important aspect that needs to be improved for RTMBR in the future
work (Jianga et al., 2012).

viii) Tertiary Treatment Disinfection


Regarding the WWTPs that use or will install UV disinfection systems, the use of low
pressure lamps or low pressure high performance is preferred because it is more energy
efficient than the lamps of medium pressure. The medium pressure lamps convert smaller
proportion of the energy into useful light compared to the lamps of low-pressure and high

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efficiency that have lower operating range (turndown capability), thereby consuming
significantly greater amount of energy than that needed fewer lamps.
The energy savings from UV radiation occurs when the number and power of lamps in
operation is regulated by the supply and permeability. Moreover, the low pressure lamps high
performance consumes about 50% less energy than lamps of medium pressure (MJ Industrial
Solutions, 2003; NYSERDA, 2010).

ix) Sludge Treatment


Energy efficient application options in the sludge treatment equipment are engines (and
pumps) of high performance. Because of the wide choice of processes for treating sludge, it is
necessary to study each proposed application, as appropriate.

Stabilization

The aerobic digestion and anaerobic digestion are processes that should be are assessed to
determine the most energy efficient option.
A WWTP with aerobic digestion in order to save energy should be considered switching
to an aeration system with fine bubble diffusion, to determine whether it is possible to use
smaller blowers, evaluating the existing system and to select equipment and control systems
with adjustable flow air, as is the control of dissolved oxygen to reduce the energy
consumption of the process from 20 to 50%. The replacement of aerobic sludge stabilization
by anaerobic digestion may contribute to energy optimization in a WWTP as the anaerobic
digestion produce energy usable biogas, which can be used directly for energy production in
the same plant (NYSERDA, 2010).

Thickening by Flotation
In WWTP that is applied the thickening of primary or biological sludge by flotation with
air to improve the air-water ratio, to regulating the air supply and /or by feeding the maximum
solids content. Furthermore, the energy consumption can be reduced by the continuous
operation of flotation thickeners and by adding polymer in the sludge.
The flotation thickeners have high operating costs since they require a significant amount
of energy for compressing the air. Energy consumption can be reduced by the increase of
solids content of the sludge (NYSERDA, 2010).
Table 8. Measures through modifications in energy management (Kapreli, 2011)
1. Modification of electric motors
High performance engines
Dimensioning of motors

By Replacing these that failed


Select the appropriate size motor and operate primarily
in charge of about 65 100%.
2. Performance improvement processes through automation
using SCADA;
control operating parameters processes (e.g. control of dissolved oxygen);
variable frequency drivers (VFDs) can save from 15 to 35% energy;
electrical load monitoring;
flow meters;
timers for closure of large parts of the equipment during.

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3. Covering tanks to reduce energy needs


Reduces and/or eliminates the energy used for (eventually) reheating the equipment and tanks.
4. Balance tank
Can shift the function of pumping for the disposal of wastewater not operating during peak hours.
5. Using Primary Processing
Reducing the need for secondary treatment and consequently, reducing the energy consumption in the
aeration tanks;
Increasing the concentration of dewatered sludge, leading to the reduction of energy costs for
incineration of sludge.
6. Secondary treatment
Anaerobic versus aerobic
biological treatment
Stabilization ponds
low investment cost and primarily low operating and
maintenance costs
Removal of Phosphorus and Nitrogen Nitrogen: integration of process nitrification - denitrification in
aerobic biological treatment Phosphorus: use of ferric chloride
instead of ferrous chloride as well eliminates the need for
oxidation of iron (blowers to produce oxygen high
consumption) (Aslanidou, 2007).
Use of microalgae to remove the nitrogen and phosphorus
compounds use of economic and abundant energy sourcesunlight (Kalogiannaki,2010).
Establishment of a monitoring and control of dissolved
Aeration Systems
oxygen in aeration tanks
Membrane Bioreactor Systems (MBRs)
7. Tertiary treatment - Disinfection
use of low pressure lamps or low pressure-high performance 50% less energy
8. Sludge Treatment
Stabilization
Replacement of aerobic sludge stabilization by anaerobic
digestion biogas
Thickening by flotation

Improvement of the air-water ratio, to regulating the air supply


and /or by feeding the maximum solids content.

3.1.2. Saving Measures through Operational Changes


A good option for saving energy in a WWTP is the ability to reduce wastewater flows to
the plant by reducing water consumption in the area/community served by the unit. As less
wastewater flowing to the plant, the volume to be processed by the unit is reduced thus
reducing energy consumption. The ideas for the promotion of saving water include:

informing the public about the high performance equipment, the sanitary appliances
and about adopting habits for water saving; and
informing people about reducing high water requirements in order to avoid the
additional costs of the operation of pumps and additional equipment during periods
of peak flow (EPA, 2006).

a) Electrical Load Management


Electricity normally billed in two ways:

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(1) Based on the amount of energy consumed during a given period, measured in
kilowatt-hours (kWh); and
(2) Based on demand, which is the rate of flow of energy, measured in kilowatts (kW)
(Zouboulis et al., 2007).
The WWTP by choosing when and where electricity is used can save as many (or more)
money as by reducing energy consumption. The biggest operational changes that can
generally be applied to reduce the consumption of electricity, is the performance of an energy
analysis, the reduction of peak demands and the improvement of power factor
(www.energy.ca.gov, 2011)

b) General Operation and Maintenance


Proper maintenance and repair of equipment and processes of a WWTP is an integral
element of a comprehensive plan for energy saving. Regarding the maintenance and energy
efficient operation of the main equipment are recommended the following:

The pumps are preferred to operate at the optimum efficiency or close to it. Most
times more convenient and energy efficient solution is to change or reduce pump
operation or on / off operation of the pumps.
The most energy efficient operating mode of the pumps for sludge recirculation are
the scheduled on / off function or the flow control valves.
The most energy efficient operating mode of the pumps for the extraction of
activated sludge excess is the scheduled on / off function.
Inadequate maintenance and cleaning can reduce the efficiency of UV disinfection
systems and increase energy consumption, which is why they require regular
maintenance, inspection and cleaning of equipment of decontamination systems.
The equipment of automation and control systems must be regularly checked,
maintained and replaced where necessary.
The most energy efficient Operating mode of dissolved oxygen control system is to
regulate and maintain the lowest possible concentrations of dissolved oxygen in
combination, always, with the goals of treatment and the need for stable operation.
In the aeration system is necessary inspection, maintenance and repair of the
diffusers and the distribution lines.
The operation of blowers at or near the point of maximum efficiency and the
reduction of the number of blowers that function, preferring to operate fewer blowers
that are operating at full load, can result in energy savings. Also, intermittent aeration
can result in significant energy savings.
The engines must operate as close to their nominal voltage and any difference in
voltage will reduce their output (MJ Industrial Solutions, 2003; NYSERDA, 2010;
EPA, 2008).

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Table 9. Saving measures through operational changes (Kapreli, 2011)


1. Electrical Load Management
Electricity normally billed in two ways:
(1) Based on the amount of energy consumed during a given period, measured in kilowatt-hours
(kWh) and
(2) Based on demand, which is the rate of flow of energy, measured in kilowatts (kW)
2. General Operation and Maintenance
Pumps Blowers
To operate at the optimum efficiency, or on / off function
Aeration
Intermittent aeration instead of extended aeration, where it can
avoid the use of blowers
UV
Regular maintenance, inspection and cleaning of equipment
decontamination systems

3.1.3. Saving Measures through Changes in Lighting, Heating, Ventilation and Air
Conditioning
i) Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
The heating, ventilation and air conditioning commercial facilities, such as WWTP,
consume a significant amount of energy. The WWTP can reduce the energy requirements of
building facilities by operating equipment for heating, ventilation and air conditioning more
efficiently, or replacing old units with modern ones of higher performance. Improvements in
these systems can provide significant energy savings immediately while improving indoor air
quality and overall comfort in the workplace. The actual savings, of course, vary from plant to
plant and depend on various factors, such as climate, the energy requirements and the systems
used (www.energy.ca.gov, 2011).
ii) Lighting
The lighting of an industrial plant, such as WWTP, it consumes significant amount of
energy, but it is one of the energy costs that can be easily treated. The lights that operate
almost every working day are best suited candidates for replacement with new energy
efficient models. (www.energy.ca.gov, 2011).
Table 10. Saving measures through changes in lighting, heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (Kapreli, 2011)
1. Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
Operating equipment for heating, ventilation and air conditioning more efficiently, or replacing old
units with modern ones of higher performance
2. Lighting
Installing high efficiency lamps and changing the way of lights used

3.1.4. Energy Recovery Opportunities in WWTP


The WWTP have significant energy reserves stored in sewage that can take advantage to
meet their energy needs. Usually, the total energy content of waste is twice to four times the
energy needed for the operation of a WWTP.
The energy content of wastewater consists of the heat and the organic components
present in the effluent. The chemical energy contained in the wastewater, based on the

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chemical oxygen demand (COD), is approximately equal to 13 MJ/kg COD 3.6 kWh/kg
COD. When assessing new technologies and ideas, then it is important to take into account
the energy content of wastewater.
The energy content of the sludge is an important tool for reducing the energy
consumption of conventional energy sources. In addition, the sludge is considered a
renewable source of energy and thus, energy recovery from sludge complies with the
principle of sustainability (Metcalf & Eddy, 2007).

A) Untreated Wastewater
i) Replacing Primary Sedimentation for Energy Recovery
This is a relatively newly developed application which involves replacing the
conventional primary settling tanks with cloth filters. The 200 micron cloth screen filter,
results in treatment equal to or better than primary sedimentation. It has been found that tissue
paper captured on a 200 micron screen serves as a secondary filter for the removal of grease
and oil. The solids removed from the filter cloth are then squeezed to dewater them.
Depending on the degree of compaction and the application, solids concentrations of 30
percent or more have been achieved. The energy content of this particulate stream, when
dried, consisting of tissue paper, food scrapes, feces, oil and grease, and other organic solids
is comparable to that of softwood (about 15-16 MJ/kg solids), and can be dewatered further
by extracting heat energy from wastewater, using other excess waste heat, or solar dried and
converted to energy using a thermal process such as combustion or gasification (Leverenz and
Tchobanoglous, 2009).
ii) Satellites Systems for Energy Recovery
The infrastructure associated with wastewater management is illustrated on Figure 15. As
shown, the principal components are the wastewater collection pipes, pump stations, and
treatment facilities. Depending on the topography, one or more pump stations may be
required. In general, until recent times, it was common to have one centralized WWTP. The
current trend is to consider the use of satellite WWTPs, especially where opportunities for
effective water reuse exist.
The energy content of wastewater is generally not recovered or is only partially recovered
where anaerobic digestion of treatment residuals is used; resulting in a considerable amount
of energy of wastewater not exploited and puts additional requirements on the aeration
systems during the aerobic treatment. In addition, much of the recoverable energy content of
domestic wastewater is lost during travel in the wastewater collection system. To overcome
these challenges, consider the establishment of hybrid systems using satellite wastewater
treatment plants in urban areas, especially when there are opportunities for effective reuse
water. These include decentralized wastewater treatment with fine filters to remove fats, oils
and combustible components of waste for energy production.
Two types of satellite systems for energy recovery are presented below: (1) satellite
recovery of grease for Biodiesel and Energy Production and (2) satellite recovery of
wastewater constituents. (Table 15) (Leverenz and Tchobanoglous, 2009; Leverenz et al.,
2010).

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Figure 15. Schematic illustration of the principal elements that comprise wastewater management
infrastructure including the use of satellite treatment facilities for water reuse and fine screens for
energy recovery (Leverenz and Tchobanoglous, 2009).

Table 11. Types of satellite systems for energy recovery


(Metcalf & Eddy, 2007; Leverenz and Tchobanoglous, 2009)
Satellite Recovery of grease for Biodiesel and

Satellite recovery of wastewater constituents

Energy Production

The grease are collected and hauled to a site for


production of biodiesel fuels and/or anaerobic
digestion.

Recovery of the particulate matter upstream in the


collection system before deposition and particle size
reduction occurs for further dewatering and
incineration for energy production.

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B) Treated Wastewater
Treated wastewater outflow before their disposal, can be used to produce electricity
through a small hydropower plant (Electric Energy Production) and / or to recover heat by
heat pumps (Thermal Energy Recovery).
i) Hydropower Plant to Generate Electricity
By exploiting the potential height difference between point of outflow for treated
wastewater and point of inflow for untreated sewage can be achieve an electing energy
production. Macro hydropower plants (up to 10 MW) utilizing the water in order to produce
electricity (or convert it into usable mechanical energy). These units have generators that have
the ability to produce large amounts of electricity without harming the environment
(Katerinopoulosl, 2007).
ii) Thermal Energy Recovery
The thermal energy of treated wastewater outflow may be recovered and used in a
WWTP, before final disposal. The heat is recovered using heat exchangers or heat pumps
(powered by electricity) and is used to meet heating and cooling needs in the WWTP. Figure
16 shows a device of a mechanical compression cooler (heat pump) to recover heat from the
treated wastewater effluent.

Figure 16. Combined heating and cooling option (Stillwell, 2010).

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C) Sludge
The sludge is a byproduct of wastewater treatment processes. Wastewater comprises a
mixture of organic and inorganic compounds, and associated water. The organic component
of the sludge displays a heat value of approximately 25 MJ/kg-dried solids (DS). Considering
the inert fraction in the sludge this value is reduced to 1620 MJ/kg-ds for raw sludge, or 10
14 MJ/kg-ds for digested sludge. These values can be considered the upper limits of energy
recoverable from the sludge.
Since sludge is initially a suspension, the large quantity of associated water makes it a
low-density energy source. Energy must be gathered from sludge before this energy can be
applied for useful purposes, meaning the sludge has a high entropy state. The sludge has
opposite characteristics to fossil fuels, which are a high-density energy source (up to
40MJ/kg-ds) in a low entropy state. The moisture in the sludge is bound with the solids phase
by a certain binding strength. This binding strength limits mechanical dewatering. The
wastewater sludge from the clarifiers has a solids fraction of 15%. The effective heat
value of this suspension is just 0.160.8 MJ/kg-sludge. This suspension is the feed for
anaerobic digestion treatment or wet air oxidation. Chemical conditioning followed by
mechanical dewatering are frequently applied to further remove any, such as drying,
incineration, or thermal pyrolysisxaxax (Lee and Tay, 2004).
Technologies for energy recovery from sludge include processes that produce various
energy products (Table 12). The most established process used is anaerobic digestion, with
the produced biogas.
Table 12. Energy recovery technologies from sludge
Technologies
Incineration
Wet Air Oxidation
Gasification
Pyrolysis
Anaerobic digestion

Procedure
Combustion of sludge
Oxidation at high temperatures and pressures
Converting sludge into gas fue
Gasification absence of oxygen
Is produced biogas

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Combined Heat and Power Partnership
estimates that approximately 491 kWh of electricity can be produced with a microturbine and
525 kWh of electricity can be produced with an internal combustion engine for each 4.55 103
m3 (1MG) of wastewater treated at a plant with anaerobic digestion (Stillwell, 2010).

Biosolids Incineration with Electricity Generation

The energy recovery potential for wastewater treatment plants using biosolids
incineration with electricity generation is calculated using the Equation (1) below:

(1)

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where ERincineration represents energy recovery from biosolids incineration (kWh/d), Q


represents the wastewater flow rate (kg/d), Cs represents the wastewater dry solids content
(kg/106 gal), HV represents the biosolids heating value (kJ/kg) and HR represents the steam
electric heat rate (kJ/kWh) (Stillwell, 2010).

Energy Recovery using biosolids incineration

Figure 17. Potential energy recovery from biosolids incineration varies with the biosolids heating value,
, and increases with increasing wastewater flow.

i) Pretreatment of Sludge before Digestion


There are available various methods of pretreatment of sludge, which may be chemical,
physical or biological methods. Three of the most promising methods is thermal hydrolysis,
ultrasounds and the addition of enzymes.
Thermal Hydrolysis
The thermal hydrolysis is a physical process in which the sludge is dewatered prior to
digestion and thus exploited the energy value of the sludge in comparison with the simple
digestion, thereby resulting in a net energy input.
The technology of thermal hydrolysis may either be placed in front of existing digesters,
or incorporated into new treatment plants.
Where there is a WWTP unit of cogeneration, energy consumption for the heating
requirements of the thermal pretreatment of sludge can be reduced by the recovery and use of
waste heat from the cooling system and the exhaust system of the engine cogeneration. In this
way may cover a part or all of the needs heating (steam and hot water), resulting in reduced
cost of implementation (CH2M HILL, 2003).
Ultrasounds
Another physical method pretreatment of the sludge to increase the biogas production is
the ultrasounds. Ultrasound is sound energy at frequencies between 20 kHz and 10 MHz,

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above the audible range for humans. The application in wastewater treatment is very recent.
When introduced into a liquid, high-power ultrasound can produce a phenomenon known as
cavitation. Cavitation is the formation, growth, and rapid collapse through implosion of
micro-bubbles in a liquid. Implosion of these cavitation bubbles creates localized hot spots
with conditions similar to those on the sun, accompanied by increase of pressure and
temperature.

Figure 18. Pretreatment of the sludge with thermal hydrolysis (Beddow, 2010).

The energy demand of the ultrasound system is small, and does not require high
temperatures and pressures and the cost of equipment is relatively low because it requires
large tanks, high pressure equipment and additional heat management systems, such as
thermal hydrolysis (CH2M HILL, 2003).

Figure 19. Pretreatment of the sludge with ultrasounds (Beddow, 2010).

Enzyme Addition
The treatment with addition of enzymes is a biological treatment process of the sludge
prior to anaerobic digestion. Hydrolytic enzymes act as biochemical catalysts in order to
improve the hydrolysis step, which is known to be a key factor for the performance of
anaerobic digestion. The addition of enzymes in anaerobic reactors leads to a more efficient

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division of flocs in a considerable reduction of extracellular polymeric substances to improve


infiltration capacity and enhance the production of biogas (Beddow, 2010).

Figure 20. Pretreatment of the sludge with enzyme addition (Beddow, 2010).

ii) Incineration
Incineration of sewage sludge is aimed at a complete oxidation at high temperature of the
organic sludge compounds also including the toxic organic compounds. The process can
either be applied to mechanically dewatered sludge or dried sludge.
The energy produced in the incineration process can be used for the drying of the
mechanically dewatered sludge cake prior to the incineration process or can be used for the
production of electricity. Currently, sludge incineration processes are increasingly focused on
the recovery of energy from the sludge in the form of heat (steam) or electricity. The amount
of energy that can be obtained strongly depends upon the water content of the sludge and the
modification and performance of the incineration, mechanical dewatering, and drying
processes. Incineration of sludge is applied worldwide, currently, more and more in
combination with energy recovery. The process is mainly applied on a large scale (Rulkens,
2012).
The possibility of energy recovery from combustion of the sludge varies according to the
heating value of the sludge and increases with increasing of the flow of wastewater. The
amount of energy that can be recovered to a large extent depends on the water content of the
sludge and the type and efficiency of the incineration, mechanical dewatering and drying.
The heat generated by the combustion process of the sludge can be used either for
preheating the combustion air or for heating buildings or to meet the heating needs of other
processes of a WWTP, as the drying of sludge. The recovered heat can also be used to
generate electricity. In the latter case, the heat recovered from the combustion is used to
produce steam, which is fed to a steam turbine. The steam turbine coupled to a generator that
produces electricity. The electricity generated can either be used in the same WWTP reducing
the energy consumption of the network, either to be sold to the grid by reducing energy costs.
To enable reliable production of electricity without the use of auxiliary fuel required large
quantities of sludge, making the incineration suitable for application to WWTPs of medium
and large capacity (Stilwell et al., 2010).

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iii) Anaerobic Digestion


Anaerobic digestion is an attractive method for biological stabilization and volume
reduction of sludge because it offers economic and energy benefits to a WWTP due to the
production of biogas fuel which can be used for energy production in the same unit.
The energy recovery potential for wastewater treatment plants using anaerobic digestion
with biogas utilization is calculated by using Equation (2) below:

(2)
Where ERanaerobic represents energy recovery from anaerobic digestion (kWh/d), Q represents
the wastewater flow rate (kg/d) and BEF represents the biogas energy factor (2.2x10-4
kWh/m3).
he BEF range from 0.0925 to 0.139 kWh/m3 for treated wastewater flows greater than
5x10-6 kg/d, as shown in Figure 21(Stilwell et al., 2010).

Energy Recovery from Anaerobic Digestion

Figure 21. Potential energy recovery (kWh/d) from anaerobic digestion with biogas utilization varies
with the biogas energy factor (2.2x10-4 kWh/m3) nd increases with increasing wastewater flow
(Stilwell et al., 2010).

D) Biogas
Biogas, or digester gas, is a by-product of the anaerobic digestion process and generated
within the mesophilic temperature range. The main components of the biogas are Methane
(60-70%) and Carbon dioxide (30-40%). Nitrogen and Oxygen exist in very low
concentrations, up to 4 and 1%, respectively. Hydrogen sulphur, Chlorine and Fluor can be
found in trace amounts, yet they may impact the usability of the gas and therefore must be
controlled. The specialty of the biogas is its convertibility into electricity through combined
heat and power units (CHP) under economically feasible conditions. The produced biogas is

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also a valuable source of energy with a calorific value ranging from 20 to 25 MJ/m3, or
approximately 6.5kWh/m3, corresponding to 60% of calorific value of natural gas.
Besides biogas, another important energy source in a WWTP is the waste heat from the
wastewater, which can be recycled for heating of the buildings. The dimension of the
available waste heat in a WWTP is so large that theoretically, 10% of the buildings delivering
wastewater to a plant can be provided with waste heat from the plant.
The significant methane content is that which makes the biogas suitable to be used as fuel
to produce energy. Biogas can be used for heat, electricity and fertilizer conditioner and after
treatment and upgrades can be fed into the natural gas grid and used as a transport fuel (urban
transport, agricultural machinery, etc.).
Depending on the case (according to the requirements and limitations of each site),
biogas can be used as fuel or outside of a WWTP or in the installation, to improve the energy
efficiency of the treatment process of wastewater.
Biogas production strongly depends upon the type of sludge and also the operating
conditions of the digester. The gas production from a mixture of primary and secondary
(biological) sludge roughly amounts to 1 m3 of biogas/kg of organic solids biodegraded. It is
also possible to digest sludge thermophilically at a temperature of about 55C. In comparison
to mesophilic digestion, thermophilic treatment has some advantages, such as a somewhat
higher biogas production, a higher destruction degree of pathogens, and a larger reduction in
the amount of organic solids. Also, the retention time of the sludge in the reactor can be
reduced (Rulkens, 2012).
Table 13. Biogas applications and manner of use of (NYSERDA, 2010)
Application

Manner of use of

Boilers

Sludge
incinerators
Drying units
Motorized
equipment

Power plants

Gas engines
Gas turbines
Fuel cells
Microturbines
Stirling engines

Produce heat by direct combustion of biogas in boilers to produce hot


water and / or steam. During combustion of biogas containing 60-70%
methane produced blue flame while released calorific value of 4.500-5.500
kcal/m3 or 18.8-23.0 MJ/m3.
Modification of the incineration power to use biogas for combustion in
the furnace.
Modification of feeding of the burners of the drying unit to use biogas.
Use as a fuel for powering stationary internal combustion engines (ICE)
to produce mechanical work and/or electricity on a WWTP. The mechanical
work produced can be used for the direct or indirect drive motor equipment
installation.
Electricity production that can either be used as process energy for
electrical equipment of a WWTP, such as pumps, control systems and stirrers,
or be sold to local power company.
Use as fuel in reciprocating engines that drive generators that produce
electricity.
Electricity generation, with two key provisions turbines: open cycle and
closed cycle.
Convert the chemical energy of fuel into electrical energy in the form of
direct current.
Small-scale electricity generation.
Use as a fuel in Stirling engines (reciprocating engine of external
combustion) to produce electricity.

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Energy and Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTP)

i) Use of Biogas
Biogas can be used in a multitude of applications, depending on the demand for a
particular form of energy in a wastewater treatment plant. It is therefore important for a
WWTP that is producing biogas to pursue the collection and utilization of the energy content,
rather than simply burning in flares up, application that not only provides no net energy value,
but also contributes to the greenhouse effect (NYSERDA, 2010).
Biogas can be used:

In direct combustion systems (boilers, turbines, fuel cells) for space heating, water
heating, drying, cooling and absorption to produce steam.
Moreover, the biogas for direct use in turbines and fuel cells can produce electricity.
An alternative use of biogas is its use in still or moving internal combustion engines
for work and/or electricity generation.

ii) Fuel Cells


Fuel cells are another technology that can be used in the WWTP to produce electricity
and has appeared on the market in recent years. Fuel cells are electrochemical energy
conversion devices of the chemical energy of fuel into electrical energy in the form of direct
current. As fuel hydrogen can be used that can be produced by the same biogas, or the methane
recovered from the biogas through reforming, with a special apparatus called reformers. In
this application is required the processing of biogas before use to remove sulfur compounds
containing, because they are toxic to the cells (Christou, 2010).
Table 14. Fuel Cells (Christou, 2010)
Fuel Cells Generate electricity

Electricity
generation

Fuel
(Chemical energy)

Fuel Cells

As fuel hydrogen can be used that can be produced by the same biogas, or the methane recovered
from the biogas

In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run
down or require recharging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long
as fuel is supplied. The fuel cell contains an anode and a cathode with an electrolyte
sandwiched between them, separating the two. Hydrogen is supplied into the anode and
oxygen into the cathode (Figure 22). The two gases want to join but are prevented from doing
so by the electrolyte which causes the hydrogen to split into a proton and an electron. The
proton passes freely through the electrolyte whilst the electron is forced to take a different

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route around it, creating an electric current before re-combining with the proton to make
hydrogen again and combining with oxygen through a catalyst, creating a molecule of water.
More specifically, Hydrogen (H2) and air or oxygen (O2) flow over the electrode and are
converted into water (H2O) and heat while generating energy. Hydrogen is routed to the
anode where it splits into one proton and electrons (e) on the catalyst layer. The proton (H+)
passes through the completely gas-tight membrane. The electrons, in the form of useful
electric energy, are routed back to the cathode via a consumer. On the second catalyst layer
on the cathode side, the proton reacts with the oxygen from the air to form water, the only byproduct.
Fuel cells also operate on renewable gases such as syngas from waste, biogas, waste gas
from sewage treatment, or other biogases. Renewable gases are rich in hydrogen and can be
provided with dual fuel options (renewable gas and natural gas) to ensure continuity of supply
at full power and to take advantage of renewable gases in the future.
Since fuel cells generate energy by an electro-chemical reaction there is no combustion
and no noxious emissions. Therefore, no flue is required, the only emissions being water.
(http://students.chem.tue.nl/ifp10/project/fuel_cells.htm, 2012; Christou, 2010). A simple fuel
cell produces about 0.7 Volt. In order to produce larger (and practically usable) trends used
more cells in series, the so-called fuel cell stacks (Christou, 2010).

Figure 22. Operating principle of the fuel cells (http://students.chem.tue.nl/ifp10/project/fuel_cells.htm,


2012).

3.1.5. Use of Photovoltaic Systems


Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic
effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar
cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics
include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium,
and copper/sulfide. Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the
manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent
years.

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Solar photovoltaics have long been argued to be a sustainable energy source. By the end
of 2011, a total of 67.4 GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85 TWh/year. Solar
photovoltaics belong to the category of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and are now, after
hydro and wind power, the third most important renewable energy source in terms of globally
installed capacity. More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations may be groundmounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls
of a building (either building-integrated photovoltaics or simply rooftop) (EPA, 2006).
The basic characteristics of photovoltaic systems, which differentiate them from other
forms of renewable energy, are:

Direct production of electricity, even in very small scale, e.g. several tens of W or
mW;
Ease of use. Small systems can be installed by users themselves;
Can be installed in cities, incorporated into buildings and not offend the aesthetic
environment;
Can be combined with other energy sources (hybrid systems);
They operate silently; emit no emissions, no environmental impact;
Maintenance requirements are almost zero;
Have a long life and reliability during operation. The guarantees given by their
manufacturers for PV generators are more than 25 years of good operation.

The user's energy independence is the biggest advantage of PV systems. The cost of
electricity produced by photovoltaic systems today is comparable to the cost of peak power,
charged by the electricity company clients (CRES, 2012).

Figure 23. Photovoltaic Systems.

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Photovoltaic arrays are often used in the production of energy on a large scale.
Generating electricity from the sun is extremely predictable. What matters is how many
kilowatt systems will provide annually. In general, a photovoltaic system in Greece produces
an annual average of around 1150-1450 kWh per installed kilowatt (KWh/KWp per year).
Obviously in the southern and sunniest areas of the country photovoltaic solar electricity
produces more than the northern. The installation of photovoltaic systems in neighboring area
adjustment to the wastewater treatment plant could help both in energy saving in the plant and
the possibility of profits from this.
Table 15. Guaranteed sales price (per kWh) in Greece
(http://www.pryovolos.gr/faq.php, 2012)
Date of signing the contract
settlement.
February 2012
August 2012
February 2013
August 2013
February 2014
August 2014
February 2015
August 2015

Guaranteed sales price (per


kWh)
0.49500
0.47025
0.44673
0.42440
0.40318
0.38302
0.36387
0.34568

CONCLUSION
The processes of aeration and pumping of the liquids, the dewatering of sludge and the
UV system, consume the most energy in a wastewater treatment plant. The fraction of the
energy used in aeration systems, ranges from 25 to 60% of the total energy use in a
wastewater treatment plant. Also, the process of disinfection in tertiary treatment of
wastewater corresponds to 10-25% of the total use of energy in a wastewater treatment plant.
The energy optimization of a wastewater treatment plant can be achieved through good
energy management, through implantation of energy saving measures and enhancing the
production of the energy required by alterative or renewable sources, without compromising
the efficiency of treatment processes. The last one, based on the fact that the wastewater
treatment plant has an important energy source: wastewater itself, while the chemical energy
contained in wastewater, based on the chemical oxygen demand (COD), is approximately
equal to 36 kWh/kg COD.

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Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 12

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT:


SMART GRID A VISION FOR THE FUTURE
Diana-Mihaela Pociovliteanu1, Janina Florena Popeang2
and Walter Leal Filho3
Constantin Brancusi University of Tg-Jiu, Faculty of Economics and Business
Administration, Romania
2
Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania
3
Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Hamburg, Germany
1

ABSTRACT
The efficiency of the energy is the center of all strategies for smart and sustainable
growth, and also for the transition to a resource - efficient economy. The increasing
concern about energy consumption, the environmental impact of energy activities and the
threat of global climate changes have further emphasized the importance of using energy
more efficiently. In order to offer a better understanding of the sustainable energy
development, this article analyses the three pillars together: society, the economy and
the environment. Besides the analysis in this area, the article presents an innovative
technology, trying to provide society - affordable energy and with environmental
responsibility.

1. GLOBAL FINAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION DEMANDS


URGENT MEASURES
We are currently facing a changing energy situation where the governments call for
effective policy measures and realistic assessments of available policy options. Improved
energy efficiency is often the most economic and readily available mean of improving energy

diana.pociovalisteanu@gmail.com
janina.popeanga@yahoo.com

walter.leal@ls.haw-hamburg.de

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security and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, it is essential to improve our
knowledge about the costs and benefits of energy efficiency policy measures and of the many
technical and market factors that determine energy use in all countries. This is an effort which
is indispensable in order to develop effective energy efficiency policies, and the best possible
use is made of public and private resources invested in energy efficiency improvement.
The sectorial distribution of global energy demand has changed since the early 1970s.
Substantial reductions in oil consumption occurred after the oil price hikes of 1973 and 1979.
The rapid increase in oil prices triggered technical improvements in energy efficiency that are
still being felt as new, more efficient equipment replacing the existing stock. Annual energy
demand increased by less than 1% between 1973 and 1988. Since the mid of 1980s, price
signals have weakened and economic growth has been stronger. The largest increase in global
energy demand occurred in the transport sector (4% per year). Energy demand in the
commercial and public service sectors, as well as in industry, grew by 2-3 % per year.
Compared with these trends, the growth of energy demand in the residential sector was rather
modest: less than 1% per year.
Between 1990 and 2005 global final energy use increased by 23%, while the associated
CO2 emissions rose by 25%. Electricity consumption is growing rapidly in many countries, its
global use increased by 54% between 1990 and 2005. Globally, energy consumption grew
most quickly in the transport and service sectors, both sectors showing an increase of 37%.
These increases were driven by rising passenger travel and freight transport and a rapid
expansion in the service economy. Oil products remained the most important final energy
commodity with a global share of 37% in 2005, driven by their use in transport. (IEA, 2008)

Figure 1. Total final energy consumption by sector, 2005.


Source: IEA 2008.

According to the Energy Information Administrations international report, global energy


consumption will increase with around 50% by 2035. Total energy consumption will increase
from 505 quadrillions Btu in 2008 to 619 quadrillions Btu in 2020 and 770 in 2035. (EIA,
2011)

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Figure 2. Global energy consumption, 1990-2035 (quadrillions Btu).


Source: International Energy Outlook 2011.

Access to technical and economical information and to capital is crucial in the


achievement of further energy savings. Governments have a major role to play in bridging the
gap between technical opportunities and the decisions made by individual consumers on the
marketplace.

2. WHAT SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT MEANS?


Since the Brundtland Commission published its landmark report in 1987, we have come a
long way in our reflections on sustainable development. This concept involves ethical
judgement on what is right and fair. The Brundtland Commission defines sustainable
development as the ability to make development sustainable - to ensure that it meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. (Our Common Future, 1980) In this definition we can see two aspects of the
development: one regarding the intra-generational equity and another one regarding intergenerational equity. An honest approach to timelines is also essential to questions of
intergenerational equity: the idea that resources, whether economic, environmental or social,
should be utilized and distributed fairly across generations. No single generation should bear
an undue burden. This is not only a problem of leaving a clean, healthy planet for future
generations, but also a concern about pressing problems like meeting the medical, financial
and social needs of an ageing population. (Strange Tracey, Bayley Anne, 2008). Currently, in
this world with limited resources, the main issue from the integrated view is to reconcile
present and future needs.
The World Commission on Environment and Development sought to draw the worlds
attention to the accelerating deterioration of the human environment and natural resources
and the consequences of that deterioration for economic and social development.

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In establishing the commission, the General Assembly explicitly called attention to two
important ideas:

the well-being of the environment, of the economies and of the people is inextricably
linked;
sustainable development involves co-operation on a global scale.

Sustainable development is about integration: developing in a way that benefits the


widest possible range of sectors, across borders and even between generations. In other
words, our decisions should take into consideration potential impact on the society, on the
environment and on the economy, while keeping in mind that: our actions will have an impact
elsewhere and our actions will have an impact in the future.

3. THE THREE PILLARS OF A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT


Sustainable development can be: spreading the benefits of economic growth to all
citizens; turning brownfields into ecologically sound urban housing projects; increasing
educational opportunities for both girls and boys; innovating industrial processes to be more
energy-efficient and less polluting; including citizens and stakeholders in policy-making
processes. (Strange Tracey, Bayley Anne, 2008)
The economic growth alone is not enough: the economic, social and environmental
aspects of any action are interconnected. (see Figure 3)
When we talk about sustainable development we need to follow three pillars together:
society, economy and environment. No matter which is the context, the basic idea is the same:
people, habitants and economic systems are inter-related. We may be able to ignore that
interdependence for a few years or decades, but history has showed that before long we are
reminded of it by some type of alarm crisis. Understanding the complex connections and the
interdependence of the three pillars requires some effort and the effort has to be constant.
Whether were talking about the duration of political cycles or the length of time in which the
media focuses on a particular issue, the question of our collective attention span is an
important one for sustainable development.

SOCIAL

(4)

(5)
(3)

(6)

ECONOMIC

ENVIRONMENTAL

(2)
(1)

Figure 3. The three dimensions of sustainable development.

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4. ENVIRONMENT-ECONOMY INTERACTIONS
The effects of economic activity on the environmental dimension have been analyzed for
a long time. The conclusion is that economic activities and related policies have positive and
negative effects on environmental issues and performance. Economic growth implies use of
energy, of natural resources, as well as pollutant discharges and waste production. The effects
on environment depend on production and consumption patterns and are influenced by the
behavior of companies and of the public, and not last, by government interventions. The
technologies also play an important role in the interaction between economy and
environment. Economic growth provides opportunities to finance environmental protection
expenditure with potential benefits in the form of cleaner and less resource intensive
technologies and the production of environmentally friendly goods. On the other side, the
environment provides a number of productive and other services, including natural resources,
while environmental policies and related instruments may have economic implications.
Changes in environmental conditions affect the economy through changes in the quality and
quantity of available natural resources. This is relevant for the sensitive sectors such as
agriculture, forestry and tourism, but also for sectors relaying on the use of natural resources
(mining sector).

5. ENVIRONMENT-SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
The interaction between the environment and social dimensions are complex, many of the
links are obvious and have long been recognized, while other are more difficult to observe
directly and need to be further explored. The degradation of the environment has many
negative social effects, including the effects on health that impose high costs on the society.
The provision of equitable access to the natural resources and to the environmental goods and
services is an issue in the countries that are facing problems of rural and urban poverty. The
environmental policies and the related economic instruments, such as taxes, prices, may have
side effects that are unevenly distributed among population and income groups, including
direct or indirect effects on employment. Contrary, the social conditions and behaviors shape
environmental conditions and policies. The movement of the population, the changes in
demographic structure (ageing, migration between and within countries), the population
growth or decrease may have major environmental consequences. Education and training,
awareness and consumer habits are important elements, as are features of social
organizations, institutional arrangements and legal frameworks. The availability and access to
environmental information, opportunities for participation and partnerships of individuals,
companies, and the capacity to have access to courts are important preconditions for
triggering integrated, proactive approaches to environmental management and sustainable
development.

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212

6. ECONOMIC-SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
The interactions between economic and social dimensions have long been recognized.
Many social factors (consumer behavior and household consumption patterns, number of
households, time for leisure pursuits, disposable income levels) act as driving forces behind
economic growth and related sectorial trends and patterns. The provision of human inputs to
economic activities is an essential element of a countrys economy. The social rules, attitude
and institutions affect the market, too. Social policies and related instruments are closely
interwoven with economic processes and markets. The economic processes affect society,
also, at large, providing the foundation for greater prosperity but also affecting the
distribution of economic benefits between the members of the society, individuals, and hence
social conditions (cohesion, equity, well-being). The current life style puts pressure on
resources and environmental systems, so the sustainable development has become an issue of
fundamental importance and urgency that requires immediate action.

7. CONNECT GENERATIONS THROUGH


A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The key idea of sustainable development is the link between the well-being of current
generations and the well-being of future generations. To make this connection we can use the
concept of capital. In economic terms, capital is a stock that has been used in production for
several years. Capital can be created by investment, and it is used over years and eventually
wears out. The concept of capital can also be applied to sustainability, allowing us to measure
all types of wealth that contribute to well-being more comprehensively. Economists use the
concept of national wealth to indicate this broader measure. The Capital Approach is a
framework for measuring sustainable development which operates on the principle that
sustaining well-being over time requires ensuring that we replace or conserve wealth in its
different components. It emphasized the need to focus on the long-term determinants of
development not on the exclusion of current needs, but rather according to a principle of
sustainability: development than can be continued in the future. This approach allows us to
discuss and evaluate how what we do now will work in the very near, medium and long-term,
and how to talk about whether or not there is progress, regression or stagnation.
With this model, a societys total capital base encompasses five individual types:

financial capital like stocks, bonds and currency deposits;


produced capital like machinery, buildings, telecommunications and other types of
infrastructure;
natural capital in the form of natural resources, land and ecosystems providing
services like waste absorption;
human capital in the form of an educated and healthy workforce;
social capital in the form of social networks and institutions.

Conceiving these different forms of capital as inputs into the production of well-being
allows us to calculate national wealth as the sum of the different kinds of capital. Sustainable

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development requires to make sure that national wealth per capita does not decline over time
and, when possible, that it increases.

8. WE CANNOT FACE THE CHALLENGES OF THE FUTURE


WITH THE TOOLS OF THE PAST
Thats what Jose Manuel Barroso, European Commission President said at the
International Conference on Beyond GDP: Measuring progress, true wealth and the wellbeing of nations, November 19 20, 2007 and its a generally accepted truth, especially when
we talk about technologies that promote sustainable energy development.
With current trends in the supply and use of energy becoming increasingly untenable economically, environmentally and socially - the IEA believes smart grids can play a
significant role in enabling nearly all clean energy technologies, including renewables,
electric vehicles and energy efficiency. (Globe-net, 2011) The European Technology Platform
Smart Grid (ETPSG) defines the smart grid as an electricity network that can intelligently
integrate the actions of all users connected to it generators, consumers and those that do
both in order to efficiently deliver sustainable, economic and secure electricity supplies.
(Global Smart Grid Federation, 2012) While there are different interpretations, the IEA
defines a smart grid as an electricity network that uses digital and other advanced
technologies to monitor and manage the transport of electricity from all generation sources to
meet the varying electricity demands of end users. Smart grids co-ordinate the needs and
capabilities of all generators, grid operators, end users and electricity market stakeholders to
operate all parts of the system as efficiently as possible, minimizing costs and environmental
impacts while maximizing system reliability, resilience and stability. (Globe-net, 2011).
According to the NIST, a Smart Grid is a complex infrastructure composed of seven main
domains: Bulk generation, Markets, Service providers, Operations, Transmission,
Distribution and Customers. (NIST, 2009) A smart grid replaces analog mechanical meters
with digital meters that record usage in real time. A smart metering system (Popeanga Janina,
2013):
A. Measures consumption during key legal metrology requirements;
B. Stores data measured at different time periods;
C. Allows access to these data to both consumers and suppliers or their agents and has at
least one of the following functions:
Provides analysis of the data and displays them in a significant way to the consumer;
Transfers data concerning consumption to the supplier, in order to correct invoicing
without requiring access at home;
Measures and records information on continuity and quality of supply, and provides
other data to the distribution system operators for planning and evaluation of losses;
Allows remote control (interruption and restoration);
Allows pricing messages for different periods of time, in response to the request;
Allows remote changing of tariffs, duties or other rates, without requiring access at
home.

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Figure 4. Smart Grid a vision for the future. (http://www.energytrendsinsider.com/smart-grid/)

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Figure 5. General view of a Smart Grid (NIST, 2009).

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Figure 6. Smart meters map (GoogleMaps, 2012.)

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According to Berg Insight, by 2016 there will be 602.7 million smart meters installed
worldwide. This represents a compound annual growth rate of 26.6% between 2010 and 2016.
Smart meter penetration rates should reach by 2016 50% in Europe and the U.S., and 75% in
Asia. By 2020 it is expected that the penetration rate in most developed countries will be
100% with several processes running in India and developed countries in South America.

CONCLUSION
In order to teach future generations to avoid some of the problems we are struggling to
solve today, they must continue making better and more sustainable choices. This message is
passed on from parents, through the media and increasingly in school: UNESCO declared
2005-2014 the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. Nations from Australia
to France, from Chile to China, have included environmental concepts in their national
curricula and are building eco-schools to ensure that younger generations meet the future with
some of the tools they need to carry these ideas forward. But teaching children the complex
concepts of sustainable development interdependency, interdisciplinary thinking,
intergenerational needs is proving way more difficult.
The evolution of energy, technology and the human progress it enables will continue and
being informed enables all of us to make better decisions about the future of our energy.
We owe it to future generations to put mechanisms in place to achieve sustainability:
nations can start enforcing emissions quotas and trading, to make each ton of CO2 more
expensive to emit, while at the same time developing and sharing alternatives for energy. It is
important not to forget that we also owe it to ourselves: many of the consequences may seem
like they are in the indefinite future, but that may be much sooner than we would like. Ageing
populations, increasing poverty, stronger hurricanes, more frequent heat waves, increasing
flooding the evidence suggests that these are no longer projections: the future is now.
(Strange Tracey, Bayley Anne, 2008)

REFERENCES
Delakowitz, B. (2008). Global Energy Demand and Climate Change, presentation within the
BUP summer course, HAW Hamburg, Germany.
Dimas S. (2009). Speech at Green Week: Climate change act and adapt, Towards a New
Climate Change Deal, June, 23, 2009.
Global Smart Grid Federation, http://www.globalsmartgridfederation.org/smartgriddef.html,
September 2012.
Globe-net, (2011). http://www.globe-net.com/articles/2011/april/4/smart-grid-is-the-key-tosustainable-energy-future-iea/
IEA, (2008). http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Indicators_20081.pdf.
International Energy Agency (1991).Energy Efficiency and the Environment, Energy and
Environment Series, OCDE/IEA, Paris, France.
International Energy Agency (2009), CO2 Emissions from fuel combustion, IEA, France.

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Office of the National Coordinator for Smart Grid Interoperability, NIST Framework and
Roadmap for Smart Grid Interoperability Standards, Release 1.0, NIST, 2009.
Pociovliteanu, D-M., Thalassinos, E., rc, A., Leal F. (2010).Trends and challenges in the
energy sector of Romania in the post-accession to the European Union, International
Journal of Environmental Technology and Management, Vol.12, No.1, 3 15.
Popeang J. (2012). Cloud Computing and Smart Grids. Database System Journal, vol. III,
no. 3/2012, http://www.dbjournal.ro/archive/9/9_6.pdf.
Popeang J. (2013). Monitoring and improving energy efficiency using smart metering
technology, paper presented at IE 2013 International Conference, Bucharest.
Robert W.K., Parris M.T., and Leiserowitz A.A. (2005), What is Sustainable Development?
Goals, Indicators, Values, and Practice. Environment: Science and Policy for
Sustainable Development, Volume 47, Number 3, 821.
Schumann, Stephanie, Leal, Walter, Delakowitz, Bernd (2009). The Role Of Renewable
Energy In Addressing The Challenge Of Climate Change, paper presented at
International Scientific Session: Creativity and Efficiency in Education, Tg-Jiu, Romania.
Tracey, S., Bayley A. (2008). Sustainable Development. Linking economy, society,
environment, OCDE Insights, France.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), (1987). Report of the World
Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, New York:
Oxford University Press.

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 13

BIOGAS UTILIZATION THROUGH ANAEROBIC


DIGESTION IN GREECE: CURRENT STATUS
AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Avraam Karagiannidis, George Perkoulidis
and Apostolos Malamakis*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, Greece

ABSTRACT
The present chapter focuses on the current status and perspectives of anaerobic
digestion and biogas utilization in Greece. An overview is provided regarding the biogas
potential through the assessment of existing biogas installations and agricultural
structures, the technical review of the waste material utilization, the potential feedstock
availability estimation for biogas production and biogas purification for natural gas grid.

1. INTRODUCTION
Fifteen biogas plants are currently (2011) operating in Greece (Table 1). The utilization
of biogas mainly covers heat demand of plants. The installed capacity of electricity generation
from biogas was 37.4 MW and the gross electricity generation reached to 155.9 GWh. Most
energy was produced in the area of Athens due to the operation of the Wastewater Treatment
Plant (WTP) of Psytallia and the landfill (LF) of Ano Liosia, which treat liquid and solid
wastes respectively (CRES, 2009). Biogas can be produced from nearly all kinds of organic
materials. Nowadays in Europe, there are numerous biogas facilities at existing wastewater
treatment plants, landfill gas installations, and industrial biowaste processing facilities.
However, the largest volume of produced biogas will, by 2020, originate from farm wastes

Email: makis@aix.meng.auth.gr.

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Avraam Karagiannidis, George Perkoulidis and Apostolos Malamakis

and from large codigestion biogas plants, integrated into the farming and food processing
structures (Nielsen and Oleskowicz Popiel, 2007).
Table 1. Biogas plants in Greece
Municipality/Location
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki/Tagarades
Echedoros
Alexandroupolis
Chania
Heraklion
Piraeus/Psytalia
Metamorphosi

Typology of
plant/Industry name
WTP
LF
ZANAE
WTP
WTP
WTP
WTP
WTP

Municipality
Larissa
Volos
Chalkida
Patra
Rhodes
Agios Stefanos
Ano Losia

Typology of
plant/Industry name
WTP
WTP
WTP
WTP
WTP
Tasty Foods AVGE
LF

In Greece the picture is quite different as the produced biogas derives mainly from
landfills, wastewater treatment plants and a handfull of industrial applications. Although
Greece has a promising potential of organic wastes and especially animal manure, currently
there is no farm scale biogas plant. Nevertheless, in the framework of the calls for permits to
generate electricity by Independent Power Producers (IPPs) by the Hellenic Regulation
Authority for Energy (RAE) most applications cover landfill plants and municipal WTP
(RAE). 37 MW are already installed, while future projects for another 12 MW from biogas
plants have already received permits for power production from RAE (Table 2).
Table 2. Biogas projects that have received production permit from RAE (2007)
Location
Xanthi
Volos
Larissa

Permit number
0310
0805
0841

Installed capacity (MW)


9.50
1.72
0.60

Fuel
Municipal solid waste
Landfill gas
Sewage treatment biogas

Athens Water Supply and Sewage Company (EYDAP SA) announced the expansion of
the biogas plant of Psytallia WTP by 4.25 MW and two new biogas projects namely a new
Combined Head and Power (CHP) plant in the Metamorfosi cesspit WTP and a CHP plant in
the new WTP of West AtticaThriasio (0.19 MW). Furthermore, the Municipal Water Supply
and Sewerage Company of Larissa (DEYAL) had requested a permit from RAE (October
2007) for a new biogas plant in the landfill of Makrychori (Parapotamos site).

2. USE OF WASTE MATERIAL FOR BIOGAS PRODUCTION


Feedstock for anaerobic digestion plants can be derived from three major sources:

Municipal waste (landfill gas and wastewater treatment plants).


Industrial waste (dairy industries, food/beverage industries, slaughterhouses).

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Agricultural waste and energy crops (cattle-pig-poultry manure, energy crops,


agricultural residues).

The produced municipal solid waste is disposed in landfill where organic matter is
decomposed producing landfill gas. Thus, utilizing landfill gas is one of the most attractive
systems for electricity and heat production and is already a well established technology in
Greece. Furthermore, biogas coming from the anaerobic digestion of wastewater sludge has
been utilized for energy production.
Waste Management in Greece has improved the last decade in terms of collection,
recycling and facility development. The total quantity of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in
Greece increased rapidly over the last decade, from 3.2 million t in 1995 to 4.447 million t in
2000 and to 4.710 million t in 2003. It is estimated that during 2006 the waste production
come up to approx. 5 million t. Landfilling is still the predominant option (over 90% of the
MSW generated is still landfilled).
Join Ministerial Decision 50910/2727/03 repeated the commitments of the Greek state to
close down all illegal landfills by the end of 2008 and to reduce the biodegradable MSW that
is landfilled to 35% by 2020. Intermediate targets are: 75% (2010) and 50% (2013). The
targets will be achieved through the operation of recycling and composting facilities in almost
all regions of the country as well as through the full operation of the separate collection
systems for selected waste streams. It is worth mentioning that there is no specific source
separation for the organic fraction of MSW and thus there is no facility processing such a
stream.
Wastewater treatment in all parts of Europe has improved significantly since the 1980s.
The actions in this area are based on the requirements of Directive 91/271/EC. Significant
progress has been made in wastewater management and in 2006 the population covered by
WTPs was about 74% of the total population. According to the Greek Ministry of
Environment, WTP would serve almost 90% of the Greek population by 2008 and 151 new
WTP should be constructed all over Greece.
Biogas production from various sources of industrial waste emerges as an attractive
alternative for the Greek industrial sector too. In some cases (eg. food industry), the available
feedstock contains high amounts of easily biodegradable organic compounds, so they can be
used for biogas production. In this way anaerobic digestion can be considered more as an
energy production method than as a treatment one.
In Greece, sheep, goat and lamb breeding represent the highest percentage of livestock
operations, performed in a decentralized way. The largest portion of Greek livestock farming
is extensive where the produced manure is spread on the grazing land (Chatziathanasiou and
Boukis, 2000). Taking into account that the livestock farming is extensive, the potential users
of biogas production are mainly livestock units and especially medium and large ones.
Greece has a huge potential of cattle biomass. The annual energy that could be produced
from animal waste is and is calculated to be 357 MWel from 17,300,000 t of animal waste. It
is calculated that up to 5 MWel could be generated every year from 287,000 t of cheese dairy
waste, 28 MWel from 205,000 t of slaughter waste, 37 MWel from 2,268,000 t of pig farm
waste and finally, 287 MWel from dairy farms that produce 14,540,800 t. Thus, beef cattle
comprise the biggest producer of waste in cattle breeding sector and their treatment for biogas
recovery from seems to be a very interest solution.

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3. FEEDSTOCK AVAILABILITY AND AGRICULTURAL STRUCTURES


The theoretical potential of energy crops that can be used for biogas investments in
Greece is presented in Table 3. Energy crops stands here for total biomass generated on
agricultural lands. Most of the part of this potential is used for food and animal breeding. The
higher potential is located at the region of Central Macedonia.
Table 3. Potential feedstock based on energy crops
Region
Central Macedonia
East Macedonia - Thrace
Thessaly
Western Greece
Western Macedonia
Attica
Central Greece

Energy crops (kt)


1,383-1,701
1,024-1,382
687-1,025
349-686
349-686
11-348
11-348

Region
Crete
Epirus
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
Peloponnese
South Aegean

Energy crops (kt)


11-348
11-348
11-348
11-348
11-348
11-348

Agricultural waste may be used for energy production with a large portion of them also
suitable for biogas production. The total agricultural waste defines the theoretical
availability. Not all this waste is technically available. The residue from the annual (maize,
cotton, cereals) and perennial (olives, vineyards) crops are the main categories of the
agricultural residues in Greece. A portion of these residues can be used for energy purposes in
general and some of them for biogas production (calculated as theoretical availability)
(Table 4).
Table 4. Agricultural waste from primary production
Region
Central Macedonia
East Macedonia Thrace
Thessaly
Central Greece
Peloponnese
Western Greece
Western Macedonia

Biomass waste from


primary production (kt)
1,042-1,300

Crete

Biomass waste from


primary production (kt)
11-348

794-1,041

Attica

11-268

794-1,041
526-793
269-525
269-525
269-525

Epirus
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
South Aegean

11-268
11-268
11-268
11-268

Region

The residues production per Ha is based on the literature and on the data registered at
Eurostat (Apostolakis et al., 1987). The manure was estimated taking into consideration the
different types and weight of cattle and the manure specific production per animal and year
(Table 5).

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Table 5. Agricultural waste from secondary production (m3/y)


Region
Central Macedonia
Thessaly
East Macedonia - Thrace
Epirus
Western Greece
Western Macedonia
Attica

Manure (m3/y)
1,284,347-1,592,974
975,719-1,284,346
667,090-975,718
358,464-667,091
358,464-667,091
358,464-667,091
49,836-358,463

Region
Central Greece
Crete
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
Peloponnese
South Aegean

Manure (m3/y)
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463

Based on data concerning the population and the tourism in Greece and the average
production of domestic solid waste (1.14 kg/residence/day for the year 2001 based on JMD
50910/2727/23.12.2003) and tourists (roughly assumed the same waste production) and the
proportion of food wastes (47% for the year 2001 based on JMD 50910/2727/23.12.2003)
tables 6 and 7 present the organic MSW and sewage sludge waste respectively.
Table 6. Organic municipal solid waste production
Region
Attica
Central Macedonia
Thessaly
Western Greece
Peloponnese
Crete
East Macedonia - Thrace

Organic MSW (kt)


609-750
468-608
327-467
186-327
186-327
186-327
186-327

Region
Central Greece
Epirus
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
South Aegean
Western Macedonia

Organic MSW (kt)


186-327
186-327
45-185
45-185
45-185
45-185

Table 7. Sewage sludge waste production


Region
Attica
Central Macedonia
Thessaly
Western Greece
Peloponnese
Crete
East Macedonia - Thrace

Organic MSW (kt)


45-56
34-44
24-34
18-23
18-23
18-23
18-23

Region
Central Greece
Epirus
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
South Aegean
Western Macedonia

Organic MSW (kt)


18-23
18-23
3-14
3-14
3-14
3-14

The assessment of the biogas potential production is based on the assumption that the
biogas plants will be mainly developed firstly based on organic wastes and then on energy
crops. Greece seems to have a large potential for biogas production in terms of agricultural
waste (primary and secondary) and landfill gas.
As far as the agricultural structure is concerned, data for Greece are based mainly on the
Agricultural livestock census 1999/2000 and Agricultural - Livestock Survey 2006. The
main results based on the agricultural livestock census 1999/2000 are the following:

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Avraam Karagiannidis, George Perkoulidis and Apostolos Malamakis

There are 817,060 facilities with a total surface of 3,875,180 ha.


In the interval between 0 and 2 hectares of agricultural area there are 394,950
facilities with an area of 440,020 ha. The biggest cumulative surface is encountered
for the interval 2-5 ha with 797,380 ha (226,500 holdings). The temporary crops are
dominated by durum wheat (587,190 ha), soft wheat (157,420 ha), cotton (382,800
ha), industrial plants (476,360 ha) and maize (183,320 ha). The permanent crops are
dominated by olive (737,160 ha).
The livestock is dominated by sheeps and goats (8,752,670 and 5,327,200 heads
respectively). There are also 28,330 holdings with 652,390 heads of cattle and 36,250
holdings with 969,850 heads of pigs.
Table 8. Facilities with cattle by region broken down by size classes (2006)

Region
East Macedonia and
Thrace
Central Macedonia
West Macedonia
Thessaly
Epirus
Ionian islands
Western Greece
Central Greece
Peloponnese
Attica
North Aegean
South Aegean
Crete
Total

1-2

3-5

6-9

10-19

20-29

30-49

50

Total

1,120

1,215

732

728

312

350

596

5,053

582
354
460
216
144
366
168
306
30
170
435
112
4,463

720
420
225
156
118
236
162
256
18
252
584
69
4,431

540
320
159
105
56
141
0
150
14
168
435
24
2,844

819
516
186
153
80
279
88
172
20
210
468
40
3,759

462
252
132
89
32
168
51
64
5
96
152
12
1,827

570
196
207
182
26
221
80
69
12
60
99
18
2,090

1,273
262
735
426
23
392
153
72
16
23
45
7
4,023

4,966
2,320
2,104
1,327
479
1,803
702
1,089
115
979
2,218
282
23,437

Table 9. Facilities with pigs by region broken down by size classes (2006)
Region
East Macedonia
and Thrace
Central
Macedonia
West Macedonia
Thessaly
Epirus
Ionian islands
Western Greece
Central Greece
Peloponnese
Attica
North Aegean
South Aegean
Crete
Total

1-2

3-9

10-19

20-29

30-49

50-99

100

Total

1,194

404

66

60

36

66

1,826

1,330

480

225

212

72

112

2,431

2,484
3,333
531
384
4,270
2,660
1,510
152
1,413
1,392
2,144
34,721

639
606
164
240
1,428
624
405
84
504
640
516
22,797

166
132
46
0
460
240
128
28
160
272
231
6,734

0
80
18
16
183
0
48
8
48
98
204
2,088

33
100
23
6
208
45
36
14
30
76
0
981

25
104
18
14
182
36
24
10
18
43
54
631

25
238
79
11
127
68
40
22
3
8
55
636

3,372
4,593
879
671
6,858
3,673
2,191
318
2,176
2,529
3,204
854

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According to the Agricultural - Livestock Survey of 2006:

The livestock was dominated by sheeps and goats (119,355 holdings with 9,031,645
heads and 123,348 facilities with 4,986,423 heads respectively). There were also
23,437 facilities with 684,057 heads of cattle and 34,721 facilities with 1,055,057
heads of pigs.
There were 1,273 facilities in Central Macedonia with more than 50 cattle and in
Thessaly there were 735 facilities with more than 50 cattle. At the same time there
were 238 facilities and 127 facilities with more than 100 pigs in Thessaly and in
Western Greece respectively (Tables 8 and 9).

4. PURIFICATION OF BIOGAS FOR INSERTION


IN THE NATURAL GAS GRID
The potential for introduction of natural gas into the Greek energy system can be
compared in magnitude with the electrification of the country. Natural gas is an effective and
modern form of energy, environmental friendly and safe. The National Natural Gas
Transportation System is comprised of (DEPA, 2006, DESFA):

The central gas transportation pipeline (599 km) which extends from Promachonas to
Attica and from Thessaloniki to Kipoi.
Transportation branches (566 km) linking the various regions of the country (Eastern
Macedonia and Thrace, Thessalonici, Platy in Imathia, Volos, Viotia, Inofyta,
Attica). With the completion of the Korinthos project by the autumn of 2007 the
transmission branches extend 600 km. In 2007 branches towards Western Thessaly
and Evia had begun (119 km).
The natural gas metering and regulating stations.
The gas control and dispatching center.
The operation and maintenance centres (in Attica, Thessaloniki, Thessaly and
Xanthi).

Natural Gas enters Greece via high-pressure pipelines. Their course continues through
medium-pressure networks (19 bar) that deliver gas to industrial consumers, but also through
low-pressure networks (4 bars) that provide door-to-door gas to domestic, commercial and
industrial consumers. The pipeline that crosses the Greek-Bulgarian border has a diameter of
28-inch and then connects to the Greek North-South central pipeline (Greek-Bulgarian border
to Attica) which is a high-pressure pipeline (70 bar) with a diameter of 28-inch too (Ministry
of Development, 2007). The 87 km long between Komotini, Alexandroupoli and Kipoi and
the transportation branches linking the various regions of the country consist of high pressure
pipelines. Medium pressure networks have been developed and are still being developed in
Attica, Thessaloniki, Larissa, Volos, Inofyta, Thiva, the greater of Halkida, Lamia, Platy in
Imathia, Kilkis, Serres, Drama, Xanthi, Kavala. Alexandroupoli and Komotini. Low pressure
networks have been developed and are still being installed in Attica, Thessaloniki, Larissa,
Volos, Inofyta, Kilkis, Xanthi and Komotini. Medium and low pressure networks are

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Avraam Karagiannidis, George Perkoulidis and Apostolos Malamakis

expanding in areas like Central Greece and Evia, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace and Central
Macedonia by the DEPA.
The Ministerial Decision 1227/2007 "On the determination of the procedure for the
conclusion, content and terms of agreements for the exercise of the right to access and for the
use of the National Natural Gas System" (Official Gazette 135/B/5.02.2007) determines the
content, the terms and the procedure for the conclusion of agreements for the transfer of
natural gas concluded for the exercise of the right to access and use the national natural gas
system and in particular the part of it that constitutes the national system for the transfer of
natural gas. According to LAW No. 3428/27.12.2005 Liberalization of Natural Gas Market
(Official Gazette 313/A/2005) article 39: The use of Natural Gas Systems pursuant to the
provisions of this law is also allowed for the transmission of biogas, gas produced from
biomass and other kinds of gases, provided that it is so possible from a technical point of
view and the technical specifications are met, after taking into consideration the quality
requirements and the chemical features thereof.

5. BIOGAS UTILIZATION
The opportunities for biogas production in Greece are very high, especially in the waste
treatment sector. Implementation will enable efficient and environmentally sustainable waste
disposal, while at the same time generating a significant amount of energy in a manner that
promotes reduction and offseting carbon footprint at regional scale. Generally, Greece has
sufficient infrastructure and framework for waste collection as well as lots of potential in
energy crops cultivation or animal slurry exploitation.
For the utilisation of biogas, it should be feasible, that all systems and components can be
constructed or installed by using domestic labour and engineering services. The technology
should also be simple rather than sophisticated, since simple technologies are more robust,
easier to maintain and better suitable for the local infrastructure in cases where it is at an early
stage of development.
The most suitable system which should be implemented in Greece is a combined heat and
power plant operating with combustion engines. The combined heat and power production
technology is a well known, robust technology for the utilisation of electricity and heat. CHP
generation from biogas is considered a very efficient utilisation of biogas for energy
production. Before CHP conversion, biogas is drained and dried. An engine-based CHP
power plant has an efficiency of up to 90% and produces 35% electricity and 65% heat. An
important issue for the energy and economic efficiency of a biogas CHP plant is the
utilisation of the produced heat. Usually, a part of the heat is used for heating the digesters
(process heating) and approximately 2/3 of all produced energy can be used for external
needs.
Many biogas plants in countries with good feed-in tariffs for electricity and no incentives
for heat utilisation, like in Germany, were established exclusively for electricity purposes,
without heat utilisation. Due to the lost income from heat sale of these plants (and some other
reasons like increased energy crop prices), many biogas plant operators in Germany faced
serious economic problems in 2007 and 2008.

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Biogas heat can be used by industry processes, agricultural activities or for space heating.
The most suitable heat user is the industry, as the demand is constant throughout the whole
year. Heat quality (temperature) is an important issue for industrial applications. The use of
heat from biogas for building and household heating (mini-grid or district heating) is another
option, although this application has a low season during summer and a high season during
winter. Biogas heat can also be used for drying crops, wood chips or for separation of
digestate. Finally, heat can also be used in combined power-heat-cooling systems. This
process is known from refrigerators and is used for cooling food storage or for air
conditioning.

CONCLUSION
The energy sector in Greece is undergoing significant changes due to the EU and national
policies in the field of energy and environment (full liberalization of the energy market and
environmental protection). As a result, the impact and effects of the implementation of these
policies are not yet visible and especially for the near future (energy price, energy mix).
Lignite, the main domestic fossil fuel resource of Greece, seems that will continue to play a
major role in the fuel mix of country in the future, but further renewable energy sources
penetration is expected.
The promotion of renewable energy sources in Greece is based not only to the great
potential of the country but also to the set priority towards renewable energy production and
emissions reductions. Although today there is still heavy state involvement in the economy,
the policy for the future is the reduction of the role of the state and the further development of
the market mechanisms and financial support schemes.
The law 3468/2006 for renewable energy sources had set a new environment in the
electricity generation and among others, simplified the licensing procedures, the guaranteed
market price (73 /MWh for biogas plants) while the licensing deadlines were shortened.
The new RES Law 3851/2010 sets the national targets for RES for the year 2020. a)
Contribution of the energy produced from R.E.S. to the gross final energy consumption by a
share of 20%, b) Contribution of the electrical energy produced by R.E.S. to the gross
electrical energy consumption to a share of at least 40%, c) Contribution of the energy
produced by R.E.S. to the final energy consumption for heating and cooling to a share of at
least 20%, d) Contribution of the energy produced by R.E.S. to the gross energy consumption
in transportation to a share of at least 10%. It also raises the feed-in tarrifs for renewable
energy production from biogas to as high as 220 /MWh.
During last years, renewable development in Greece is positively affected by resource
potential and state policy. The legislative framework has significantly improved by the
introduction of renewable energy sources and environmental legislation. However, there are
still institutional and other barriers, also due to the current (2011) financial crisis which shall
hinder the wide-scale biogas exploitation and deployment in Greece. Current energy prices
and targeted reduction of fossil fuel combustion will draw increasingly more attention
towards anaerobic digestion, together with the ever increasing pressure to landfill less organic
materials.

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REFERENCES
Apostolakis, Kyritsis, Souter, (1987). Energy Potential of Biomass Research in Greece
Region.
Chatziathanassiou, A., Boukis, I., (2000). Constrains and Strategy for the Development of
Anaerobic Digestion Livestock Farming in Greece. 1st World Conference on Biomass for
Energy and Industry, Seville, Spain, 5-9 June.
CRES, (2009). Biogas Potential in Greece, Summary Report, Project: BiG>East
DEPA, (2006). Annual Report
DEPAs site. Available from: www.depa.gr.
DESFAs site. Available from: www.desfa.gr.
Karagiannidis, A., and Perkoulidis, G., (2009). A multi-criteria ranking of different
technologies for the anaerobic digestion for energy recovery of the organic fraction of
municipal solid wastes, Bioresource Technology, 100(8), 2355-2360
Ministry of Development, 1st report for the long term Energy Policy in Greece 2008-2020,
part 1, Athens August, 2007.
Nielsen, J., and Oleskowicz-Popiel, P., (2007). The future of Biogas in Europe: Visions and
Targets until 2020, European Biogas Workshop The Future of Biogas in Europe III,
Esbjerg, Denmark
Regulatory Authority for Energy (RAE). Available from: www.rae.gr.

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 14

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF COMPOSTING


IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE
WASTE MANAGEMENT
K. Lasaridi1, C. Chroni1, K. Abeliotis1, A. Kyriacou1
and A. A. Zorpas2
Harokopio University, Kallithea Athens, Greece
Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Science,
Environmental Conservation and Management, Latsia, Nicosia, Cyprus
1

ABSTRACT
Translating the gained knowledge about waste management into strategies, attitudes
and processes that maintain resources and minimise negative environmental impact
constitutes a challenging but inevitable goal. Focusing especially on biodegradable waste,
the New Paradigm for sustainable waste management carries an increasing demand for
biological treatment. Composting still constitutes the preferred option for biological
treatment provided that a high compost quality can be ensured. It may play an important
role in the diversion of biowaste from landfills, which accounts for approximately half of
the municipal solid waste. Full scale composting is considered as a recycling action,
while home composting can be deemed as a waste prevention action.

INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development has been defined in Brundtland Report, Our Common Future
(WCED, 1987), as the development which meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of
sustainable development was addressed at the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development in Rio de Janeiro, in 1992, which produced the action plan for the 21st

Corresponding author email: klasar@hua.gr.

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century, Agenda 21. In this document (Chapter 21) the management of solid waste was
recognised as an environmental issue of major concern in maintaining the quality of the
global environment and, especially, achieving environmentally sound and sustainable
development in both developed and developing countries. Agenda 21 states that
environmentally sound waste management must go beyond the mere safe disposal or
recovery of wastes that are generated and seek to address the root cause of the problem by
attempting to change unsustainable patterns of production and consumption.
The European Commission has adopted the concepts of sustainable waste management
and developed its waste policy based on the idea of the waste hierarchy, in other words, the
ranking of the various waste management options in terms of their environmental impact. The
hierarchy was first introduced in the Community Strategy for Waste Management (SEC (89)
934 Final 1989), but it was solidly reaffirmed and established in the revised Waste
Framework Directive (2008/98/EC). Waste prevention is placed at the top of the ladder as the
most favourable option, followed by (in descending order) preparing for reuse, recycling
(including composting), energy/material recovery (including anaerobic digestion) and
disposal in properly engineered landfills. Nonetheless, the hierarchical system of waste
management is not compulsory in character, on account that different application of the
various waste management options (e.g. recycling, incineration etc.) may have different
environmental and health impacts or benefits, based on the specific conditions applying
exact treatment methodology, geographic factors, existence of markets etc. (EC, 2011).
Eventually, the optimal course of action is to be decided through life-cycle
thinking (ISWA 2012; EC, 2011). Solid waste management has moved to the forefront of the
environmental agenda and the New Paradigm presupposes a change of policy, triggering
attitudes and methods that conserve natural resources and reduce the environmental impact of
anthropogenic pollutants. The equal consideration of economic, social and environmental
parameters (broadly known as the three pillars of sustainable development) is a prerequisite
for sustainable waste management (McDougall et al., 2001). Currently the concept of
integrated solid waste management (ISWM) is promoted. According to UNEP, ISWM refers
to the strategic approach to sustainable management of solid wastes covering all sources and
all aspects, generation, segregation, transfer, sorting, treatment, recovery and disposal in an
integrated manner, with an emphasis on maximizing resource use efficiency. Within this
framework a waste management system consists of three elements: the physical system and
its technological components, sustainability aspects (social, institutional, political, financial,
economic, environmental and technical) and the various groups of stakeholders involved
(Wilson et al., 2012). Against the backdrop of ISWM, organic waste is increasingly
recognised as a recyclable material and a useful resource (Tontti et al., 2011), while organic
waste treatment is becoming one of the key tasks of current waste management. Composting
may play an important role in the diversion of biowaste from landfills, which accounts for
approximately 30-50% of the total municipal solid waste quantity (MSW), depending on the
country.

1.1. The State-of-the-Art


Since the 90s composting has become increasingly popular as an alternative to the
traditional disposal options for organic waste, i.e. landfilling and incineration, and it is now

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231

considered a useful treatment process for almost any kind of biodegradable waste. Legislation
and environmental standards stipulated the development of a new generation of composting
facilities throughout Europe (Slater et al., 2001). The same trend is also shaped in US and
Asia.
In the European Union of 27Member States (EU-27) alone, 2.5 billion tonnes of waste
were generated in 2010 from economic activities and households, corresponding to an
average of 5.0 tonnes per inhabitant, while 2.3 billion tonnes of waste (including imported
waste into the EU) was treated (EUROSTAT, 2013). The 49% of the treated waste within
EU-27 was sent to recovery operations (other than energy recovery), 45.4% on disposal
operations and the remaining 5.6% for incineration (EUROSTAT, 2013). Disposal operations
include landfilling (or simply dumping), incineration, landfarming and, in some cases, waste
discharges into water bodies (e.g. ocean/sea, river, lakes). According to Slater and
Frederickson (2001), of the 60 million tonnes of potentially recoverable organic waste
generated in EU annually in late 90s-early 00s, approximately 15% was recovered through
composting (including home composting and source separation and centralised composting).
It is estimated that in EU-27, in 2011, 68kg of organic waste per capita were treated through
composting or anaerobic digestion (EUROSTAT, 2013). The European Landfill Directive
promotes the gradual diversion of biodegradable waste from landfilling, allowing by 2016,
the landfilling of only 35% of the total quantity that was landfilled in 1995.
In USA it is estimated that around 228 million tonnes of MSW were generated in 2012,
of which approximately 19 million tonnes were composted (EPA, 2012). In 2012, over 2.4
million households were served with food waste composting (EPA, 2012).
In late 90s, in China, approximately 20% of the MSW were treated through composting
(Wei et al., 2000). Wei et al. (2000) report that Chinese MSW treatments plants favour the
implementation of composting because of three reasons: 1) The MSW stream is unsuitable for
incineration due to its composition; 2) The cost of composting is lower than the cost of
incineration and landfilling; and 3) Composting and compost use in agriculture are part of
tradition.

2. AN OVERVIEW OF COMPOSTING
2.1. Seeking a Definition
Although the first attempts to carry out composting on an industrial basis date back to the
beginning of the previous century, a generally accepted definition of composting and compost
has yet to be adopted. Each (academic or technical) discipline approaches the description
and/or the definition of the composting process with regard to its own background, research
and technical interests often adjusted to the latest trends in waste/resource management.
Some disciplines focus on the operating conditions of the process, especially temperature
and aeration (Marshall et al., 2004); others emphasise its degradative aspect (Insam et al.
2010; Steger et al., 2007; Day & Shaw, 2001); while many highlight the critical properties of
compost (Diaz et al., 2002; Zucconi & de Bertoldi, 1987). More specifically, Marshall et al.
(2004) describe the composting process as the decomposition of organic residues controlled
by the management of a number of factors including feedstock composition, moisture, oxygen

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and temperature. Focusing on microbial consortia, Insam et al. (2010) indicated that
continuous composting processes may be regarded as a sequence of continuous cultures,
each of them with their own physical (e.g. temperature), chemical (e.g. the available
substrate) properties and feedback effects. Reviewing the relevant literature under the lens
of MSW management, Diaz et al. (2002) defined composting as the biological
decomposition of the biodegradable organic fraction of MSW under controlled conditions to
a state sufficiently stable for nuisance-free storage and handling and for safe use in land
applications.
Again, on (bio)waste management grounds, a concise definition, which helps to exclude a
number of processes that differ from composting, as well as unmanaged and poorly controlled
processes, is presented by the European Commission in the Biological Treatment of
Biowaste Working Document (2nd Draft). In this document, composting is defined as the
autothermic and thermophilic biological decomposition of separately collected biowaste in
the presence of oxygen and under controlled conditions by the action of micro- and macroorganisms in order to produce compost (EC, 2001).
Reviewing the abovementioned definitions/descriptions, it can be deduced that
composting, perceived as both a biological process and a waste treatment method, is
stipulated, evolved and controlled by four packs of parameters: the initial composting mixture
(feedstock), the biodegradation agents (micro- and macro-organisms), the operative
conditions (environmental factors that can/should be controlled), and the required quality of
the final product (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The four packs of parameters that govern the composting process (solely the main parameters
of each category are indicatively presented).

2.2. The Process Evolution


Composting is a biological process, with all the advantages and limitations that such a
process entails. The basic mechanism in composting is the decomposition of the putrescible
fraction of the organic matter, carried out by a diverse population of microorganisms
comprised mainly of bacteria, fungi and archaea. In composting, a solid phase organic
material serves as physical support, gas exchange matrix, source of organic and inorganic

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nutrients, water, and diverse indigenous microbes, a sink for metabolic waste products, and
thermal insulation. The major form of microbial metabolism is aerobic respiration (Finstein &
Hogan, 1993), although in the micropores anaerobic pockets exist and the need for
investigating the limited potential presence and activity of anaerobic microorganisms has
been expressed in scientific literature (Chroni et al., 2009; Thummes et al., 2007; CabanasVargas & Stentiford, 2006).
When the environmental factors, namely moisture content, temperature and oxygen
concentration, are brought to a suitable level, microbial action increases and the
microorganisms start growing and reproducing themselves. As a result of their oxidative
activity, carbon dioxide, water, other organic products, and energy are released. Some of this
energy is used in metabolism; the remainder is given off as heat, further elevating the
temperature of the material. The final product (compost) comprises the more resistant
residues of the organic matter, breakdown products, the biomass of dead microorganisms
together with some living ones, and products from chemical reactions between these materials
(Biddlestone & Gray, 1987).
The physico-chemical changes that occur during composting process can be symbolically
and generally expressed by the following equation (Chiumenti et al., 2005; Peign &
Girardin, 2004):

The temperature changes that occur during composting due to microbial activity reflect
and - vice versa - affect the microbial activity. Therefore, the temperature profile indicates the
evolution of the process and can be used for its monitoring. Based upon these temperature
changes, the composting process evolves in four phases (Insam et al. 2010): the mesophilic
(20-45C), the thermophilic (45-65C), the cooling (temperature falls), and the maturation
and curing phase (substrate temperature reaches the environment temperature). Since the
boundary line between the last two phases (the cooling and the maturation and curing phase)
is blurred, many researchers and academics subsume the last two phases under a single one
(Marshall et al., 2004).
In the mesophilic phase simple carbon compounds, like soluble sugars, starch, fats and
proteins, are easily metabolised and mineralised by the microbial community. Rapid changes
are noted in temperature, pH values, O2 and CO2 concentration (Schloss et al., 2003). The
process is rapid and the heat released is trapped in the composting mass due to the good
insulating properties of the compost matrix. The temperature rises fast a rate over 30oC
under optimal conditions may occur (Harper et al., 1992) - and the mesophilic population
(capable of growing at temperatures between 15oC and 45oC) is replaced by thermophilic
microorganisms (45-65oC optimum temperature range).
This shift signals the beginning of the thermophilic phase. If the temperature rises
above 60oC, fungi become inactive, and decomposition is mostly performed by thermophilic
actinobacteria and spore-forming bacteria. During this phase, readily degradable substances
are rapidly consumed and most human and plant pathogens are destroyed. If not controlled,
temperature might exceed 70oC or 80oC within a few days, a situation where it is believed
that only a few species of thermophilic sporogeneous bacteria can survive (Finstein & Morris,

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1975). However, the study of Beffa et al. (1996) suggested that non-spore-forming,
thermophilic bacteria related to the genus Thermus are the dominant active degraders in
thermogenic composts at temperatures above 70oC. The rate of biological decomposition at
such temperatures is extremely low (Finstein et al., 1983; Haug 1993).
During composting the pH frequently turns alkaline as ammonia is lost. Gradually, the
reaction rate decreases, as only the more resistant materials remain to be degraded, and the
material begins to cool down. Thermophilic fungi reinvade the composting material and
cellulose and hemicellulose are subject to degradation. This sequence may last from a few
weeks to several months, depending on the nature of the material to be composted and the
degree of control over the process.
The last phase, maturation, requires several weeks to a few months. Less heat is
generated in this phase and the final pH is usually slightly alkaline. Mesophilic
microorganisms and microfauna colonise the compost. Competition for food among
microorganisms is intense and the reactions that occur in the residual organic matter produce
a stable humus-like product, the compost (Chen & Inbar, 1993). Danon et al. (2008) showed
that the microbial community continued to change long after the compost organic matter and
other biochemical properties had stabilised.

3. THE ROLE OF COMPOSTING IN WASTE AND


RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
A large part of the total waste stream consists of organic materials, which are subject to
composting. Because of the vast quantities of materials involved, composting may have a
positive impact on the environment and an important contribution towards achieving
sustainable waste management. Full scale composting can be considered a facet of recycling,
while home composting can be deemed as a waste prevention action (EC, 2012).
On the other hand, modern intensive agricultural practice depletes organic matter from
the soil. In Europe, where farmland has been used for more than 2000 years, the problem of
restoration of organic matter is becoming increasingly urgent. Organic matter in soil is a
fundamental necessity for biological fertility. Desertification, which is already happening in
some Mediterranean regions, is the immediate result of the depletion of the organic matter
from the soil (de Bertoldi et al., 1985; Lopez-Real, 1996; Rodrigues et al., 1996). The low
organic matter content of the agricultural soils in that region requires large quantities of
organic soil amendments (Manios & Syminis, 1988), such as compost.
Composting transforms, through an aerobic microbial process, raw organic matter into a
stable product, similar to that which naturally occurs in the soil. It transforms drastically the
various organic substances, mineralising the simpler and easily assimilable and humifying the
more complex compounds. In this sense, composting fulfils, in an almost ideal way, the
objectives of a closed biological system, promoting the consideration of organic waste as a
resource: organics are diverted from the waste stream, resulting in a substantial volume
reduction, and returned to the soil, in a beneficial form.
In spite of the aforementioned benefits, composting process and compost application may
pose a range of negative impacts on the environment and human health (Amlinger et al.,
2008; Peign & Girardin, 2004). The positive and the negative impacts of the composting

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process and the compost use on the environment and human health are presented in the
following sections (3.1-3.2).

3.1. The Benefits


The potential advantages of composting regard the reduction of the waste volume, the
reduction of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and the many different uses of compost.

3.1.1. Reduction of Waste Volume


As composting evolves, the volume of the composting substrate decreases up to 50-60%.
Therefore, composting can be used to reduce the landfilled waste volume, prolonging the
lifespan of existing landfills and reducing the need for more space (Slater & Frederickson,
200; Tchobanoglous et al., 1993).
3.1.2. Reduction of Methane Emissions
Whereas in composting organic waste degrade under aerobic conditions producing CO2
and H2O (g), in landfills, in the absence of oxygen, they emit CO2 and CH4. The latter has a
much higher impact as a GHG than CO2. It also constitutes a powerful source of risk for
landfill fires and explosions. Incorporating composting into a waste management plant (a pretreatment or treatment method), the GHG emissions (from the plant) decrease (Boldrin et al.,
2009; Amlinger et al., 2008; Lou & Nair, 2009). Pre-composting of organic waste prior to
landfilling leads to a reduction of total greenhouse gases production by up to 90%, accounting
for the overall GHG balance (Lou & Nair, 2009; Leikam & Stegmann, 1999).
The use of compost as a landfill cover also aids in the mitigation of CH4 (Lou & Nair,
2009). Although compost covers serve mainly the water infiltration into the landfill, they
contribute to the establishment of an optimal functional methanotrophic community in the
compost that oxidises CH4 into CO2 (Lou & Nair, 2009; Stern et al., 2007).
The potential existence of anaerobic pockets within the micropores of the composting
substrate, as well as the insufficient aeration, might lead to GHG emissions in composting
facilities. Yet, Zeman et al. (2002) indicated that almost the total amount of CH4 oxidises to
CO2 in the aerobic micropores close to the surface of the compost pile. Amlinger et al. (2008)
estimate that the contributions of GHG production from typical open windrow and closed
composting waste composting systems are very low (0.01% to 0.06%), but their analysis did
not include emissions from preceding or post-treatment activities.
In addition, the reduction of CHG emissions through composting can be indirectly
achieved through the applications of compost (i.e. when it substitutes fertilizers, the GHG
emitted from the fossil fuels used in their production are reduced).
3.1.3. Compost Applications
Compost is mainly used as a soil amendment (depending on its chemical composition, it
may also be used as an organic fertilizer), and as a component of growing media in nursery
crop sector (Lakhdar et al., 2009; Diaz et al., 2002). Composts improve the structure of soil,
as they enhance aeration, the water retention and pH buffer capacity. They also have a
positive impact on the biological properties of soil.

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Concerning its use as component of growing media, its potential to serve as an alternative
material to peat is currently investigated (Andersen et al., 2010) and promoted. Compost
emits fewer GHGs throughout its lifespan than peat, while peat is a valuable resource that has
to be saved (Boldrin et al., 2009; Moral et al. 2009). Moral et al. (2009) reported that the
extended use of peat as growing media constituent is a concern because of the carbon reserves
in peat lands being rapidly depleted due to mining of peat land resources.
Compost can also serve a range of other uses, such as a means to prevent erosion by
replenishing soil humus (USA EPA, 1994), to reduce/substitute the use of artificial fertilisers
and pesticides (Mehta et al., 2014) and as biofilter (Hwang et al., 2007; Pagans et al., 2007).
At this point it should be noted that the utilisation of compost depends strongly on the
composition of the initial composting mixture and the quality of the compost produced. The
latter refers to the overall state of the compost in regard to physical, chemical and biological
characteristics, which indicate the ultimate impact of the compost on the environment
(Lasaridi et al., 2006). A promising approach to estimate compost quality is via the
assessment of the stability and maturity of the composting material (Chroni et al., 2009;
Zorpas, 2009). Stability refers to the extent to which readily biodegradable organic matter has
decomposed (Lasaridi & Stentiford, 1998), while maturity to the fitness of a compost for a
particular end-use (Brewer & Sullivan, 2001). Bernal et al. (2009) and Zorpas (2012) stated
that the quality criteria of compost are established in terms of: nutrient content, humified and
stabilised organic matter, the maturity degree, the hygienisation and the presence of certain
toxic compounds, such as heavy metals, soluble salts and xenobiotics.

3.2. The Negative Impacts


Composting process and compost itself may pose a range of environmental concerns,
such as odour nuisance, contamination of groundwater through leaching of pollutants and soil
contamination with heavy metals and xenobiotics. Health risks concern ingestion of soils
enriched with compost (by children), contamination through food (produced by crops in soils
amended with compost), dispersion of dust of compost contaminated with pathogens (e.g.
Aspergilusfumigatus) and toxicants (Domingo & Nadal, 2009; Dportes et al., 1995). In the
following lines, these issues are categorised upon the element they impact, i.e. air, water and
soil. Potential health risks are reported in these categories.

3.2.1. Air
A variety of gaseous compounds is emitted during the composting process. Its chemical
composition can be used as an indicator about both the evolution of the process and the
quality of compost (Lasaridi et al., 2010). Gaseous emissions of composting processes usually
involve CO2, NH3, amines, sulphur based compounds, volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
bioaerosols (bacteria, fungi, mycotoxins, endotoxins) and particulates.
Methane emissions from well managed waste treatment systems have been reported in
literature, but they are probably attributed to variables controlling the nature of the compost
piles (Lou & Nair, 2009). Peign and Girardin (2004) indicated that composting might either
be a negligible source of CH4 emissions or an important source in the case that anaerobic
conditions prevail. Carbon dioxide (CO2), which is also a product of composting, is a GHG.
However, Peign and Girardin (2004) concluded that composting is not a net source of CO2

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along the recycling chain of agricultural wastes. In order to minimise GHG emissions during
composting process, Amlinger et al. (2008) indicated that the carbon to nitrogen ratio and the
humidity of the substrate, the structure and the bulking material and the additives should be
controlled within a certain range.
Ammonia has received much attention, as it can be released in large amounts, resulting in
N losses and odour nuisance (Lasaridi et al., 2010; Peign & Girardin, 2004). According to
Clemens and Cuhls (2003) NH3 emissions for municipal waste composting vary between 18
and 1150 g NH3.Mg-1. Witter and Lopez-Real (1998) reported that NH3 emissions accounted
for 60% of nitrogen losses. Composting of organic waste rich in N, may cause substantial
gaseous N losses, resulting in loss of an essential plant nutrient and environmental pollution
(Eklind & Kirchmann, 2000).
Formation of volatile organic sulphur compounds (VOSCs), which are responsible for
odour nuisance, is taking place in the anaerobic pockets of the composting substrate
(Lasaridi et al., 2010). Volatile organic compounds contribute to the reduction of the
stratospheric ozone layer, the photochemical formation of ozone at terrestrial level, adverse
effects on health, and both toxicity and carcinogenicity (Domingo & Nadal, 2009).

3.2.2. Water
The main environmental problem regarding water that is raised by the composting
process is linked to the contamination of groundwater as a result of leachate escape.
Leachates have a fairly high nutrient concentration, which makes them a potential water
pollutant. Zarabi and Jalali (2012) reported that the application of composts produced from
poultry manure, potato and municipal waste to sandy loam and clay soils, may pose a risk for
groundwater contamination.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that leachates account for less than 0.5% of the nitrogen
losses of the total initial manure N content, while gas emissions account for 19-42% (Peign
& Girardin, 2004; Eghball et al., 1997).
3.2.3. Soil
The potential negative impact of compost application on soil concerns heavy metals and
organic pollutants content. The accumulation of heavy metals, their concentration in the
leachates and their bioavailability to the plants, have attracted a lot of research attention
(Zorpas, 2011; Smith, 2009; Piramonti et al., 1997; Moreno et al., 1996). Literature shows
that all types of compost contain larger concentrations of heavy metals than the background
values commonly present in soil (Smith, 2009). Therefore, it is believed that long-term
compost applications lead to heavy metals accumulation in the soil. However, reviewing the
relevant literature, Smith (2009) reported that composting process increases the
complexation of heavy metals in organic waste residuals, and metals are strongly bound to
the compost matrix and organic matter, limiting their solubility and potential bioavailability
in soil, indicating that the risks to the environment, human health and crops regarding heavy
metals in composts produced from the preselected organic fraction MSW are minimal.
When the composting process does not evolve properly, the pathogenic microbial
populations (hosted in raw materials) might survive or increase. Many studies have indicated
the risks associated with pathogens (Dportes et al., 1995) and the presence of pathogens in
composts (Lasaridi et al., 2006). Brochier et al. (2012) studied the potential microbial
contamination of soil and crops after compost/manure application using agricultural practices,

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in a long-term experiment and concluded that these applications do not cause negative
sanitary impacts on soil and plants.

CONCLUSION
The relevant discourse, a wide range of implemented projects and a multitude of
scientific studies, all demonstrate that composting - under the condition that it is properly
managed and evolved - can provide an effective solution to the organic waste management
issue. The apprehension and exploitation of the well documented environmental benefits of
composting and compost use open a way to more sufficient and sustainable waste
management schemes and the rational use of resources. Full scale composting processes are
one of the most effective ways to recycle organic waste and promote the circular economy for
what constitutes the larger single waste stream; home composting is a useful tool for in situ
biowaste recovery and, in some aspects, it can be considered as waste prevention - the higher
priority for sustainable waste management; in all cases, application of good quality compost
to the soil contributes to combat desertification, improve soil quality and water retention,
suppress plant diseases and increase crop yields.
Still, the composting process and the application of compost to soils might raise some
concerns, as they might have some negative impacts on the environment and human health. If
the composting process is insufficiently managed, GHG emissions can be rather significant,
human pathogens may proliferate and the application of compost might cause plant toxicities.
However, according to a multitude of Life Cycle Assessment studies, these risks are relatively
low in comparison with the impacts of the other currently available organic waste
management options; and, most importantly, they can be minimal when the variables of
composting, including the quality of substrate through careful pre-selection of the organic
waste, are properly controlled, thus allowing for a net benefit to sustainability.

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Barking, pp. 3050/

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 15

AGRICULTURAL WASTES: PROTECTING SOIL


QUALITY BY SUSTAINABLE DISPOSAL
AND REUSE IN AGRICULTURE
M. K. Doula1, F. Tinivella2, A. Sarris3, V. Kavvadias1,
J. Moreno Ortego4 and K. Komnitsas5
1

Hellenic Agricultural Organization DEMETER Soil Science Institute of Athens,


Likovrisi, Greece
2
Centro Regionale di Sperimentazione e Assistenza Agricola, Albenga (SV), Italy
3
Foundation for Research & Technology, Hellas (F.O.R.T.H.), Institute for
Mediterranean Studies (I.M.S.), Laboratory of Geophysical-Satelite Remote Sensing &
Archaeo-environment, Melissinou & Nik. Rethymnon, Crete, Greece
4
CEBAS-CSIC, Dep. Soil and Water Conservation and Organic Resources Management.,
P.O. Box 164, 30100-Espinardo, Murcia, Spain
5
Technical University Crete, School Mineral Resources Eng. Crete, Greece

ABSTRACT
The agricultural industry generates mainly liquid and solid residues: its wastes are
characterized both by seasonality of their production and by high variability in water
content, high organic matter content, changeable mineral fraction and high C/N ratio. The
amount of wastes generated as well as their characteristics depend on the type of crop
processed. Agricultural and food industry residues, refuse and wastes constitute a
significant proportion, over 30%, of worldwide agricultural production. This review
chapter includes a detailed description of the amounts and the characteristics of the main
agricultural wastes streams as well as the environmental problems caused by their
improper management. Since the options of agricultural waste management offer
advantages from an environmental point of view, the practices that permit recovery and
recycling of the wastes should be promoted, if the precautions and the restrictions
imposed by the legislative framework are satisfied. Among the management options,
landspreading seems to offer many advantages to the agricultural sector since it recycles
nutrients and organic matter to the land, which would otherwise be lost due to landfilling
or thermal destruction. However, a carefully designed monitoring system of the land that

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M. K. Doula, F. Tinivella, A. Sarris et al.


accepts wastes should be adopted by the responsible authorities in order to ensure
sustainable recycling and environment protection. Such a monitoring system is described
in the present analysis as well as the tools that could be adopted and used by the
authorities in order to carry out all necessary activities in a sustainable way.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Agricultural Wastes
Agricultural waste (AW), which includes both natural (organic) and non-natural wastes,
is a general term used to describe waste produced on a farm through various farming
activities. These activities can include, but are not limited to, dairy farming, horticulture, seed
growing, livestock breeding, grazing land, agro industrial activities (transformation and
preservation of agricultural products), market gardens, nursery plots, and even woodlands.
Agricultural and food industry residues, refuse and wastes constitute a significant proportion,
over 30%, of world wide agricultural production. Given agricultural wastes are not restricted
to a particular location, but rather are distributed widely, their disposal may affect natural
resources such as surface and ground waters, soil and crops, as well as human health (EEA
2012).
Depending on the agricultural activity the produced agricultural wastes can be
categorized according to Table 1 (COM 2000/532/EC; Lopez and Boluda 2008).

1.2. Characteristics, Uses and Problems of Agricultural Wastes


The characteristics and composition of AW are variable depending on many factors,
which are mainly local (yield, water quality and availability, soil properties, agricultural
practices used, type of livestock species, breed and age, diet, type of production, waste
handling practice etc.) or regional (e.g. climatic conditions). Thus, the composition and
properties of the wastes produced from a specific activity in one area differ from those
produced in another one, or for the same area and the same activity, the wastes composition
and properties differ from one year to another. Generally, AW have variable water content
and high C/N ratio (Lpez and Boluda, 2008) while they are rich in organic substances and
also inorganics, which however are different for the different waste categories. For example
the wastes produced by the processing of olives are very rich in potassium, phosphorous and
iron while the wastes originated from the processing of pistachios have very low potassium
content and are very rich in iron, manganese, copper and chlorides.
Given the sources of agricultural wastes are diverse, they can often be potentially
hazardous and detrimental to the terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems. Uncontrolled and
improper handling can often lead to many environmental adverse effects. Over-application of
AW to cropland and pasture can result in decrease in crop production due to inhibitory
amounts of nitrite nitrogen (NO2-N) or salts added in the soil. Application of dairy effluents
or feedlot manure to soils can also reduce their permeability and thus adversely affect crop
growth. Excess loadings of nitrogen and phosphorus from AW applied to land may cause
eutrophication of water bodies or contamination of drinking water (Bustamante et al., 2008).

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Livestock wastes also contain significant amounts of steroid hormones (naturally released by
animals of all species in urine) that may cause adverse effects on terrestrial and aquatic
organisms (Martinez and Burton, 2003).
Table 1. Classification of AW depending on the agricultural activity
Activity
Cereal crops and
horticultural crops
Animal production,
Animal production
Fruit tree and olive tree
crops
Forestry exploitation

Classification code
(European List of Wastes*)

Description

020103

Plant tissue waste: straw, husk, stalk

020101

Animal tissue waste: blood, bones, feather


Manure (including spoiled straw), animal
faces, urine

020106
020103

Pruning wastes: leaves, branches, etc.

020107

Prunings: branches, brushland, etc.


Sludges from washing and cleaning,
trimmings, peels, leaves, stems, soil, seeds
and pits, lees
Biological sludges, pulp, lime mud
Biological sludges, materials unsuitable for
consumption or processing

Fruit and vegetable


processing

020201

Sugar production

020403

Dairy product industry

020501, 020502

Commission Decision 2000/532/EC.

1.2.1. Cereal Crop Wastes


The main wastes of the cereal crops are straw and stubble. These wastes have low water
content, high content of cellulose and 10% of lignine approximately. The C/N ratio is very
high ranging between 80 and 100. Generally, straw is used as animal food or animal bed. In
the past, burning of stubble was the most common practice. The incorporation of these wastes
to soil, as raw or after composting, increases its organic matter content, accelerates the
humification process and given its high C/N ratio assists in N immobilization, which
implicates a decrease of available N to plants. Therefore addition of available N (e.g. manure)
to soil together the incorporation of these wastes would be recommended.
According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture rice is the primary staple food for more
than half of the worlds population, with Asia being the biggest producer with 90% of the
worlds production (IRRI, 2010;USDA, 2010). China, with 197.212.010 tons of rice in 2010
is the top rice producer, followed by India (120.620.000 tons), Indonesia (66.411.500 tons),
Bangladesh (49.355.000 tons) and Vietnam (39.988.900 tons) (FAO, 2010). United States of
America are at the 10th place of the world global rice production with 11.027.000 tons (FAO,
2010). Table 2 shows the area harvested and the rice production in the main countries (FAO,
2008, 2009, 2010).
Rice straw corresponds to 50% of the dry weight of the rice plant (Kausar et al, 2010).
Rice straw isnt usually incorporated in crops, but it is usually burnt in open field, because of
its slow degradation rate, disease infestation, unstable nutrients, and reduced yield caused by
the short-term negative effect of nitrogen immobilization (Pandey et al. 2009). As a
consequence, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and sulphur dioxide
are emitted into the atmosphere.

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Table 2. Worldwide area harvested in ha and rice production quantity in tons.
(FAO, 2010)

Rice Paddy
(Area harvested, ha)
Continent/Country 2008
2009
2010
Europe
597.241
668.970
717.728
USA
6.900.445
7.384.403
7.308.591
Africa
9.004.329
9.358.566
9.051.788
Africa
136.550.500 140.941.816
141.144.106
Asia tot
29.493.392 29.881.590
30.116.862
China
43.540.000 41.850.000
36.950.000
India
158.367.654 157.654.874
153.652.007

Rice
Production quantity (tons)
2008
2009
2010
3.477.810
4.105.086
4.443.148
36.046.477
38.430.947
37.170.221
24.252.286
23.278.124
22.855.318
607.328.408
618.883.512
625.233.901
193.284.180
196.681.170
197.212.010
148.770.000
133.700.000
120.620.000
689.043.756
684.779.898
672.015.587

This process also emits other harmful air pollutants such as polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), which have toxic properties
and are, notably, potential carcinogens that can cause severe impacts on human health (Gadde
et al. 2009). In some countries, for example Japan, the emissions from burning of rice
residuals have been related to the appearance of respiratory diseases such as bronchial asthma
(Arai et al., 1998; Torigoe et al., 2000). Thus, it is obvious that proper management and
disposal of bulky rice straw is a serious concern due to the big number of emitted pollutants.
As a result, attention is paid to non hazardous, environment friendly and sustainable
techniques for safe disposal of rice straw, such as recycling into compost, that promotes
sustainable agricultural and environmental protection, improving soils physical, chemical,
and biological properties (Perez-Piqueres et al., 2006), and ultimately resulting in higher plant
growth and yield. Rice crop residues are highly siliceous and have the potential of modifying
the electrochemical properties of acidic soils thus reducing P fixation, improving base
retention and increasing soil pH. If residues are managed properly, then they can improve soil
properties and sustainability in crop production (Mandal, 2004).

1.2.2. Olive Mill Waste (OMW)


Over 750 million olive trees are cultivated worldwide (www.prosodol.gr) and the average
global olive oil production was equal to 2.973.500 tons in 2009/2010
(http://www.internationaloliveoil.org).
The olive oil extraction industry represents an important activity in the Mediterranean
area and among European countries, but also worldwide; Spain and Italy are the two leaders
in olive oil production, whereas Greece holds the third place (www.prosodol.gr).
Spain is the worlds biggest producer of olive oil with around 47% of total production. In
the last years the average annual olive oil production was equal to 1.300.000 tons, 14% of
which is exported extra-EC (http://www.internationaloliveoil.org). Spain produced also 20%
of the wastes of the Mediterranean basin (2x106-3x106 m3/year) before the introduction of the
two-phase extraction process in most Spanish olive mills, which represented an equivalent
pollution of 10x106 - 16x106 inhabitants in the short milling period. The yearly production of
wastes with the two-phase extraction process from the whole Spanish olive oil industry may
approach four million tons. Italy is the second European producer with 1.16 million ha of
olive grove while Greece ranks third in the world in terms of olive oil production with 0.81
million ha (EUROSTAT, 2007). The average olive oil production in 2009/2010 was about

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320.000 tons. Other smaller producers are Portugal (380.000 ha), France (18.900 ha), Cyprus
(11.600 ha), Slovenia (800 ha) and Malta (less than 100 ha) (EUROSTAT, 2007). Another
country with a large area under cultivation is Tunisia (1.69 millions ha), followed by Turkey
(815.000 ha and 160.000 tons of olive oil), Syria (olive oil: 193.500 tons), Morocco (olive oil:
150.000 tons) and Croatia (25.000 ha) (EUROSTAT, 2007). The impacts of olive oil
production are due to the difficulties in treating the produced wastes (LIFE OLEICO+):

the liquid residues (Olive Mill Wastewater, OMWW): a mixture of vegetation water
directly extracted from olives and oil production water, coming from washing and
processing. OMWW can be reused for different purposes, like irrigation, compost
production, etc., only after suitable treatment to reduce salinity, organic content and
acidity;
pomaces (also called olive cake, olive husks OH or crude olive): composed by
skins, pits, pulp and a variable percentage of wastewater, depending from the type of
extraction (2 or 3 phase). The pomaces typically have acidic pH and contain high
concentrations of polyphenols and organic fatty matter and if properly treated, they
become suitable for the production of amenders, compost and fuel;
TPOMW (alperujo): residue resulting from two-phase extraction mostly produced in
Spain and composed by both OMWW and solid waste;
pulp: a residual paste, which is produced if the whole olive stones are removed from
the paste prior to processing. This residual paste has very high water content and is
difficult to store;
pits: due to high energy/power (fairly high heating value, in the range of 14-18
MJ/kg (Caputo et al., 2003), the less expensive raw olive stones are commonly used
instead of pellets for combustion in dedicated burners;
pruning: branches, leaves and woods from the olive orchard are the only by-products
which could be easily reclaimed as biomass.
Olive Mill Wastewaters, OMWW, have:
high biological polluting load (BOD5 in the range 20120 g/l) which is 2580 times
greater than the pollution level of common urban wastewater and high chemical
polluting load (COD in the range 40240 g/l) (Alburquerque et al., 2004);
slightly acid pH (Alburquerque et al., 2004);
quite high content of organic substances and polyphenols (from 0.5 to 24 g/l)
(Paraskeva and Diamadopoulos, 2006);

Although the disposal of mills wastes in the environment is not permitted, it is estimated
that up to 1.5 million tones of olive oil mills wastes are disposed untreated each year
(www.prosodol.gr).
Due to the chemical-physical characteristics olive wastes can cause impacts on the
environment (LIF OLEICO+):

into the soil: the discharge of olive waste into the soil may cause, for plants, leaf and
fruit abscission and inhibition of seed germination;
into the water: the discharge of olive waste into water bodies may worryingly
increase the phosphorous content, cause color alteration and bad smell;

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into the air: the discharge of olive waste in open spaces may stimulate microbial
fermentation, with the production of methane and a wide array of harmful or simply
bad smelling gases.

Quantity and quality of residues are strongly influenced by the oil extraction method, but
also from type and maturity of olives, region of origin, climatic conditions and associated
cultivation and processing methods (Paraskeva and Diamadopoulos, 2006).

1.2.3. Wine Waste


Wine production is one of the most important agricultural activities throughout the world.
Europe is the leader in wine production (Table 3) while the more competitive wine producing
countries are United States, Australia and Chile, followed by Italy, Spain, Argentina and
South Africa, with France and Germany also producing important quantities of wine (DevesaRey, 2011).
Table 3. Wine production all over the world (source OIV)
Continent/
Country
Europe
USA
Australia
Chile
Argentina
WORLD

2007
180.176
19.870
9.620
8.227
15.046
266.546

2008
179.821
19.330
12.448
8.683
14.676
269.785

Wine Production (1000hl)


2009
163.000
22.000
11.700
10.092
12.100
271.200

2010
152.900
20.900
11.200
8.844
16.300
268.800

2011
159.400
18.700
11.900
10.572
15.500
269.800

The wine making process entails the generation of significant amounts of solid waste and
wastewater that should be further treated before disposed of in the environment. Wine waste
can be divided into crush season (August to February) and non-crush season (March to July)
waste involving mainly the production of solid waste and wastewater, respectively. Winery
and other grape processing industries annually generate large volumes of wastes, which
typically have low pH (mean value: 3.8-6.8), high organic matter content (669-920 g/kg),
high concentration of macronutrients such as K (11.9-72.8 g/kg), high concentration of
polyphenols (1.2-19.0 g/kg) and low concentration of heavy metals (Bustamante et al., 2008).
Furthermore, the COD can increase up to 25.000 mg/L depending on the harvest load and
processing activities.
The uncontrolled disposal of wastes can cause for example (EPA, 2004a):

depletion of oxygen or alteration of pH leading to the death of aquatic organisms


generation of odours by anaerobic decomposition
eutrophication or algal bloom

The distillation of wine, wine lees and grape marc generates an effluent (vinasse) which
contains water used in the distillation process, exhausted wine and wine lees, water-soluble
compounds of the grape marc and hydrochloric or sulphuric acid (Bustamante, 2005).

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Agricultural Wastes

1.2.4. Animal Wastes


Livestock cause several environmental problems to air (emissions of ammonia, nitrous
oxide and methane), water (leaching mechanism) and soil pollution that originate from the
large quantities of manures produced within several intensively farmed regions. Thus, it is
very important to treat manure as a resource rather than a waste as the existing guidelines
encourage (Martinez and Burton, 2003). Table 4 shows the number of worldwide animals
(FAO, 2010) taken as example:
Table 4. Worldwide animals producing manure (FAO, 2010)
Continent
2

Europe
USA
Africa
Asia
WORLD

Poultry
2.103.980.850
5.536.261.000
1.637.961.500
12.098.426.000
21.488.551.000

Animals 20101 (heads)


Pig
Cattle3
189.176.207
124.615.702
158.975.913
513.521.902
29.687.732
287.074.835
582.812.758
660.251.632
965.855.414
1.622.804.906

Dairy cow4
39.588.311
53.106.783
64.553.030
100.936.859
264.470.504

Source FAO, 2010.


Poultry: Chickens, ducks, geese and guinea fowls, pigeons, turkeys.
3
Cattle: buffaloes and cattle.
4
Dairy cow: Cow milk, whole, fresh (producing animals).
2

Martinez and Burton (2003) provided the manure production per animal over a period of
6 months as shown in Table 5 below.
Table 5. Worldwide produced liquid manure (Martinez and Burton, 2003)

Manure produced per


animal over 6 months (m3)
Continent
Europe
USA
Africa
Asia
WORLD

Liquid manure produced (m3/animal)


Poultry2
Pig
Cattle3

Dairy cow4

0.016

9.7

1.5

4.5
1

Liquid manure produced 2010 (m /year)


67.327.387
567.528.621
1.121.541.318
177.160.352
476.927.739
4.621.697.118
52.414.768
89.063.196
2.583.673.515
387.149.632
1.748.438.274
5.942.264.688
687.633.632
2.897.566.242
14.605.244.154

768.013.233
1.030.271.590
1.252.328.782
1.958.175.065
5.130.727.778

Source FAO, 2010.


Poultry: Chickens, ducks, geese and guinea fowls, pigeons, turkeys.
3
Cattle: buffaloes and cattle.
4
Dairy cow: Cow milk, whole, fresh (producing animals).
2

It is possible to distinguish three manure categories (Martinez and Burton, 2003):

Liquid manure (slurry): housing system collecting all excreta in liquid form; the
animals are kept on sloping solid floors that are regularly swept clear of any
excreta. Some dilution can be expected from wash water;
Mixed manure: housing systems producing solid and liquid manure streams;
animals are kept on bedding material, but liquids are drained from the bedding
and collected elsewhere;

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Solid manure: housing types producing only solid manure; animals are kept on
bedding material which is collected together with all excreta as solid or farm
yard manure (FYM).

Animal manure contains a variety of different pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g. bacteria,


including Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Escherichia Coli O157, parasitic protozoa
including Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia Lamblia, and viruses), which can
contaminate the environment, with the nitrate contamination of water, enter the food chain or
infect livestock (Martinez and Burton, 2003).

1.2.5. Horticultural Wastes


Horticultural wastes are collected before the plant senescence, and thus they have high
content of water and low C/N ratio, varying between 15 and 30. Thus, they are easily
biodegradable and can be incorporated into soil in order to facilitate their composting. In
intensive agricultural systems, these wastes are not appropriate for composting in soil because
of their phyto-sanitary risk. In order to avoid this problem, horticultural wastes are piled and
dried outdoors, and in this way their volume is reduced. These dry wastes can be ultimately
used as soil amendment in intensive agricultural systems, and for composting (USDA, 2008).
1.2.6. Pruning Wastes from Fruit Trees and Vineyards
Pruning wastes have medium to low content of water and high content of cellulose and
lignine. The C/N ratio of these wastes is very high and ranges between 150 and 250. Most of
these pruning wastes are combustible. Alternatively, these wastes can be added in soil in
order to facilitate their humification. For this use, pruning wastes should be chopped and a
source of available N should be simultaneously added to soil to modify their high C/N ratio
(USDA, 2008).
1.2.7. Wastes of Food Industry
Fruit processing industries generate tremendous amount of solid wastes, which is almost
35-40% dry weight to the total production, used for the production of juices (Gassara et al.,
2011). In general in the vegetal food industry approximately 10-65% of raw product becomes
waste during its processing (Viniegra et al., 2001). These solid wastes have high moisture
content and biodegradable organic load and their management is an important issue. There is
a wide range of food industries, which produce a high variety of wastes with different
composition.
Additional difficulties for the evaluation and management of this waste type are the
scattering of food industries as well as the mixing of their effluents with urban effluents. In
general, the use of these wastes, after treatment, as soil amendment is possible. Other
alternatives for the management of these wastes are incineration, controlled landfilling,
composting, anaerobic digestion to produce biogas, and their use as animal feed.

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2. LANDSPREADING OF WASTES
The options of agricultural waste management, offering more advantages from an
environmental point of view, would be those permitting recovery and recycling of the
available contained resources.
The key tenet in support of landspreading of wastes is that it recycles nutrients and
organic matter to the land, which would otherwise be lost in disposal to landfill or thermal
destruction. In landfill, organic waste is potentially polluting because it causes leachate
production and release of the greenhouse gas, methane. A residual ash or char is left behind
from most thermal processes which still needs to be disposed of and carbon dioxide is lost to
the atmosphere. There is potential for energy recovery from thermal processes and landfills
(through methane collection).
Provided that benefit to agriculture (or ecological improvement) can be demonstrated,
landspreading of wastes is considered preferable to thermal destruction or landfilling in the
ranking of options proposed in the Waste Framework Directive issued by the EU. On the
other hand, the respective Directive on the landfill of waste (i.e. Council Directive
1999/31/EC) defines requirements for European Member States to set up a national strategy
for the implementation of the reduction of biodegradable waste going to landfills and,
together with the landfill tax in some Member States, this will encourage recycling of more
waste to land.
Landspreading is recognized as waste utilization and not disposal, and thus, farmers that
recognize and adopt this precondition should be eager to improve the management of wastes
for landspreading by investing as appropriate in storage at the point of production, dewatering
and other treatment, monitoring and analysis, and field trials to quantify the agricultural
benefit of their wastes.
According to the Article 4 of the amended Waste Framework Directive 75/442/EEC
(CEC 1991), landspreading is preferable when agricultural benefit is achieved, meaning when
the application of a waste to land improves soil conditions for crop growth whilst ensuring the
protection of environmental quality in the broader sense. Therefore, provided its potential
disadvantages can be suitably controlled, landspreading should compare favorably with other
waste management options. Such a comparison would be complicated by the variability of
activities but could be demonstrated by environmental impact assessment or life cycle
analysis of selected operations as being either generally representative, or by evaluating the
management options for the major wastes streams.
Apart from the environmental benefits of landspreading there are also economic benefits
for farmers, which are strong motives, and may enhance landspreading adoption. Two of the
benefits of landspreading of waste are that it is often an economic route for the waste
producer compared with the other options available, and for the farmer it usually represents a
free or competitively-priced source of nutrients and/or soil conditioner.
Without doubt, landspreading is an environmentally and economically beneficial option
of wastes management. It has to be underlined, however, that the EC Directives (Waste
Framework Directive (75/442/EEC as amended 91/156/EEC, Directives 86/278/EEC on
landspreading of sewage sludge and 91/676/EEC on protection of waters against pollution
caused by nitrates from agricultural sources) that define the framework of landspreading

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underestimate the role of soil, or at least they do not consider the Soil Thematic Strategy as
internal component of the proposed measures.

2.1. Protecting Soil


Soil is a dynamic and living resource, which needs minimal and suitable conditions to
carry out its indispensable functions for its conservation, to produce food and for supporting
the environment quality (Doran and Parkin, 1996). It is characterized by different properties,
which define its quality and which may vary depending on several factors such as climate,
parent material, inhabiting organisms and microorganisms, and human agricultural practices.
The concept of soil quality emerged in the early 1990s, and the first official definition of this
term was proposed by the Soil Science Society of America Ad Hoc Committee on Soil
Quality (S-581) in 1997 (Karlen et al., 1997). Soil quality was defined as the capacity of a
specific kind of soil to function, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain
plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human
health and habitation. For the committee proposing this definition, the term soil quality is
not synonymous with soil health, and they should not be used interchangeably. Soil quality is
related to soil functions, whereas soil health presents the soil as a finite and dynamic living
resource (Doran and Zeiss, 2000). Soil health is defined as the continued capacity of soil to
function as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain
biological productivity, maintain the quality of air and water environments, and promote
plant, animal, and human health (Doran et al., 1996).
These two definitions may appear similar, but the soil health concept directly mentions
plant health, which is not the case in the definition of soil quality of Karlen et al. (1997). In a
simple manner, the Natural Resources Conservation Service of the United States Department
of Agriculture proposes on its website (soils.usda.gov/sqi, 2005) the following definition:
soil quality is how well soil does what we want it to do. Because of the numerous possible
uses of soil, the meaning of the term soil quality heavily depends on the ecosystem
considered. In agricultural soils, plant and animal productivity and health would be of the
greatest importance, whereas it would not be the same in urban soils. Even in a given
ecosystem, e.g. cultivated soils, their multifunctionality makes it difficult to define a healthy
soil without first defining the targeted goal or aim. Such goals could be plant health,
atmospheric balance, avoidance of erosion, etc.
Coming to the Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection (COM 2006, 231 final), actions and
means should be oriented to ensure sustainable use of soil. Against this background, the
Commission considers that a comprehensive EU strategy for soil protection is required. This
strategy should take into account all the different functions that soils can perform, their
variability and complexity and the range of different degradation processes to which they can
be subject, while also considering socio-economic aspects. The overall objective is protection
and sustainable use of soil, based on the following guiding principles:
1. Preventing further soil degradation and preserving its functions:
when soil is used and its functions are exploited, action has to be taken on soil
use and management patterns, and

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when soil acts as a sink/receptor of the effects of human activities or


environmental phenomena, action has to be taken at source.
2. Restoring degraded soils to a level of functionality consistent at least with current
and intended use, thus also considering the cost implications of the restoration of
soil.
Having examined different options, the Commission proposes a Framework Directive as
the best means of ensuring a comprehensive approach to soil protection whilst fully
respecting subsidiary. According to the Directive, the certain threats to soil such as erosion,
organic matter decline and contamination that may occur in specific risk areas must be
identified.
For soil contamination a national or regional approach is recommended as being more
appropriate. The proposal sets up a framework for adopting, at the appropriate geographical
and administrative level, plans to address the threats where they occur. With respect to
management of contamination, an approach based on the steps proposed in the following
Figure 1 is envisaged.

Figure 1. Management of contamination.

According to the Directive, management of contaminated sites must be implemented on


the basis of the requirements:
1. Identification and registration of contaminated sites.
2. Establishment of a national remediation strategy.
3. Prevention of contamination via a requirement to limit the introduction of dangerous
substances into the soil.

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In the light of the 3rd requirement it can be stated that the uncontrolled disposal of AW is
not permitted. With respect to the current legislation of wastes and landspreading and by
incorporating the Soil Thematic Strategys requirements, a landspreading scenario should be
based on two main axes:
1. Evaluation of waste suitability for landspreading (preliminary monitoring), and
2. Monitoring of the areas selected for landspreading (during and after disposal).

2.2. Evaluation of Waste Suitability for Landspreading


Prior to spreading on land, the suitability of wastes should be proved. Suitable wastes
need to be identified, defined through an appropriate chemical/physical characterization and,
if appropriate, grouped into broad categories to make for a workable classification for use
across the EU. Although such a classification may endanger the underestimation of some AW
types produced locally and at lower volumes (e.g. pistachio wastes in Greece, Italy, Cyprus
and Spain) compared to common waste types produced in large volumes, such as manures,
the classification is considered fundamental for the collection of coherent information that
enables sensible comparisons. At a second stage, more detailed classification should be
performed by each Member State in order (1) locally produced AW to be included, and (2)
the peculiarities of each country to be considered (e.g. structure of agricultural sector,
practices, soil types, soil threats, etc.).
The main waste groups and information needed might be (EC-DG, 2001):
Class 1: Farm residues recycled on the farm of production e.g. manure from animals
grazing in situ.
Class 2: Benign wastes containing negligible levels of contaminants e.g. green waste,
biological sludge from food waste treatment.
Class 3: Wastes which may contain contaminants (pathogens, heavy metals and other
potentially toxic elements, organic contaminants) e.g. dredgings from waterways,
tannery waste, paper waste.
The competent authority in each Member State would use this scheme to classify
particular wastes proposed for landspreading on receipt of a standard submission form from
the waste producers or their agent. Progressively detailed information would be required
according to the class of waste along the following lines:
Class 1: Source of waste (address of place of production or treatment centre, and quantity
of waste arising tonne/annum), extent of treatment e.g. storage for 3 months at
ambient temperature.
Class 2: As for Class 1 plus basis for benefit to agriculture e.g. content of nitrogen.
Content of plant nutrients and lime (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, sulphur, trace elements), organic matter, dry solids and pH value.
Evidence that the waste contains only negligible concentrations of contaminants is
required.

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Class 3: As for Class 1 plus basis for benefit to agriculture. Content of plant nutrients etc.
as for Class 2. Content of contaminants (pathogens most probable numbers;
concentrations of heavy metals, other potentially toxic elements and organic
contaminants). Evidence that the waste is free of contaminants other than those
specified is required.
After waste characterization the competent local/regional/governmental authority may
permit the landspreading provided that the following criteria are met:

The waste(s) have been designated as suitable for landspreading


Article 4 of the Waste Framework Directive 75/442/EC as amended
Directive 91/676/ EEC on nitrates
Directive 86/278/EEC on sewage sludge used on land for Class 3 wastes
The operation will be compatible with the farm waste/fertilizer plan
The activity will be undertaken by competent operator(s)
A site risk assessment has been carried out by properly qualified personnel and
necessary precautions to ensure a high level of environmental protection will be
acted upon
A record of each spreading operation will be kept (type of waste, quantity of waste
applied, location of farm and field, date of spreading) including the results of
monitoring and analysis, and supplied to the competent authority

The competent authority would keep a register of permits issued and the record of each
landspreading operation and would make the necessary site visits and spot-checks to confirm
that landspreading operations are in compliance with the permit conditions and the records
would indicate where any pollution incident could be linked with a landspreading operation.

2.3. Monitoring of the Disposal Areas


Having ensured the suitability of waste for landspreading, a strategy should be developed
to ensure sustainability in the areas of landspreading, which however would include soil
protection measures as integral parts.
The following six measures are proposed to be included in such a strategy:
(1) Identification of potential and current waste disposal areas and recording them in a
GIS geo-database
(2) Characterization of disposal areas-Risk assessment
(3) Evaluation of risk level
(4) Defining the conditions of landspreading
(5) Adoption of soil quality indicators
(6) Periodical monitoring of soil indicators-Evaluation of the results
As regards soil quality protection from landspreading, these measures are considered as
being efficient for maintaining soil quality and sustainability in the long term.

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2.3.1. Identification of Potential and Current Waste Disposal Areas and Recording
them in a GIS Database
An integrated scenario should include, as a first stage, a primary evaluation of the areas
that are appropriate for landspreading or/and appropriate areas for the establishment of
plants/enterprises that produce wastes. The evaluation should be performed by
implementing/assessing specific criteria, which however may be defined by local/regional
authorities and according to local peculiarities. Such a GIS-based decision making tool for
evaluating location suitability was developed during the LIFE project Strategies to improve
and protect soil quality from the disposal of Olive Oil Mills (OMW) wastes in the
Mediterranean region-PROSODOL (www.prosodol.gr) for the olive oil production
facilities. The evaluation is made considering several criteria-factors, e.g. anthropogenic
(residential areas, road network), environmental (slope, archaeological sites, lake and rivers
area, Natura areas, landuse-Corine) and geological (hydrolithology, geology, faults).
Thereafter, current and potential disposal areas should be recorded in a national
inventory. The inventory will contain all licensed disposal areas and as many as possible nonlicensed ones. Local inventories should be created as a first step under the responsibility of
local or regional authorities, which afterwards will be integrated into a national inventory
under the responsibility of governmental agencies. GIS mapping of the disposal areas and the
establishment of a digital database is strongly recommended
2.3.2. Characterization of Disposal Areas-Risk Assessment
As a second step, governmental and local authorities should characterize in detail
disposal areas and perform risk assessment studies.
Recorded disposal areas should be characterized considering location, hydrogeology,
physiography, geomorphology, land use, soil structure, texture, water permeability,
coefficient of hydraulic conductivity (saturated or unsaturated), porosity, presence and depth
of impermeable soil layers. Additionally, the collected data may include, history of the site,
extent and types of contaminants that may exist, hydrogeological and hydrological regime for
the broader area, known/anticipated presence and behavior of receptors, sampling of soil and
groundwater: comparison with generic guideline values or quality standards, sampling of soil
and groundwater: site-specific modeling of fate, transport, exposure and comparison with
toxicological values, as well as other parameters which may be considered necessary for the
complete characterization of the area. Such a characterization will permit the performance of
the risk assessment study of the area and the identification of the sites which pose higher risk
to human health and the environment.
For a risk to exist there must be a source (or hazard or pressure), a pathway and a
receptor (or target). This is the basis for the Source-Pathway-Receptor (S-P-R) conceptual
model for environmental management. In addition, a conceptual model also provides
information useful to the scoping of any investigation as it identifies the sites that pose the
greatest risk to the environment and human beings and also the S-P-R linkages that have the
highest risk associated with them (Daly, 2004). Thus, the detailed information obtained
through the assessment will further assist the decision on the extent of measures, which are
required to manage the risk, and usually involve breaking the pathway or removal of the
source or monitoring of the receptor.

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Indicatively, a risk assessment study could comprise:


1. Preliminary investigation (desk study, site reconnaissance and sometimes limited
exploratory investigation). The goal of this preliminary stage is to assess whether
potentially contaminating activities have taken place on the site, whether soil and/or
water pollution is suspected, and in some cases to confirm the existence of pollution.
In short, this phase focuses on hazard identification.
2. Detailed investigation. The aims at the main site investigation stage are (a) to define
the extent and degree of contamination, (b) to assess the risks associated with
identified hazards and receptors and (c) to determine the need for remediation in
order to reduce or eliminate the risks to polluted or actual receptors.
3. Supplementary or feasibility investigations to better define the need for and type of
remedial action or monitoring. The aim may be to assess the feasibility of various
remediation techniques; this may include more detailed physical and chemical
characterization of soils and laboratory studies on soil or groundwater treatability.
Supplementary investigations may also be designed to improve understanding of the
nature, extent and behavior of contaminants.
The risk assessment, however, should not be limited to toxic constituents, like the
polyphenols for OMW or other types of AW, which may pose threat to human and animal
health but to consider also the potential progressive soil degradation due to the presence of
other less hazardous or non-hazardous constituents, like nutrients and other inorganic wastes
constituents. This factor is often underestimated and the majority of risk assessment studies
focus on the toxicity, which may be caused to soil and humans from heavy metals and organic
pollutants. Thus, if land distribution is planned, the organic load and the toxic substances (e.g.
polyphenols) should not be the only issues of concern. Specific care should be taken also for
inorganic constituents (e.g. K, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, P, Mg, Fe, Zn and others), since the very high
concentrations disposed on soil affect drastically its quality properties, while their
concentrations in soil as well as, the soil electrical conductivity remain high often many years
after the last disposal (Kavvadias et al., 2010; 2011). For this, the performance of a complete
soil physicochemical analysis and identification of the organic and the inorganic soil
constituents are strongly recommended. Determination of phytotoxicity potential is also
recommended.
The risk for each potential pathway is considered to be a combination of the probability
that a hazard will reach the target (e.g. high polyphenols concentration in soil due to OMW
disposal) and the magnitude of harm if the target is exposed to the hazard (e.g. phytotoxicity).
The probability that a contaminant will reach a target in sufficient concentration to cause
harm may be assessed qualitatively according to the scale: high (certain or near certain to
occur), medium (reasonably likely to occur), low (seldom likely to occur) or negligible (never
likely to occur). The magnitude of harm is assessed as: severe (human fatality or irreparable
damage to the ecosystem), moderate (e.g. human illness or injury, negative effects on
ecosystem function), mild (minor human illness or injury, minor changes to ecosystem) or
negligible (nuisance rather than harm to humans and the ecosystem). The qualitative level of
risk associated with each pollutant pathway is then assigned by the combination of the
aforementioned probability with the magnitude of harm. Thus, having identified all the
crucial parameters the risk should be rated according to Table 6 (Modis et al., 2008).

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Table 6. Risk assessment rating

Probability
High
Medium
Low
Negligible

Severe
High
High
High/Medium
High/Medium/Low

Magnitude
Moderate
High
Medium
Medium/Low
Medium/Low

Mild
Medium/Low
Low
Low
Low

Negligible
Near zero
Near zero
Near zero
Near zero

2.3.3. Evaluation of Risk Level


The third step is to evaluate the level of risk of the suspicious areas and exclude high risk
areas from further future landspreading. For these areas a remediation plan should be
developed and implemented immediately. For areas under medium risk, further assessment of
the threat type and potential extent is strongly recommended in order to decide the conditions
of waste disposal or the design and implementation of remediation actions. For these cases,
decisions should be taken considering data collected during the risk assessment study. For
areas under low or near zero risk, a management plan for safe landspreading should be
developed and implemented under the supervision of local authorities and the responsible
governmental agencies.
2.3.4. Defining the Conditions of Landspreading
It is very likely, some areas, although being of low or negligible pollution/degradation
risk, to be inappropriate for waste landspreading due to their specific characteristics. In order
to ensure safe landspreading, soil and land data have to be considered in combination with
bioclimatic conditions and management practices. Such soil data already exist in soil survey
reports or in other database systems. A Geographical Information System is necessary to
define the application of AW to agricultural or other type of lands because of the importance
of spatial accuracy in the application. Also, it is necessary to include information on land, soil
and AW properties, processes and composition; climate variability; land use and
management; and possible environmental risks.
The ultimate goal should be to spread AW on soil in such a way that the soil either filters
the potential toxic elements effectively, or electrochemically absorbs or decomposes them in
order that a clean solution infiltrates through the soil body. The soil must maintain all its
functions and its absorption capacity to ensure a sustainable system.
The decision of landspreading is proposed to be taken considering appropriate suitability
criteria, as presented in Table 7. Such a system allocates soil map units to Suitability Orders
(S for suitable and N for unsuitable) and Suitability Classes according to the degree of their
limitations (S1 for slight, S2 for moderate and S3 for severe limitations; N1 for currently not
suitable and N2 for permanently not suitable for waste application). Each mapping unit
should be categorized according to the following: polygon type (mapped, not mapped, lake,
sea), drainage class, (assessed from profile morphology), texture (classes and for 3 depths i.e.
0-25 cm, 25-75 cm and 75-150 cm), gravel (classes), slope (classes), erosion (classes),
calcium carbonate (classes), soil order, suborder and great group, irrigability (availability of
water for irrigation), variability class and limitations, rainfall, and geology of the parent
material. Also the infiltration rate and the presence and depth of the impermeable layer should
be recorded in some mapping units. In each mapping unit, analytical data from profile
samples or auger sampling for each horizon should be also stored (Soil Science Society of
America, 1986; MAFF, Dept. of Environment, 1989; Theocharopoulos et al, 1998).

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The system requires a complete initial soil survey at regional or larger level, which
should include systematic soil sampling and then mapping of the results.
Table 7. Criteria for land suitability for wastes landspreading
Property
Flooding
Depth to bedrock, cm
Depth to impermeable layer, cm
Coverage with water
Groundwater level, cm
Infiltration rate, cm/h 30-150cm
Slope, %
Stones, % (>7.5 cm)
Texture

S1
never
>300
>200
never
>300
2.0-6.5
<3
<20
All except CL, SC,
SiCL, SiC, C, LS,
S or with gravels

S2
seldom
>180
>180
never
>180
0.5-6.5
3-8
<35
All except SiC,
C, S or with
gravels

S3
often
100-180
100-180
seldom
100-180
0.5<,>6.5
8-12
>35
All except C
or with gravels

N1
always
<100
<100
often
<100
0.5<,>6.5
>12

Structure

granular angularblocky
<12
7.3-8.4
<4
>16
<0.09

blocky or
prismatic
<12
6.6-7.3
<8
8-16
0.09-0.16

massive platy
compacted
>12
5.6-6.5
<16
<8
0.16-0.26

vertic

as N1

<5.6
16-40
<8
>0.41

as N1
>40

SAR
pH
EC, mmhos/cm
CEC, meq/100g
Salt, %

N2
as N1
<50
<50
always
<50
as N1
>15

Clay
as N1
(vertisols), very
Sandy

Moreover, it is necessary that the proposed system conforms with the peculiarities of the
specific AW type by considering and including appropriate soil quality indicators in Table 7.
Moreover, prior to the final decision and in complementarity with the parameters of Table 7,
the presence of toxic soil conditions should be assessed by using the standard methods for the
determination of (a) nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in soils and the influence of
chemicals on these processes (ISO 14238:1997); (b) the effects on earthworms (ISO 112681:1993); (c) the chronic toxicity in higher plants (ISO 22030:2005); and (d) soil biomass or
soil respiration (ISO 14240-1:1997). The selection among these standard methods should be
based on several factors, such as current soil quality condition, past, present and future use of
the area, amounts of produced waste and treatment level. Olive mills wastes should also be
analyzed in terms of BOD5, COD, pH, total solids, total suspended solids, total volatile solids,
ash, total organic carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorous, electrical conductivity, total
sugars, fats and oils, total phenols, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, total sulfur, total
chlorine, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, and other metals accordingly.
The proposed system (1) incorporates soil behavior and functions; (2) considers soil
physical and chemical properties; (3) is based on velocity of water movement, soil map
interpretation and on the combination of limiting factors and downwards water movement; (4)
considers the properties and pollution charges of the OMW; and (5) is general and can be
used worldwide where AW is produced adopted however at local conditions.
Considering the specific properties of soils at disposal areas, local particularities and the
limitations of Table 7, the following steps should be followed in order to adopt and
implement safe disposal or application of AW.
Step 1: Definition of suitable or unsuitable soils for AW landspreading
Soils with the potential to receive or soils that should be excluded from AW
disposal/distribution/application are identified based on permanent physical and/or chemical
characteristics (Table 7).

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Step 2: Estimation of the maximum permitted OMW quantity


The soils that are suitable for landspreading should be further studied in order to define
the maximum permitted amount (or the maximum amount they can afford) of AW based on
their physicochemical properties and on AW composition and considering legally applied
thresholds for these properties. Provided that no specific regulations or directives exist in the
EC or worldwide with the exception of national or local regulation applied in some
countries - for the application of specific types of AW, or AW in general, the estimation of
the annual application rates should be performed taking into account the maximum permitted
levels of potentially toxic elements as defined by the European Community (EC Council
Directive 86/278) for sewage sludge application (or other relative regulations for nonEuropean countries) and the thresholds as derived from the literature, especially for the nontoxic micro- and macro-nutrients. Other national regulations should be considered, as well.
Step 3: Estimation of annual permitted application rate of AW
Given the absence of specific legislative framework, the annual rate and timing of waste
application could be determined by taking into account the maximum permitted levels of
potentially toxic metals as defined by the current legislative framework for sewage sludge
application and the thresholds as derived from the literature, especially for the non-toxic
macronutrients (P, K, N) and for the available forms of metals. The latter, although general
could be very helpful. However, it is strongly recommended to estimate the annual permitted
application rate after evaluation of the specific local environmental conditions and soil
quality. Since most of the AW constituents are non-toxic and are considered as important
nutrients (N, P, K, organic matter, Fe, etc.), the application of AW could be beneficial for soil
quality and may improve fertility. However, due to the very high concentration of these
constituents in AW, their disposal on soil should follow restrictions and rules and the annual
application should be estimated by considering:

The concentration of the specific elements/substances in soil


The concentration of the specific elements/substances in AW
The specific climatic, geomorphologic and environmental conditions of the area that
may affect the behavior of these elements/substance in soil (leaching, adsorption,
decomposition, etc.)
The maximum permitted amount of each of these elements/substances that can be
disposed on soil without changing its quality

It is always important to consider that wastes contain excess concentrations of some


inorganics/organics and low concentrations of others. Therefore, it is important to define
which constituent(s) is/are the restricted factor(s) for (1) soil quality protection and potentially
(b) use of wastes as supplement to standard fertilization. Having defined the restricted
parameter(s), the annual dose can be calculated based on the concentration of this parameter
in waste and in soil. In case of use of wastes for fertilization, the estimation should be similar
considering also the crop needs and the frequency of irrigation. The quantity of fertilizer to be
added will be calculated taking into account the amount of nutrients added with the waste, the
nutrients needs of the crop and the content of these nutrients in soil.

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Step 4: Time of waste application


In case of wastewater use for irrigation, the time of application has to be defined
considering the annual rainfall rate, the intensity and distribution throughout the year and the
temperature, in relation to water balance, the soil properties and processes, the microbial
activity and the rate and degree of waste decomposition. The background philosophy is to
apply the appropriate quantity of wastes at periods where rainfall induced leaching of the soil
water is not expected. For sludge application, the general rules for composts/soil amendments
should be followed, however considering steps 2 and 3.
Step 5: Soil Monitoring
The next step is the periodical monitoring of the impact of AW application on soil, on
water bodies and the environment under the specific bioclimatic conditions of the areas
through a systematically planned sampling scheme combined with different ecobiotoxicological tests. An appropriate design for efficient monitoring includes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Adoption of soil quality indicators-Identification of indicators threshold values


Periodical monitoring of soil indicators-Evaluation of the results
Maps of soil constituents distribution vs. time and depth
Development of guidelines for periodical water bodies monitoring
Development of good practices for soil management-Training of farmers and
stakeholders

Details on the development of the monitoring strategy are given below and are based on a
similar strategy developed during the PROSODOL project for the disposal of Olive Mill
Wastes on soil. In specific:
1. Adoption of soil quality indicators-Identification of indicators threshold values
Soils that accept wastes, apart from progressive degradation, may cause serious problems
to the surrounding environment (humans, animals, plants, water systems, etc.), and thus, soil
quality should be necessarily monitored. Therefore, quality indicators, representative of the
specific waste type, should be established and monitored periodically. Since wastes
composition is depended on their origin, specific indicators for each waste type should be
established. Considering agricultural wastes, such a specification, however, is difficult, since
almost all agricultural wastes are characterized by increased concentrations of the same
elements, namely phosphorous, nitrogen, potassium, sulfur, etc.; they contain large amounts
of organic matter; and have very high values of COD, BOD and electrical conductivity.
In principle, an indicator could be either a qualitative (nominal) variable, a rank (ordinal)
variable, or a quantitative variable (Gallopin 1997). An indicator may be easy to measure and
summarize in shorthand the effects of complex processes that are more difficult to measure or
observe (Landres 1992; Harris et al. 1996). Its purpose is to show how well a system is
operating. If there is a problem, an indicator is useful in determining what direction to take to
address the issue. Indicators can also be useful as proxies or substitutes for measuring
conditions that are so complex that there is no direct measurement.
In summary, desirable indicators are variables that summarize or otherwise group simply
relevant information, make visible or perceptible phenomena of interest, and quantify,
measure, and communicate relevant information. In addition, some indicators may be used to

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evaluate a condition or phenomenon. Indeed, it is mentioned that one of the essential


functions of indicators is to quantify information and data. Moreover, indicators can be also
related to qualitative phenomena.
Effective indicators, in addition to being quantifiable are characterized by four basic
features (Adriaanse 1993):

Relevance: An indicator must be relevant, that is, it must fit the purpose for
measuring. It shows something about the system that is needed to be known, for its
assessment.
Understandability: An indicator must be understandable, even by people who are not
experts.
Reliability: An indicator must be reliable. The user must trust the information that the
indicator is providing. Reliability is not the same as precision. An indicator does not
necessarily need to be precise; it just needs to give a reliable picture of the system it
is measuring.
Accessibility of data: Indicators must provide timely information. In order for an
indicator to be useful in preventing or solving a problem, it must give the information
while there is still time to correct the problem. The information is available or can be
gathered while there is still time to act.

In the context of soil degradation due to wastes disposal, indicators are variables that may
show that degradation has taken place and they are not necessarily the variables controlling
the actual degradation itself. These indicators may be drawn from any aspect of how quality
of soil degrades. Since there is much interlinkage between the various types and
manifestations of land degradation, indicators are considered as a powerful tool for overall
assessments (Stocking and Murnaghan 2001).
Indicators need to be sensitive to changes in both management and climate. Soil
characteristics that change within only a few weeks or months in response to the changing
seasons, shifting weather patterns, and plant growth cycles are not appropriate soil
quality/degradation indicators. Characteristics that begin to show change only after five or
more years are not helpful indicators; often showing progressive soil degradation only after
much of the productive topsoil is lost. The best soil quality/degradation indicators are those
characteristics that show significant change between one and three years, with five years
being an upper limit of usefulness.
Thus, the duration of an indicators significance varies with the permanence of the data
used to build the indicator. Some data change over the long term (e.g. topography and river
networks) and are relatively permanent, while others may change over the medium term (e.g.
flora or erosion type); and some show short-term changes over years or seasons (e.g. soil
moisture or livestock management).
Indeed, the continuous monitoring of a pilot OMW disposal area within the framework of
PROSODOL project revealed that not all of the measured parameters are affected by the
disposal of OMW (Kavvadias et al., 2010; 2011; Doula et al., 2013). In particular, some of
the measured parameters remained almost unchanged or the changes recorded were not
significant relative to the control soil used for comparison (e.g. exchangeable Ca), while
others were subject to changes but their values were depended also by the different seasons

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and thus are inappropriate to be used as indicators (e.g. Cl-, NH4+, SO42-, PO43-, NO3-,
microbial activity). Some other parameters were significantly changed due to wastes disposal
but this change lasted for short time after cease of wastes disposal although the area was still
very much degraded (e.g. N, B). Finally, there were parameters that exhibit significant
changes strongly depended on OMW disposal (e.g. organic matter, exchangeable K, available
Fe). From the evaluation of the obtained results it was clear that, since soil degradation at
OMW disposal areas remains significant also for inactive-abandoned areas, the indicators to
be established should cover these two potential cases namely, active disposal areas and
inactive-abandoned disposal areas (Doula et al., 2013). Thus, in order to select the most
suitable soil parameters, the four features, i.e. relevance; understandability; reliability; and
accessibility of data were considered and after statistical evaluation, eight soil parameters
were proposed as soil indicators for OMW disposal areas: i.e. electrical conductivity; organic
matter; total nitrogen; total polyphenols; available phosphorous; exchangeable potassium;
available iron; and pH (mainly for acidic soil types).
It has to be highlighted that the above eight indicators are specific for OMW disposal
areas, whereas, the definition of the appropriate soil indicators for other waste types requires
periodical and systematic monitoring of the areas of interest during the entire cycle of wastes
production procedure and disposal.
Having identified the appropriate soil indicators, the changes in soil quality can be
assessed by measuring and comparing them with desired values (critical limits or threshold
levels) at different time intervals, for a specific use in a selected area-system. A critical limit
or threshold level is the desirable range of values for a selected soil indicator that must be
maintained for normal functioning of the soil ecosystem health. Within this critical range, the
soil performs its specific functions in natural ecosystems (Arshad and Martin, 2002).
Thus, when a set of indicators is proposed (as for the case of OMW disposal areas), this
list should be accompanied by threshold levels for each one of the indicators in order to assist
evaluation of collected data and of the chemical analyses results. The thresholds could be
identified based on current legislation, but also on the international literature. The peculiarity
of the indicators for the application of AW, and mainly these originated by crops, plants and
food processing, is that they mainly correspond to soil properties associated with fertility and
not to pollutants in the classical sense, such as heavy metals and therefore are not included in
legislation. Nevertheless, international literature can provide general limits as these properties
have been extensively studied for many years. Given the complexity of setting limits and the
uniqueness of each targeted area/region, it may be more efficient to develop guidelines that
can help in setting up limits under certain land and environment conditions.
Thus, although a general definition of indicator thresholds could be performed after
searching in international literature and legislative frameworks, it should be highlighted that
the definition of indicator thresholds would be more effective and representative of each
target area if they would be determined after evaluation of data collected from the areas of
interest and by taking into account local characteristics and values of the indicators of
representative control samples.
A GIS based land information inventory of the area should be then designed and
developed to store all collected data for further evaluation by local authorities, scientists, and
other stakeholders.
General threshold values and the respective literature are included in Tables 1 and 2 of
Annex 1.

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2. Periodical monitoring of soil indicators-Evaluation of the results


Soil quality indicators should be monitored once a year and preferably before AW
landspreading. This requires annual soil sampling and chemical analysis in the framework of
a defined monitoring strategy that land users or polluters must follow. Sampling and transfer
of soil samples to laboratory should be under the responsibility of the landowner. An expert
should evaluate the results of the chemical analysis and a technical report should be submitted
to the responsible authorities. The report, apart from the evaluated results of soil and wastes
analysis, should also include a detailed description of the wastes distribution plan (amount,
timing, equipment use). The responsible authorities for results collection and evaluation could
be either local or regional, depending on the decisions ultimately taken by the State. The
evaluation of the soil quality indicators within a defined ecological zone requires (Arshad and
Martin, 2002):

Direction of change-positive or negative increase or decrease, etc


Magnitude of change-percent change over the Environmental Quality Standards
(EQSs), or baseline values of the area
Rate of change-duration: months, years
Extent of change-percentage of the area being monitored i.e. what percentage of the
area has changed with respect to the selected indicator during a specified period.

Depending on the evaluation results, the responsible authorities may permit


landspreading or not, while in case of continuation of landspreading on soil, the maximum
annual dose should be determined considering the risk level of the area. The responsible
authorities should establish a periodical monitoring strategy in order to be able to identify
potential risks at any time. A specific inventory (a data base) of each disposal site should be
established and updated annually. This will facilitate the immediate identification of risky
areas as well as, will provide data regarding history of the site, specific local
geomorphological characteristics, quantities of waste that have been disposed each year,
results of waste and soil chemical analyses and any other data that are considered useful and
necessary for the effective protection of soil quality and function.
If, for any reason, a disposal area is under risk of soil deterioration, then, after evaluation
of risk level, changes in land distribution plans may be proposed or the authorities may
require development and implementation of a remedial strategy.
3. Maps of soil constituents distribution vs. time and depth
To facilitate the implementation of a soil monitoring strategy, the development and use of
maps of soil constituents distribution vs. time and depth is proposed. Such a tool was
developed for the case of OMW disposal areas during the PROSODOL project. Through this
tool, local and regional authorities will have the opportunity to screen disposal areas rapidly,
identify potential risk conditions, carry out systematic monitoring of the areas of interest and
facilitate decision making on the appropriate measures to be taken at field or municipal scale.
The proposed tool integrates the continuous monitoring of the disposal areas into the regular
activities of local/regional authorities and thus, allows the proper and continuous monitoring
of such areas.

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Agricultural Wastes

However, this indeed requires the cooperation of the owners of the landspreading areas,
since repeated soil samplings at various sites are necessary for map creation and update. The
proposed application tool uses interpolation surfaces that indicate the distribution of the
different physical and chemical parameters in the area of interest, so the user can rapidly
obtain an idea of the possible diffusion of the chemical parameters and the degree of risk in
the vicinity of the waste disposal areas. This, potentially, allows also the establishment of an
Operational Centre, which could be located, for instance, in cooperation with the
Environmental Authorities in the premises of a Municipality or a Region, and can undertake
the continuous monitoring of areas under risk and the scientific and consulting support of the
owners.

Time Slider

Navigation
Controls

Degree of
Risk Scale Legend
Measurement
Selection

Depth
Selection

Figure 2. The interface of the application for mapping soil constituents at an area receiving agricultural
wastes. Yellow flags represent sampling sites in the area of interest.

The design of the particular software package needs to monitor a number of private fields
that are spread around and make queries based on various spatial and chemical attributes.
Thus, it is proposed that, for each specific disposal area, one initial mapping should be carried
out by performing soil sampling from various sites for at least 4 times (e.g. every two
months). The sampling sites will be decided according to the generally accepted soil sampling
rules and a qualified person should be present and undertake the overall control. The collected
soil samples should be analyzed for the parameters and proposed as suitable indicators, as
already described. The maps that will be created should be used for no more than 5-8 years.
After this period, the maps should be updated by repeating the sampling procedure. Figure 2
presents the interface of the application for mapping soil constituents developed in the
framework of PROSODOL project which is also proposed for similar cases of AW
landspreading.

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The creation of the interpolation surfaces requires a number of data around the vicinity of
the disposal areas in order to identify the distribution of the different chemical parameters in
the area, so that to obtain an idea of the possible diffusion of the chemical parameters and the
degree of risk in the vicinity of the waste disposal areas. Various interpolation algorithms
could be used for mapping the specific parameters, however the method of the Inverse
Distance Weighting (IDW), which calculates cell values by averaging the values of sampling
points in the vicinity of each cell based on distance, is proposed since it causes limited
secondary effects (e.g. bulls eye effect around isolated sample points, extreme trends away of
the sampling areas, etc). Such an application allows:

Measurement SelectionThe user selects the name of the chemical parameter in order
to see the corresponding interpolated surface map.
Depth SelectionThe user can choose the depth of soil for which the user wishes to
see the value of the selected chemical parameter. Then the user can submit the
information provided, and the application starts to stream the data needed and present
the corresponding interpolated surface map.
Navigation ControlsThe user may navigate inside the map through the navigation
controls, in any direction, angle, pan and zoom, giving the user the freedom of any
view perspective.
Time Slider- An animation of the interpolated surface area map can be viewed
through different time periods on the Google map.
Degree of Risk Scale Legend When the interpolated surface map is loaded the
corresponding scale of the risk degree of the selected chemical parameter is shown.

The 3D map application can be designed in such a way, that the end user can easily and
effectively use, and retrieve the surface interpolated information needed.
4. Guidelines for periodical water bodies monitoring
Neighboring water bodies is recommended to be monitored periodically. Water samples
should be collected from all 1st, 2nd and 3rd catchment order discharge and in the groundwater
both before and after rainfalls. This way a database could be developed where the groundand surface water will be monitored spatially and temporarily.
5. Development of good practices for soil management-Training of farmers and
stakeholders
A Code of Good Practice should be developed giving advice in relation to soil
management practices which may affect soil quality. This Code should be adopted by all
relevant stakeholders and should be a practical guide that will assist owners of the disposal
areas, farmers who may use AW for soil fertilization or land managers to protect the
environment in which they operate. The Code should describe key actions that the main
actors can take to protect and further improve the quality of soil, water, and air and to meet
legal obligations. The Code should not be just a manual on how to manage such areas but
should assist on selecting the appropriate actions for the specific conditions (environmental,
climatic, social, economic). It should also include information and instructions for soil
sampling, use of wastes for crops irrigation (technical and financial aspects), waste disposal

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on soil, periodical soil monitoring, soil remediation techniques, composting and existing
legislative framework.

CONCLUSION
Nowadays, the management of agricultural wastes is a significant environmental
problem, especially concerning (1) the uncontrolled disposal of wastes (e.g. olive oil mill
wastes, winery wastes, rice straw); (2) the excess use of nutrients and natural resources
(e.g. water, phosphoric minerals used for the production of fertilizers); (3) the potential to
increase recycling of nutrients and water with sustainable use of treated (or potentially
untreated) agricultural wastes.
Since agricultural wastes are rich in inorganic nutrients (micro- and macro- elements) and
organic matter, good management of agricultural wastes would contribute to:

significant reduction of the volume of harmful wastes disposed in the environment;


recycling of elements and water in agriculture which in turn, will reduce production
cost and contribute to the increase in products competiveness and profits;
protection of renewable and non-renewable resources (soil, aquatic bodies,
phosphoric minerals) through elements recycling.

Landspreading of wastes is an environmentally and economically beneficial option and is


considered preferable in comparison to other waste management scenarios. However, before
land distribution is decided, a series of actions should be preceded, which include waste
characterization and monitoring of disposal areas since benefits as well as potential adverse
effects are highly depended on local conditions. Therefore, an effective AW management
scenario should take into account the specific local conditions, i.e. geomorphology,
hydrology, soil type of the potential disposal/application areas and local meteorological
conditions. The scenario has also to safeguard and prevent soil and land degradation from
single field to the whole catchment. The monitoring of the disposal areas should include the
following six measures:
1. Identification of potential and current waste disposal areas and recording them in a
GIS geo-database
2. Characterization of disposal areas-Risk assessment
3. Evaluation of risk level
4. Defining the conditions of landspreading
5. Adoption of soil quality indicators
6. Periodical monitoring of soil indicators-Evaluation of the results
The adoption of integrated measures ensures the control of the disposal areas, but mainly
the future protection and improvement of soil quality. As such, they are considered to be fully
harmonized with the international requirements for soil quality protection.

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ANNEX 1: CRITICAL LEVELS OF SOME MAIN SOIL PROPERTIES


Table 1. Critical levels of some main soil properties
Soil properties
pH
EC
Soil organic matter
Total Kjeldahl
Nitrogen
Available P-Olsen

normal/average
range
6-8 [1]

high/rich

very high

excessive
>4 mS/cm (salinity) [2-5]

2 mS/cm [1]
> 3.4% [6]

soil quality threshold


> 5% [2-5]
> 0.3 % [2-5]

12-28 mg/kg [7]

40-50 mg/kg [2-5]


>33-36 [8]
>59 mg/kg[9], >60 mg/kg
[28]

potential high P mobility


* -Nutrient imbalances due to Mg
antagonism
-Adverse effect on soil quality

Exchangeable Mg

1.2-2.2 cmol/kg [7]

> 2.2 cmol/kg * [2-5]

Exchangeable K
Exchangeable Ca

0.26-0.60 cmol/kg [7]


2.5-3.8 cmol/kg [7]
0.5-1.5 mg/kg [7]

>1.2 (cmol/kg) [2-5]


> 20 cmol/kg [2-5]
1.6-3 mg/kg[11]

Hot water soluble B


DTPA-Cu

Comments

> 3 mg/kg

[2-

5]

>2.0 cmol/kg [10]


>3mg/kg[11]
>2.0 -3.0 mg/kg [12]*
>5 mg/kg [13]*

For medium to heavy soils in texture

>20 mg/kg [29] *

* potential phytotoxicity

* phytotoxicity

3 [14]

DTPA-Fe
DTPA-Mn
DTPA-Zn

1.6-15 mg/dm
> 50 mg/kg
25-60 mg/dm3[14]
> 50 mg/kg [2-5]
10-50 mg/dm3 [14]
> 8.1 mg/kg [2-5]
2.4-15 mg/dm3 [14]

> 100 mg/kg [15]

> 130 mg/dm3 [12]

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Table 2. Critical levels of some main soil properties


Soil properties

normal/average range

high/rich

20-30 mg/kg [10]


88-132mg/kg

Residual NO3-N
NO3
NO3- in soil solution
SO42- in soil
leachate
SO42--S in soil
Cl in soil leachate
Cl- in soil

very high

2-60 mg/L[38,39,43-45]
144-150 mg/L

excessive
>30 mg/kg

Comments

[10]

>132 mg/kg
Average range

[16]

Leachate Quality Threshold

>10 mg/kg [10]


or > 30 mg/kg as SO42160-200 mg/L [16]
4-8 mg/kg [10]

Leachate Quality Threshold


>8 mg/kg [10]

NH4+in soil leachate

> 10 mg/L [17]

Leachate Quality Threshold

[10]

NH4-N in soil
Extractable NH4+
Phenols

2-10 mg/kg
or up to 12.8 mg/kg in NH4+
form
28-280 mg/L [18]
target value : 0.05 mg/kg [19]
intervention value 40 mg/kg

[19]

<target value: clean soil;


<target value < intervention value: slight contaminated soil;
>intervention value: contaminated soil

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 16

SUSTAINABLE SUPPLY CHAINS: SOCIAL PRACTICES


AND ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Lusa Pinto1*, Joaquim Borges Gouveia2
and Lus Miguel D. F. Ferreira2
1

School of Technology and Management of Lamego/Polytechnic Institute of Viseu and


researcher with the Centre for the Study of Education, Technologies and Health at the
Polytechnic Institute of Viseu
2
Industrial Engineering and Management Department of the University of Aveiro and a
researcher with the Centre for Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policy.

ABSTRACT
This chapter of the book analyses the internal and external social practices that
companies implement into their supply chains. The most common performance measures
used for assessing the influence of social practices are identified, and the impact of such
practices on company performance is analysed. The case-study based methodology
employed uses semi structured interviews in eight Portuguese companies. The results
indicate that company performance is positively affected by the implementation of social
practices into the supply chain, namely internal social practices.

1. INTRODUCTION
The twenty-first century has been marred by a worrying reality of climate change,
resource shortages, ecosystem collapse, economic vulnerability and other crises. Hence, a
wide ranging consensus has emerged on the need for an economic system where progress is
also measured according to improvements in the well-being of the population.
One of the problems of humanity is that while man is capable of understanding the
problems that he faces, he fails when it comes to planning effective solutions. This failing is
due, in large part, to an inability to understand that the whole is larger than its parts, and that
*

Corresponding author: Av. Visconde Guedes Teixeira, 5100-074 Lamego, Portugal, Email: lpinto@estgl.ipv.pt.

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changing one of the elements always implies change for the other elements that make-up the
system (Meadows et al., 1972).
Sustainable Development (SD) was brought to the world political agenda by the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. This
summit reaffirmed the concept of SD, previously discussed by the Brundtland Report of
1987. Here, attention was called to the need for a new type of development, capable of
promoting progress across the whole planet, which in the long-term would be achievable by
all countries. SD as such represents a critical element that can only be achieved through a
balance between the objectives of economic prosperity, ideals of environmental protection
and guarantees of social equality, in accordance with the triple bottom line (TBL) perspective.
The literature associated with sustainable management of the supply chain uses the term
TBL to include all types of values, topics and processes that organisations should adopt.
Besides economic objectives, this also covers environmental and social aspects, so as to
minimise any possible damage that results from their activities, helping create economic,
social and environmental value (Elkington, 1998).
Companies are undergoing a revolution, implementing new operational strategies and
technologies in response to the challenges and demands that have arisen from the surrounding
environment. Companies have to surmount such obstacles to be able to satisfy customers
demands for high-quality, low-cost products. To this end, they must be extremely flexible so
as to rapidly respond to continual changes in their customers requirements (Simchi-Levi et
al., 2008)
Effective management of the supply chain is an essential strategy for success in global
markets. The possibilities afforded by the concept of Supply Chain Management (SCM) are
being explored and applied by companies to increase their growth, helping develop agile
supply chains that can bring products to market more quickly and cheaply (Gunasekaran et
al., 2007).
SCM focuses on integrating processes that make-up the supply chain; an integrated
analysis of the supply chain provides the best starting point for achieving the best global
solutions. SCM may be defined as an integration of a set of activities, resulting from
improvements in the relations between the supply chain members, so as to create a
sustainable competitive advantage (Handfield & Nichols, 1999). The supply chain members
include all the organisations which the focal company collaborates with, either directly or
indirectly. As such, supply chain management is an important factor when it comes to
maximising the synergies between all parts involved (Cooper et al., 1997).
The supply chain can be described as a group of organisations that act as a network to
control, manage and improve the flow of materials, products, services and information, using
upstream and downstream linkages, in different processes and activities, which can be
effectively managed to fulfil the business needs (Christopher, 2004). In this way, each supply
chain can be seen to compete with other supply chains, pushing to one side the obsolete
vision that each supplier competes on an individual basis with others that offer the same
product or service (Mentzer et al., 2001; Hugos, 2011).
Organisations are confronted on a daily basis with pressures from the media, nongovernmental organisations (NGO), the surrounding communities and requirements imposed
by environmental legislation. In addition, consumers demand increased transparency and
responsibility for the conditions under which their products are produced and distributed, and
respect for the environment and human rights. This obliges companies to rethink the way in

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which they do business, as they become more conscious of their responsibility to guarantee
the long-term future for mankind (Hay et al., 2005; Kleindorfer et al., 2005; Sarkis et al.,
2011).
The companies that are part of global supply chains face a high level of complexity,
dealing with a large number of suppliers, ever increasing customer expectations and differing
legal requirements for controlling social and environmental aspects. With the push for
sustainable development, the pressures to effectively manage supplier relationships and the
demand for ecologically correct and socially responsible products and services have increased
in various countries worldwide (Carter & Jennings, 2004; Geffen & Rothenberg, 2000; Porter
& Kramer, 2006). All these pressures, coming from the different stakeholders, present a
significant challenge to company managers, encouraging them to integrate sustainable
practices into their supply chains.
Sustainable companies have to ensure the production of their products without causing
environmental damage while at the same time complying with social standards (Seuring,
2004). Choosing to ignore this problem means they face a significant risk to their reputation
and market appeal, having to justify their choice of suppliers to the media and confront NGO
criticisms (Lawrence, 2002). The saturation, fragmentation and deregulation of markets, as
well as rising competitive pressures, all mean that reputation is of the utmost importance to
publically visible companies.
There are a number of NGOs that dedicate their work to highlighting inhumane working
conditions, especially in less developed countries. Their work helps uncover strategies used
by companies based in developed countries to profit from these unfair working conditions; to
reduce costs, companies transfer a large part of their processes which add value, to suppliers
based in countries with lower cost bases. These companies put their image and reputation at
risk, namely due to the poor working conditions which the workers endure (Beske et al.,
2008; Cheung et al., 2009; Reuter et al., 2010). Consumer boycotts of certain products or
services and the attention of the media illustrate this type of risk to a companys reputation
(Locke, 2003; Teuscher et al., 2006).
We are now at a point where consumers, the media and the regulating bodies all require
that companies show how they have accounted for aspects related to sustainability over all
phases of the supply chain (Beske et al., 2008; Leire & Mont, 2010). To this end, companies
have to identify new criteria for selecting and evaluating suppliers. This process reflects the
need to incorporate environmental and social directives and implement control mechanisms
and compliance checks, which should then be replicated downstream to other suppliers (Zhu
et al., 2005). With dwindling resources available and with pressures mounting from the
different stakeholders, companies came to the conclusion that the supply chains have to be
redesigned: they need to be environmentally friendly and use resources optimally (Carter &
Jennings, 2004).
Sustainable Supply Chain Management (SSCM) covers numerous areas of environmental
and social responsibility, such as, the prevention of child labour and forced labour, the
substitution of toxic substances in manufacturing processes, the excessive consumption of
energy and material and also the protection of biodiversity (Bai &Sarkis, 2010; Gold et al.,
2010; Seuring & Mller, 2008; Wittstruck & Teuteberg, 2011). To be able to manage all these
areas, companies employ universally accepted guidelines or standards, such as international
standards for certifying management systems covering quality, the environment, occupational

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health and safety, or GRI directives (Beske et al., 2008; Koplin et al., 2007; Seuring &
Mller, 2008).
The literature reviews available covering SSCM show the growing interest in this theme,
which is still dominated by the research into environmental practices in the supply chain,
namely the relationship between economic and environmental performance. This discussion
largely leaves social questions untouched, which can justifiably considered to be an important
area of research (Cagliano et al., 2010; Carter & Easton, 2011; Hoejmose & Adrien-Kirby,
2012; Pagell & Wu, 2009; Pullman et al., 2009; Seuring & Mller, 2008; Carter & Rogers,
2008; Teuteberg &Wittstruck, 2010).
This chapter will devote its discussion to the social dimension of sustainability. As noted
above, this is an area where less research has been carried out, with questions surrounding the
management of social issues in the supply chain receiving much less attention then they
deserve.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
A failure to correctly comply with social practices can have serious repercussions for a
companys competitiveness and economic performance as well as its reputation and image in
the marketplace (Schaltegger & Wagner, 2006).
There are various examples of companies that saw their reputation tarnished due to a
failure to implement social practices in their activities. Ensuing judicial proceedings and the
loss of current and potential customers mean large costs for the companies involved. Recent
examples include Nike, whose sales fell sharply following accusations that it was guilty of
having purchased from suppliers using child labour; Foxconn Technology Group, the largest
manufacturer of electronic components for computers in the world, producers of the iMac,
iPod, iPad and the iPhone for Apple, which were accused of dozens of labour law violations
at their factories in China, including excessive working hours, not paying salaries and salaries
that did not cover minimum living standards; Walmart, which was accused by a number of
unions and community groups of obliging workers to work more hours than contracted,
denying payment of overtime, rest periods and lunch breaks; and Mattel, which in 2007 had
to recall almost one million toys in the United States because the paint used contained lead,
originating with a supplier in China.
More recently, Bangladesh had to confront one of its worst episodes in recent times. The
country is the second largest textile exporter in the world, with over 4,500 factories involved
in the industry. In 2013, a building housing various factories collapsed, causing the death of
1,229 workers and wounding more than 2,500 people. The image of numerous internationally
recognised brand names was affected including H&M, Tesco, Benetton, Mango and
Walmart. A swathe of sanctions followed from western countries, aggravating the standard of
living in a country which is one of the twenty poorest in the world.
These examples show that all members of the supply chain (namely suppliers) need to
incorporate and comply with social criteria. Hopefully, this will contribute to maintaining the
firm competitive as the performance of the company can be negatively affected if
environmental and social criteria are ignored by suppliers (Seuring & Mller, 2008).

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Up to now, little research has been carried out regarding the implementation of social
practices into the supply chain and their relationship to company performance (Cagliano et al.
2010). Gimnez et al. (2012) analysed the impact of environmental and social practices on the
environmental, social and economic performance. Caniato et al. (2011) looked at a set of
sustainable management practices in the supply chain and performance indicators with a view
to understanding the relationships between these elements and their impact on the supply
chain. Pullman et al. (2009) analysed the environmental and social practices in the supply
chain and their impact on environmental performance, quality and costs in the food products
sector. Yakovleva et al. (2009) studied economic, environmental and social performance in
the supply chain for the food products industry. Using statistical data together with specialist
opinions, they constructed a general sustainability index for the food products supply chain,
using three sustainability dimensions (economic, environmental and social) to measure the
sustainability of the supply chain. De Brito et al. (2008) analysed how it is that the companies
in the textile sector supply chain can improve their economic, environmental and social
performance by implementing a set of environmental and social practices.
The literature reviewed shows that little research has been carried out on the subject of
social practices and their relationship with performance. Few studies cover internal and
external social practices, and no study has dedicated itself to covering the implementation of
internal and external social practices and their relationship to economic, environmental and
social performance. To this end, this study seeks to identify the internal and external social
practices implemented by companies in the supply chain, both upstream and downstream, the
associated indicators used and the impact of applying social practices on the economic,
environmental and social performance of the focal company.

2.1. Social Practices


To ensure that the supply chain is socially responsible, companies need to adopt internal
and external social practices into the supply chain, taking account of the internal and external
environment of the organisation (Pullman et al. 2009, Tate et al. 2010; Gauthier, 2005).
Given the wide ranging impacts of social questions, there are significant challenges and
pressures that companies must confront to be able to systematically treat these issues. There
are a series of social aspects to be considered, related to questions that go well beyond the
more traditional areas of human rights and salaries: those include, among others, subjects
connected with health and safety in the workplace, the contribution of the company to the
community, the impact of gaining access to natural resources, health information and
education, and other diverse socioeconomic questions.
The approaches that are more widely recognized are related to international human rights
standards, included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the conventions of
the International Labor Organisation. These include questions related to child labour, freedom
of association, working hours, and health and safety conditions. Besides this, a growing
number of NGOs started to develop directives covering commercial operations: Amnesty
International laid down a set of principles covering the relationship between business and
human rights; Social Accountability International implemented a standard for Social
Responsibility (SA 8000), covering human and social questions in the workplace; the Fair
Labor Association has a workplace code of conduct; the Ethical Trade Initiative drew-up an

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ethical work code; and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) created an international report
on corporate social responsibility and sustainability, highlighting the importance of
considering the workplace and human rights, as well as the socioeconomic development of
the community in general and society.
These approaches are concerned not only with the practices of one particular company,
but are also interested in the supply chain partners for the whole product life cycle. In other
words, the social dimension of sustainability refers to the human capital in the supply chain.
Thus, an improvement in the social aspect of sustainability requires the development and
maintenance of commercial practices which are just and fair for the worker and the
communities in the supply chain.
According to Elkington (2004), the questions relating to the internal environment of the
organisation are linked to human resources practices. These may include, the recognition,
appreciation and encouragement of workforce skills with appropriate human resources
policies; practices of equality, development and well-being; the creation and maintenance of
an environment which is participative and open to worker development; fair pay; adequate
working conditions; and training and adaptation programmes, or in other words, a set of
practices designed to bolster skills and competencies and consequently improve worker
satisfaction (Daily & Huang 2001; Gauthier, 2005; Gimenez et al., 2012, Walker & Jones,
2012).
The external environment of the organisation refers to the relationship with the
communities surrounding the factory buildings and society in general. The objective here is to
guarantee quality of life for the population and a good relationship with the different
stakeholders. This relationship should be managed using democratic and ethical decision
making processes, showing responsibility for the products and services offered, considering
the impact on both customers and the wider community who support the negative
externalities created in the process (Pullman et al., 2009).
In this respect, the external social practices go beyond the limits of the focal company,
extending to the members of the supply chain (such as suppliers and customers), and to the
relations with other stakeholders (such as local communities). In a bid to make supply chains
more socially responsible, many companies are implementing codes of conduct for their
suppliers as an integral part of evaluative and collaborative tools (Amaeshi et al., 2008;
Andersen & Skjoett-Larsen, 2008; Mont & Leire, 2008). Internal social practices refer to
employment practices, touching on subjects such as gender balance, discrimination,
opportunities for career advancement, and occupational health and safety in the workplace.
External social practices consider the relationship with stakeholders to be contractual, as is
the case with suppliers and customers, as well as local communities and NGOs.
Several questions are related to the issue of sustainability in the supply chain. Most of
these are not related to environmental and economic questions but are related to social
aspects. No consensus exists in the literature as to the social impacts and the way in which
they can be measured. Two trends are worth mentioning here: Corporate Social
Responsibility and Life Cycle Analysis. This last trend has spawned a new approach to social
questions called Societal Life Cycle Assessment (Jorgensen et al., 2008). A wide range of
standards and codes of conduct exist for companies to contemplate, containing
recommendations regarding the implementation of environmental and social practices with
associated indicators, including their respective metrics (e.g., GRI, Fair Labor Association

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Guides, Dow Jones Sustainability Index). This variety reflects the fact that the social facet of
sustainability is difficult to measure.
Based on the literature surveyed, the social practices used in this study are shown in
Table 1.
Table 1. Internal and external social practices and social performance indicators
Practices
Internal
social
practices

Practices
Internal social
management

Employment
practices

Health and
safety

External
social
practices

Social
collaboration
with customers

Social
collaboration
with suppliers

Collaboration
with the
community

Indicators
Commitment by top management to social management
Support for social management by the middle layers of
management
Inter functional cooperation for social improvements
Ethical codes and codes of conduct
SA 8000 certification and systems of social management (e.g.,
GRI)
Gender balance and equality of opportunities
Flexible working regimes
Career progression opportunities
Training and education
Relationship between workers and management
Abolition of child labour
Prevention of forced labour and slavery
Disciplinary procedures
Opportunities for career development
Satisfaction
Flexible working hours
Rotation of workers
Benefits for part-time and full-time workers
Number of workplace accidents
Absenteeism
Hours of security training per worker
Compliance with standards (e.g., OSHAS 18001)
Health and safety training
Security procedures
Customer health and safety
Labelling of products and services
Marketing communications
Customer privacy
Compliance
Consumer education
Codes of conduct
Abolition of child labour
Preventing forced labour and slavery
Health and security in the workplace (e.g., OSHAS 18001)
Security procedures
Supplier evaluation, including social aspects
Support for teaching institutions
Support for community projects
Security
Economic growth and well-being
Social cohesion
Grants and donations
Partnerships

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2.2. Performance
A performance measurement system is defined as the ability that companies have to
attract and retain clients in a market that is increasingly competitive (Neely, 1999). Given that
we can only manage that that we are able to measure, measuring performance is fundamental
for any organisation to manage its activities and operations, at the same time being an
important pre-requisite for an improvement process (Sink & Tuttle, 1989). According to
Hervani et al. (2005), performance measurement allows, for example, the efficiency and
effectiveness of an existing system to be determined or alternative systems compared.
Lambert (2008) sees the lack of adequate measurements as potentially compromising
customer satisfaction, having consequences for organisational performance and increasing the
probability that opportunities for improving supply chain performance are wasted.
Performance measurement is, as such, crucial to improving the management of the supply
chain (Wong, 2009).
Neely et al. (1999) defend the idea that performance evaluation systems are a set of
metrics that measure the effectiveness and efficiency of an organisation. The indicators, or
performance measures, should be defined so as to monitor the effort that the organisations put
into the different company activities designed to achieve sustainable development; crucially,
they should then be evaluated in comparison with the competition. The SSCM performance
measurement involves quantifying the efficiency and efficacy of all the activities and
processes surrounding sustainable supply chain activities (Neely et al., 2008).
Measuring sustainable performance is much more complex than measuring the traditional
economic performance for three reasons: (i) There is a need to add two additional dimensions
to classic economic performance: social and environmental performance (Epstein & Roy,
2003); (ii) performance is not measured only in terms of customer expectations, but also in
terms of the expectations of the different stakeholders in the organisation (Freeman, 2005);
(iii) there is a need for transparency in the information exchanged between the different
upstream members of the supply chain, even though these are normally outside the control of
the focal company (Amaeshi et al., 2008). Evaluating the efficiency and efficacy in this case
has proved a challenge, both for researchers and companies (Schaefer, 2004).
The expectation is that implementing social practices will lead to an improvement in the
associated indicators, namely those relating to the satisfaction and motivation of the
workforce, improvements in the security conditions in the workplace and number of
workplace accidents. Previous work, while not being directly related to the study of internal
and external social practices (Cagliano et al., 2010; Gimenez et al., 201; Pullman et al., 2009),
found that companies should recognise, value and involve human resources, with practices
and policies that promote equality, career progression and equal opportunities, leading to
increased motivation and satisfaction among employees. Cagliano et al. (2010) concluded that
training is a key factor for improving social and environmental performance, and the
incentives are positively related to social performance. This is because other practices, such
as teamwork, do not contribute to environmental and social performance. In other words,
social practices by themselves, when they are not applied as part of a wider initiative, do not
contribute to performance improvements. Gimenez et al. (2012) provide evidence that
implementing social practices, such as improvements in health and safety for the company,
improve the social reputation. Pullman et al. (2009), found that the implementation of social
practices in the food products industry helps improve product quality.

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Drawing on the indicators found in the different studies cited in the literature review, the
GRI, the indicators of the occupational health management systems, and others, the KPIs are
grouped around:

Economic performance, which aims to quantify the impact of the adopted social
practices for the focal firm, and the supply chain, in terms of sales, Earnings Before
Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA);
Social performance, which aims to analyse the impact of adopted social practices for
the focal firm and the supply chain, in terms of number of injuries, number of
working hours lost due to illness, the accident frequency and severity index,
absenteeism rate, overall staff turnover rate and training.

2.3. Methodology
The research methodology was defined in accordance with the recommendations of Voss
et al. (2002), with the research variables being defined by the literature review and interview
protocols. Yin (1984) defines a case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence
are used.
A number of case studies were used to investigate the social practices implemented by
companies in different sectors of the economy and positions in the supply chain (Yin, 2009).
This approach also helps to identify those social practices that most influence company
performance. Studying more than one industry allows specific characteristics to be identified
for the different sectors, increasing the external validity of the results, even if the internal
validity is somewhat compromised.
The sample is composed of a set of companies which include sustainable strategies in
their business processes. This selection was made using secondary data (e.g. companies that
prepare sustainability reports, companies with ISO 9001 or ISO 14001 certification, or in the
process of attaining ISO 14001 certification). Their approach to transparency was also
evaluated by looking at the company websites, published sustainability reports, ethical codes
and codes of conduct, and media reports.
On this basis, a diverse set of industries was selected for evaluating the links between
social practices and economic, environmental and social performance. The sample is
described in Table 2, detailing the business sector, number of employees and turnover. Data
for the number of employees and the turnover are from 2012.
Many different procedures were used, combining a large number of techniques for
collecting and processing information. This reflects the objective of developing an in-depth
analysis of the different practices used and their relation to performance.
Data collection in this study makes use of semi-structured interviews, combined with
analysis of documents and in loco analysis. This approach provides different perspectives on
the phenomena being studied and helps increase the validity of the results. Collection of
empirical data, as such, used both primary and secondary sources:

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Table 2. Sample Characteristics


Company
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8

Industry
Glass
Cork
Automotive components
Wood based panels
Office and commercial
furniture
Automotive Assembly
Drinks
Automotive textiles

Annual Turnover
(million EUR)
95
318
85
1.321
8,6

Number of
employees
350
927
348
177
122

216
498
44

190
1500
182

i)

Semi-structured direct interviews: the main method of data collection used twentytwo (22) semi-structured interviews held with different members of the organisation
executive director, purchasing manager, environmental and/or safety manager.
ii) The sustainability reports and other external communication instruments: the code of
conduct, the ethics code and company policy were analysed, together with
information available on the companys websites, press releases and a variety of
documents for external communications, complemented by internal documents
supplied by the companies.
The case studies were developed around a protocol for semi-structured interviews
(Eisenhart, 1989), drawing on the main questions that arose out of the literature review of
sustainable practices in the supply chain. In this type of interview, the researcher constructs a
guide, with a set of open questions. However, the interviewer is at liberty to alter the order of
the questions, or even to formulate others, according to the responses of the interviewee.
The interview protocol was previously tested by specialists and researchers in the area,
and with those responsible for the different areas in two of the companies selected for
interviews. At this stage the interviews were first sent by e-mail and then held face-to-face,
helping check that the questions were appropriate and clear. This phase helped to improve the
research and the presentation of the questions.
Three people were individually interviewed in most of the companies studied, namely the
general manager, environment and safety manager and the purchasing manager. In companies
where the functional areas were managed by more than one person, the different people were
interviewed but care was taken to only cover the individuals area of responsibility (see Table
3). In other cases, where only one person was interviewed (for a number of reasons, including
availability), care was taken so that the same scripts were replied to separately. In each
interview session the same semi structured interview protocols were used, helping avoid
undue bias on the part of the interviewer.
Most of the interviews in each company lasted for around three-quarters of an hour and
were held at the companys premises. The interviewees were previously briefed in the
objectives of the study by a letter sent via e-mail. The place, date and time of the interviews

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were arranged by e-mail and telephone. The interview protocol was also provided and the
intended objectives of the interview were once again explained.
The interviews were carried out according to the functional role of each of the
interviewees and the research questions that are the object of this study. In summary, for each
company:
i)

The general manager provided information on the sustainability strategy, the motives
for and barriers to the implementation of sustainable practices, the economic,
environmental and social indicators used and the performance achieved by applying
these practices;
ii) The purchasing manager supplied information on the purchasing policy, the selection
and evaluation of suppliers and the way in which environmental and social practices
are integrated into the purchasing process. The performance of the suppliers in
relation to the adopted practices was also covered;
iii) The environmental and/or safety manager supplied information regarding the
operational social practices in place, as well as the relationship between these
practices and the performance obtained. The environmental and social practices in
respect of the customers were also included.
Recording the interviews helped increase the information captured, registering all
elements of the communication exchange, including pauses for reflection, doubts or
intonation in the voice, and providing a detailed account of the narrative (Schraiber, 1995).
When the interviews were over they were then transcribed, listening to the recording
several times before writing down the content, including signs indicating questions,
syllabification and other nuances of the interview. The expressions and grammatical errors
were removed from the transcription, providing a clean text in case it was necessary to
present this to the interviewee for comment (Lage, 2001). Following from the transcription of
the information, the data analysis was begun. Although identical questions were used for all
the companies, the interviewees were able to freely describe their opinions in response to
open questions.
This research also made use of secondary data including sustainability reports and other
external communication instruments: codes of conduct, ethical codes, company accounts,
corporate reports and company policies. These documents were analysed together with the
information available in the company websites, press releases and other miscellaneous
external communication documents, as well as internal documents supplied by the company.
The data collected from the different interviews were triangulated. This process was
designed to avoid discrepancies and improve the trustworthiness and validity (Eisenhart,
1989, Yin, 2009). To this end, the methodology adopted triangulated the data collected from
the semi structured interviews held with the different subjects; the sustainability reports; and
other secondary data, including both external communications(as itemised above) and internal
documents relating to practices of the company.
The data collected was analysed to see if similar patterns existed regarding the impact of
social practices on the different dimensions of company performance (sustainability,
economic, environmental and social).

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Table 3. Summary of the interviews (held, length and job
description of the interviewees)

Characterisation

Interviewee
1
Executive
Director

C1

Job Description

C2

Length*
Job Description

65
General
Manager

C3

Length
Job Description

68
Manager

Length
Job Description

95
Business
Administrator

Interviewee
2
Environmental
and Safety
Manager
99
Health and Safety
and
Environmental
Manager
95
Integrated
Systems Manager

Interviewee
3
Purchasing
Manager
105
Purchasing
Manager
Non-Cork
58
Purchasing
Manager

Interviewee
4
--

Human
Resources
Manager
45
Communication
and Public
Relations
Manager
45
--

195
67
Environmental
Purchasing
and Safety
Manager
Manager
Length
96
90
85
C5 Job Description
Quality, Environmental and Safety Manager
Length
217
C6 Job Description
Environmental, Safety and Sustainability Manager
Length
215
C7 Job Description General
Environmental
Purchasing
--Manager
and Safety
and Logistics
Manager
Manager
Length
70
86
58
-C8 Job Description General
Human
Purchasing
-Manager
Resources
Manager
Manager
Length
95
98
84
-* The time length of the interviews is shown in minutes.
C4

3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS


This section presents the comparative analysis of the eight case studies in Portuguese
companies. As part of the analysis, comparisons and contrasts are made, highlighting areas of
similarity and dissimilarity and their causes. At the crux of the analysis is the identification of
the internal and external social practices employed and their level of compliance, the
identification of the indicators associated with the different, more frequently used practices,
and the relationship between the social practices and economic and social performance.

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Table 4. Level of implementation of internal social practices


Companies
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
Internal social management
I
I
I
I
L
I
I
L
Employment policies
I
I
I
I
L
I
I
L
Health and safety
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Implementation of practices; L Limited implementation of practices; N No implementation
of practices.
Internal social practices

3.1. Internal Social Practices


A summary of the results was made to compare the internal social practices developed by
the companies analysed. This provides a comparison of the level of implementation by
companies studied, as can be seen in the overview given in Table 4.
By looking at Table 4 we can conclude that, in terms of internal social management, the
commitment by top management, and inter functional support and cooperation are directly
reflected in the implementation of certified management systems. More specifically, this
means standards for quality and environmental management systems, and a stated vision,
mission and strategy for the company. In accordance with the management systems in
operation, all the companies define and sign up to the commitment in an Integrated
Management Policy. While the companies C3, C5 and C8 do not publish a Sustainability
Report, the others do, clearly making a commitment to the three dimensions of sustainable
development (economic, environmental and social).
Only one of the companies studied (C1) is certified according to the social responsibility
standard SA 8000, being the only one also to have a code of conduct which is applicable to all
suppliers, both tier one and below. Companies C1 and C4 have ethics codes and codes of
conduct which are applicable to all employees, while only that of C4 is applicable to their
suppliers and service providers. The ethics code of C7 covers the relationships between the
organisation and all social agents with which it interacts. In this particular case a strict
compliance code is observed, invoking the highest standards of ethics and good business
conduct, based on a set of principles that cover the main stakeholders in the organisation:
customers, employees, suppliers, competitors and the community.
Companies C3 and C8 do not have an ethics code or code of conduct, but subscribe to a
set of values based on a number of ethical and honesty principles guiding all employees and
all those that are engaged in commercial relationships. While company C3 does not publish a
sustainability report, it does publish an environmental and safety report; this company is
looking to become SA 8000 certified in the near future and publish a sustainability report.
Company C5 has a code of conduct for its workers described in the house guide that is given
to all employees at induction.
All companies in the study define annual objectives covering inter functional cooperation
and the support of top management. This ensures the involvement of those responsible for the
different departments and the different management methodologies. Indicators, goals and
action plans are set out to achieve established objectives. Social indicators are defined
together with those responsible for human resources, the environment and/or safety. The

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indicators are monitored on a daily and/or monthly basis, with either monthly or quarterly
analysis. The eight companies studied are proactive in terms of human resources and safety,
enacting different programmes designed to reduce accidents in the workplace, reduce
absenteeism, or increase worker motivation and satisfaction. The projects put in place vary in
size, depending on the company involved. Companies C2 and C6 have specific plans for
sustainability, reflecting the more direct commitment and involvement of top management to
the issue of sustainability.
Employment practices in all companies treat people as fundamental for achieving the
objectives proposed. A number of actions are envisaged for helping to involve and motivate
the workers in questions related with sustainability. The involvement and active participation
of the workers in the identification and resolution of problems related to environmental and
social issues is reflected in the large number of activities and projects that specifically target
worker awareness in this area.
Some of the companies in this study show more evidence of worker involvement than
others. Company C2 has specific projects and plans for retaining critical skills, helping to
ensure the sustainability of the business. Company C8 involves its employees in a variety of
activities such as Kaizen, Jishuken, and Quality Control Circles, encouraging the creation of
working groups that cover different areas.
Three of the companies aside, the study found numerous internal activities being
developed that involve the workers, such as: collection of food products; collection of waste
oil; blood donation; commemorating Environment Day; Safety Day, and International
Womens Day, among others. Other companies invested in more general projects to
encourage organisational culture and identity. This was the case with companies C2 and C6,
where activities seek to stimulate interdepartmental knowledge.
Two of the companies studied (C2 and C4) make particular use of Idea Management
Systems. Covering all the companies in the group, these systems seek to identify innovative
ideas and measures for improving management, the processes or the organisation. Covering
all business units and including all employees, rewards are available for those that come up
with the best ideas and suggestions.
Companies consider communication and transparency to be fundamental, with a variety
of different means of communication being used. Examples include a company portal, or the
publication of newsletters, while C6 has an internal television channel where employees are
kept up to date with the different activities of the company in different areas.
Training is considered to be a priority initiative by all companies, helping to encourage
changes in attitudes and behaviour. To this end, all companies invest heavily in the training of
their employees, including the areas of the environment and safety.
The companies do undertake an evaluation of the satisfaction and performance of their
employees. Some of the companies in the study use performance related pay, which may be
linked to individual or global indicators.

3.2. External Social Practices


Health and safety practices were found to have a high level of compliance, even though
some of the companies did not have a certified health and safety management system. A

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variety of actions were seen to be implemented to avoid workplace accidents and work related
diseases.
To identify the external social practices and analyse the level of implementation by the
companies, the different data was collated and summarised, as shown in Table 5.
Looking at external social practices, and in particular social collaboration with the
community, five of the eight companies studied were involved in social activities within the
community. These activities seek to raise awareness among employees of the need to adopt
social behaviours and extend to the implementation of activities for and with the community,
such as: collecting food products and clothing; collecting school books; financial donations;
voluntary activities in the local community; visits to educational establishments; and
partnerships with non-profit making organisations.
The relationship with the community is also implemented at a more academic level.
Collaborative ventures are common with schools and universities, leading to study visits,
placements and research work. Competitions are also used to encourage innovation in
partnership with different associations. Companies collaborate with non-profit organisations
on projects, which, as stated by the employees, consist of school visits that help develop
entrepreneurial spirit in children and young people. Three of the companies studied, C2, C3
and C6, carry out charity work with a diverse range of non-profit associations.
The company employees take part in colloquia and conferences to share best practice. In
all companies, apart from C5 and C7, interaction occurs with associations linked to the area
of social sustainability, including WBCSD, BCSD Portugal, EPIS, GRACE, the Global
Compact Network Portugal and the United Nations Global Compact.
Two of the companies studied, C2 and C8, have non-profit foundations, designed to
promote solidarity and stimulate community initiatives of an ethical, religious, cultural and
civil nature, besides the dimension of social and cultural support. They focus on support for
children and needy young people in the companys home region, following their progress in
school and creating opportunities for developing successful life projects. One of the
foundations awards prizes to employees that complete any year of schooling/training in the
educational system, also paying fees and textbooks to the orphans of employees and paying
out bonuses for births and marriages.
Social collaboration with the suppliers is based on interaction with the organisations that
make-up the supply chain. Here the different elements join together in planning activities
related to social questions, working so as to prevent and resolve social problems.
Table 5. Level of implementation with external social practices
Companies
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
Social collaboration with the community
I
I
I
N
N
I
I
N
Social collaboration with suppliers
I
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
Social collaboration with customers
L
I
L
I
L
L
I
L
I Implementation of practices; L Limited implementation of practices; N No implementation of
practices.
External social practices

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The relationship with the suppliers covering social questions complements that covering
environmental questions. C1 was found to have a code of conduct, which can be applied to all
suppliers, tier one and below, while the code in place at C4 is applicable only to tier one
suppliers. All companies have specific, very rigid regulations for service providers, requiring
a series of documents of a social, safety and environmental nature, which is not the case for
product suppliers. The current economic situation means that smaller suppliers are
experiencing many difficulties, leading companies to become more concerned with, and
sensitive to, social problems, such as late payment of salaries and delays in paying taxes. In
exceptional cases, C1 has been known to financially support its suppliers.
It should be stated that most suppliers to the companies studied have certified
management systems in one or more of the following areas: quality, environment, health and
safety in the workplace, and social responsibility. In turn, the companies then assure that their
suppliers comply with the legislation and standards.
Social questions start with the selection of suppliers and the respective auditing. Most of
the suppliers of the companies in question are from the European Union, where legislation is
very demanding and the social conduct rules must be upheld. These social conduct rules are
based on fundamental human rights found in conventions and international treaties, namely
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights from the United Nations and the International
Labor Organisation. The companies have an image to defend and as such do not wish to be
associated with companies that use child labour, forced labour, or slavery. None of the
companies studied jointly develop activities with their suppliers to meet social objectives.
The focal company customer relationship is at the heart of social collaboration with
customers, working towards making supply chains more socially responsible. This is based
on democratic and ethical decision making, taking responsibility for the impacts created by
the companys products and services on both customers and the wider community (which are
affected by negative externalities from other citizens consumption). Some of the areas of
action noted by customers were: the traceability of products, packaging integrity, product
labelling, health and safety of customers, responsible marketing, education and customer
privacy.
The companies studied guaranteed their customers quality products by defining
requirements and technical specifications which are subject to rigorous quality control and
legislative compliance within the companys sector of activity. These measures ensure the
health and safety of the customers and end consumers by controlling raw materials,
components and packaging.
Some of the companies are more forthright about their commitments in this area. This is
the case of C7 which runs responsible marketing campaigns based on commitments with
associations in the sector, amid other activities, such as: improvements in nutritional
information, including recommended daily intake on the label of the products; or bringing out
new products with a low glycaemic level. Company C4 commits itself to supplying its
customers and end consumers sufficient and reliable information regarding the nature, origin,
proper use and disposal of products. Companies C2 and C3 are measuring their carbon
footprint; in the case of C2, the companys activity is shown to benefit the planet in terms of
greenhouse gas emissions, absorbing more CO2 than it emits.
All the companies are united in their effort and dedication towards the question of
sustainability. These companies do not consider sustainability to be just a legal obligation, but

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they believe that besides making profits, they have to work to achieve benefits for all
interested parties, society and the surrounding environment.

3.3. Performance
After having collated the data for the eight companies being studied, the most common
indicators of economic and social performance were listed, as shown in Table 6.
Table 6 shows commonly used indicators by companies to measure economic and social
performance. As can be seen in the table, the economic indicators used to measure economic
performance are sales and EBITDA (Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and
Amortization).
In relation to the social indicators, the number of accidents and the frequency index are
monitored by all companies in the study. Six companies monitor the severity index and five
companies monitor the number of working days lost. The incidence rate and the number of
working hours lost due to illness are monitored by four companies.
Only three companies monitored the indicator covering workplace related illnesses. As
with the environmental indicators, C3 stands out by using a BSC for health and safety, with
indicators defined in four areas: accidents and workplace related illness; working conditions;
supply chain and stakeholders; and emergencies and continuous improvement. Only one
company monitors workplace incidents which follow the same process of analysis as that for
accidents.
Out of all the indicators used to measure external social practices, the customer
satisfaction rate is one of the indicators used by all of the companies to measure collaboration
with customers. Those companies that measure collaboration with the community use the
number of activities carried out, and, more generically, the result obtained from those
activities. As regards social collaboration with suppliers, the indicators used for measuring
this practice are related to supplier evaluation.
To study the relationship between the implementation of social practices and the
economic and social performance, a comparative analysis of the data for the eight companies
was carried out. To collect evidence of this relationship, the different interviewees were
questioned regarding the particular relationship that they felt existed between the
implementation of social practices and performance.
Table 6. Performance indicators
Economic Indicators
Sales
EBITDA

Social Indicators
Number of accidents
Number of working hours lost due to illness
Accident frequency index
Accident severity index
Absenteeism rate
Overall staff turnover rate
Training hours per employee
Age profile
Breakdown by gender

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While certain trade-offs are considered part of the relationship between implementing
social practices and economic performance, three companies studied found that social
practices generate a positive effect on economic performance, increasing motivation,
satisfaction and pride among employees, with consequent effects on the product quality,
productivity and profitability for the company. However, differing opinions exist in two of
the companies, referring to difficulties in establishing a positive relationship between internal
social practices and performance. According to the interviews given, the relationship between
social practices and environmental performance (where this relationship was found to exist) is
positive. For most companies, this is a relationship that is hard to verify, although the
existence of environmental and social awareness by the employees does lead to a reduction in
risk.
Generally speaking, all companies studied were found to be unanimous in their opinion:
there is a positive relationship between implementing practices of health and safety and social
performance. This positive relationship is enhanced by drops in absenteeism, the number of
accidents and their severity, as well as costs associated with overtime all factors which
understandably have considerable economic impacts. It is without doubt that a win-win
relationship exists between internal social practices and social performance, with effects on
economic performance.
External social practices, namely those focused on the community, do not have a positive
relationship with economic performance. However, the objective is not to achieve an increase
in performance; these practices are related to the culture of the organisation, with a set of
intrinsic principles and values which have repercussions on reputation and image in the
marketplace. In other words, besides the internal impacts, the external impacts are reflected in
the recognition of companies by the wider community, such as with awards, partnerships
being forged with NGOs and participation in different research projects with different
stakeholders.

CONCLUSION
This chapter sought to analyse social practices and their relationship with economic and
social performance. To this end, a literature review was carried out to identify the internal and
external social practices and the associated performance indicators. Using eight medium and
large Portuguese companies, the most common practices used by the companies were
identified, along with the economic and social key performance indicators. An analysis of the
relationship between social practices and performance then followed.
The study carried out found that the actions of companies cannot be dissociated from
access to the resources that support their activities and the way in which they organise their
processes and implement social practices for continuous improvement of their businesses.
All companies studied employ widespread use of social practices, namely internal
practices. Application is based on certified management systems (reflecting internationally
recognised standards), and inter functional cooperation, that is enshrined in annually defined
objectives covering the different departmental managers, using diverse management
methodologies.

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All except two of the companies embrace external social practices, developing actions in
the community of a social nature that are designed to increase employee awareness of the
importance of adopting sustainable behaviours, implementing activities for and with the
community. The companies studied guarantee their customers a quality product by defining
technical requirements that are subject to rigorous quality control and the legislation in the
sector where the company operates. Some companies are more forthright about their
behaviour in this area, using responsible marketing campaigns which vary depending on the
size of the company and the resources available. Nevertheless, the absence of joint decisions
to reduce environmental impact, with no joint plans implemented to anticipate and resolve
environmental problems, leads us to conclude that the implementation of such practices is
limited.
It is worth noting that the commitment to social practices varies according to the strategy
and size of the company, the financial resources and the needs and demands of the customers.
The observed diversity increases when considering training and awareness projects involving
employees and the levels of social collaboration with the community, suppliers and
customers.
Overall, drawing on the experience of the eight companies studied, it can be concluded
that implementing social practices has a positive impact on the social performance of the
company. Differing opinions were found in relation to the impact on economic performance.
However, when a relationship was found to exist, most interviewees thought it positive.
These results can help the professionals to understand how to implement social practices and
identify the impact that each practice has on performance. It can also help companies to
decide which social practices should be implemented, considering their relative social and
economic impact.
As with any other study, there are some recognisable limitations here which can
hopefully be improved upon with future studies. In particular, while the sample includes
companies from different sectors of the economy, it is based on a sample of eight case
studies. This limits the possibilities for generalising the results obtained to other contexts.
One of the paths for future work relates to the possibility of generalising the conclusions
obtained to other contexts. This can be done by replicating the research using other
companies in other sectors or by applying the methodology to small and medium sized
companies from other sectors of the Portuguese economy. Another suggestion for carrying
out future work would be the use of longitudinal case studies. This approach would help
analyse the implementation and structural dimensions of social practices and economic and
social performance over time. This technique benefits the analysis by providing a more
complete vision of the phenomenon, especially as sustainable management of the supply
chain is an emerging area, and the attitudes and behaviours can change significantly between
the short and long term.

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Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 17

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN THE PAMPAS


REGION, ARGENTINA
Silvana Irene Torri
College of Agronomy, University of Buenos Aires
Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina

ABSTRACT
Increased human population has placed great pressure on agriculture to meet ever
growing demands for food, feed, fiber and energy. Conventional tillage has been long
associated with increased fertility, originated from the accelerated microbial oxidation of
organic matter and the release of plant nutrients. However, this practise has been found to
adversely affect soil structure and cause excessive breakdown of aggregates, leading to
soil degradation and yield decrease. Worldwide, most efforts are currently directed to soil
sustainable management in order to minimize negative anthropogenic impacts on soil
resource. This chapter examines the principles of sustainable agricultural production and
the history of sustainable agriculture in the Argentine pampas over the last decades.

1. INTRODUCTION
During the last decades, increased human population has placed great pressure on
agriculture to meet ever growing demands for food, feed, fiber and energy. In Latin America,
agricultural production increased by more than 50 percent from 2000 to 2012, whereas
eastern Europe and central Asia expanded their production by almost 40 per cent (FAO
2012). Long-term experiments have provided some data on how certain agricultural practices
may negatively affect certain soil parameters. Soil erosion, soil pollution by trace elements or
pesticides, loss of biodiversity, deforestation, eutrophication of water bodies and nitrate
leaching are some examples, among others. There is also an increasing social pressure to

Email: torri@agro.uba.ar

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mitigate these negative impacts on agricultural or surrounding natural environments and on


human health.
Tillage has long been an essential component of traditional agricultural systems. In the
past, conventional tillage systems ploughed the soil, turning the topsoil or the A layer
upside down so that buried soil was exposed to the atmosphere. This kind of tillage with
primary and secondary implements loosened and granulated the soil to prepare a seedbed for
germination and growth of crop plants. Conventional tillage has been long associated with
increased fertility, originated from the accelerated microbial oxidation of organic matter (AlKaisi, Yin 2005). This practise was also highly effective to clean the soil surface from annual
weeds (Ehlers, Claupein 1994). Soil tillage was performed with certain implements like
ploughs, disk harrows and rotary cultivators that allowed higher working depth and speed. In
some cases, however, intensive tillage has been found to adversely affect soil structure and
cause excessive breakdown of aggregates, leading to poor infiltration rates, plow pan
formation, soil surface sealing, erosion, and a decrease in soil organic matter content (Hamza,
Anderson 2005; Gmez et al., 1999). Consequently, yield potentials declined sharply over
time despite an increased use of inputs in the form of energy, fertilizers or pesticides, and the
introduction of crop rotations. As a result, researchers looked for alternatives to reverse soil
degradation originated from soil tillage. The logical approach has been to reduce tillage. In
this way, conservation tillage was introduced as an agricultural practice that seeks to reduce
soil disturbance in order to minimize loss of soil and water and to maximize soil cover by
residues.
The term sustainable agriculture was first used in 1950's by Gordon McClymont, an
Australian agricultural scientist. This term describes agricultural systems that are capable of
maintaining their productivity and usefulness to society indefinitely. It is nowadays widely
recognized that sustainable use of soil resources depends on three factors: soil characteristics,
related environmental conditions and land use. These factors interact in such a way that a
change in one factor causes alteration in the others. Taking into account that soil is a nonrenewable resource, and once degraded it poses an extremely slow rate of regeneration, most
efforts are currently directed to soil sustainable management in order to minimize negative
anthropogenic impacts.
Worldwide, adoption of conservation tillage continues to grow steadily. Although it is
difficult to get an accurate estimate of the total area covered, it has been estimated to be
practised on 45 million ha in 2004 (Holland, 2004), and has expanded to 125 million ha in
2012 (Kassam, Brammer 2013). This spread shows the great adaptability of conservation
tillage system to all kinds of climates, soils and crops.

2. PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION


Conservation tillage provides a means of profitable crop production, and denotes soil
management systems that result in at least 30% of the soil surface being covered with crop
residues after seeding of the subsequent crop, in order to minimize soil erosion (SSSA, 1997).
However, this term was slowly transformed into conservation (or sustainable) agriculture.
Conservation agriculture removes the emphasis from the tillage component alone and
addresses a more enhanced concept of the complete agricultural system (Verhulst et al.,

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2010). Conservation agriculture has been proposed as a widely adapted set of management
principles that can assure more sustainable agricultural production. Next to reducing soil
disturbance, it also recommends the preservation of a soil cover and the use of crop rotations.
Sustainable agriculture is deemed as the production of commodities (food, fiber or other plant
and animal products) emphasizing on the need to attain ecological, economic and social
sustainability. Conservation agriculture involves the application of three linked principles
which are applied simultaneously in the long term in order to develop synergies to optimize
natural resources management at the field level (FAO, 2012). These principles are:
1. minimum mechanical soil disturbance
2. retention of living or dead plant material as surface mulch
3. diversification of crop species grown in sequences and/or associations
The objective of reduced mechanical soil disturbance is to favour a better cohesion
between soil aggregates, to conserve soil moisture and reduce soil erosion. Sustainable
agricultural management includes a broad spectrum of different tillage practices, most of
which are non-inversion techniques. The no-till farming system is based on the complete
avoidance of tillage, except for that tiny slot needed to be opened on the soil to deposit seeds,
fertilizers or some other inputs. Other conservation tillage managements such as strip-till,
ridge-till or mulch-till constitute intermediate tillage intensity approaches.
Maintaining an effective amount of a continuous soil cover of living or dead plant
material as surface mulch is a crucial issue to protect soil from weather aggressions like the
physical impact of rain drops or erosion due to wind and/or water (Parr et al., 1990). A soil
surface reside cover of 30% or more decreases the amount of water evaporated from the soil
surface, increases water infiltration rates, suppresses weed growth and provides shelter and
food for soil biota (Blanchart et al., 2006). Levels of soil organic matter are built up in the
upper soil layer because decomposition of residues left on the soil surface is slow, loss of
nutrients are reduced, and soil temperature is moderated in favour of biological activity.
Ideally, the level of soil cover should be 100% of the soil surface, and never less than 30%.
Some authors reported that a residue cover of 20% to 30% after planting reduces soil erosion
by approximately 50% compared to a bare field (El Kateb et al., 2013).
The use of crop rotations or intercropping is considered essential to enhance the systems
resilience (Calegari, 2001). Plant species can include annual or perennial crops, trees, shrubs
and pastures in associations, sequences or rotations. The diversification of crop species offers
an option for pest or weed management by breaking the life cycle of insect pests, diseases and
weed (Sumner 1982). The use of deep-rooting leguminous crops in rotations or as intercrops
can further increase soil porosity as well as improve soil productivity through nitrogen
fixation (Thierfelder et al., 2012; Moreno et al., 2011). Added benefits of rotations include
increased biodiversity, a better use of natural resources through residue decomposition and
more efficient nutrient cycling.
Nevertheless, the three principles of sustainable agricultural production need to be
strengthened by additional best management practices. These include the use of well adapted
good quality seeds, enhanced and balanced crop nutrition, adjustment in fertilizer
management, integrated pests, diseases and weeds practices, and efficient water management
(Kassam et al., 2011).

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3. THE PAMPAS REGION, ARGENTINA


The Pampas Region, Argentina, is one of the largest temperate prairies of the world. It is
located in the Southern Hemisphere, between 32 to 39S and 56 to 67W (Figure 1). This
zone covers more than 52 Mha of agriculturally prime quality land. The region also includes
some areas which are marginal or unsuitable for cropping and are devoted to husbandry.

Figure 1. Pampas region, Argentina, and its subdivisions 1: rolling Pampa; 2: inland flat Pampa; 3:
inland western Pampa; 4: southern Pampa; 5: mesopotamic Pampa; 6: flooding Pampa. Provinces lying
partly within the area of interest are named and their boundaries shown (
). Isohyets
(
) and isotherms (
) are also shown.

The climate of the western Pampas region is humid, characterized by long warm
summers and mild winters, whereas the eastern region has a sub humid/semiarid climate.
Mean annual rainfall ranges from 600 mm in the west to 1200 mm in the east, whereas mean
annual temperature ranges from 14 C in the south to 21 C in the north.
The Aeolian sediments from which the soils of the Pampas have developed were brought
from the south west, resulting in a progressively finer texture from south-west to north-east.
This, combined with a gradient in rainfall which increases in the same direction, has produced
a geographic sequence of Mollisols, with Entic Haplustolls (US Soil Taxonomy, USDA,
1999) at the western limit of the region, and the progressive appearance of Entic Hapludolls,

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Typic Hapludolls, Typic Argiudolls and Vertic Argiudolls towards the east (Soriano, 1992).
These soils are associated with minor proportions of Aquolls in the drainage ways. The
variability in soil texture was originally caused by differences in the composition of the parent
material, but strong erosive processes, especially at the beginning of the agricultural period,
may have accentuated original differences (Covas, Glave 1988).
The Pampas was originally grassland, used primarily for livestock grazing with the
introduction of horses in 1536 and cattle in 1573. Cultivation began in the vastly fertile soils
of the central humid portion. In the last quarter of the 19th century, European immigrants
increased land cultivation, wide spreading to the south and the semiarid west regions. Due to
economic reasons, the cropped area gradually increased and the area under grazed pasture
diminished. Nowadays, row crop production is the basis of Argentinas economic
development. But in those days, it was usual to find mixed animal and crop production to
maintain soil fertility. The rotation included three to five years of wheat (Triticum aestivum)
and maize (Zea mays), followed by a similar period of pastures. This combination turned out
to be a very sustainable technology. With time, agriculture slowly became more profitable
and, in the northern region, was replaced by double cropping of wheat and soybeans (Glycine
max L. Merrill) (Cloquell, Denoia 1997). In the last two decades, many farmers in the
southern Pampas region also began to change to a continuous cropping system. In both
regions, agriculture was performed on well drained soils, with nearly 50% of the Pampas
Region cropped with soybean, maize and wheat. After several years, a large number of
farmers became aware that conventional tillage systems that employed the mouldboard plow
or disk were leading to a serious degradation of agricultural soils that inevitably led to a
decrease in productivity. Mobilization of topsoil by erosion processes and a net loss of soil
organic carbon (SOC) were noticed in different regions (Bernardos et al., 2001 Hevia et al.,
2003; Quiroga et al., 1996). Despite soil degradation, genetic improvement in wheat and corn
lead, in some cases, to yield increases (Calderini et al., 1999; Maddonni et al., 2000).
In order to overcome soil degradation, minimum mechanical soil disturbance was
introduced to the region as a new management practice. Panigatti (1998) reported that the first
no-till experiences occurred in the 1960s at the National Institute of Agricultural Technology
(INTA) research stations at Anguil (La Pampa province) and Pergamino (Buenos Aires
province). The advent of the no-tillage technology caused a paradigm shift in Argentina, and
the idea that tillage was necessary for crop production was finally abandoned. Since then,
adoption has increased year by year thanks to the intensive activities of the Argentinean
Association of no-till farmers (AAPRESID, Table 1). Nowadays, with more than 27 million
hectares under no-tillage systems, representing 78.5% of the country's arable land, Argentina
is among the first countries in terms of no-till adoption. No-till is almost exclusively
performed with disc seeders; and more than 70% of minimum mechanical soil disturbance in
Argentina is no till or zero till.
One of the main reasons that favoured the adoption of no till in the pampas region was
the economic benefit that the system offered: reduced labour requirement and reduction in the
use of fossil fuels (Daz Zorita et al., 2002). No-till seeding equipment manufacturers have
responded to the increasing demand in machines, facilitating the rapid growth of this
technology. No-tillage has even allowed expansion of agriculture to marginal soils in terms of
rainfall or fertility. Further benefits associated with conservation tillage included improved
soil physical properties and consequent increases in crop productivity, increased soil carbon
sequestration, better soil erosion control and soil water conservation (Gmez et al., 1999).

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Table 1. Area under no-tillage in Argentina

Year
Area (million hectares)
1993/94
1.81
1995/96
2.97
1997/98
5.00
1999/00
9.25
2001/02
15.10
2003/04
18.26
2005/06
19.72
2006/07
19,8
2007/08
22,6
2008/09
25,5
2009/10
25
2010/11
27,6
More information under Institucional, Siembra Directa at http://www.aapresid.org.ar/. Aapresid, 2012.

At present, agriculture in the Pampas region is very competitive and in the last five years
has been subjected to great technological changes. The widespread utilization of transgenic
crops, herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers, with no-till farming prevailing in about half of
the cropland area are some examples. As a result of this technological package, crop yields
have markedly increased in the last few years. Due to its competitive prize and the availability
of gliphosate-resistant soybean, about half of the arable land is cropped with transgenic
soybean. The rest of the area is cropped with maize, wheat, sorghum, sunflower (Helianthus
annus L.), or barley (Hordeum vulgare L). Minor annual forage crops include oat (Avena
sativa L.), triticale (Triticum aestivum), rye (Secale cereale L.) and pastures composed of
alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and fescue (Festuca arundinacea L.).
The use of cover crops has been widely proposed aiming different purposes, such as
reducing nitrate leaching from the soil profile or as nutrient source to the following crop
(Zotarelli et al., 2009), among other objectives. However, It is widely accepted that soybean
yields in the Pampas have been reported to be higher when the crop is grown as a sole crop in
the year than when it is sown as a second crop after wheat (Calvio et al., 1999, 2003).
Nonetheless, research in the Northern Pampas has demonstrated that the previous inclusion of
a winter cover crop does not affect soybean yield and water content at the time of sowing,
provided winter cover crop is killed at the beginning of the spring rainfall period or before.
Therefore, the winter season would be devoted to confer sustainability to the agricultural
system. In this way, most of the alternatives for sustainable cropping intensification in the
Argentinean Pampas seem to be centred in the winter season, since the most profitable,
productive crops occupy the summer season.

4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE


Most of the agricultural benefits of sustainable agriculture are related to increased organic
matter in the soil. Favourable agronomic impacts following the implementation of sustainable

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agriculture are related to soil physical, chemical and biological properties. The most relevant
environmental impacts are discussed below.

4.1. Soil Organic Carbon and Microbial Activity


Most of the agricultural benefits of conservation tillage are related to increased levels of
organic matter in the soil. The percentage of soil organic carbon (SOC) in the topsoil is
significantly higher under sustainable agriculture systems compared to conventional tillage
when averaged over fertiliser application means. An explanation to this is that, under
conventional tillage, moldboard plowing buries essentially all residues. The incorporation of
crop residues into the soil improves soil moisture and enhances the availability of substrates
to microbial attack by providing more direct contact between the residues and the soil
decomposers, increasing the oxidation of organic matter (Melero et al., 2009). Conversely,
crop residues remain on the soil surface under no till, resulting in slower decomposition of
plant residues, decreasing SOC losses. Moreover, plant residues reflect solar radiation,
insulating the soil. As a result, soil temperatures in surface layers can be significantly lower
(2-8C) under conservation tillage, limiting decomposition (Wang et al., 2012; Arora et al.,
2011). With time, organic mulch is developed on the soil surface, and this is eventually
converted to stable soil organic matter because of reduced biological oxidation compared to
conventionally tilled soils (Melero et al., 2009). Stratification of soil organic matter with
depth is typically observed in soils under conservation tillage (Zhang et al., 2011).
Stratication is characterized by a signicantly higher concentration of soil nutrients in the
surface layer (05 cm) and lower nutrient levels at the 1020 cm depth. The degree of
stratification of soil organic matter with conservation tillage depends upon i. the inherent
level of soil organic matter related to climatic conditions, ii. the type and intensity of soil
tillage, iii. type of residue produced, and iv. years of management. Decomposition is usually
faster as the nitrogen (N) concentration of residues increase and the carbon (C)/N ratio
decreases (Jensen et al., 2005).
Stratification of soil organic matter stabilizes soil moisture and reduces soil temperature
fluctuations in the surface layer. The accumulation of crop residues on the soil surface layer
greatly reduces soil evaporation and, in addition, improves soil water holding capacity. The
straw left on the surface of non-ploughed soils can be considered to be a key factor to
improve aggregate stability, to increase water infiltration, to provide protection against
erosive water forces and to reduce the formation of surface crusts. For these reasons, it has
been hypothesized that the degree of stratification of SOC with depth may be a good indicator
of soil quality (Franzluebbers, 2002). Stratification of SOC with soil depth was reported when
degraded cropland was restored with conservation tillage (Hernanz et al., 2009; Spargo et al.,
2012).
In the Rolling Pampa, Alvarez et al (1995) reported that conservation tillage systems
resulted in 42-50% more total SOC than conventional tillage systems at a soil depth of 0 to 5
cm. Likewise, in the Rolling Pampa an increase of 8% of organic matter in the top 20 cm was
measured under no-tillage compared with plow tillage in a long-term experiment (Daz et al.,
1995). As carbon inputs are usually similar between tillage treatments in this region,
difference in soil organic matter content may due to lower mineralization rates under notillage. Soil temperature difference between tillage systems were reported to be in the range

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1- 6C. In other studies, decomposition of maize residues under no-till treatment were
reported to be slower than when they were incorporated into soil by tillage. This has been
attributed to drier conditions in crop residues left on the soil surface (Sanchez 1988).
In the semiarid Pampas region, the inclusion of legumes and cattle grazing in crop
sequences on Entic Haplustolls from had positive effects on SOC and N contents (Miglierina
et al., 2000). Likewise SOC in the 030 cm layer was evaluated after 4 years of no-till.
Carbon accumulation increased with no-till crop production relative to the initial condition
(Diaz-Zorita et al., 2002).
An alternative to increase the amount of biomass returned to the soil is through the
sustainable intensification of agriculture. The intensification sequence index (ISI) is an
intuitive indicator that expresses the number of crops per year in a given crop sequence
(Farahani et al., 1998; Caviglia, Andrade 2010). Crop sequences usually grown in the Pampas
region usually show an ISI greater than 1, and include i) soybean, soybean, maize (3 years, 3
crops, ISI=1); ii) wheat, soybean, maize (2 years, 3 crops, ISI=1.5); iii) wheat, soybean,
wheat, soybean, winter cover crop, maize (3 years, 6 crops, ISI=2). The inclusion of cover
crops (CCs) during the winter season could be one strategy to increase the ISI in crop
sequences where soybean predominates (Martnez et al., 2013).
Microbial activity in the topsoil is higher under no till compared to conventional tillage
(Rabary et al., 2008). The straw left on the surface provides more substrates for microbes and
creates a stable environment for biological activity (Lupwayi et al., 2004). Micro and macro
faunal (earthworms) populations become more like those of natural soils. Soil fauna
decomposes the mulch, incorporates and mixes it with the soil, contributing to the physical
stabilization of soil structure. Moreover, larger organisms such as earthworms modify soil
physical structure by the creation of burrows, which can penetrate the sub-soil and control
soil aeration, improve fast water inltration and drainage, and decrease the risk of soil erosion
(Arden-Clarke, Hodges 1987).
In the semiarid Pampas region, the high SOC content in the top layer of no-tilled
promoted greater populations of earthworms (Falco et al., 1995). Fernandez Canigia et al.,
(2000 a,b) studied the effects of tillage practices and crop sequences on microbial diversity in
Typic Hapludolls under no-till. Results indicated that microbial diversity was more affected
by changes in crop productivity or the quality of crop residues than by tillage.

4.2. Soil Physical Properties


Soil structure is a key factor in soil functioning and in the evaluation of the sustainability
of crop production systems. Soil structure is the result of numerous soil processes that
continually interact, resulting in the arrangement of the solid parts of the soil and of the pore
space located between them (Marshall, Holmes 1979). Therefore, soil structure is vulnerable
to the type and intensity of tillage practices (Carter 2004; Garbout et al., 2013), especially in
the upper 5 cm of the soil profile. The physical disturbance and pulverization caused by
mouldboard plough alters aggregate-size distribution, typically by breaking apart the largest
soil aggregates and disrupting their formation and stabilization cycles (Six et al., 1999). The
aggregate formation process in conventional tillage is interrupted each time the soil is tilled
with the corresponding destruction of aggregates. Much of the environmental damage in
intensive arable lands such as erosion, desertification and susceptibility to compaction

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originate from soil physical degradation. Degradation of unprotected aggregates at the soil
surface results in the formation of crusts that reduce infiltration rate.
On the other hand, increased soil organic matter on the top layer due to no-tillage was
reported to improve aggregate stability, probably due to its binding effects on soil structure
(Sapkota et al., 2012). The enlarged biological and microbiological activity within the first
centimetres of the soil profile results in highly resistant soil aggregates. Increased aggregate
stability under limited tillage is associated to a higher proportion of macro and mesopores and
increased volumetric water content at field capacity (Chenu et al., 2000). Many studies in
different soil and climatic conditions have demonstrated a positive correlation between soil
organic matter and the structural stability of soil aggregates (Mikha, Rice 2004; Sapkota et
al., 2012).
In the pampas region, increase in soil aggregate stability in topsoil was widely reported as
a result of no till adoption (Colombani, 2004; Costa, Aparicio, 2006; Aparicio, Costa 2007,
Alvarez el al., 2009). Although macroporosity and water infiltration were also expected to
increase, several studies have shown that reduced till or no-till decreased macroporosity,
resulting in lower water infiltration rates (Taboada et al., 1998; Micucci and Taboada, 2006;
Sasal et al., 2006; Taboada et al., 2008). Results from Pergamino (Rolling Pampas) and
Anguil (semi-arid Pampas) indicated that soil physical status at the beginning of no-till
systems was a critical factor in the productivity of these soils (Ferrari, 1997; Quiroga et al.,
1998). The low macroporosity of the fine loamy soils of the western part of the Argentine
Pampas has been attributed to pedogenic factors (Taboada et al., 1998). In the northern
Pampas region, soils have a high fine silt content (60-65%) in the cultivated layer. Because of
this, compaction of the topsoil under no-till systems is a serious problem in the region
(Buschiazzo et al., 1999; Ferreras et al., 2000).
Conservation agriculture systems can induce higher infiltration rates, being sometimes
almost double of those of conventional systems. Surface residue cover reduces surface
sealing, thereby increasing water infiltration (Dardanelli, 1998). Furthermore, the mulch
limits the amount of solar energy reaching the soil surface, decreasing evaporation of soil
water by 10 to 50 % depending on the amount of mulch cover. This is a second reason for the
greater amount of soil water availability under reduced tillage systems. During the critical
period of water requirement, soil water content in the Pampas region was usually higher
under no-till than in conventional till. Soil water content differences were, in average, 7 mm
for soybean, 11 mm in for wheat and 19 mm in for corn, covering 1 to 3 days the
evapotranspiration demand during the flowering stage (Totis, Perez 1994). In the subhumid
and semiarid Argentinean Pampas, soil water contents were 11 to 15% greater with
conservation tillage than with conventional tillage at the end of the fallow period of different
crops (Buschiazzo et al., 1998).
Results from several studies have shown an increase in soil bulk density with the
conversion of conventional tillage to no-tillage (Arshad et al., 1999). Under conventional
tillage, bulk density in the plough layer is lowered by the mechanical inversion of the soil,
which increases soil porosity. Due to the lack of disturbance, bulk density was reported to be
significantly higher in no-till compared to conventional tillage management in the 05 cm
layer on Typic Argiudolls in the southern Pampas (Wyngaard et al., 2012; Fabrizzi et al.,
2005; Aparicio, Costa 2007). However, this trend was not observed in those soils in the 520
cm layer, indicating that the effect of the mechanical disturbance was just superficial.
Conversely, other studies reported that soil bulk density decreased with time (Pedrotti et al.,

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2005; Sapkota et al., 2012; Mupangwa et al., 2013). A plausible explanation is that mulching
may have reduced bulk density through promotion of aggregation and pore development in
the soil system as the residues decomposed. In the subhumid and semiarid Argentinean
Pampas, Buschiazzo et al., (1998) reported lower bulk density values in conservation tillage
compared conventional tillage. These results were associated with greater soil biological
activity, especially earthworms.
In long-term experiments in the pampas region, higher soil compaction was observed in
no-till compared to conventional till (Sasal et al., 2006, Daz-Zorita et al., 2002). This was
associated with a gradual consolidation of the soil matrix over time due to rain and the
absence of annual loosening. Daz-Zorita et al., (2002) reported that although bulk soil
density values were above the threshold limit for normal crop growth (Vepraskas, 1994), the
reduction in crop yield was related to differences in the bulk density of the 015 cm layer at
seeding. After some years of continuous no till, many soils of the pampas region developed
shallow compaction and topsoil hardening, resulting in an increase in bulk density,
mechanical resistance and decreased macroporosity (Taboada et al., 1998; Daz Zorita et al.,
2002; Sasal et al., 2006). Nonetheless, the hardness of these soils diminished when the water
content increased, so the period with potentially limiting soil impedance was less in no-till
soils than in tilled soils (Quiroga et al., 1998). Soil compaction occurs in no-till because
vehicle tyres or tracks impose loads that cause vertical and horizontal soil deformation,
reducing porosity. A compacted soil layer produces a mechanical impedance to root growth,
reducing the soil volume explored by roots for nutrients and water (Dexter, 2004).
Considering modern Argentina's farm machinery equipment, agricultural soils of the Pampas
region receive about 20 Mg km ha1 of traffic intensity during seeding operations. Although
this value represents only 20% of the total traffic compared to conventional tillage systems, it
occurs at a moment of minimum mechanical stability (Botta et al., 2008).

4.3. Soil Nutrients


Distribution of nutrients in soils under no tillage differs from tilled soil. One major
constraint of no till management systems is the stratification of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
potassium (K) and other nutrients with depth (Cade-Menun et al., 2010; Mallarino, Borges
2006). Stratification of soil nutrients results from minimal mixing of surface-applied
fertilizers and crop residues with soil, limited vertical movement of immobile nutrients and
nutrient cycling. The latter is the result of root absorption from deep to shallow soil layers and
deposition on the soil surface in the form of crop residue. Slower decomposition of surface
crop residues may prevent rapid leaching of nutrients, which is more probable under
conventional tillage when residues are incorporated into the soil. Furthermore, organic matter
improves the fertilization efficiency due to its high cation exchange capacity that prevents
nutrient losses (Kramer et al., 2006).
Under reduced till, soils are not removed or artificially aerated, so nitrate content
measured in a particular moment is usually lower compared to soils under conventional
tillage. The higher nitrate availability under conventional tillage is the result of tillageinduced oxidation of SOC. However, tilling the soil for SOC decay may not necessarily result
in nutrients being released at the most opportune time for crop uptake, resulting in a potential
loss due to leaching. Conversely, soils are cooler, wetter, and less well aerated under no till

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management, originating lower nitrogen mineralization rates (Echeverria, Sainz Rozas 2001).
Significant increases in total N have been measured with increasing additions of crop residue
(Dalal et al., 2011). Several studies showed a significant decline in nitrate losses in soils with
reduced tillage compared to conventional tillage. Under no tillage, inorganic N can be
immobilized in some situations, for example when surface crop straw has a large C/N ratio
composition. Maize and soybean residues immobilized a very low quantity of fertilizer N
during the wheat growing cycle. On the other hand, differences in decomposition between
incorporated residue and surface residue affect timing of nutrient release. Some authors
postulated that short-term no till may be considered as a soil building phase where higher
rates of N cycling are occurring (Soon, Clayton 2003). Nevertheless, nitrogen fertilizer
requirements usually increase under conservation agriculture (Martens, 2000).
In the Rolling Pampa, Alvarez (2009) analysed data from 35 essays and found an
increase in nitrate content before sowing of 21 kg ha1 under CT compared with NT.
Temperature was reported to be the most important factor regulating microbial mineralization
processes in the Pampas region. However, at the beginning of the 20082009, soil nitrate and
sulphate content were not affected by medium-term fertilization or tillage in the Southern
Pampas region. This behaviour was explained by the high precipitation prior to soil sampling,
which may have caused N losses by leaching (Wyngaard et al., 2012).
Stratification of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) at the soil surface (05 cm) has been
observed when no-till or other conservation tillage systems have been used for at least 3 or 4
years (Mallarino, Borges 2006). When soil moisture is adequate, nutrient stratification has not
been found to decrease nutrient availability because nutrients are absorbed as a result of root
activity near the soil surface. The straw left on the surface reduces water evaporation, and
helps to keep soil surface moist and cool, enhancing root activity near the soil surface.
However, P stratification is of concern for two reasons: low P concentrations in the rooting
zone may greatly reduce crop yields (Lupwayi et al., 2006) and high concentrations near the
soil surface may increase the runoff of dissolved P (Sharpley, Smith 1994). Numerous studies
have reported higher extractable P levels in zero tillage than in tilled soils, probably due to
reduced mixing of the P fertilizer with the soil, leading to lower P-fixation. It appears like that
no till enhances arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi development (Wright, 1998), improving P
uptake by lending their hyphal networks to plants (Nayyar et al., 2009). In a typic Argiudol of
the Southern pampas region, fertilization and tillage significantly affected P Bray
concentration in the 05 cm layer, whereas no differences between tillage systems were found
at the 520 cm layer (Wyngaard et al., 2012).
Stratication of soil K in no-till elds causes plant K uptake to be more dependent on
root system characteristics (Fernndez et al., 2008). Therefore, it may increase the likelihood
of K deciency in crop tissues as well as yield loss in growing seasons when drought occurs.
In the pampas region, the first soil analysis to measure soil fertility was performed in the
1930s. At that moment, very high levels of SOC, N, P and other nutrients were determined.
These findings validated the belief that Pampas soils were inherently rich in nutrients. For
many years, the doses of fertilizers applied replenished only a small percentage of the N, P, K
and S removed by wheat, maize, soybean and sunflower at harvest. Nowadays, soils of the
Pampas region are deficient in nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and, in the last years, sulfur (S),
but well provided with potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) under native
conditions.

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There is scarce information on the effects of tillage on crop yields in the Semiarid
Pampas region. In these soils, organic matter has been found to be closely related to soil
productivity, through its positive effects on soil aggregation and the storage and supply of
water and nutrients (D az-Zorita et al., 1999). It has been frequently demonstrated that in
semiarid regions, crop yields are commonly greater under conservation tillage to those under
conventional tillage due to greater soil water accumulation resulting from plant soil cover
(Lindwall et al., 1994). This agrees with the results of Buschiazzo et al., (1998) for soybean,
sorghum, and wheat cultivated in the subhumid and semiarid Argentinean Pampas. However,
yields of corn and sunflower may have been reduced by low soil temperatures at planting
time as compared to those with conventional tillage (Buschiazzo et al., 1998). In the humid
pampas region, the adoption of no-till or other limited tillage methods had no impact on
soybean, wheat or corn yields compared to conventional tillage if nitrogen fertilizer was used
to offset differences in nitrate availability (Wyngaard et al., 2012). Therefore, the increase in
crop yield in the humid Pampas region during the last decades does not seem to be related to
no-till adoption, but to the use of a technological package including transgenic crops,
herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers.

4.4. Water Quality


Water quality concerns from cropland are primarily from sediment, nutrient and pesticide
runoff. Conservation tillage practices have a major impact on water quality. The presence of
plant residues on the soil surface, and the stratification SOC increases water infiltration rates
(Franzleubbers 2008). As explained in a previous section, infiltration rate increases are a
consequence of improved topsoil macroporosity. On the other hand, residues intercept
rainfall, decreasing the impact of rain drops. Therefore, crop residues reduce runoff velocity
and give water more time to infiltrate. As a consequence, the risk for soil erosion to surface
waters is lessened, whereas ground water resources are replenished.
Surely, the major water quality benefit from conservation tillage systems is reduced soil
erosion and runoff. However, several studies have reported that the major proportion of P
loading of runoff is sediment-born P. This process is an important component of non pointsource pollution and may accelerate eutrophication of natural waters (Jordan et al., 2012; Gao
et al., 2012). Conservation tillage helps to reduce water runoff and soil erosion because of a
reduction in sediment-borne P (Franzleubbers, 2008). However, continual applications of
fertilizer to no-till soils may lead to a superficial accumulation of P, which in turn may
increase the potential for P loss in runoff waters. Devlin et al., (2000) reported that between
75-90 % of total P that moves into surface waters is attached to eroded soil particles.
Conservation tillage practices may greatly reduce this movement, but the remaining 10 to 25
% is dissolved in runoff water. Therefore, P fertilizers should be applied using Best
Management Practices (BMPs) according to soil test recommendations. Other authors have
also recommended that adoption of conservation tillage requires a change in fertiliser
application techniques and inputs (Gurung et al., 2012).
With more water entering the soil, the potential to contribute to groundwater quality
problems is increased. The creation of macropores consisting of worm holes, cracks or root
channels may encourage preferential flow from the soil surface to the soil profile (Shipitalo et
al., 2000). Macropores that are vertically oriented are more persistent under traffic than

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horizontal pores (Blackwell et al., 1990). Many of these pores would be biopores and would
extend well below the zone of tillage. Therefore, concern has raised on rapid nutrient
transport through these preferential flow paths to groundwater (Addiscott, Thomas 2000).
However, water infiltration, retention, and flow do not only depend on the quantity and size
of pores but also on the interconnectivity and shape of pores (Bouma, Anderson 1973). Drees
et al., (1994) found interconnection of fine macropores (50-100 m) throughout the profile in
zero tillage soil. Leaching of nitrate to groundwater may occur when nitrate in excess of crop
needs is present in the soil solution and water percolates through preferential flow paths. Risk
of leaching is greatest on coarse textured soils, with shallow aquifers being most vulnerable.
Although conservation tillage is sometimes hypothesized to increase the leaching risk due to
an increased pore connectivity within the soil, data comparing N dynamics under
conventional and conservation tillage are limited and inconclusive (Holland, 2004).

4.5. Pesticides
One of the main roles of tillage is to provide an efficient control of weeds. Competition
from weeds is the most important of all biological factors that reduce agricultural crop yield.
When tillage frequency and depth are reduced, fewer weeds are uprooted, dismembered, or
buried deep enough to prevent emergence (Peign et al., 2007). Tillage also changes the soil
climatic conditions which control weed dormancy, germination and growth, promoting or
inhibiting weeds germination and establishment. Reducing tillage intensity generally tends to
increase the concentration of weeds in the topsoil (Vasileiadis et al., 2007) and is very often
associated with an increase in herbicide use. In addition, the efficacy of many herbicides has
been shown to be reduced under conventional tillage due to i) increased adsorption in surface
layers of untilled soil with higher organic matter; ii) physical interception and adsorption of
soil surface residues; and iii) development of herbicide resistance. Therefore, an additional
concern is the perception that conservation tillage more heavily relies on pesticides to control
weeds, insects, and diseases than if tillage is used to suppress these problems.
In soils, pesticides can be found as dissolved molecules in the aqueous phase and/or as
molecules bound to the solid phase. The affinity of pesticides for the solid phase controls the
extent of sorption and thus their availability and their capacity to remain immobilized, to be
transformed, or to be transported in the environment. The accumulation of organic residues
on soil surface in conservation tillage generally leads to an increase in pesticides fixation in
this soil layer (Houot et al., 1997). The coarse SOM fraction (>50 mm) has greater capability
for binding pesticides than finer fractions (Barriuso et al., 1994). Theoretically, fixation and
accumulation of pesticides in the topsoil layers leave more time for microbial decomposition
and would be less prone to leach down the soil profile (Gavrilescu 2005). This is in part due
to soil organic matter stratification, which serves as an energy source for soil microorganisms.
Biotic degradation of pesticides is most often seen as quantitatively more important than
abiotic degradation. Depending its nature, interception of pesticides by superficial crop
residues may generate photodegradation, thus reducing the persistence of the molecules
(Selim et al., 2003). However, and in spite of all this background knowledge, runoff is one of
the major sources of non-point pesticide contamination of streams (Wauchope, 1978; Vera et
al., 2010).

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In the pampas region, there is very little data on the extent of water contamination, and its
source is more likely to be industrial rather than rural, given the historically low use of
fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. In the last years, due to increased use of herbicides and
pesticides, many researchers tried to assess the critical period in which pesticides would
transfer from the crop to the runoff in different crops (Jergentz et al., 2004; Jergentz et al.,
2005; Zanini et al., 2009; Vera et al., 2010; Mugni et al., 2011; Paracampo et al., 2012;
Mugni et al., 2012, among others).
Argentina is the worlds third largest transgenic soybean producer after the USA and
Brazil. Soybean production in Argentina has increased over the last decade, currently with 19
700 000 hectares of sowed area in 2012/2013. A total of 95% of this area corresponds to a
transgenic variety of glyphosate tolerant soybean, which is cultivated by direct sowing.
Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] is a broad-spectrum herbicide used to control a
wide range of pests and is the active principle in Roundup, a product widely applied in the
regional agriculture practice. Its wide use has led to controversy regarding its possible effect
on the environment. In the rolling pampas, the application period of pesticide for this crop is
between November to March. During this period, short and heavy rainfalls are very common
in this region and cause intensive surface runoff. Together with the suspended soil, pesticides
are transported to non-target compartments such as aquatic ecosystems (Peruzzo et al., 2008).
In the Rolling Pampas, glyphosate losses were reported to be lower that 0.03% by drainage
and 0.6 % by runoff throughout soybean growing period under no till (Sasal et al., 2010).
Likewise, rain increased the transport of glyphosate from the area of influence to downstream
sites, increasing glyphosate levels in the water stream (Sasal et al., 2010; Vera et al., 2010).
Although significant research advances have been made in the pampas region, the
environmental fate of pesticides under conservation tillage presents many contradictions and
remains poorly understood (Alletto et al., 2010).

CONCLUSION
Conservation tillage enhances the sustainability of agricultural systems, and minimizes
some environmental negative impacts of agricultural activities. Reduced tillage leads to
significant and complex changes in soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Several
soil properties were reported to improve as a consequence of decreased disturbance and the
maintenance of a crop residues cover in reduced or no-tillage systems: reduced soil erosion,
increased SOM, enhanced soil porosity, water holding capacity are some beneficial effects of
this practise. Lower susceptibility for soil crusting and erosion and a high abundance of
vertically oriented continuous earthworm burrows resulted in increased infiltration rates and
reduced soil losses Soil organic matter under conservation agriculture becomes increasingly
stratified over time. This stratification can be viewed as an improvement in soil quality.
Conservation tillage can mitigate sediment and nutrient loss to the environment. However,
runoff loss of bioavailable P and pesticides tend to be greater with conservation tillage than
with conventional tillage.

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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 18

TOURISM DEVELOPMENT THROUGH


SUSTAINABILITY
Antonis A. Zorpas1, Katia Lasaridi2 and Irene Voukkali3
1

Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Science,


Environmental Conservation and Management, Nicosia, Cyprus
2
Harokopio University, Department of Geography, Kallithea, Athens, Greece
3
EnviTech Ltd, (Institute of Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development,
Department of Research and Development) Paralimni, Cyprus

ABSTRACT
Despite recent economic downturns, tourism-related capital investment has grown
massively during the last few decades and is predicted to continue growing after 2010.
There is increasing motivation from both the private and the public sectors to make this
investment more sustainable. There is also increasing awareness of the need to conserve
the unique natural, social and cultural assets of destinations. It is clear that a healthy
environment maintains the competitive advantage of a destination. Consumers also have
greater opportunities and access to information, and can better assess the sustainability of
their travel choices. However, the tourism investment process is a complex one,
involving a variety of stakeholders whose differences in nature, scale of operation and
planning time horizons make the effective application of sustainability principles to
tourism investments a difficult task to achieve. EU recorded in excess of more than 400m
visitor arrivals in 2010. Tourism, directly and indirectly, accounts for around 10% of
European GDP and 20m jobs. Tourism is the largest industry in the world with impacts to
match.

Tel: +357-99532025, +357-22411600 antonis.zorpas@ouc.ac.cy, antoniszorpas@yahoo.com.


Tel: +30-210-9549164, klasaridi@hua.gr.

Tel:+35723743440; Fax: +35723743441. www.envitech.org, irenevoukkali@envitech.org,

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1. INTRODUCTION
Tourism activities are considered to be one of the sources of economic growth in the
world. Tourist spending has served as an alternative form of exports, contributing to an
ameliorated balance of payments through foreign exchange earning in many countries. A
balanced and harmonic growth of tourist economy in relation to the other sectors of economic
activity and mainly the most basic sectors, such as agricultural and industrial economy,
ensures with the types of nutrition and the capital equipment the production of tourist
products, which are necessary for the satisfaction of tourist needs or wishes. As a result, the
development of tourism has generally been considered a positive contribution to economic
growth. On the past, international tourism has been gaining importance in many economies of
the world. It continued to grow throughout the world, in line with strong world economic
expansion especially in countries with high tourist outflows. The number of tourists
worldwide went up in 2008 to almost 914 million. Europe remains the leading tourist
destination in world with 492 million visitors, posting a market share of 53.8% in 2008
(World Bank 2010).
There has been a number of empirical studies, focus on investigating the relationship
between tourism development and economic growth. Many studies about the relationships
between tourism development and economic give different results for different countries in
the same subject or region, different time periods within the same country and different
methodologies in different regions. However, such country analysis is invaluable for those
countries when they design their specific strategy.
However, when many countries (as Mediterranean countries) have the same aim for
tourism development, called for further in-depth studies, suggesting researchers might like to
compare inter-country relationships between economic development and tourism activity.
Responding for a better understanding of the relationship between groups of countries and
their interactions, it is recommended that the panel data approach be taken (Lee and Chang,
2008). There are cross-sectional studies, panel data-based studies and time-series studies.
Among the main issues examined has been cointegration between tourism and economic
growth and Granger causality in order to examine the direction of causation. Balaguer and
Cantavella-Jorda (2002) studied the role of tourisms long-run economic development in
Spain. The hypothesis of tourism-led economic growth was confirmed by applying
cointegration and causality tests. Eugenio-Martin et al. (2004) investigate the relationship
between tourism and economic growth for Latin American countries from 1985 until 1998.
They have underscored the fact that the tourism sector is conducive to economic growth in
medium- and low-income countries. With this in mind, dissimilarities in the degree of
economic development in various regions are considered to determine if tourism development
and the growth relationship differs for developed and developing economies. Consistently,
the empirical results by Kim et al. (2006) also indicated a long-run equilibrium relationship
and bidirectional causality between the two factors in examining the relationship between
tourism expansion and economic development in Taiwan using a Granger causality test and
cointegration approach.

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1.1. Why Go Sustainable?


The increasing demand for new tourism investment has enlarged the destinations/tourism
products choice set. As a consequence, fierce competition between destinations and
competition within destinations has arisen. The success of a destination depends on the image
perceived by potential tourists and on its competitive advantage, an advantage determined by
both fixed and variable determinants. Fixed determinants include distance from point of
origin (i.e. travel time and cost of travel from point of origin) and the attractiveness of the
destination, represented by long-term characteristics and tourists previous knowledge of
climate, culture, natural beauty and its unique qualities, among others. Variable determinants,
on the other hand, include relative prices and the quality of the tourism experience,
represented by popularity (and hence tourist congestion), authenticity, environmental quality
or skilled labour force.
Tourism development brings new circumstances that can affect the competitive
advantage of a destination severely. Development can affect tourist congestion, the
authenticity of a destination and the quality of its ecosystems. The competitive advantage of a
destination, on the other hand, may be enhanced by both public and private investment. The
challenge lies in coordinating the size, pace and form of these investments to heighten, rather
than detract from, competitive advantage. Ideally, the competitive advantage should be
sustained or strengthened over time in order to ensure long-term destination success and thus,
a constant flow of resources. Sustainable competitive advantage is achieved if sustainable
tourism practices are applied. Indeed, sustainable competitive advantage is a subset of
sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism takes into account economic, environmental and
socio-cultural dimensions simultaneously, where a balance between these dimensions is
necessary to guarantee long-term sustainability. According to the World Tourism
Organization (2004), sustainable tourism should make optimal use of environmental
resources, respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities and ensure viable, longterm economic operations, providing socio-economic benefits to all core stakeholders. Further
analysis of these dimensions has been provided by UNWTO/UNEP (2008) who developed a
goal-based approach to sustainable tourism. According to UNWTO/UNEP sustainable
tourism should include: resource efficiency, environmental purity, economic viability, local
prosperity, employment quality, social equity, visitor fulfilment, local control, community
wellbeing, cultural richness, physical integrity and biological diversity (see Figure 1).
Thus, in order to succeed, sustainable tourism requires the combined effort of the host
community, tourists and private and public sectors. The public sector needs to set up the
planning, regulation and monitoring that satisfy the niche market they have decided to cater
for and the related tourism development strategy. The private sector is particularly interested
in the dimensions that enhance the competitiveness of the destination and the adequate set and
equitable application of the rules of the game so that this competitiveness is maintained in the
future. In general, the private sector is more focused on competition within the destination
while the public sector is more interested in competition between destinations. For this
reason, an adequate balance between the quality and the price of the product is difficult to
achieve. If tourists are more informed and aware of the need for and possibility of sustainable
tourism options this is then translated progressively into greater demand for sustainable
tourism products. In this sense tourists need to be able to identify clearly, and in a credible
way, which organizations and which destinations put sustainable tourism into practice. Tour

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operators and other intermediaries could play a key role in raising this awareness, as well as
promoting sustainability on site. Adequate and comparable market signalling of tourism
products is required, so that the private sector has a more tangible set of objectives to pursue
and potential tourists can be better informed about tourism products.

Figure 1. UNWTO/UNEP goal-based approach to sustainable tourism Each dimension of sustainable


tourism requires the close liaison between community, private and public sectors with different
intensity. The best way to understand these interrelations and the repercussions for sustainable tourism
is to look at the tourism investment process. From UNEP-WTO (2005) Making tourism more
sustainable A guide for Policy Makers.

Each dimension of sustainable tourism requires close liaison between community, private
and public sectors. From the perspective of economics, recreational landscapes are common
goods supported by multi-functional ecosystems and this is why cooperation between
different stakeholders is so critical. The best way to understand these interrelations and the
repercussions for sustainable tourism is to look more closely at the tourism investment
process.

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1.2. Tourism As an Investment Process


Tourists require a wide range of goods and services in order to travel. Most tourists
require at least five: travel agents, transport, accommodation, catering and entertainment
services at the chosen destination. The question that arises is how much of the investment in
these activities corresponds to tourism investment. For instance, while the construction of a
new road or a new airport may be of vital importance for tourism at a particular destination, it
is unclear whether such investment can be fully identified as tourism investment because of
its impact upon other economic activities. Indeed, according to Salma (2006) there are
substantial gaps and limitations, in both the definition and the measurement of tourism
investment and related variables. It can be argued, though, that any increase in capital stock
or productive capacity in the tourism industry belongs to tourism investment. A sequential
approach to the tourism investment process is presented below. While it may not conform to
all tourism projects, it gives a good approximate representation of the majority of them.

1.3. Management
Tourism operators are the key players in tourism management. Their role normally
begins at the end of the investment process, once development is complete. However, recent
analyses show that they could have a much more important bearing on destination planning
and growth. The operator is frequently more interested in sustainability than the
owner/builder. For example, lower energy and water costs are of interest to the operator, but
not necessarily to the owner who may wish to maximize short-term profitability. Tourism
operators handle the day-to-day running of tourist complexes (including accommodation and
leisure activities). For this group, not only is the site itself important (for access and
environmental reasons), but also the quality of facilities (including infrastructure and
architecture) and the target market. Using this information, operators can make profit
estimates. Their consistent presence puts tourism operators in a unique position to implement
environmental management strategies (like recycling or energy conservation measures) and
encourage owners to consider design options. If they are involved from the initial stages of
the tourism investment project, these management prerogatives can become part of the project
design. Large multinational tour operators an important subset of tourism operators are
often vertically integrated (UNCTAD, 1999). This allows them to maintain various links in
the distribution chain by exercising their management control over the fleet of planes, cruise
lines, a network of agencies, and hotels. Such vertical integration places them in a powerful
position in relation to destinations and hotel owners (Endo, 2006). Large multinational
tourism operators are often no longer owners of the properties they run. Their degree of
participation in hotels is classified into: equity investment ensuring some management
control; minority equity investment including joint venture; leasing agreement; management
contract; franchise agreement. Transnational corporations combine the above modes of
operations that best fit their interests according to the conditions of host countries. The modes
of operations differ even within the same hotel group, depending on the class of hotels and
the destination (Endo, 2006).

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2. CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY
The concept of sustainability was derived from environmentalism and grew to
prominence in the 1970s. In tourism, the World Tourism Organization (WTO, 2004)
proposed a definition of sustainable tourism development (STD) that meets the needs of
present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future.
It is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social
and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological
processes, biological diversity and life support systems. Cater (1993) also identified three key
objectives for STD, which refer to meeting the needs of the host population in terms of
improved living standards in both the short and long term, satisfying the demands of a
growing number of tourists, and safeguarding the natural environment in order to achieve
both of the preceding aims. STD has attracted a lot of research interest and it has become a
tourism management guideline. Tourism development is a dynamic process of matching
tourism resources to the demands and preferences of actual or potential tourists (Liu, 1994).
Therefore, implementation of STD requires a rigorous monitoring mechanism to achieve a
balance point between stakeholders. Monitoring is the process of undertaking regular
measurements of one or more phenomena in order to assess their change over time. Indicators
serve as benchmarks to evaluate the sustainability of tourism development. Sustainability
indicators are useful tools (Zorpas et al., 2010). They are helpful in linking monitoring
programs with the evaluation process and, when linked to targets, they provide criteria by
which to judge progress. Hence, the introduction of indicators plays a crucial role for STD.
As Butler (1999) suggested, the term of sustainable development is meaningless without
indicators.
After more than a decades debate on STD, there is still disagreement on what should be
sustained and on the appropriate indicators for measuring sustainability (Liu, 2003). Previous
works have developed STD indicators, such as Miller (2001) and Twining-Ward & Butler
(2002). However, their indicators depicted only the progress on each aspect of STD, they
failed to display the progress as a whole. Ko (2001) divided components of STD into the
human system and the ecosystem and devised a barometer of tourism sustainability
(BTS) to assess progress of tourism sustainability. However, the BTS model assumes that all
indicators are of equal importance, although this is unlikely to be the case. This may lead to a
misleading perception of tourism development sustainability for any particular destination.
Furthermore, STD issues are different from destination to destination. Hence, it is necessary
to apply a different evaluation framework to each particular destination.
Small islands are the most popular and visited destinations in the world over time. They
generally possess a rich diversity of endemic flora and fauna but relatively few natural
resources. Their geographical isolation, small economy and dependence on a narrow range of
products often lead them to be highly dependent on exchange with external markets and
vulnerable to external shocks. Therefore, small islands are expected to face many challenges
and constraints in pursuing sustainable development due to their ecological fragility and
economic vulnerability (Ghina, 2003). The benefits of tourism development to small islands
are increased tax revenues, expansion of otherwise limited employment opportunities,
promotion of business development, improved life of local residents and so on. Nevertheless,
tourism development can also jeopardize the sustainability of small islands. Britton (1982)

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explained how tourism on small islands is often characterized by substantial economic


leakages because of high dependence on imported goods and a tendency of the industry to
employ external labor, especially in senior positions. Threats to sustainability emerge in
specific regions that have distinctive social and ecological attributes, and which provide the
conceptual framework in which progress in integrative understanding and management is
possible (Twining-Ward & Butler, 2002). The assumption that STD issues are similar from
place to place is not reasonable.
The term sustainable development has been widely used, with multiple meanings, in
very different settings. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
From this definition it can be deduced that, in general, an activity is sustainable whenever it
can be carried out continuously in the course of the time without diminishing either its
characteristics or effects. As a matter of fact, different activities have distinct characteristics,
which may determine the feasibility of a development model. One of the intrinsic
characteristics of tourism (which fundamentally differentiates it from other economic
activities) is that in order to enjoy a tourism product it is necessary to move to the physical
location (municipality) where the good is produced. This implies that tourism-related
activities impinge several types of impact on a jurisdiction. According to the United Nations
(Zorpas et al., 2008, 2010; Zorpas and Voukkali, 2010), there are three types of impact:
1. Impacts on the environment (both natural and manmade): Two types of impact, of
opposite sign, exist. On the one hand, many tourism activities (especially those
linked with the construction of general infrastructures and tourism facilities) may
have a negative impact on the environmental resources on which they depend,
damaging or destroying them. On the other hand, by raising financial resources and
the tourists awareness of environmental values, tourism can increase the
preservation of the environment.
2. Socio-cultural impacts: They involve the effects on host communities of direct and
indirect relations with tourists, and of interaction with the tourism industry. Tourism
activities may imply negative impacts when they bring about changes in value
systems and behavior threatening indigenous identity changes in community
structure, family relationships, collective traditional life styles, ceremonies and
morality. However, tourism may have positive effects whenever it serves as a force
for peace; it fosters pride in cultural traditions and, by creating local jobs, helps
avoiding urban relocation.
3. Economic impacts: Likewise environmental and sociocultural impacts, they can be
either positive or negative. Negative impacts are related to the resources required to
provide the infrastructures that sustain the tourism industry, the increase in prices
linked to increasing demand for basic services and goods from tourists, the
emergence of economic dependence of the local community on tourism or the
seasonal character of jobs, among many others. Positive impacts are related to
foreign exchange earnings, the contribution to government revenues, the generation
of employment, the stimulation of infrastructure investment and the contribution to
local economies, for instance. In view of the impacts above, according to the World
Tourism Organization (WTO, 2004) to be sustainable a tourism model should:

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a.

b.

c.

Make optimal use of the environmental resources that constitute a key element in
tourism development, maintaining essential ecological processes and helping to
conserve natural heritage and biodiversity.
Respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities, conserve their built
and living cultural heritage and traditional values, and contribute to inter-cultural
understanding and tolerance.
Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing socio-economic
benefits to all stakeholders that are fairly distributed, including stable
employment and income-earning opportunities and social services to host
communities, and contributing to poverty alleviation. Besides tackling the
different aspects above, sustainable tourism development requires the informed
participation of all relevant stakeholders, as well as strong political leadership to
ensure wide participation and consensus building. Achieving sustainable tourism
is a continuous process and it requires constant monitoring of impacts,
introducing the necessary preventive and/or corrective measures whenever
necessary (WTO, 2004). Finally, sustainable tourism should also maintain a
high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a meaningful experience to the
tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability issues and promoting
sustainable tourism practices amongst them

2.1. Aims for the Sustainability of European Tourism


During 2005 the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) identified an agenda of 12 aims for sustainable tourism,
(UNWTO/UNEP, 2005). Those 12 aims are:
i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

Economic viability: ensure viability and competitiveness of tourism destinations and


enterprises, so that they are able to continue to prosper and deliver benefits in the
long term (trying to understand the market, maintaining good trading conditions,
maintaining an attractive destination, delivering business support)
Local prosperity: maximize the contribution of tourism to the economic prosperity of
the host destination, including the proportion of visitor spending that is retained
locally (reducing leakages, strengthening business to business linkages, diversifying
products and extend length of visitors stay etc)
Employment quality: strengthen the number and quality of local jobs created and
supported by tourism, including the level of pay, condition of service and availability
to all without discrimination by gender, race, disability or in other ways (encouraging
enterprises to provide skills training programs and career advertisement, concerning
about the workers who lose their jobs etc)
Social equity: to seek a widespread and fair distribution of economic and social
benefits from tourism throughout the recipient community, including improving
opportunities, income and services available to the poor (supporting social programs,
voluntary giving, developing income earning opportunities for disadvantaged people)
Visitor fulfillment: provide a safe, satisfying and fulfilling experience for visitors,
available to all, without discrimination by gender, race, disability or in other ways

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(monitoring quality of services, visitors satisfaction, providing holiday opportunities


for the economically and socially disadvantaged etc.)
vi. Local control: engage and empower local communities in planning and decision
making about the management and future development of tourism in the area, in
consultation with other stakeholders
vii. Community well-being: maintain and strengthen the quality of life in local
communities, including social structures and access to resources, amenities and life
support systems, avoiding any form of social degradation of exploitation
viii. Cultural richness: respect and enhance the historic heritage, authentic culture,
traditions and distinctiveness of host communities (ensuring effective management
and conservation of cultural and historic heritage sites, improving the level of
maintenance of the wider built environment etc.)
ix. Physical integrity: maintain and enhance the quality of landscapes, both urban and
rural, and avoid the physical and visual degradation of the environment (minimizing
the impacts of construction and operation of tourism facilities)
x. Biological diversity: support the conservation of natural areas, habitats, and wildlife,
and minimize damage to them (promoting the development of ecotourism, raising
support for conservation from visitors and enterprises)
xi. Resource efficiency: minimize the use of scarce and non-renewable resources in the
development and operation of tourism facilities and services (minimizing water
consumption, energy consumption, promoting reduce, reuse, recycle)
xii. Environmental purity: minimize the pollution of air, water and land and the
generation of waste by tourism enterprises and visitors (promoting the use of more
sustainable transport, reducing the use of environmentally damaging chemicals etc.)
The EU Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) provides three key objectives:
Economic Prosperity, Social Equity and Cohesion, and Environmental Protection. Taking
each of these in turn, while reflecting on the above 12 aims, the following aims for the
sustainability of European Tourism are proposed:
1. Economic prosperity
a. To ensure the long-term competitiveness, viability and prosperity of tourism
enterprises and destinations.
b. To provide quality employment opportunities, offering fair pay and conditions
for all employees and avoiding all forms of discriminations
2. Social equity and cohesion
c. To enhance the quality of life of local communities through tourism, and engage
them in its planning and management.
d. To provide safe, satisfying and fulfilling experience for visitors, available to all
without discrimination by gender, race, religion, disability or in other ways.
3. Environmental and cultural protection
e. To minimize pollution and degradation of the global and local environment and
the use of scarce resources by tourism activities
f. To maintain and strengthen the cultural richness and biodiversity and contribute
to their appreciation and conservation.

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The above aims should also apply to policies and actions affecting the impact of outgoing
tourism from Europe and support the industry as an international development tool.

3. TOURISM IN THE MEDITERRANEAN


While tourism provides certain economic benefits to a region, it also causes troubles to
the local way of life, to social structures, and to the environment. The Mediterranean Sea
receives 10 billion tones of industrial and urban waste per year with or without any
purification. The production of wastewater and solid waste in tourist areas often exceeds the
carrying capacity of local infrastructures due the high seasonal demand. Pollution also gives
negatively affects to the water quality in beach areas and drinking water supplies. The growth
of tourism will continue to damage landscapes, cause soil erosion, and increase waste and
pollution discharges into the sea and lead to cultural disruption (Zorpas et al., 2008; Zorpas
and Voukkali, 2010).
The Mediterranean is the main tourist destination in the world. Every year millions of
people flock to the Mediterranean coasts, with the number likely to reach between 235 and
355 million people per year by 2025 (Zorpas et al., 2008). Tourism activity peaks in summer,
coinciding with the time when natural water availability is at its lowest. Storing water in dams
and extracting groundwater have, until now, been the solutions to satisfying the ever increasing thirst for water by ever-increasing numbers of tourists. As a consequence, tourism
is making a major contribution to the degradation and destruction of water ecosystems as
rivers are being fragmented, groundwater levels are sinking and wetlands are drying out.
Lower groundwater levels are not only causing habitats to disappear but are having a negative
impact on human communities as the groundwater that is used for drinking water and
irrigation is becoming saltier and requires treatment or the total abandonment of the resource.
Every tourist consumes between 300 and 850 litres of water per day. This rate could be
reduced by 50%, a daily total of 273.000.000 cubic meters of water basically compensating
for the forecasted increase in tourist numbers and associated water consumption by 2025.
Hosting, entertaining and supplying the increasing number of tourists along the limited space
of the Mediterranean coast will push urban boundaries further inland, most likely destroying
in the process the few remaining coastal wetlands and lagoons. Reducing water consumption
and preventing encroachment into wetlands can only be achieved if the tourism industry, the
government and individual tourists take concrete measures, such as installing water saving
devices, reusing water, enacting water saving policies and adopting a land use plan that
respects environmental considerations. Saving water does not have to incur additional costs
but can be economically advantageous as hotels save on their water bills. In addition,
protecting wetlands means maintaining one of the attractions that people come to see. The
present report gives an overview of the current impact of tourism on freshwater resources and
freshwater ecosystems and the underlying causes in the Mediterranean. Recommendations for
reducing water consumption are given for the tourism industry, governments and the
individual tourist. A case study presents a positive example of municipal water saving.
Finally, facts, data and examples are given for tourism and water consumption in selected
countries (Zorpas and Voukkali, 2010).

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The Mediterranean region is the leading tourist destination worldwide. Tourism is mainly
concentrated in the coastal areas that receive 30% of international tourist arrivals. The most
widely used tourism development model used in the region is based on seaside summer
holidays and the attainment of quantitative goals. Of the total 46,000 km of coastline, 25,000
km is urbanized and have already exceeded a critical limit.
International tourist arrivals (excluding domestic arrivals) in 1999 totaled 219.6 million
(4.7% increase over 1998). Projections show that this figure could reach 350 million by 2020.
84% of the tourists in the Mediterranean come from Europe, mostly from northern and
western countries.
Germany is the largest market followed by the United Kingdom, France and Italy. Spain,
France, Italy, and Greece receive almost 80% of Mediterranean tourism. The Mediterranean
receives 1/3 of the income of international tourism. Tourism receipts in 1999 totaled US$
131.8 billion. Over the last three years, 2/3 of the income returned to the hands of less than 10
tour operators from northern Europe.
The environment and society of many Mediterranean destinations are under threat due to
the inappropriate practice and development associated with mass tourism. With current
development models based on quantity, the projected growth of tourism development in the
region will continue to damage landscapes, cause soil erosion, put pressure on endangered
species, further strain available water resources, increase waste and pollution discharges into
the sea and lead to cultural disruption.
The Mediterranean is under threat due to the inappropriate practice and development
associated with mass tourism. With current development models based on quantity, the
projected growth of tourism development in the region will continue to damage landscapes,
cause soil erosion, put pressure on endangered species, further strain available water
resources, increase waste and pollution discharges into the sea and lead to cultural disruption.
Most Mediterranean coastal aquifers suffer from over-exploitation due to the
concentration of agriculture and tourism in coastal areas where the mild climate favours both
economic activities. Coastal groundwater has been reduced to below sea level by excessive
pumping in Cyprus, Greece, Israel, Italy, Libya, Spain (Plan Bleu, 1999) and Turkey (EEA,
2003).

3.1. The Weight of Tourism in SEMC (Southern and Eastern Mediterranean


Countries) Economies
With nearly 300 million international arrivals in 2010, i.e., approximately a third of the
total international tourist flow worldwide, the Mediterranean is the worlds premiere tourist
region. Due to the presence of the tourism giants of the north shore (France, Spain and Italy),
the SEMCs account for only a small percentage of the total (50 million). On the other hand,
their position in regional tourism is significant on the level of growth.
From 2005 to 2010, these countries experienced an average annual growth in number of
arrivals of 8%. In comparison, European Mediterranean countries not including Turkey
registered an average growth rate of 1% for the same period. The South has emerged in the
2000s as the main area of tourism growth in the Mediterranean Region (see Table 1).
The level of tourism development in the SEMCs remains highly uneven. On the South
Mediterranean there are both major tourist countries for which tourism has long been a

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strategic sector (Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt and Jordan) and countries closed to tourism
(Algeria and Libya).
Tourist affluence to countries of the Middle East (Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Palestinian
Territories) varies in alternating cycles according to the political crises striking the region,
although the general trend is towards growth in the ensemble of these countries. In the 20052010 period, it was Morocco, Egypt and Jordan that took the lead in the SEMCs with an
average annual growth rate (AAGR) of over 9% in arrivals and over 10% in international
tourism revenues. Tunisia, the pioneer of tourism development on the South Mediterranean,
has become the country with the poorest performance in the region.
Table 1. The Tourism Sector in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Countries
(SEMCs)
International
arrivals (1)
(in thousands)

Algeria
Egypt
Jordan
Israel
Lebanon
Libya
Morocco
Syria
Tunisia
Palestinian
Territories
Total

International Tourism Revenue (1) (in


millions of dollars)

Jobs in the Tourism


Sector (2) (in
thousands, 2010)

Tourism (1) Losses in


2011

2005

2010

AAGR
20052010

2005

2010

AAGR
20052010

Number
of Direct
Jobs

Number Drop in
of Indirect Arrivals
Jobs
in 2011

1443
8608
3200
1916
1140
n/a
6077
5859
6378
88

1912
14051
4557
2803
2168
34
9288
8546
6902
522

5.79
10.3
7.33
7.91
13.72
n/a
8.85
7.84
1.59
n/a

477
7206
2004
3427
5531
250
4610
1944
2143
119

n/a
12528
3413
4768
8012
60
6720
6190
2645
522

n/a
11.7
11.24
6.83
7.69
n/a
7.83
24.92
4.3
n/a

354
1677
130
85
119
27
815
305
256
n/a

698
3683
321
259
426
51
1,806
772
531
n/a

n/a
-33.2
-15.7
0.6
-24.4
n/a
1.6
-40.7
-30.7
-11.7

Drop in
Tourism
Revenue
in 2011
n/a
-25.7
-17.7
n/a
n/a
n/a
4.6
n/a
-50.7
n/a

34709

50783

7.91%

27711

44858

10.60%

3,768

8,547

-22%

n/a

(1) UN World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO); (2) World Travel and Tourism Company (WTTC) and
TSA Research (Tourism Satellite Account). AAGR: Average Annual Growth Rate. n/a: not
available.

With nearly 300 million international arrivals in 2010, i.e., approximately a third of the
total international tourist flow worldwide, the Mediterranean is the worlds premiere tourist
region. South Mediterranean tourism is characterised by strong dependence on European
flows, which on average account for 60% of international arrivals.
These flows nurture an economy that represents an important source of employment and
investment, whether tourism is the object of economic strategies or not. On the eve of the
Arab Spring, the sector accounted for 3.8 million direct jobs in the SEMCs, i.e. 7% of total
jobs, and 8.5 million indirect jobs, i.e. 15% of total jobs (TSA) By entailing a drastic fall in
tourism activity in the region, the revolutions have endangered one of the most dynamic and
strategic economies on the South shore.

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3.2. Kind of Tourism after the Arab Revolutions


The crisis of the Arab Spring has revealed the obsolescence of tourism models based on
both social authoritarianism and a disconnected territorial offer, where tourists are not faced
with the socioeconomic and political conditions experienced by the local populations. The
liberalisation of social and cultural forces of South Mediterranean Countries would indicate
that this model will not survive the process of democratisation. The main challenge facing the
SEMCs in the tourism sector thus resides in the capacity that these countries will have of
coupling democratic transition with transition in tourism. The tourism transition of the
SEMCs entails, first and foremost, the transformation and modernisation of their tourism
economy. If we work with the hypothesis that democratic transitions foster economic
liberalisation and the adoption of major macroeconomic reforms (Galal, 2011) then the Arab
revolutions open highly positive perspectives for the advent of sustainable tourism
development in these countries in the medium and long terms. This change requires recasting
tourism governance, banishing anticompetitive practices (corruption, nepotism) and
improving influence sharing among the actors of tourism development (the private and public
sectors, civil society, local populations). In certain configurations (in Tunisia and Morocco,
for instance), administrative decentralisation can constitute a priority goal. Further
liberalisation of certain strategic sectors seems likewise essential. This is the case in particular
with air transport, whose deregulation has become indispensable to the increase in tourism
flows due to the rise of low-cost transport in the world. The experience of Morocco, which
signed an Open Sky agreement with the European Union in 2006, has proven a model of
success.
The crisis of the Arab Spring has revealed the obsolescence of tourism models based on
both social authoritarianism and a disconnected territorial offer. The desire for emancipation
expressed by the middle classes through the revolutions probably reflects the capacity of
these populations to enter the leisure society. This is why democratic transition renders the
development of domestic tourism in these countries inevitable. This development would
allow them to stabilise and consolidate their tourism economy, for domestic tourism, less
sensitive to endogenous or exogenous crises, is much less volatile than international tourism.
Domestic flows are better distributed over time (less seasonality) and space (return of city
dwellers to their regions of origin), and national tourists are generally strong consumers of the
local offer, to which they have easier access (language, culture, word of mouth). Moreover,
domestic tourism serves the national project insofar as it fos ters the appropriation of tourist
areas by local populations, attenuating the tensions associated with occupation of the land by
foreign tourism. The same arguments can be used regarding fostering South-South tourism,
which would allow diversification of flows and stronger sub-regional integration, in particular
in the Maghreb, where millions of Algerian and Libyan tourists already spend their holidays
in Tunisia.
Considering the cross-cutting nature of economic activity in the tourism sector and its
spillover effects on other sectors, the impact of the Arab Spring on South Mediterranean
tourism is difficult to evaluate with precision. Nevertheless, the first quantification of
declining arrivals and tourism revenues in 2011 suggests the magnitude of losses related to
the revolutions. The two revolutionary countries, Tunisia and Egypt, registered a fall in
international arrivals of 31% and 33% over 2010, and a drop in international tourism revenues
of 51% and 26%, respectively. The Middle East felt the consequences of the Egyptian

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revolution and the Syrian crisis, with a drop in international arrivals of 41% in Syria, 24% in
Lebanon and 16% in Jordan. Israel and Morocco are the only SEMCs having continued to
experience growth of international arrivals, though much slower (0.6% and 1.6%,
respectively), (Weigert, 2012).
Domestic tourism, less sensitive to endogenous or exogenous crises, is much less volatile
than international tourism. Finally, the social and economic urgency arising from the Arab
Spring and the need to support job creation at any cost could relegate the environmental
issues of tourism development to the background. However, ecological constraint remains
imperative in these countries, where mass tourism has a serious impact on the environment, in
particular along the coast (waste, concreting, overconsumption of water resources, threatened
ecosystems). Moreover, in the next century, climate change will have grave consequences in
the Mediterranean Basin, with a significant rise in temperatures, a fall in precipitation and a
rise in sea level. These developments will influence the location and volume of tourist flows,
as the heat waves become more frequent and water resources dwindle, in particular in Egypt
and Libya. Under such conditions, the use of green technologies for adaptation to climate
change can hardly be avoided in the SEMCs. But in the midst of this crisis in tourism
investment, priority short-term issues may limit the capacity of policymakers to opt for these
often costly prevention strategies.

3.3. Sustainable Tourism Development in Developing Countries


It can be stated that the incapacity for concretization of a sustainable tourism
management becomes more evident in the tourism destinations of the developing countries,
since the beginning of many utilization processes of unexplored natural resources based on
the false premise about sustainability can be identified in those countries (Queiroz, 2009). In
this sense, the actions developed are based on the conceptions of some authors who state that
the essence of the sustainable tourism management lies on the development of certain tourism
modalities compatible with the principles of sustainability (Fullana and Ayuso, 2002). This
has motivated the growth of initiatives, in the developing countries, of activities such as
ecotourism, green tourism, rural tourism, agro tourism, among others. However, this
conviction can be extremely dangerous mainly because more and more often the use of this
argument in the commercialization of natural tourism destinations is noticed. Despite the lack
of concrete studies, based on empirical researches, there is an assumption that independent
trips are more sustainable than the tourism packages offered by travel agencies, that some
destinations present smaller sustainability than the destinations where ecotourism is practiced
and in summary, that the small scale tourism is better than the mass tourism (Swarbrooke,
1998).
It is not right to operate in areas naturally attractive, which are mostly sensitive places,
considering only the type of intervention used and without any concern about its way of
development form. It must not be forgotten that as they are tourism modalities which keep
more intense and reciprocal contact with its natural, economical, human and cultural
environment, they demand better preparation, planning and technique to assess its real role
and its effects on the society, (Queiroz, 2009). Other theorists question the sustainability of
this tourism forms and warn about the impacts the can provoke (Mowforth and Munt. 1998).
The statement that certain tourism modalities spontaneously generate a sustainable tourism is

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wrong. As any type of activity, the implementation of this type of tourism originates,
inevitably, impacts, either positive or negative, (Queiroz, 2009). However, it must not be
forgotten that tourism itself is not harmful and that the mistake of many tourism destinations
of the developing countries is related to the management models adopted. The conquest of
sustainability can and must be associated to all the tourism modalities, and in order to achieve
this, proper planning and control are extremely necessary.
Nonetheless, in spite of such apparent and evident consequences, many are the managers
who deny recognizing the impacts inherent to tourism and refuse to carry out any proposals
for assessing the development of its activities. The lack of a responsible management has
provoked some vulnerability in the destinations, and consequently, the resources upon which
the tourism prosperity was based on are being degraded. For this reason, in order for the
receiving communities to move from the extractive development, instead of strictly economist
principles, those focused on the social development should be followed (Queiroz, 2009). A
persistent resistance still prevails in those countries preventing the development of means of
management related to the sustainability. It is necessary to arouse new consciousness, which
will lead to a reduction of the risks of the activities related to this sector. Unless there is a
general awareness of the responsibilities to which this process leads, the possibility of
achieving progress concerning sustainability will be scarce. The sustainable tourism
development implies in decision-making, very often hard and mainly demanding long-term
view.

3.4. Sustainable Tourism Management for Developing Countries


It is universal concept today, the fact that sustainability is multidimensional and demands
a joint exploration of the aspects related to the environment, the economy, the society, the
culture, and the politics, among many others. Thus, it is important for a tourism design to
analyze how these multiple aspects behave, considering the particular characteristics of each
destination.
But, what determines the characteristics of a tourism destination? The answer to this
question must take into account that such characteristics are defined by the quality of the
social relations among the groups involved in the process of tourism development, and by the
commitment these groups have to the present generations, as well as the future ones. Basic
infrastructure and services offered by a tourism destination can be considered ordinary
components, when compared to the social and cultural manifestations of the groups involved,
as they establish the real connections of the activity. This is the reason why some
communities with similar attractions, very often, present very different tourism development.
This way, it is an assumption that an analysis focused on the people involved in the process is
essential for the development of the sustainability concept, as the effects impacting the nature,
the economical balance and mainly, the social balance are entirely conditioned by the several
ways of human relationships and its potential. That is to say, all the impacts provoked by the
tourism derive from the interactions among the agents involved in the process (Mathieson and
Wall, 1982). Thus, it is possible to state that the nature of the human relations is the primary
factor fomenting a suitable understanding for the tourism process. Acknowledging this
argument leads to the searching of new ethical references for sustainability based on
fraternity, solidarity and social equality. Although the authors conduct us into the tourism

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environmental and economical effects, the understandingof sustainability within these scopes
depends on a humanistic analysis (Swarbrooke, 1998), as the awareness, which will ensure
sustainability of the natural surroundings, depends entirely on the human being
(Krippendorff, J 1987). As it defended by Hunziker quoted by Queiroz (2009) tourism
constitutes an economical aspect only in a subsidiary way. The man is its real core.
Sustainability must be understood as a development process centered on people, and capable
of mobilizing, motivating behavior and reinforcing values. Such principles, properly
considered and analyzed are able to promote considerable changes in the dominant models,
causing improvements in the human and institutional relations. There is no necessity for
distinct tourism activities, but for distinct human beings. It is necessary a change in the
everyday context for tourism to follow a similar process.

3.5. (Un)sustainable Tourism Models


A tourism municipalitys (destination) development model, which is based on a tourism
product obtained by intensively using exhaustible environmental and territorial resources, will
hardly be sustainable. This would be the case, for instance, of mass tourism, i.e., a model
of activity based on low prices, seeking to attract high numbers of tourists and impinging high
tensions on natural resources. This is shown in Figure 1. The broken curve represents the
stock of natural and territorial resources available in a given tourism municipality (for
instance, total unbuilt surface, length and quality of beaches or surface and beauty of natural
spots). It should be noted that in the long run several factors might shift that stock upwards
(i.e., increase the available resources which make possible a given level of economic
activity). Typically, technological progress may allow the regeneration of natural resources.
For instance, new methods to regenerate beaches more efficiently may be discovered, so that
beaches can accommodate more tourists without diminishing the quality of the sand or the
water, or building procedures friendlier with the environment may be developed. Anyway,
some resources (chiefly, a jurisdictions surface) are not replicable, i.e., their supply is fixed.
The black curve in Figure 2 shows a development path where economic activity
(measured as tourists attracted or gross domestic product obtained, for instance) depletes all
the available natural and territorial resources. Such a model of development would be
unsustainable in the long run, since if resources are limited (i.e., nonreproducible) then an
upward limit (-A) would exist from where no further increases in the jurisdictions economic
activity would be possible. It is interesting to consider whether there is any way out of a
development path like the one depicted in black in Figure 1. The grey curve draws a
development path for which economic activity indefinitely increases without exceeding the
physical limits set by limited natural and territorial resources. It could be argued that a
development path like that is not attainable in the real world, since arguably any tourism
activity needs some limited physical resources. Then, sooner or later, level -A, from where no
further increases of economic activity are possible, would be reached. It is true that some
endowments of resources are fixed and not replicable. For instance, the surface where it can
be built on: once used in full no further expansions are possible (unless higher premises are
built). Filling with concrete the entire surface in a municipality precludes natural resources as
a source of future economic growth. However, some inputs exist whose supply is more
flexible: these are inputs with characteristics of public goods (Cornes and Sandler, 1996).

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Public goods are non-rival and non-excludable (Samuelson, 1954). Non-rivalry implies
that one individuals consumption does not prevent another persons consumption (this is the
same as saying that once a public good is provided, the cost of any additional user is zero).
Hence, many people can consume any non-rival good without being depleted. A tourism
jurisdiction basing its final product on public goods will surely have a higher scope for
growth than a jurisdiction relying on intensive use of limited resources.

Figure 2. Unsustainable Tourism Models (Queiroz, 2009).

3.6. Tourist Destination and Municipalities


Many activities related to tourism intensively use the territorial and natural resources of
the jurisdiction where they are located. This is the case, for instance, of the hotels located in a
given tourism municipality. Economic activity in the jurisdiction is directly related to the
number of tourists visiting it. Although greater numbers of tourists increase the economic
activity of the jurisdiction where the tourism supply is located (thus increasing the
jurisdictions income levels), increasing numbers of visitors also imply more pressure on the
jurisdictions resources. For instance, as more hotels are built to accommodate increasing
demand, natural and territorial resources become scarcer and, since those resources are clearly
limited (a jurisdiction has fixed boundaries), a limit to growth is to be reached some time into
the future. This reasoning lies at the heart of Kenneth Boulding (1966): I am tempted to call
the open economy the cowboy economy, the cowboy being symbolic of the illimitable
plains and also associated with reckless, exploitative, romantic, and violent behaviour, which
is characteristic of open societies. The closed economy of the future might similarly be called
the spaceman economy, in which the earth has become a single spaceship, without
unlimited reservoirs of anything, either for extraction or for pollution, and in which, therefore,
man must find his place in a cyclical ecological system which is capable of continuous

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reproduction of material form even though it cannot escape having inputs of energy. Indeed,
it could be argued that there is no way to escape the apparent unsustainability of development
and growth in tourism municipalities as a destination.

3.7. The Integration of the Stakeholders As a Key-Element on the Process


of Sustainable Tourism Development
As described by the WTO (2004), sustainable tourism can be defined as a development
model design to attend: (a) The local population, as it aims at improving the life quality of
those who reside in a tourism destination, dependent on it, (b) The tourism, promoting the
excellence of the tourism experience, (c) The responsible agents for the tourism management,
from the public or private sector as profitability is the goal of those who invest on this
activity. These three groups of agents must be analyzed as inseparable elements in the
reflection about tourism sustainability. Considering that being sustainable is to satisfy present
and future necessities, it is conceivable the existence of different connotations for the concept,
since the people involved in the tourism process have several interests and necessities, at the
moment they get involved in the activity. This way, a tourist and a hotel owner do not aim at
the same goal when they meet and interact in a high season period at a determined
destination. The existing contact between these people features essentially antagonistic
conditions. Therefore, the analysis of sustainability based on each one of these agents cannot
be treated as a manipulation of the concept, as it is very often made explicit, but as an
interpretation of the concept according to the focus of each agent. It is possible to state then,
that the basis of a sustainable tourism development is the conservation of this attractiveness
for all the ones involved in this activity. The idea leads us into different lines, as it must
satisfy the necessities of all the interested parts (Queiroz, 2009). The trips become, this way,
complex experiences upon which a series of agents intervene, with relations and interchange
being establish among them, due to the fragmentation and the transversality, which
characterizes these activities. The association of these components results in a series of
consequences, capable of solidifying, or not, the tourism development in a specific place. The
theory comprising this issue is called stakeholders theory and was originally approached by
Freeman (1984). To the author, a stakeholder, that is, a part interested in a determined
process, can be defined as any group or individual affect by, directly or indirectly, the
achieving of goals by an organizations. This way, any group or individual able to influence or
be affected by any decision in the process to achieve the goals of an activity, and that,
therefore, is truly interested in it, must be considered part such activity, and thus, must be
respected and deserving of consideration. That is why, an agent of the tourism sector must be
described as the person, group or institution with power to generate an effect on the tourism
activity, thats to say, with capacity to intervene, modify or influence the course of the sector.
On the other hand, it is worth mentioning that the distinct lines, which represent the multiple
parts interest in a tourism business, must be led into a common goal. It is necessary then, to
search for a consensus, which in the case of sustainability, is projected in the general idea of
continual aspect of the activity (Queiroz, 2009).
Stakeholders are the creators of countrys identity. Stakeholder theory asks for
stakeholder involvement in decision and policy making. Morgan et al (2003) demonstrated in
an elaborate case study the role of stakeholders in destination branding. They examined the

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political processes involved while creating synergies between public and private sector
stakeholders. The success of the destination brand is based on a vision which is founded on
intensive stakeholder, consumer and competitor research and which is expressed with care
and discipline in everything that communicates the brands personality. Morgan et al (2003),
explained that country brandings in not merely a rational marketing activity but a political
act based on issues such as local pride. This stakeholder vision for product development can
be extended to more integrated sustainable marketing strategies. For tourism marketing
strategies, it needs to be acknowledged that traditional destination branding is not effective
anymore in a global environment, that branding is connected to the complexity of a place, and
that all stakeholders needed to be involved in the process. The proposed marketing strategy
illustration is built on networks and stakeholder collaboration. A more sustainable approach
provides a macro holistic view of marketing and integrates economic viability, social equity
and environmental responsibilities. The paradigm shift includes changes in philosophy, such
as adopting a theoretical (eco) system community perspective, a focus on dynamic holistic
exchanges, and goals such as quality life in a just and diverse society. The Sustainable
Marketing Strategy Network (Jarmozy, 2008) as presented in Figure 3 is designed to
introduce an integrated system approach to marketing. The principle propositions made are
that sustainable marketing decisions are dynamically influence each other and are based on
partnerships and shared visions of sustainability.

Sustainable tourism project (s)


Sustainable tourism entrepreneurship
Sustainable tourism SMEs development
Destination Identity

Country brand and destination image

Country Sustainable Development


Figure 3. Sustainable marketing strategy network.

3.8. Actions/Measures towards Sustainable Tourism Development


Many tourist enterprises believe that sustainable tourism development is not possible in
some Countries, mainly due to insufficient state policy regarding tourism development and
the incapacity of local and regional authorities to undertake tourism development actions.
However, the majority believes that tourism businesses could function properly under the
sustainability model and they have mentioned environmental education programmes and

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establishment of co-operation and partnerships among local, regional and state stakeholders
and authorities as the most sustainable actions. All businesses, which do not believe in that,
are due to oversupply and low quality of tourism product.
Similarly to the tourism enterprises, the local authorities also believe that sustainable
tourism growth has a positive prospect in some countries, as the vast majority of them believe
that their area, on a destination and on an operational level, is able to meet sustainable
growth. Local authorities suggest that the most crucial activities for them to meet sustainable
tourism growth are the organization of environmental and energy-save programmes,
setting a marketing plan for tourism development, developing infrastructure, and local
stakeholders dynamic participation in decision making process. In addition, they feel that
local tourism enterprises can easily implement sustainable tourism development principles,
mainly through recycling measures, collaborating with the local community and with the
promotion of local culture. It is important to note the emphasis given by them on collective
co-operation and the creation of an integrated framework. On concluding, most of the tourist
enterprises and the local authorities believe that tourism business could gain economic
benefits through sustainable tourism development and the role of all groups involved is
crucial for the sustainable tourism development.

3.9. Review on Standards and Certification Systems for Sustainable Tourism


While tourism certification programs designed to measure quality, service and cost are
more than a century old, programs based on environmental and social criteria date mainly
from the late 1980s and 1990s. These newer green programs within the tourism industry use
one of two methodologies, process or performance. Process-based certification programs
involve setting up environmental management systems that vary from business to business.
The most widely used is ISO 14001, a set of standards created in 1996 (which has been
updated during 2004) by the International Standards Organization. In Europe, the European
Commission has recognized a variant of ISO known as the Eco-Management and Audit
Scheme (EMAS). Small firms that cannot easily apply EMAS and ISO systems, which are
costly, time-consuming, often require outside consultants, and are best suitable for large
companies, however, characterize the tourism industry in the Mediterranean. More suitable
are performance-based certification programs that include a set of criteria or benchmarks
against which all businesses are judged. Many of the best-known certification programs for
the sustainable tourism markets are performance based, although a number of programs
combine process and performance criteria.
One of the oldest and most successful programs is Blue Flag, which certifies beaches and
marinas and has since started in 1985, received EC support. The program expanded via the
Foundation for Environmental Education in Europe (FEEE), had, by 2006, certified more
than 2500 beaches and 800 marinas. In 1994, Green Globe became the first tourism
certification program to operate at an international level. However, its credibility was
undermined because it did not have a recognized set of performance standards and instead
certified companies based only on a statement of intent. Green Globe has also prepared a
series of standards for specific sectors in a package called The Green Globe Path to
Sustainable Travel and Tourism - As simple as ABC." It also provides training courses for
external assessors. In spite of its strong expansion, Green Globe has received criticism from

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conservation and environmental NGOs (e.g. WWF-UK) for giving companies recognition on
the basis of commitment only and for becoming a for-profit organization. Despite this Green
Globe is reviewing its criteria to include more performance related criteria.
In December 1998, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) published a
first analysis of tourism certification programs called Ecolabels in the Tourism Industry. It
found that programs were concentrated mainly in Europe, with a handful in other
geographical regions, including the Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) in Costa
Rica, the Nature and the Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) in Australia, and Ecotel,
a program run worldwide.
In 1998, the EC contracted several NGOs to undertake a study and consultative process
on the feasibility of a single European Ecolabel for hotels. The exercise was completed in
August 2000 and is documented in a report called Feasibility and Market Study for a
European Eco-Label for Tourist Accommodations (FEMATOUR). This report blames the
limited industry participation in the project on the differences in the certification systems
within each EU member state. In March 2000, these issues were also discussed and clarified
at the International Tourism Bourse (ITB) in Berlin, by a board of tourism professionals
invited by the German organization, Ecotrans.
In November 2000, in New Paltz, New York, an international Ecotourism and
Sustainable Tourism Certification Workshop was organized by the Institute for Policy
Studies. The product emerging from that meeting, known as the Mohonk Agreement, outlined
the fundamental Principles of Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism Certification.
During 2001, the WTO contracted research through the European Network for
Sustainable Tourism Development (Ecotrans) and Oceans Blue Foundation to identify the
current ecolabels, awards and codes of practice, in order to gain a truly global understanding
of what programs exist and in what form. Around 500 initiatives were identified, from which
104 were selected for further analysis. This reflects both the number of efforts operating in
parallel to promote sustainable tourism, and shows the potential for cross-fertilization and
benefits of economies of scale. At the same time, the WTO was dedicating its 37th meeting of
the Commission for the Americas (CAM), held in May 2001 in Oaxaca, to tourism standards,
including largely efforts to certify standards.
Increasingly governments and NGOs are supporting new ecotourism and sustainable
tourism certification programs. These range from EU programs such as the WWF Artic, and
the Ecotourism Society of Sweden, to new Latin American programs in Brazil, Peru,
Ecuador, Bolivia, and elsewhere, to new initiatives in Kenya and South Africa, as well as a
Fair Trade for Tourism Network intended to cover all of Africa.
At the same time programs are looking for common components, with Green Globe 21
entering into a working agreement with NEAP and promoted by Ecotourism Australia
(formerly Ecotourism Association of Australia). Governments have stepped up their
participation, with the CST potentially becoming the most powerful sustainable tourism
concept, to be adapted to the local realities across most countries in Latin America. The EU
has revived its interest in environmental accommodation certification standards, and is cofunding of the Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainability in Tourism (VISIT) project, bringing
together 10 European labels to work on common marketing, standards, and processes.

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CONCLUSION
Concerning the sustainability of tourism, it is already well established in Europe. It is a
subject that has received considerable attention from the European Commission, the European
Parliament, and the Economic and Social Committee. The response of tourism businesses to
sustainability has been quite variable. Some larger companies in the sector are pursuing
sustainability by introducing corporate social responsibility strategies. Only a small
proportion of small tourism businesses have sought to become recognized for their
environmental and social policies and practices, and it appears that in most cases positive
action has depended on a personal interest and commitment by the proprietor. However, there
are clear signs that the level of interest and response is growing. This has been helped by the
work of trade associations and by business-to-business contact in the supply chain. The last
few years have seen a considerable increase in consumer awareness of the impact of
holidaymaking, partly fuelled by extensive media coverage. Tourists are clearly concerned
that the destinations visit should be attractive, which means for them a clean environment
from any angles. Nature and culture based tourism market segments have been strongly
growing. A number of surveys in different European countries have revealed that when asked
the majority of travelers who care for the environment equally, they would be more likely to
choose enterprises that care for the environment and local community. However, the
proportion of Europeans who chose a particular type of travel specifically for reasons of
environmental impact is probably still low.
In conclusion, most of the tourist enterprises and the local authorities believe that tourism
business could gain economic benefits through sustainable tourism development and the role
of all groups involved is crucial for the sustainable tourism development.

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Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 19

SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT


Marios Valiantis*
Director of the Centre for Green Development and Energy Policy /
Head of Environmental Management

ABSTRACT
It is widely accepted that the transport sector is currently the driving force of the
economy in every country all around the world. It is the key to a well-functioning internal
market and the ability of all countries and regions to remain part of a fully integrated
world economy. A transportation system can enhance the productivity and quality of life
of a community if properly planned and managed. At the same time, development
stimulates demand for transport. Although the needs in passenger and freight
transportation are increasing at rates greater than the economy and population growth, the
transport sector cannot be characterized sustainable long term. There is now an increased
understanding of the need to design urban transport and land-use systems to be more
sustainable, and of the policies which are needed to achieve this. Efficient, sustainable
transport with less congestion and fewer emissions that enables economic growth and job
creation is a precondition for maintaining a countrys prosperity. This chapter describes
the current situation of urban transport, giving more emphasis in the urban transport of
European cities, and discusses the term sustainability and how could this be applied to
transportation. The chapter then shows why urban transport needs change and proposes
different strategies for implementation in order to achieve sustainable urban transport.
Finally, the chapter ends with describing what the future of the transport sector would be
in the next 20 years.

1. INTRODUCTION
The transport sector is currently the driving force of the economy all across the world. It
is fundamental to both our economy and society. Mobility is vital for the quality of life of
citizens, as they enjoy their freedom to travel, and also for the internal market of each
*

Tel: 22841689. Email:valiantis.m@unic.ac.cy, Office: M101, 1st floor, Millennium building.

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Marios Valiantis

country. Transport enables economic growth and job creation: it must be sustainable in the
light of the new challenges we face. Transport is global, so effective action requires strong
international cooperation.
Road transport is part of the lifeblood of the European economy and single market. It
delivers goods across Europe fast, efficiently, flexibly and cheaply. About half of the goods
transported in Europe are transported by road. People also travel mainly by road, with private
cars accounting for almost 75% of passenger traffic. Road transport is a vital economic sector
in its own right, employing about 5 million people across the EU and generating close to 2%
of its GDP.
Efficient and sustainable transport is a precondition for maintaining the EUs prosperity.
What is needed is less congestion, fewer emissions, more employment and more growth.
Efficient and sustainable transport is also the key to a well-functioning internal market and
provides the ability of all of our regions to remain part of a fully integrated world economy.
Transport is also an important part of the economy itself: many European companies are
world leaders in infrastructure, logistics and the manufacture of transport equipment and
traffic management systems. It must be kept that way.
Increasing at a much higher rate than population growth, the transport sector cannot be
characterised as sustainable long term. In a world of rising oil prices, growing congestion and
looming climate change, the EUs transport system needs a radical overhaul to maintain its
role of growth engine and keep pace with mounting global competition. In order to avoid
having to limit our freedom of movement, transports dependency on oil must break without
sacrificing its efficiency.
The future prosperity of Europe and other continents will depend on the ability of all of
their regions to remain fully and competitively integrated in the world economy. Efficient and
sustainable transport is vital in making this happen.

2. URBAN TRANSPORT
An urban area is a complex of inter-related and interconnected human needs and
activities. For these needs and activities to happen an efficient transportation system is
required to ensure the efficient movement of people, foods and services, effective commerce
and trade system, and that long term economic growth and development is sustained. Such a
system must be sustainable to meet the basic transportation needs of all citizens without
compromising the economic and natural resource base of the future generations. The
significance of transport to the development of a country lies in the fundamental fact that
mobility and accessibility are essential for economic growth. For instance, transport allows
accessibility to agricultural lands, health, education, employment, commerce, mineral
resources base, forests, industries and various other activities in a community.
Since the 1987 Brundtland Commission report which managed to receive global attention
to the concept of sustainable development, academics and policy professionals have worked
to apply its principles in the urban and metropolitan context. Sustainable development has
shown to be a compelling concept because it points policy in a clear, intuitive direction, but
flexible enough to adapt to emerging new issues, technological and economic conditions, and
social aspirations. Advocates and scholars find it appealing because it implies a systemic view

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of economy and environment, and requires comprehensive solutions that protect the interests
of future generations. It is a testament to the power and utility of this concept that after nearly
two decades, efforts to translate it into the mechanisms of urban policy continue to flourish,
despite tremendous political, economic, social, institutional, and technological challenges.
Yet, the transportation sector has proven to be a particularly difficult territory for the
advancement of sustainable development policy. Transportation is a complex social,
technical, and economic system, difficult to address comprehensively. To the extent that
policy guidance has been developed to address sustainability issues in general, it has only
touched on a fraction of the myriad ways that transportation is integrated into larger systems
of human activity. Meanwhile, current trends are not encouraging. Cities around the world
that have traditionally been considered as transport-efficient are now facing escalating
motorization and mobility demands. Travel is increasing in virtually all regions of the world,
usually at or faster than the rate of population and economic growth, and generally faster in
the long run than the rate of the reduction of energy and pollution intensity. In Europe, known
for its historically compact urban centres, suburbanization and regional economic integration
are powering the same growth in intercity goods movement and passenger transport observed
elsewhere. In the newly created megacities of East Asia, a surging middle class is pouring its
new wealth into automobiles, while governments are pushing bicycles off the streets and
expanding roadways at breakneck pace. Automakers that had to close their businesses due to
the economic crisis in Europe have now been purchased by this newly found wealth of China
to produce the much needed automobiles to help increasing the standards of living in these
huge cities, giving rise to even more bigger environmental and air quality problems. If these
cities, with historically efficient urban structures, are facing such setbacks, then the prospects
for other cities look dim.
Urban transport in the European Union accounts for 80% of congestion costs, 15% of all
greenhouse gas emissions, 20,000 road fatalities annually and more than 100,000 premature
deaths each year from air pollution. There is thus ample evidence that, unfortunately, the
European urban transport policies are currently far from sustainable. The European
Commission has already accepted that these impacts justify the commissions involvement in
what had previously been seen as the privilege of national and local governments. It initially
recommended that all cities with populations of over 100,000 should produce sustainable
transport plans, and provided guidance on how these plans should be developed and
structured and subsequently issued a Green Paper on urban transport.
In European cities, the adverse impact of traffic resulting in air pollution, noise and
greenhouse gas emissions, traffic delays as well as traffic accidents causes an economic
damage amounting to around 100 billion EUR each year. This figure corresponds to about 1
% of the EUs GDP. Such immense damage to economies, humans and the environment has
to be attributed to decades of lack of knowledge and understanding of the concept of mobility
- and to the transport policy resulting from it. The social need for mobility was misunderstood
to be equivalent to enhancing car transport infrastructure. Transport by car, though, is only
one possibility to fulfil the need for mobility and in cities often not the best solution. The
EU Commission recognised this problem and in the autumn of 2007, presented a Green Paper
entitled Towards a new culture for urban mobility. It has been the objective of this Green
Paper to create a new culture of mobility in European cities. In the context of sustainable
development, the Paper is aimed at reconciling the improvement of environmental protection
and of the quality of life with economic development and accessibility of cities.

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A key driver for action is to help internalise the external costs of road transport, in line
with the White Paper on Urban Transport and Action 12 of the Action Plan on Urban
Mobility. Besides infrastructure costs, these include the environmental impacts and accidents,
and they can be particularly high in cities. Without policy intervention, these so called
external costs are not taken into account by road users when they make a transport decision.
Users are thus faced with incorrect incentives, leading to welfare losses.
There is no single market without integrated transport networks. The principle of a
common transport policy was set out in the founding treaties of the European Union (EU). In
1992, the transport market began to gradually liberalise and framework rules for access to the
profession of road transport operator and for road safety measures were established for all
Member states.
Today, road transport faces considerable challenges. The March 2011 White Paper on
transport defined these challenges as follows: ensure mobility on ever more congested road
networks, significantly further reduce road fatalities, lower CO2 and other emissions of
pollutants from road transport to preserve the environment and lessen the impact of climate
change on future generations, and decrease fossil fuel use to improve the Europes fuel
security. These challenges must be addressed in order to be able to have sustainable transport.

3. THE MEANING OF SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT


In 1987, the first ever definition of Sustainable Development was articulated in the report
Our Common Future known as the Brundtland Report. According to the definition,
Sustainable Development is the development that meets the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. These
needs are now widely accepted to include goals related to economic development, social
and human development, and environmental and ecological health. In the context of natural
resource policy, sustainability would mean limiting depletion of resources to the rate at which
they can be replenished, or alternatives can be identified.
When it comes to the transportation sector, however, there will always be a question on
exactly which resources are concerned as sustainable. It is expected, of course, that,
different groups may have different resources in mind. To be sure, the transportation sector
does consume depletable resources: energy, human and ecological habitats, atmospheric
carbon loading capacity; the list is long. But solutions that reduce depletion of one of these
may exacerbate depletion of another. Moreover, transportation decisions tend to be made in
the service of larger policy goals: economic growth and job creation, the character and
intensity of land use, and socioeconomic and geographic transfers of wealth. These powerful
but often unstated agendas mean that approaching sustainable transport simply as an exercise
in resource optimization is somewhat naive.
In the decade since a conference organized by the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development in 1996 first grappled with the question, there have been
ongoing efforts to develop and operationalize the notion of sustainable transport into useful
policy guidance. These projects have taken varied directions, but tend to fall into two broad
categories: those that envision sustainable transport as a pathway, and those that envision it as
an end-state.

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4. THE NEED FOR CHANGE


Transportation and, more specifically, road transport, is one of the most dynamic sectors
of the global economy, with small firms operating alongside big international transport
groups. It handles freight and passengers over short and long hauls. In Europe, because of its
flexibility, road transport links all regions of the EU to each other and to Europes principal
networks for goods and passenger traffic. The European Unions objective is to create the
conditions whereby the road transport sector can operate efficiently, safely and with a
minimum impact on our environment.
Today, the road transport sector in the EU is facing a number of challenges. Drivers are
confronted with ever more congested roads while one out of four heavy goods vehicles still
runs empty. Road users expect safer and more secure roads and the working conditions of
professional drivers should remain attractive. While all these are happening, fuel prices keep
on rising, as does the need to reduce air and noise pollution and the carbon foot-print to which
road transport contributes.
Congestion is not just a nuisance for road users; it also results in an enormous waste of
fuel and productivity. Many manufacturing processes depend on just-in-time deliveries and
free flow transport for efficient production. According to the latest statistical figures
presented by the EU Commission, congestion costs the EU economy more than 1% of GDP.
To reduce it, the EU needs more efficient transport and logistics, better infrastructure and the
ability to optimise capacity use.
Road safety, secure rest areas and decent working conditions for drivers are also of
paramount importance. Even if a lot of progress has been made in the last 10 years to improve
road safety, our society cannot tolerate road fatalities. In addition, Europe may well face a
shortage of professional drivers in the coming years. More efforts must be made to attract
skilled and well-trained drivers, in particular among young people.
Last but not least, climate change is happening and parts of what causes it are the
emissions from road transport. Europe needs transport which is cleaner and less dependent on
oil, whose price seems set to remain high in the medium to long run. Moving towards lowcarbon and more energy efficient transport will depend on new technologies like hybrid and
electrical motors, as well as developing more efficient urban and intermodal transport
solutions as alternatives to road haulage. Reaching these goals should be supported by
financial, fiscal and pricing incentives.

5. TARGETS FOR A SUSTAINABLE AND COMPETITIVE


URBAN TRANSPORT
A lot needs to be done to complete the internal market for transport, where considerable
bottlenecks and other barriers remain. These issues need to be re-addressed how to better
respond to the desire of our citizens to travel, and the needs of our economy to transport
goods while anticipating resource and environmental constraints.
Oil will become scarcer in future decades, sourced increasingly from uncertain supplies.
As the International Energy Agency has recently pointed out, the less successful the world is
in decarbonising, the greater will be the oil price increase. In 2010, the oil import bill was

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around EUR 210 billion for the EU. If we do not address this oil dependence, peoples ability
to travel and our economic security could be severely impacted with dire consequences
on inflation, trade balance and the overall competitiveness of the EU economy.
At the same time, the EU has called for, and the international community agreed on, the
need to drastically reduce world greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with the goal of limiting
climate change below 2 C. Overall, the EU needs to reduce emissions by 8095 % below
1990 levels by 2050, in the context of the necessary reductions of the developed countries as
a group, in order to reach this goal. The European Commission analysis shows that while
deeper cuts can be achieved in other sectors of the economy, a reduction of at least 60 % of
GHGs by 2050 with respect to 1990 is required from the transport sector, which is a
significant and still growing source of GHGs. By 2030, the goal for transport will be to
reduce GHG emissions to around 20 % below their 2008 level. Given the substantial increase
in transport emissions over the past two decades, this would still put them 8 % above the
1990 level.
Since the first big oil crisis 40 years ago despite technical progress, potential for costeffective energy efficiency improvements and policy efforts the transport system has not
fundamentally changed. Transport has become more energy efficient, but EU transport still
depends on oil and oil products for 96% of its energy needs. Transport has become cleaner,
but increased volumes mean it remains a major source of noise and local air pollution.
New technologies for vehicles and traffic management will be the key to lower transport
emissions in the EU as in the rest of the world. The race for sustainable mobility is a global
one. Delayed action and timid introduction of new technologies could condemn the EU
transport industry to irreversible decline. The EUs transport sector faces growing
competition in fast developing world transport markets.
Infrastructure plays a major role in shaping mobility. No major change in transport will
be possible without the support of an adequate network and more intelligence in using it.
Overall, transport infrastructure investments have a positive impact on economic growth,
create wealth and jobs, and enhance trade, geographical accessibility and the mobility of
people. It has to be planned in a way that maximises positive impact on economic growth and
minimises negative impact on the environment.
Congestion is a major concern in urban transport and compromises accessibility. In
addition, transport infrastructure is unequally developed in the eastern and western parts of
the EU which need to be brought together. There is increased pressure on public resources for
infrastructure funding and a new approach to funding and pricing is needed.
Since the 2001 White Paper on transport, a lot has been achieved. Still, the transport
system is not sustainable. Looking 40 years ahead, it is clear that transport cannot develop
along the same path. If we stick to the business as usual approach, the oil dependence of
transport might still be little below 90%, with renewable energy sources only marginally
exceeding the 10% target set for 2020. CO2 emissions from transport would remain one third
higher than their 1990 level by 2050. Congestion costs will increase by about 50% by 2050.
The accessibility gap between central and peripheral areas will widen. The social costs of
accidents and noise would continue to increase.
Initiating sustainable and competitive urban transport, local and national government
authorities should develop for themselves a policy with an explicit system of quality and
action targets. Using such a system of targets will lay down what is to be achieved and when
results shall be available. It will not only take into account environmental and health

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protection but also supporting economic activity through reducing congestion, and the
improvement of the quality of life to be achieved through for example improving accessibility
to jobs and services and increasing the reliability of journeys. A sustainable transport policy
does not contradict the economic development of an urban area, or its accessibility. By
default, the requirements of environmental protection can and should be understood as a
chance to improve the economic prosperity and accessibility of the city in question. This is
why targets such as emission reduction, noise abatement or improvement of the ambient
conditions for outdoor public life in the streets as well as a reduction of air pollution are very
important.

6. IMPLEMENTING SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT


Today, hundreds of cities are pursuing sustainable transport strategies as part of broader
sustainability initiatives. The range of actions taken to implement sustainable transport is too
diverse. Sustainability is being linked to other strategic policy objectives in countless
combinations, with impacts on the ground that range from a continuation of business-as-usual
to real transformations in the character of urban life.
This section highlights some of the more ambitious and innovative directions that
sustainability policy has taken in recent years, and organizes them into seven clusters of
activity: New Mobility, City Logistics, Intelligent System Management, Urban Livability,
Reduction of Air Pollution, Reduction of the Impact on the Environment and Climate
Change, and Making Transport Safer. These strategic policy visions might take different
forms if applied in different cities, where local needs, levels of economic development,
cultures, urban forms, economic structures, and transportation systems must be taken into
account.

6.1. New Mobility


The first emergent strategy deploys creative new technologies and business models to
provide competitive alternatives to the private automobile. These new mobility strategies
uptake new and more efficient ways of moving through and interacting with the city by
providing customers with more flexible, convenient and integrated travel options. If
successful, these strategies as a whole should reduce the amount of fossil fuels consumed, and
thus represent a step along a path toward sustainability.

Distributed Travel Information


Today, most major metropolitan areas are developing intelligent transportation systems
that provide real-time information to travelers. These systems can provide information on
driving times to downtown, when the next bus will arrive, which arterials are least congested,
and which central parking lots have space available. Increasingly, innovative agencies and
companies are beginning to augment and repackage these data and publish them over the
internet so that they can be accessed from mobile devices anywhere. Furthermore, most of
this information is also accessible via the GPS Navigation system that most cars/buses/trucks
are equipped with.

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Fare Integration
Many regions are modernizing their fare payment technologies, while simultaneously
unifying their many agencies and modes under a single fare media brand. This strategy
includes fare structure simplification, inter-agency fare payment integration, adoption of timesaving fare collection technologies, and implementation of smart cards with multiple uses
(e.g. parking or car sharing payments, or even as a cash alternative). These improvements cut
barriers to transit access, encourage participation in monthly pass programs, and potentially
serve as new revenue sources for transit agencies. London, Paris, Bremen, and other cities
have all undertaken ambitious fare integration and branding strategies.
Car-Sharing
Car-sharing provides access to automobiles as a subscription service, allowing customers
to reserve vehicles by the hour, over the phone or the Internet. Both cars hiring businesses and
nonprofit car clubs are beginning to thrive throughout the US and Europe. They provide the
convenience of inexpensive access, reserved parking in local neighborhoods, and a variety of
trendy and fuel-efficient vehicle models. They also provide significant environmental benefits
by helping maintain or expand the public transportation user base, and by reducing the
individual carbon footprint. San Francisco, Philadelphia, and many European cities actively
promote car sharing, by providing subsidized or preferential parking, or contracting with car
share groups in place of maintaining large municipal fleets. Car sharing is a fertile area for
innovation. In California, researchers are exploring business models for the suburbs, such as
arranging for families, commuters, and employers to share cars at different times of day on an
ongoing basis. In Berlin, experiments are underway with cash cars: participants lease
vehicles for their personal use from dealerships, and loan them to car sharing groups when
they are not needed (in exchange for half of any revenue).
Bike-Sharing
Bike-share has seen explosive, global growth over recent years. As of April 2013 there
were around 535 bike-sharing programmes around the world, made of an estimated fleet of
517,000 bicycles. In May 2011 there were around 375 schemes comprising 236,000 bikes. So
those two years saw a doubling of bike share globally. Many bike-share systems offer
subscriptions that make the first 3045 minutes of use very inexpensive, encouraging their
use as transportation. In most bike-share cities, people seeking a bicycle for casual riding over
several hours or days are better served by bicycle rental than by bike-share.
Bike-share use is made more predictable with Smartphone mapping apps which show
where nearby stations are located and how many bikes are available at each station. This is
also important for riders looking to return a bike; they need to know if there is a dock open at
a certain station, since stations can fill up with bikes. So using bike-share to get around a city
is made far easier with real-time, GPS-based smartphone apps with bike-share station
information overlaid on a city map.
Deutsche Bahn, the German railway company, offers Call-a-Bike programs in Berlin,
Frankfurt, Cologne, and Munich. Self-locking bicycles are distributed around the city, and
may be unlocked by calling a phone number and entering a code and credit card information.
Customers are charged by the minute, the day, or the week. Customers can also use their cell

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phones to locate the nearest bikes. In Lyon, the bikes are equipped with sensors that
automatically diagnose and report maintenance needs.

Auto-Free Housing
Some cities provide incentives for reduced auto ownership. In the San Francisco Bay
Area, some cities have granted developers density bonuses or exceptions to minimum parking
requirements for new rental housing at transit hubs, on the condition that tenants agree not to
own cars. Some of these developers, in turn, have offered car sharing as a marketing tool for
these developments. The practice of reducing off-street parking requirements for
developments that provide access to car-sharing has also been seen in Bremen and other
German cities.
New Service Paradigms
In the emerging networked economy, retailers have learned to compete in new ways by
reorganizing around customer needs, adapting continuously, and cultivating brand loyalty.
Transit agencies, too, are beginning to reinvent themselves around this model. No longer just
providers of service, many now seek to act as integrated mobility service providers,
ensuring a reliable, convenient, efficient and seamless experience from origin to destination.
They are developing partnerships and marketing strategies so that they can more effectively
compete for discretionary travelers.
Paris has been in the forefront of this approach. Its transit agency, the RATP, provides
real-time, door-to-door online journey planning for its rail and bus routes. This service will
eventually deliver information about all modes, as well as information on entertainment,
cultural institutions, and other services. It is evolving into a seamless mobility service,
integrating traditional transit offerings with bike rental, para-transit, car-sharing and
carpooling services. In its stations, it provides amenities to minimize the inconvenience of
waiting, and will soon provide cell phone and internet service throughout its network. Its new,
integrated smart cards feature distinct branding strategies and packages of benefits for youth,
adults, seniors, and tourists.

6.2. City Logistics


Urban freight traffic is growing fast. E-commerce has facilitated the rapid growth of the
small package delivery business which in turn has overshadowed regular commerce. The
problem that cities are faced with is that increasing numbers of trucks on the roads are below
capacity or running empty, because of rapidly changing logistic and supply-chain pressures,
such as just-in time deliveries, as well as asymmetrical patterns of trade. Sustainable urban
freight policy seeks to reduce empty truck movements through neighborhoods and congested
urban centers, and improve the environmental and economic efficiency of urban freight
operations. As with car-sharing, these policies are a fertile area for cooperative public-privateuniversity research and pilot projects. The policies can take many forms such as:

Neighborhood drop-off points can significantly reduce trips associated with


residential deliveries. They can be as simple as a dedicated counter in a local shop, or

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as high-tech as Tower24 in Dortmund, Germany, a fully automatic storage facility


where neighbors can collect their packages 24h a day.
Centralized urban distribution and logistics centers provide cooperative local
delivery of goods, often using clean- fuel vehicles. Tokyo has operated public
distribution centers since the 1960s. In the 1990s, several European cities
experimented with coordinated goods distribution.

Many of these projects were short-lived, but some remain. In downtown Monte Carlo,
Monaco and Bremen, Germany single municipal carriers now make all deliveries from
centralized depots. Nuremberg and Freiburg, Germany and Bristol, UK have encouraged (and
in some cases subsidized) voluntary, private cooperatives among shippers or major retailers to
coordinate deliveries. The positive effects of such programs can be substantial; in Bremen,
the number of truck trips into the city was cut by about 70%, while Freiburgs program
reduced truck journeys by 33% and truck operating times by 48%.
Stockholms Hammarby Sjostad development, a model sustainable city for 20,000
residents and 10,000 workers in an old industrial area near downtown, attempts to take city
logistics a step further. As in other programs, deliveries to the community will use electric
vehicles coordinated through a privately operated logistics center. In addition, this center will
operate a web-based service featuring 15 local businesses and 300 local farmers, from which
it will deliver everything from food to dry cleaning services. Suppliers or shops pay the center
by the shipment; participating households pay a monthly subscription fee. The early success
of this program has led nearby Old Town Stockholm to pursue its own logistics center.

Construction logistics: During the redevelopment of Potsdamer Platzin Berlin, the


municipal authorities of Berlin required that concrete be produced on-site, and that
the bulk of materials be moved to and from the site by rail. This requirement led to
the establishment of a logistics company charged with coordinating freight
transportation services at the site. The result was so successful that the project was
completed 6 months early, and logistics coordination was adopted as national policy
for major construction projects throughout Germany. This model was also replicated
in the construction of Stockholms Hammarby Sjstad project discussed above.

6.3. Intelligent System Management


Many cities are introducing new pricing and system management techniques to achieve
greater environmental and economic efficiencies. The success of such techniques can help
contribute to urban sustainability by ensuring that the historical centers of metropolitan areas
remain economically competitive. One of the best known examples in recent years has been
London, under the leadership of its mayor, Ken Livingstone. Londons comprehensive
transportation policy focuses on revolutionizing transportation system management.

Comprehensive Bus System Management


In order to address the increase in bus riders expected due to the congestion charge,
Transport for London, the metropolitan areas public transport coordinator, began to increase

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and transform bus service throughout London. It increased service frequencies (using
revenues from the congestion charge), and established the London Bus Priority Network, an
860 km system of streets managed and enforced to maximize the efficiency of bus service. It
launched the London Bus Initiative to provide a highly reliable, whole route, interagency
approach to enhancing and enforcing bus services. This initiative envisioned creating 70
BusPlus routes that feature enhanced passenger information, real-time bus arrival displays,
low floor buses, more regular cleaning, modern bus shelters, transit priority traffic signals,
and automatic vehicle location and driver instruction systems to reduce bus bunching and
improve reliability. The city is also revamping how it procures bus services, by introducing
Quality Incentive Contracts that include financial incentives for operators to improve the
quality and reliability of the services that they provide, and attract additional ridership.

Automated Traffic Enforcement


Traditional approaches to traffic enforcement require a large commitment of police and
judicial resources, especially given the evidentiary and procedural requirements for criminal
prosecutions. In addition, enforcement actions may exacerbate traffic conditions on busy
streets. For these reasons, many cities around the world are switching to camera-based
enforcement of speed limits, red lights, and other traffic laws. After detecting violations, these
systems use license plate recognition to identify and mail citations to vehicle owners. Cases
are typically prosecuted less expensively through the civil courts.
London applies this strategy to enforce its congestion charge and Low Emission Zone
schemes and to maintain the effectiveness of its Bus Priority Network. For the bus lanes,
fixed and bus-mounted cameras detect and film vehicles illegally using bus lanes, generating
evidence for enforcement through the civil courts.
Together with the introduction of the congestion charge, the adoption of automated bus
lane enforcement has dramatically improved the speed and reliability of bus service in Central
London.
Business Plans
Londons focus on efficient management extends to the ways it evaluates its own
proposals. Both Transport for London and the local boroughs are required to make their
transportation spending proposals in the context of business plans that emphasize
consistency with the achievement of the regions policy objectives. Internally, Transport for
London requires that a business case be made for every policy or capital investment,
including the social and environmental benefits that it provides.

6.4. Urban Livability


The relationship between the transport system of a city and the society is referred to as
Urban Livability. Urban Livability covers accessibility, the allocation and design of public
space, opportunities for social engagement and recreation, and the overall health and
economic welfare of city residents. It embraces the idea that hyper-motorization erodes the
social and economic vitality of a city. It accommodates the automobile without privileging it

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over other uses of public space. Examples of Urban Livability can be found in cities all
around the world.

Pedestrian Realms
Bogota has a long tradition of closing many of its roadways on Sundays to motor
vehicles, so that they can be used for recreational purposes. Recently, it also began
developing a permanent network of streets exclusively for the use of bicycles and pedestrians.
It built Alameda Porvenir, the worlds longest pedestrian and bicycle roadway, stretching 18
km through the urban center, poor neighborhoods, and out beyond the citys developed limits.
By creating a grand non-motorized promenade in advance of development, it hoped to create
a transportation, social, and recreational resource that would shape the citys future evolution.
It also banned parking on sidewalks, began an extensive network of bicycle paths, reined in
the colonization of plazas by street vendors, and fostered the use of sidewalks as public
spaces.
Breaking the Driving Routine
The city of Bogot has also developed a number of strategies for preventing its residents
from becoming habitual car drivers. The city observes annual car free days, helping its
citizens to become familiar with transit or non-motorized alternatives for their daily routines.
Bogota also rations the privilege of driving in the city during peak hours, by requiring each
car to be removed from the citys streets two days a week.
Bus Rapid Transit
Bogota has developed a sophisticated, highly efficient, and large-capacity bus rapid
transit system, the Transmilenio. Already profitable and rivaling the passenger volumes of
large urban rail systems, its network is envisioned to reach within half a kilometer of 85% of
Bogotas residents. By creating a ubiquitous, inexpensive, high-efficiency transit system,
Bogota hopes to maximize its poor populations access to employment and other
opportunities.
Shared Space
Many other cities have developed their own approaches to livability. The United
Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands have seen numerous cities and
towns redesign neighborhood streets to create home zones or woonerfsareas where cars,
bicyclists, and pedestrians coexist on equal terms Unlike conventional traffic calming
techniques that add infrastructure to slow traffic, home zones and similar strategies promote
shared spaces. These can significantly improve traffic and pedestrian safety, encourage use of
non-motorized modes, create a more aesthetically pleasing urban landscape, and foster greater
opportunities for social interaction in public spaces.
Traffic Calming
Traffic calming is all about reducing traffic and thus allows the free flow of vehicles
travelling at higher speeds where the engines emit less emissions compared to very low
speeds. It reduces exposure to noise, greenhouse gases and air pollutants and enhances
transport safety. This applies particularly to busy roads where air pollution due to motor

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vehicle traffic is high. For example, owing to a 30 km/h speed limit, the levels of particulate
matter (PM10) detected in the Schildhornstrae in Berlin could be reduced by 6 %, which can
be modelled to be equivalent to 10 days less exceeding EU PM10-Emission levels.
Drivers will not always adhere to speed limits in urban areas. The frequency of speeding
will not only depend on the operation of speed controls but also on the perception of road
widths. This is why in addition to a regulatory stipulation of speed limits, the design of street
areas is also important.
Whenever possible, traffic-calmed street areas should already be envisaged during the
planning and settlement of urban district development. Slower motor traffic will require less
space: street areas gained in this way should be used for urban improvement, such as the
construction of bicycle paths, wider pavements, open spaces for street life, the removal of
some tarmac surfaces and the development of green areas.

Parking Space Management


In many cities, residential areas are characterised by parking cars on the roadside. In
contrast, there is often a lack of cycle parking facilities, and pavements are too narrow.
Widespread traffic calming as a result of appropriate street design provides the conditions for
creating more space for pedestrians and cyclists as well as space for street life or more green
areas. However, the areas gained are too often used by communities to create parking spaces
"on the doorstep for residents and local businesses. This is mainly attributed to the fact that
there are no garages or side parking space. Parking cars use space, and their owners are
tempted to use their cars also for short rides. Therefore, parking facilities for residents should
be located in spaces which are as compact as possible and situated on the edge of the
residential area. Parking spaces on the doorstep should in general serve only as stopping
places. Communities and private providers of parking space, such as customer or staff car
parks, should in principle charge fees in amounts that cover the opportunity cost of providing
the parking facilities.
However, this parking management has some limitations. For example, privately owned
parking space that is used for the customers of a supermarket, will always be free of charge
because the owner will not want to charge its customers. Similarly, many employers provide
the parking space they offer for free, not reflecting the cost for parking facilities and the
alternative to provide subsidies for public transport and facilities for cyclists (such as roofed
cycle parking, showers and changing cabinets).
Furthermore the management of public parking space and garages in a number of cities is
contracted to a private company. These companies might be opposed to introducing measures
restricting car traffic, including road charging. Another limitation is juridical: in many
countries such as Austria and a number of German Regions (Lnder), the existing parking
space edict enacts a minimum level of parking space in case of new or modernised building.
By contrast, in England for example, regulation sets maximum levels of parking provision for
new developments. Local authorities in England and Wales also have the power to set a
Workplace Parking Levy on businesses in proportion to the number of parking spaces they
provide for employees. This should help reduce commuter car use at peak periods, and raise
revenue for investment in public transport improvements. Nottingham is the only city so far
planning to make use of this power. In addition to fees covering the costs of resident and
other private parking, another effective measure of traffic management will be the
management of parking spaces in areas with busy destination traffic, e.g. in city centres.

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Development of Local Public Transport


As far as a good public transport system already exists, new customers can be canvassed
by targeted marketing. Successful PR campaigns for example have offered packages for new
residents containing information on the local public transport system and sometimes
including a free sample ticket to help familiarisation. Acceleration of public transport by
means of separate traffic lanes and priority at traffic lights may contribute considerably to
rendering this mode of transport more attractive and also help to the reduction of emissions
by lowering the carbon footprint. Also worthwhile are simple fare structures and the
convenient purchase of tickets, for example on ticket vending machines in buses, trams and
trains.
Information on public transport should be available in every household, in public
institutions as well as in hotels and restaurants. Public transport should be made recognisable
in the urban environment, for example by construction of attractive stops and stations with
real-time information on the next departures. While in many cities public transport facilities
provide sufficient capacity, in some cities a limit is reached. This makes investment in new
lines and new vehicles necessary.
Noise Reduction
On 18 July 2002, the Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council relating to
the assessment and management of environmental noise became effective. Through this the
following measures have been started:

Better knowledge about exposure to environmental noise through noise mapping by


methods of assessment common to the Member States;
Ensuring that information on environmental noise and its effects is made available to
the public;
Adoption of action plans by the Member States, based upon noise-mapping results,
with a view to preventing and reducing environmental noise where necessary and
particularly where exposure levels can induce harmful effects on human health and to
preserving environmental noise quality where it is good.

Particularly in European cities, people may become exposed to extreme noise levels with
road traffic being the main emission source in most cases. According to the World Health
Organization, noise causes disease, reduces job performance and well-being of people,
dampens property prices, reduces the revenue of communities and causes several billion euro
worth of follow-up costs each year. Noise should be primarily tackled at the source, which
includes avoiding car transportation as much as possible and adequate spatial planning.
Major cities are currently affected by noise. Compulsory limit values of 55 dB during the
day and 45 dB at night would considerably reduce the damage caused by noise. According to
an EEA report almost 67 million people (i.e. 55 % of the population living in agglomerations
with more than 250,000 inhabitants) are exposed to daily road noise levels exceeding 55 Lden
(an EU benchmark for excessive noise).

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6.5. Reducing Air Pollution


In both developed and rapidly industrialising countries, the major historic air pollution
problem has typically been high levels of smoke and sulphur dioxide arising from the
combustion of sulphur-containing fossil fuels such as coal for domestic and industrial
purpose. The major threat to clean air is now posed by traffic emissions. Petrol and dieselengine motor vehicles emit a wide variety of pollutants, mainly carbon monoxide (CO),
oxides of nitrogen (NOX), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulates (PM10),
which have an increasing impact on urban air quality. In addition, photochemical reactions
resulting from the action of sunlight on nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and VOCs from vehicles
leads to the formation of ozone, a secondary long-range pollutant, which impacts in rural
areas often far from the original emission site. Acid rain is another long-range pollutant
influenced by vehicle NOX emissions. In all except worst-case situations, industrial and
domestic pollutant sources, together with their impact on air quality, tend to be steady-state or
improving over time. However, traffic pollution problems are worsening world-wide.
Air pollutants represent a severe health risk for the population. Fine particulates may
cause respiratory disease, cardiovascular failure and even lung cancer to people exposed to
them. Also other air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides may cause respiratory disease and
inflammations. In order to counteract this problem, limit values for fine particulates have
been in effect throughout Europe since 1 January 2005. For PM10 (particulates with a
diameter of less than 10 micrometers), there is a daily limit value of 50 g/m. This limit
value must not be exceeded more than 35 days in a calendar year. However, in a great number
of European cities, this permissible number of such events is exceeded considerably more
often. For PM2.5 (particulates with a diameter of less than 2.5 m = fine particulate matter), a
target value (i.e. a non-obligatory one) of 25 g/m (annual average) took effect on 1 January
2010. From 1 January 2015, this target value of 25 g/m will become a binding limit value.
From 1 January 2020, this limit value will become more stringent, i.e. reduced to 20 g/m.
The exposure of the population to PM2.5 is to be reduced. For this purpose, the Directive
(2008/50/EC) has defined reduction targets by means of the indicator, AEI (Average
Exposure Indicator).
On 1 January 2010, limit values for NO2 to protect human health were on effect. The
one-hour average value of 200 g/m for this pollutant is not to be exceeded more than 18
times in a calendar year. The annual average is 40 g/m. It is expected that also these limit
values will be exceeded, above all at measuring stations situated close to road traffic.
In the years 1997-2007 about 20 %-50 % of Europes urban population was potentially
exposed to ambient concentrations of particulate matter above the EU limit set to protect
human health.8 It has been estimated that PM2.5 (fine particulate matter) in air has reduced
statistical life expectancy in the EU by more than eight months.. Air pollution should be
primarily tackled at the source. This is why additional measures to reduce ambient air
pollution exposure, especially in inner cities often prone to heavy traffic, are urgently
required.
The European Commissions Air Quality Framework Directive and the associated First
Daughter Directive include challenging targets for the maximum allowable concentrations of
nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter. Road transport is one of the largest contributors to
emissions of these two pollutants, and reductions in emissions from this sector will be very
important future target to be achieved.

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Congestion Charging
Congestion charging is a way of ensuring that those using valuable and congested road
space make a financial contribution. It encourages the use of other modes of transport and is
also intended to ensure that, for those who have to use roads; journey times are quicker and
more reliable.
The London Congestion Charge Scheme (CCS) started in February 2003. Traffic
movement in central and inner London is severely hampered by congestion the average
speed in some roads has fallen below 3 miles per hour. The scheme reduces the congestion,
improves the bus network, and makes central London a more pleasant location for residents,
visitors and businesses. It encourages people to think again about using their vehicles in
central London and to choose other forms of transport. Motorists who still wish to travel in or
through central London will have to pay a daily charge. The charge is active between 7am
and 6:30 pm, Monday to Friday, excluding public holidays.
The congestion charge scheme ultimately reduces the number of vehicles entering the
designated area thus reducing the traffic flow of roads. This reduction of flow increases the
average traffic speeds which will have an effect on emissions the emissions will be lowered.
Beevers and Carslaw made an analysis in the changes in emissions brought by the
introduction of the CCS. This analysis showed that the effect of increased vehicle speed in the
congestion charging zone of London has reduced PM10 emissions in the zone by around a
factor or two compared with the reduction of vehicle flows. The analysis did not account for
any potential reduction in tyre and brake wear thus underestimating the benefit of the CCS in
terms of the total reduction of PM10 emissions.
Low Emission Zones
A low emission zone (LEZ) is a defined area that can only be entered by vehicles that
meet specified emissions criteria or standards. Such standards can be applied to the entire
fleet or to specific types of vehicles such as Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs). A LEZ would
seek to deter the most polluting vehicles from driving in urban areas at national scale. The
aim of the LEZ would be to encourage the operators to clean up their vehicles through vehicle
replacement or modification, thus eventually making an economic decision as to whether or
not to they drive their vehicles in the LEZ.
The set up of the LEZ starting point criteria depends on factors such as the emissions
reductions required to meet air quality objectives, the geographic and temporal extent of the
zone, the costs associated with its implementation, and how it can be enforced. The LEZ uses
Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) cameras which check vehicle details against a
database of compliant and non-compliant vehicles. Vehicles that comply with the proposed
emission standards would be able to operate in the LEZ without paying the charge. Operators
wishing to drive vehicles in the zone that did not meet the proposed emission standards of the
LEZ could still enter, but they would be required to pay a substantial charge for each day of
use. The charge would be set at such a level as to encourage operators to modify or replace
their vehicles to comply with the proposed LEZ standards. To encourage compliance, the
level of the charge and associated penalties would need to be set at a far higher level than that
for the Congestion Charging Scheme. However, in reality not every old vehicle will be
replaced, but rather some will be driven longer to travel around the restriction area, causing
traffic redistribution and maybe even congestion, thus producing more emissions in other
areas.

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6.6. Reducing the Impact on the Environment and Climate Change


Climate protection is one of the great political challenges for the EU and other big
polluting countries. The greenhouse gas reduction target should be based on the reduction
rates which the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has considered
necessary in order to prevent irreversible climate changes. The EU has envisaged a 20 %
reduction of the 1990 level by 2020, and is willing to move to 30% when other developed
countries adopt comparable targets, and when the economically more advanced developing
countries make a contribution commensurate with their respective responsibilities and
capabilities. All countries will need to make an additional effort, including cuts of 80-95% by
2050 by developed countries. In Europe, traffic accounts for one fifth of the total of CO2
emissions.
At present, this sector has been unsuccessful in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The
transport sector is the only sector where emissions are increasing. A main potential for
reduction is seen in road traffic because this sector is one of the largest CO2 emitters.
According to an EU Commission Green Paper, 40% of CO2 emissions from road traffic
originate from local traffic, i.e. above all from urban road transport.
Technology, e.g. energy-efficient vehicles, novel propulsion systems such as electric
motors or the use of some agro-fuels, can be an important element of climate protection.
However, it cannot be considered as the only means to resolve the climate problem because
renewable energies are not available to an unlimited extent. Many competing claims will be
raised for electricity from renewable sources.
Agricultural land that is needed for food production should not be used for the cultivation
of agrofuel crops. This means that irrespective of the technological development,
considerable changes in the everyday mobility situation will be required. Cities have a huge
CO2 saving potential. In Germany for example, 50 % of all inner-city car rides are shorter
than 5 km. This reveals a huge potential for shifting to more environmentally friendly traffic
modes. In order to contribute to CO2-reduction plans at national level, substantial mode shift
from car traffic to bicycle and pedestrian traffic as well as to local public transport is needed:
a behavioural change in the use of transport modes is possible.
In addition, shorter distances e.g. between home and work and the possibility of teleworking and video conferencing should reduce the overall traffic volume. Referring to the
councils decision to mitigate 20 % of the greenhouse gases, the CO2 reduction in the
transport sector should be in the same order of magnitude.
But in the EU, growing transport volumes have driven emissions up by 27 % between
1990 and 2006 (excluding the international aviation and marine sectors). This trend should
not continue. Therefore additional measures are required so that the transport sector fulfils its
contribution by achieving CO2 reductions back to 1990 levels, corresponding to a reduction
by 30% between 2005 and 2020.

Cleaner Urban Transport


Making transport cleaner requires investment in innovation technologies and promotion
of supporting standards. EU laws already make possible that transport users contribute to the
cost of Europes road infrastructure via charges linked to the dimensions of their vehicles and
the distances travelled. Now the road transport sector is under growing expectations that it

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would pay for the environmental damage it causes in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and
noise.
In cities, switching to cleaner transport is facilitated by the lower requirements for vehicle
range and higher population density. Public transport choices are more widely available, as
well as the option of walking and cycling. Cities suffer most from congestion, poor air quality
and noise exposure. Urban transport is responsible for about a quarter of CO2 emissions from
transport, and 69% of road accidents occur in cities.
The gradual phasing out of conventionally fuelled vehicles from the urban environment
is a major contribution to significant reduction of oil dependence, greenhouse gas emissions
and local air and noise pollution. It will have to be complemented by the development of
appropriate fuelling/charging infrastructure for new vehicles.
A higher share of travel by collective transport, combined with minimum service
obligations, will allow for increasing the density and frequency of service, thereby generating
a virtuous circle for public transport modes. Demand management and land-use planning can
lower traffic volumes. Facilitating walking and cycling should become an integral part of
urban mobility and infrastructure design.
The use of smaller, lighter and more specialised road passenger vehicles must be
encouraged. Large fleets of urban buses, taxis and delivery vans are particularly suitable for
the introduction of alternative propulsion systems and fuels. These could make a substantial
contribution in reducing the carbon intensity of urban transport while providing a test bed for
new technologies and opportunity for early market deployment.
Technology and innovation are making road transport greener. R&D helps to produce
more energy-efficient engines which consume less fuel and therefore produce lower exhaust
emissions. The so-called Euro-VI standard for engines that were introduced in 2013 and are
mandatory as from 2014 will reduce emissions by more than 60%. Cleaner fuels are also
being developed, with electricity being the preferred new power source for short distances,
methane and hydrogen for middle distances, and liquefied gas (LNG and LPG) for longer
journeys. The EU finances R&D programmes and works on standards on vehicles and
infrastructures to facilitate the development of electric transport (like accessible charging
points). The shift towards new hybrid and electric propulsion systems is a huge challenge for
the future that can only be met through a coordinated approach by the automotive industry at
European level. It is important for European industry to be at the cutting edge in those
technologies which can improve its share of international markets.

6.7 Making Urban Transport Safer


Better mobility also means safer mobility. Although road transport is a lot safer than it
was, it is still considerably more dangerous than other means of travel. A total of thirty
thousand people died in road accidents in 2011, which is more than 46% down on 2000. The
EUs aim is to halve this number by 2020, using technology (real-time traffic information,
advanced braking systems, automatic driver assistance, better vehicle to - infrastructure
communications, driver behaviour control systems, etc.), enforcement, and education with a
particular focus on vulnerable road users. Although accidents involving trucks or coaches
represent only a small proportion, they are more severe (14% of road fatalities result from

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accidents involving heavy duty vehicles). Driver fatigue and users behaviour on the road are
the main cause or an aggravating factor in one out of three of these accidents.

Maximum Driving Time


The EU sets a series of social provisions for professional drivers working conditions,
which also contribute to road safety and underpin fair competition among operators. The rules
fix:

a daily driving period of no more than nine hours, with a break of at least 45 minutes
after 4.5 hours of driving. Ten-hour driving periods are possible twice a week;
a maximum weekly driving time of 56 hours (or 90 hours per fortnight);
daily rest periods of at least 11 hours (with the option of cutting this to nine hours,
three times per week);
a weekly rest period of 45 continuous hours; this can be cut to 24 hours every second
week (with appropriate compensation).

Compliance with these provisions is subject to continuous monitoring and controls by


Member States. These consist of spot checks of vehicle tachograph records at the roadside or
at the premises of vehicle operators.

Training of Drivers
The EU promotes appropriate training for drivers. Under a 2003 Directive, they must
undergo formal vocational training. Until then, most drivers gained experience on the job
which allowed them to move on to larger categories of vehicles. Now the EU insists that
formal training is the only way to ensure that drivers have the requisite up-to-date skills and
knowledge. The Directive imposes on drivers 35 hours of periodic training every five years.
Drivers learn about safe and eco-friendly driving, vehicle loading, and passenger comfort.
Working Time for Drivers
Since 2005, drivers must respect an average maximum working time of 48 hours per
week (averaged out over a four-month period), while night work cannot exceed 10 hours in
any 24-hour period. No more than six hours can be worked consecutively without a break of
at least 30 minutes.
Seen and Be Seen
Dedicated daytime running lights (DRLs) are the lamps on vehicles that switch on
automatically when the engine is started. They substantially increase the visibility of motor
vehicles. In contrast to conventional headlights, DRLs do not help the driver see the road but
rather help other road users see the approaching vehicle. DRLs (already in use in most EU
countries) became mandatory from 2011 for all new cars and light commercial vehicles in the
EU. Trucks and buses were to follow in August 2012.
Removing Blind Spots
Any truck driver knows that big vehicles have a blind spot when they turn right (or left in
the case of right-hand-drives). The European Commission estimated that the problem was

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causing about 400 road deaths a year in Europe, with cyclists being particularly vulnerable.
Since 2009 (2007 for new vehicles) all trucks above 3.5 tonnes are fitted with upgraded wideangle rear-view mirrors which reduce the blind spot by at least 85%.

Passenger Rights
The EU adopted a new regulation in February 2011 setting for the first time a series of
rights for passengers travelling long distance by coach or bus. This brings road transport in
line with rail, air and sea travel where passengers already enjoy a series of rights. The
Regulation came to force on March 2013. Subject to certain exceptions, this Regulation
applies to passengers travelling with regular services where either the boarding or the arriving
point is within the European Union (EU) and where the scheduled distance of the service is
250 km or more. The Regulation covers non-discrimination between passengers regarding
transport conditions offered by carriers, rights of passengers in the event of accidents, nondiscrimination and assistance for disabled persons and persons with reduced mobility, rights
of passengers in case of cancellation or delay, minimum information to be provided to
passengers, the handling of complaints and general rules on enforcement.

7. PREPARING TRANSPORT FOR THE FUTURE


THE CASE OF EUROPE
Road transport is today strongly dependent on crude oil for its energy supply. The
combustion of the transport fuels constitutes a 20-25% share of overall GHG emissions in the
industrialized countries. The transport sector is the only sector that the GHG emissions are
still rising due to the fact that the demand is still increasing, resulting in ever higher emissions
in the future. The increasing demand for resource limited fossil energy carriers and climate
change concerns due to anthropogenic global GHG emissions represent major challenges for
the society in general and for the mobility in particular.
While efficiency improvements in todays vehicle propulsion systems are essential, the
transition to renewable and decarbonised transport sector is also of great importance. To limit
global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius average by the end of this century, global GHG
emissions need to be halved by 2050 relative to the year 1990. At the same time, to give room
for growth to developing countries, and in view of the larger contribution of industrialised
countries to GHG emissions, the industrialised countries need to have reduced their GHG
emission s in 2050 by 80% or more relative to the year 1990. The European Commission was
among the first to commit itself to this difficult goal.
To achieve this goal, a vision on how the transport should contribute to the achievement
of this goal has been worked out at the Transport White paper (2011). In this White Paper, the
European Commission has defined a sectorial target for transport of 60% reduction in 2050
relative to 1990. This related to the total emissions from the European Transport sector,
including domestic aviation and inland shipping. The target applies to the direct GHG
emissions to be attributed to the transport sector, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change definitions, meaning that electricity, hydrogen and biofuels count as zeroemission energy carriers towards the target.

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Meeting the above target the following three routes are available within the transport
sector:

improving the energy efficiency of vehicles, specifically of internal combustion


engine vehicles by more efficient engines and powertrains, weight reduction,
improved aerodynamics and a range of other measures;
Application of alternative, low CO2 energy carriers, such as electricity, hydrogen or
synthetic methane from renewable sources, and gaseous and liquid biofuels.
Behavioural measures including energy efficient driving styles, improved logistics,
and curbing the growth of travel demand.

The question how and if Europe can secure the supply of energy, the knowledge that we
have limited fossil energy resources, especially of crude oil in the future, the expected oil
production peak, the uncertainty how alternative and especially renewable/decarbonised
energy can substitute fossil energies all make it necessary to analyse new energy pathways
for the future of the transport system.
The White Paper on Transport includes Ten Goals for a Competitive and Resource
Efficient Transport System. These goals are the benchmarks for achieving the 60% GHG
emission reduction target and are defined in three sections:

Developing and deploying new and sustainable fuels and propulsion systems
Optimising the performance of multimodal logistic chains, including by making
greater use of more energy-efficient modes
Increasing the efficiency of transport and of infrastructure use with information
systems and market-based incentives.

These three sections are translated into road transport as follows:

Alternative and decarbonised fuels will highly contribute to the target to achieve 80%
of CO2 reduction in 2050
Decarbonisation in this context is a cross sectorial topic aimed at all kinds of
energy users, not just transport. Available energy sources, especially renewable,
have to be shared in an optimised manner by an energy strategy addressing all
users. In the face of limited availability of affordable renewable and sustainable
energy, the special demand on energy carriers in the different road transport
sectors and in some cases the lack of alternatives, means that dedicated energy
sources for dedicated sectors need to be prioritised.
Energy Security: The fuel has to allow reducing usage of imported crude oil and
to have alternative and better geopolitically distributed sources than crude oil
with a suitable ratio in terms of consumption / reserves.
Safety: The fuel has to guarantee the same or better safety standards than
gasoline / diesel oil or natural gas.
Economics: The fuel has to be more economical than gasoline / diesel oil to
recover the additional vehicle cost within a reasonable period of time. To

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overcome the chicken and egg problem, reliable and binding European wide
harmonized political boundary conditions need to be defined.
Quality: According to the Fuel Quality Directive 2009/30/EC, the mainstream
fuels will resemble current fuels (diesel oil and gasoline) and will consist of
blends of fossil fuel with increasing amounts of biomassderived / decarbonised
components. Biofuels have to fulfil at least the current standards of quality.
Customer Acceptance: The fuel has to comply with customer appeal comparable
to refuelling stations per area and / or citizens
Energy Consumption: The goal is to apply fuels / energy carriers which allow
high efficient powertrains and reduce the energy consumption significantly with
respect to current technology.

Higher powertrain efficiency leads to cleaner mobility and resource protection


Well to Wheel energy consumption has to be reduced in comparison to the
currently applied pathways (diesel and gasoline from crude oil used in internal
combustion engines). Pathways which lead to an increase of Well to Wheel
energy consumption should be avoided.
Urban and motorway vehicles for road transport will have to become
significantly more efficient by 2020 in order to realise sustainable mobility in
Europe. This target will be mostly achieved by improving engine and powertrain
efficiency, by improving vehicle aerodynamics, by reducing vehicle weight, by
enlarging Commercial Vehicles - payloads, by logistic optimisation and by
influencing driving patterns.
Environmental Benefits: Lower exhaust (i.e. CO, NOX and PM) and lower
acoustical emissions.
The internal combustion engines have been on the market for a long time and
they will still be in place for at least two decades. Due to this fact, conventional
powertrains will need to become thermodynamically more efficient.
The combination of electrical components and internal combustion engines (e.g.
hybrids and plug-in hybrids) need to be optimised. New (electric) components
need to be developed.
Customer Acceptance: new powertrain technologies have to fulfil the customer
demands in terms of vehicle range and vehicle / engine performance.

It is therefore clear that optimising the whole chain form the sustainable production of
energy, the energy carriers and the energy distribution via the infrastructure and use will be
one of the most challenging goals for the next decades.
With the rising demand in energy coming especially from emerging countries / regions
like China and India the energy situation will become more challenging. Today, more than
half of the crude oil is consume by road transport. Without a dramatic change, oil will stay the
main energy source for transport, even if there are strong efforts to substitute oil, to develop
new renewable and alternative fossil energy sources and to use sources independent from
fossil / imported oil import.
Further future exploitations in Europe are strongly required and their benefits and
challenges can be summarised as follows:

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The parallel optimisation of the production pathways for the energy carrier and the
vehicle propulsion technology opens potential to save CO2 and other emissions.
Advanced biofuels have a high potential to use residuals or CO2 and Sunlight as
feedstock of the future. Those fuels could achieve in future a very high quality and
therefore the powertrain can become more efficient and clean.
New combustion systems, optimised for hybrid or plug-in powertrains offer potential
to reach higher efficiencies.
Drop-in type fuel will not require vehicle modifications or induce additional vehicle
costs.
For commercial vehicles, new vehicle concepts adopting vehicle weight and/or
dimensions enables higher payload efficiencies and reduces greenhouse emissions.
The refuelling station infrastructure needs to become harmonised Europe-wide and
able to fulfil customers demands.
Harmonised fuel qualities and blend levels of bio-components offer more crossEuropean customer acceptance and the technical potential for further optimisation of
powertrains. The engines can be optimised and adapted for the harmonised
introduced qualities.
Natural gas powertrains have not reached their theoretically achievable performance
as todays engines have the drawback of either being developed based on
conventional gasoline-fuelled combustion engines or derived from diesel engines,
and not designed and optimised for natural gas only. New dual fuel combustion
concepts can moreover bring an additional gain in efficiency in the near future.
Electric mobility with battery electric vehicles (BEV) is for urban areas the most
efficient and cleanest (locally) option for mobility. Moreover, the integration in the
flexible energy network will help to overcome the storage problem of volatile green
electricity. Surplus of green electricity can be stored in automotive batteries and/or
be converted into chemical energy carriers like power to gas hydrogen, methane
or liquid fuels. In this way the energy sector and the mobility can both reached
advantages such as the long-term storage of electricity and utilisation of
decarbonised energy carriers for mobility.

The benefits and challenges for the Energy Carriers for Powertrains are as follows:

Due to higher density, liquid and liquefied fuels will play an important role for long
distance mobility. The integrated optimisation of the vehicle and the powertrain
systems will lead to higher efficiency and lower emissions.
Green electricity and Battery Electric Vehicles will highly contribute to the CO2
emission reduction.
By developing new decarbonised pathways to liquid and gaseous fuels the existing
infrastructure can be used.
Drop-in fuels offer the potential to decarbonise the energy in the existing fleet and
offer the potential for more efficiency in new dedicated vehicles.
Natural gas will play a major role in terms of affordability and energy security. Gas
powertrains can reduce the CO2 emissions compared to gasoline engines by 20 to
25%, considering the even stronger potential in optimised engine technologies.

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CONCLUSION
It is widely accepted that transport is fundamental to our economy and society. Mobility
is vital for the internal market and for the quality of life of citizens as they enjoy their
freedom to travel. Today the road transport sector is facing a number of challenges. Drivers
are confronted with ever more congested roads while one out of four heavy goods vehicles
still runs empty. Road users expect safer and more secure roads and the working conditions of
professional drivers should remain attractive.
At the same time, fuel prices keep on rising, as does the need to reduce air and noise
pollution and the carbon foot-print to which road transport contributes. Road transport is
today strongly dependent on crude oil for its energy supply. The combustion of the transport
fuels constitutes a 20-25% share of overall GHG emissions in the industrialized countries.
The transport sector is the only sector that the GHG emissions are still rising due to the fact
that the demand is still increasing, resulting in ever higher emissions in the future. The
increasing demand for resource limited fossil energy carriers and climate change concerns
due to anthropogenic global GHG emissions represent major challenges for the society in
general and for the mobility in particular.
The challenge is to break the transport systems dependence on oil without sacrificing its
efficiency and compromising mobility. The paramount goal of transport policy is to help
establish a system that underpins economic progress, enhances competitiveness and offers
high-quality mobility services while using resources more efficiently. In practice, transport
has to use less and cleaner energy, better exploit a modern infrastructure and reduce its
negative impact on the environment and key natural assets like water, land and ecosystems.
Action cannot be delayed. Infrastructure takes many years to plan, build and equip and
trains, planes and ships last for decades the choices we make today will determine
transport in 2050. We need to act on a global level to ensure the transformation of transport is
defined together with our partners rather than determined elsewhere in the world.

REFERENCES
Admission to the occupation: Regulation (EC) No 1071/2009 of 21 October 2009 establishing
common rules concerning the conditions to be complied with to pursue the occupation of
road transport operator and repealing, Council Directive 96/26/EC
Akinbami, J. & Fadareb, S. (1997). Strategies for sustainable urban and transport
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In: Sustainability behind Sustainability


Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas

ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 20

CONCRETE SUSTAINABILITY
Demetris Nicolaides*
Department of Civil Engineering, Frederick University,
Nicosia, Cyprus

ABSTRACT
Within the European Union, the construction and demolition wastes come to at least
450 million tons per year. Roughly 75% of the waste is disposed to landfill, despite its
major recycling potential. The bulk constituents of demolition debris are concrete and
masonry with only small percentages of other materials. Therefore, it is considered as of
primary importance the enhancement of the international knowledge and experience
concerning the reuse of waste materials in building industry, and particular concrete
rubbles, in order to ensure the best possible management of the vast quantities of feed
materials that derive worldwide. At the same time, the production of concrete is energy
intensive and environmentally detrimental. It is the aim of this chapter to thoroughly
review research that focuses on the potential use of concrete rubbles as a construction
material, along with the production of new, environmental friendly concrete materials.

1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainability is a key element to all fields of economic and social activity worldwide.
Since the Brundtland Report (1987), sustainability has achieved global political acceptance.
The Construction Industry, being one of the most important consumers of energy and raw
materials, as well as one of the greatest producers of solid waste, cannot ignore requirements
of sustainable development any longer. Further, the ongoing discussion about climate change
and the need for the prudent management of resources put additional pressure on the
immediate implementation of the principles of sustainable construction.
The promotion of environmental management and the mission of sustainable
development worldwide have exerted the pressure for the adoption of appropriate methods to
*

Corresponding author: Email: d.nicolaides@frederick.ac.cy.

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promote the effective production of environmentally friendly and commercially viable


alternatives to traditional building materials and construction techniques. Furthermore,
population growth and hasty urbanization results to a substantial shortage of several building
materials, due to excessive demand and limited availability of natural resources. At the same
time, numerous additional environmental issues related to pollution and high energy
consumption to be resolved.

2. WHY IS GREEN CONCRETE IMPORTANT


Concrete is the most abundantly manufactured material in the world. Twice as much
concrete is used in construction around the world than the total of all other building materials,
including wood, steel, plastic and aluminium (EcoSmart Concrete, 2013). It has excellent
mechanical and durability characteristics, it can be adapted to any size and shape and also has
the important aptitude to be paired with steel reinforcement to form structural elements. The
most important constituents of modern concrete are Portland cement, aggregates (gravel and
sand) and water. Despite the fact that Portland cement constitutes only 10 % to 15 % of the
total volume, it is the critical material system that, upon reacting with water, binds the other
components together (Portland Cement Association, 2013).Unfortunately, the production of
Portland cement is energy intensive and emits nearly a kilogram of carbon dioxide (CO2) for
each kilogram of cement produced. The energy intensity of Portland cement production
makes it the most expensive component of concrete (Snyder et al., 2012).
The global demand of cement in 2011 was 3.58 billion tones. Half of this was produced
and consumed in North Asia alone (International Cement Review, 2012). In manufacturing
3.58 billion tonnes of Portland cement each year worldwide, an equivalent amount of CO2 is
released into the air. According to the EcoSmart project which started in 1998 from
discussions between operators of local cement plants in Canada, the following statistics are of
major importance (EcoSmart Concrete, 2013):
Making one tonne of cement:

requires about 2 tonnes of raw material (limestone and shale)


consumes about 4 GJ of energy in electricity, process heat, and transport (the energy
equivalent to 131 cubic metres of natural gas)
produces approximately one tonne of CO2
produces about 3 kg of NOX, an air contaminant that contributes to ground-level
smog
produces about 0.4 kg of PM10 an airborne particulate matter that is harmful to the
respiratory tract when inhaled

Typically ordinary concrete contains about 12% cement, 8% mixing water, and 80%
aggregate by mass. This means that, in addition to the 3.58 billion tons of cement used
worldwide, the concrete industry is consuming 24 billion tons of sand and rock, and 2.4
billion tons of mixing water annually, becoming the largest user of natural resources in the
world. Mining, processing and transporting huge quantities of aggregates, in addition to the

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vast quantity of the raw materials needed every year for cement manufacturing, consume
considerable energy and adversely affect the ecology of the planet.
At the same time, within the European Union, the construction and demolition wastes
come to at least 450 million tons per year. Roughly 75% of the waste is disposed to landfill,
despite its major recycling potential. Some Member States (in particular Denmark, The
Netherlands and Belgium) investigated thoroughly the technical and economic feasibility of
recycling, achieving recycling rates of more than 80%. On the other hand, the South
European countries recycle very little of their construction wastes (Corinaldesi and Moriconi,
2009). The bulk constituents of demolition debris are concrete (50-55%) and masonry (3040%) with only small percentages of other materials such as metals, glass and timber (Tam et
al., 2007). Therefore, it is considered as of primary importance the enhancement of the
international knowledge and experience concerning the reuse of waste materials in building
industry, and particular concrete rubbles, in order to ensure the best possible management of
the vast quantities of feed materials that derive worldwide.
The term green concrete refers to concrete being produced and used in an
environmentally friendly manner. This chapter critically explores recent research advances
that focus on the development of green sustainable concretes worldwide. The discussion
will be divided into three main sections, namely: 1) Recycled Aggregates Effectively Reused
in Concrete Mixes, 2) Supplementary Cementitious Materials and Special Concretes and
finally 3) Recycled Fibres.

3. RECYCLED AGGREGATES EFFECTIVELY REUSED


IN CONCRETE MIXES
The promotion of environmental management and the mission of sustainable
development worldwide have exerted the pressure for the adoption of appropriate methods to
promote effective introduction of recycled aggregates (RA) from construction and demolition
rubbles into the production processes. These Recycled Aggregates (RA) could result from the
demolition of concrete structures, broken bricks, pavements, etc. Concrete made using such
aggregates is referred to as Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC). Several researchers focused
on this research field and their primary objective was the production of a set of
recommendations for the reuse of specific construction wastes in various concrete products.
Research has also been conducted for the determination of the economic viability of recycling
and the diversion of construction wastes into new high value products, with all possible
economic, technical and environmental benefits. Detailed experimental work focused on the
preparation and testing of recycled aggregates in terms of shape, grading, physical and
mechanical properties, in order to evaluate their pertinence according to the American,
European and other specifications. Established methods were used as the basis for the design
of concrete mixes incorporating several fractions of recycled aggregates. Experimental work
has also been done on the mechanical and fracture properties of these materials. However, the
existing work in the international literature related to the transport properties and the
degradation mechanisms of the produced recycled concrete is still limited. Furthermore, Life
Cycle Analyses which allowed the evaluation of the technoeconomic feasibility of
incorporating the different waste materials as value-added constituents in green concrete

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were expansively performed. The abovementioned extensive experimental work contributed


essentially to the alleviation of skepticism of end users regarding green concrete, resulting
in the application of recycled concrete in a broad range of applications.
Recycling of demolition waste was first carried out after the Second World War in
Germany (Khalaf et al., 2004). However, the effective reuse of recycled aggregates in
concrete mixes has been extensively investigated by several researchers, from as far back as
late 1980s. Within the European Union, the construction and demolition wastes come to at
least 450 million tons per year, which is the largest single waste stream, apart from farm
waste (Rao et al., 2006). The bulk constituents of demolition debris are concrete (50-55%)
and masonry (30-40%) with only small percentages of other materials such as metals, glass
and timber (Tam et al., 2007). Several researchers studied the use of Recycled Concrete
Aggregates (RCA) to partially or globally replace natural aggregates in the production of
concrete (Evangelista and Brito, 2007, Rao et al., 2006). Density and water absorption ratio
are the properties having the greatest differences in comparison with natural aggregates.
These differences are mainly attributed to the lower density of the adhered mortar in the
recycled aggregate, as reported by many authors (Dhir et al., 1999) and have a negative
impact on the concrete mixes. However, there are a few studies that prove that concrete made
with coarse aggregates deriving from concrete recycling have mechanical properties similar
to those of conventional concretes (Gonzalez-Fonteboa and Martinez-Abella, 2008). On the
other hand, there is skepticism in the use of the fine fraction of these recycled aggregates. Not
many studies have been conducted using fine fractions due to the belief that their greater
water absorption can jeopardize the final results, particularly for replacement ratios exceeding
30% (Portland Cement Association, 2002). Evangelista and Brito (2007) monitored the
mechanical performance (compressive strength, split tensile strength, modulus of elasticity
and abrasion resistance) of concretes containing several percentages of fine aggregates. They
claimed that the use of fine recycled concrete aggregates did not jeopardize the mechanical
properties of concrete, for replacement ratios up to 30%. Also, Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz
(2002) examined the reuse of aggregates obtained from crushing of structures originally
constructed of relatively high strength concrete (40-70 MPa), containing good quality
aggregates (e.g. granite or basalt), and large amount of cement. They concluded that the
properties of original concrete have significant influence on the mechanical properties of
recycled aggregate concrete and that it is possible to obtain recycled concrete with higher
compressive strength than the original one.
In general, recycled fine aggregates contain a larger amount of adhered mortar, which
results in difficulties in procuring the required slumps, as well as a substantial increase in
deformation, and sharp drops in the modulus of elasticity and strengths. Some researchers
examined the effect of the addition of silica fume on the basic properties of recycled concrete
(RC) (Gonzalez-Fonteboa and Martinez-Abella, 2008). However, very few projects have been
able to provide conclusive evidence regarding the effect of mineral admixtures on the
properties of recycled concrete (Ravindrarajah and Tam, 1988). Furthermore, although a
significant amount of work has been conducted regarding the mechanical behavior of
concretes made with RCA, very limited work can be found in the literature about their
durability aspects (Levy and Helene, 2004).The authors utilized fine and coarse recycled
aggregates obtained from demolished concrete and masonry structures for the manufacture of
new concrete mixtures (natural aggregates were replaced by 0%, 20%, 50%, and 100% with
aggregates deriving from recycled sources). They measured and analyzed three fundamental

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durability properties, namely water absorption, total pores volume, and carbonation. The
authors concluded that for replacement of natural aggregates by recycled lower than 20%, the
resulting recycled concrete will exhibit similar and even better behavior than the reference
concrete, in terms of the properties studied in this investigation. It has been also showed that
some compositional characteristics of concrete could have more influence on the durability
than the traditional physical aspects. Evangelista and Brito (2010) investigated the durability
performance of concrete made with fine recycled concrete aggregates. Different concrete
mixes (with increasing rates of substitution of fine natural aggregates with fine recycled
aggregates from crushed concrete) were prepared and tested. The results were then compared
with those for a reference concrete with exactly the same composition and grading curve, but
with no recycled aggregates. The authors presented the results for water absorption and
capillarity, chloride penetration, and carbonation resistance. Water absorption, chloride
migration coefficient and carbonation depth increased with the replacement ratio of fine
natural with fine recycled aggregates. It was concluded that for durability reasons the total
replacement of the fine natural by fine recycled aggregates in a concrete mix may present
serious difficulties; however, for smaller replacement ratios (e.g. 30%), the use of fine
recycled aggregates for structural concrete production is feasible, contrary to the widespread
notion (even in codes) that they are inappropriate for this purpose. Finally, they suggested the
use of alternative binders (supplementary cementitious materials) other than ordinary Portland
cement, in order to compensate the presence of fine recycled aggregates. Water permeability
is an important durability indicator which quantifies concrete resistance to penetration by
external agents, as water is one of the main carriers of aggressive substances. The study by
Medina et al. (2013) explored whether the substitution of 20% and 25% of recycled ceramic
sanitary ware as coarse aggregates affected the resistance to water of structural recycled
concrete. The findings revealed that the slightly higher porosity in the recycled concrete did
not translate into greater permeability. Therefore, these new recycled concretes were proved
to be as durable as the conventional material, and will therefore perform well throughout their
design service life.
Research on the potential reuse of recycled aggregates has been continuing intensively
for at least the last twenty years. However, the vital mission of sustainable development and
the ongoing discussion for the production of environmentally friendly and commercially
viable alternatives to traditional building materials has been the inspirational reason for many
recent studies. Several scientists are still investigating the potential use of recycled aggregates
for the production of new concrete mixes. The results of a wide experimental campaign
carried out on concretes made using recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) and fly-ash (FA) in
partial substitution of natural aggregates and cement were presented by Lima et al. (2013).
Concretes characterised by variable waterbinder ratios and produced with different
percentages of RCA and variable the content of FA have been tested. Test results revealed a
significant reduction of workability, a reduction in compressive and tensile strength by
increasing the percentage of recycled aggregates in the mix, and a higher permeability
(resulting to a smaller resistance to chlorides penetration). The addition of fly ash in the
mixtures enhanced the workability, the mechanical properties and durability performance of
the concrete, thus mitigating the worsening effects of RCAs. In the work by Hoffmann et al.
(2012), variations in the composition of Recycled Aggregates (RA) were studied over a
period of several weeks. Concrete mixtures were then produced with these aggregates in order
to evaluate the resulting variations in concrete properties. Although the high variability in

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aggregate composition causes corresponding variations in concrete properties, the results


obtained demonstrated that RA is suited for a wide variety of applications in the building
industry. Kou et al. (2012) presented the properties of concrete prepared with the sorted
construction waste (low grade recycled aggregates) and a commercial recycled aggregate for
concrete production. Three series of concrete mixes were prepared by using the low grade or
commercial recycled aggregates at 0%, 25%, 50% and 100% replacement levels of natural
crushed granite. The concrete mixes were kept constant cement content and a free water to
cement ratio. The test results on properties such as compressive and splitting tensile strength,
E-values, resistance to chloride-ion penetration and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) were
presented. The results showed that the strengths, E-values and UPV of the concrete were
decreased with an increase in the recycled aggregate content. Moreover, the recycled
aggregate decreased the resistance to chloride ion penetration of the concrete.
The effects of both fine and coarse recycled concrete aggregates on short and long-term
mechanical and physical properties of new structural concrete were investigated by Manzi et
al. (2013). The studied concrete mixes were designed by adjusting and selecting the content
and grain size distribution of concrete waste with the goal to obtain mediumhigh
compressive strength, with high content of recycled aggregates (ranging from 27% to 63.5%
of total amount of aggregates). Time-dependent properties, such as shrinkage and creep,
combined with porosity measurements and mechanical investigations were reported as
fundamental features to assess structural concrete behaviour. Specifically, concrete
workability was more influenced by the shape, texture and grain size distribution of the
recycled aggregates than by their total amount. A proper assortment of fine and coarse
concrete waste can lead to good structural concrete as using only coarse recycled aggregates.
Concrete shrinkage strain was negatively influenced by the use of recycled concrete
aggregates, whereas specific creep results showed that one specific mixture of recycled
aggregate concrete exhibited even better performance than the reference concrete. Finally,
porosity and pore size distribution fully agreed with the mechanical properties determined for
the investigated samples, thus confirming that the use of recycled concrete aggregates can
lead to very dense microstructures. Work by Mas et al. (2012) focused on the use of mixed
recycled aggregates (MRAs) as coarse or fine aggregates in concrete and studied the
influence of the cement type used. As mixed recycled aggregates were considered asphalt,
ceramics, cement and cement products, unbound aggregates, light particles (<1.0 Mg/m3),
glass, timber, and other dangerous materials, such as gypsum, plaster, etc. Four mixes suitable
for manufacturing low-strength concrete and three mixes for medium-strength precast
elements were studied.
Type CEM II, CEM III/A and CEM V/A cements were used, the last two being sulphateresistant cements containing blast furnace slag. Compressive, tensile and flexural strength
properties decreased as the proportion of MRA increased. Compared with CEM II cements,
the strength and permeability of the concretes made with sulphate-resistant cement decreased
less as the amounts of MRA increased. Vijayalakshmi et al. (2013) experimentally
investigated the suitability of granite powder (GP) waste as a substitute material for
fine/natural aggregate in concrete mixes. Fine natural aggregates were replaced in concrete
mixtures in percentages of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% by GP waste. Various
mechanical and durability properties were determined. The obtained test results indicated that
the replacement of natural sand by GP waste up to 15% of any formulation is favourable for
concrete mixture properties, without adversely affecting strength and durability. However, it

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was recommended that the GP waste should be subjected to a chemical bleaching process
prior to blend in the concrete to increase the sulphate resistance. Hu et al. (2013) studied the
development of an effective method for using deconstructed, lead-contaminated masonry
materials in new concrete so as to minimize the environmental impact, cost, and time of the
deconstruction. Their approach was to use crushed masonry materials to replace natural
aggregates in conventional concrete. Two different types of masonry materials (concrete
blocks and clay bricks) were collected, painted with lead-based paint (LBP), and then crushed
to simulate recycled LBP-contaminated masonry materials. Three types of cement (type I
Portland cement, Calcium Sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement, and Portland cement with 5%
phosphate addition) were selected for sequestering lead in the recycled aggregate. A concrete
mix design matrix was developed with different water-to-cement ratios (w/c), aggregate-tocement ratios (a/c), types of cements, and types of masonry materials. Test results indicated
that the lead can be sequestered, or rendered non-leachable, due to the high alkalinity of
cement. The concrete therefore had no longer the toxicity characteristic for lead and was
suitable for various types of new construction.
Much research has been conducted regarding the use of recycled concrete aggregates
(RCA) in concrete mixes recycled from parent concrete of natural source aggregates, referred
as first generation. Recycling the RCA forming a second loop of recycling concrete is
referred as the second generation of RCA. The study by Marie and Quiasrawi (2012)
concentrated on the properties of the second generation concrete. The concrete mixes
considered in their study were conventional mixes made of 100% natural aggregates (NA),
mixes containing up to 20% replacement of NA with RCA, producing first generation
concrete and mixes containing up to 20% replacement of NA with aggregates obtained by
recycling the first generation concrete (R-RCA), producing the second generation concrete.
Properties that have been studied are workability, absorption, compressive and tensile
strengths. The results showed that the use of RCA and R-RCA had an adverse effect on
concrete properties. Results showed that the use of up to 20% replacement of NA by RCA or
R-RCA instead of NA was allowed for producing concretes of accepted quality. The second
generation RCA performed better than the first generation RCA. It was also shown that the
closed-loop recycling is possible and advantages maintaining the sustainability of the natural
resources and the environment. Also, Xiao et al. (2012) experimentally investigated under
low cyclic horizontal loading one cast-in situ natural aggregate concrete (NAC) column, one
cast-in situ recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) column and four semi-precast RAC columns
are.
This work mainly focused on the effects of three parameters, i.e., the recycled coarse
aggregate (RCA) replacement percentage (0 vs. 100%), the construction sequence (partially
precast and partially cast-in situ vs. fully cast-in situ) and the size of core column
(150x150mm vs. 200x200 mm) on the seismic behaviour of the semi-precast RAC columns
based on their hysteretic feature, stiffness, energy dissipation and failure pattern. It was
concluded that the semi-precast RCA columns have similar seismic behaviour as that of the
fully cast-in situ columns. The construction sequence and column core size could also affect
the seismic behaviour of the semi-precast column. Both the experiments and the numerical
analysis indicated that the seismic behaviour of the semi-precast RAC column was well
suitable for general engineering applications.

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4. SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS


AND SPECIAL CONCRETES
Portland cement is the critical concrete constituent that, upon reacting with water, binds
the other components together. Unfortunately, the production of Portland cement is energy
intensive and emits nearly a kilogram of carbon dioxide (CO2) for each kilogram of cement
produced. The energy intensity of Portland cement production makes it the most expensive
component of concrete (Snyder et al., 2012).At the same time, several industries produce
materials which can potentially be utilized in the concrete industry as partial cement
replacements. These materials are generally referred to as industrial pozzolans and include
pulverized fuel ash (pfa), also known as fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs)
and various other slags from the steel industry. Pulverized fuel ash (pfa) and ground
granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs) have been extensively researched and are used around the
world as partial replacements for Portland cement in concrete. Many other potential
pozzolans, produced in smaller quantities are being investigated as cement replacements.
Concretes produced in this way have a number of advantages over Portland cement, including
improved durability, enhanced workability and higher ultimate strength. The use of these
materials is even a requirement in certain applications, for example ground granulated blast
furnace slag replaces 70% of the cement in concretes designed to resist sulphate attack. The
reaction of these materials in concrete relies on the calcium hydroxide produced by the
hydration of the Portland cement. However, these materials can also react with alkaline
solutions to produce a dense, compact paste with cementing properties. The utilization of this
reaction could enable the production of concrete containing no cement. Further, pulverized
soda lime glass (Shi et al., 2005), matt waste from glass separated collection (Bignozzi et al.,
2009, 2010), treated bottom ash (Saccani et al., 2005), and even ceramic residues (Andreolaet
al., 2010) have been tested as supplementary cementitious materials (Bignozzi, 2011). Recent
trends and developments in green cement and concrete technology have also been
extensively reviewed by Imbabi et al. (2013).
Several researchers have recently investigated the potential partial replacement of cement
with other materials, which exhibited pozzolanic behavior. Zadeh and Bobko (2013)
examined the nanoscale mechanical properties of concrete containing blast furnace slag and
fly ash before and after thermal damage. Nano-indentation experiments confirmed that
concrete produced with blended cements contained hydration products with nearly identical
nanoscale mechanical properties to the hydration products found in concretes produced with
ordinary Portland cement. After exposure to fire damage, the nanoscale behavior of concretes
produced with fly ash and slag also matched the nanoscale behavior of conventional
concretes. The current annual worldwide production of by-products is estimated about 700
million tons of which 70 % is fly ash at least. Large quantities of fly ash are available at low
costs around the world and the use of fly ash concrete seems to offer the best solution to
reducing consumption of cement. For this reason, Ondova et al. (2012) studied the
mechanical properties (tensile flexural and compressive strengths) of hardened fly ash concrete composites with various proportions of fly ash, and also investigated the chemical
admixtures which influence the concrete properties. Based on the experimental results it was
concluded that the utilization of fly ash in percentages ranging between 5-15 wt. % as cement
replacement was possible for the production of concrete, class C30/37. However, the results

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showed significant differences in the measured values of the strength of concrete composites
with the same portion of fly ash using various chemical admixtures. The differences in
strength values were attributed in the admixture constitution. Berry et al. (2011) studied the
use of fly ash as a replacement for 100% of the portland cement in concrete and also the use
of recycled pulverized glass as a replacement for traditional aggregate. The developed
material was proved promising with respect to its fundamental mechanical properties (i.e.
compressive and tensile strength), durability (alkali-silica reaction and freezing-thawing
resistance), and structural performance (behaviour of reinforced concrete beams). The
strength and durability of recycled aggregate concrete containing milled glass as partial
replacement for cement was investigated by Nassar and Soroushian (2012). Results showed
that waste glass, when milled to micro-scale particle size, was estimated to undergo
pozzolanic reactions with cement hydrates, forming secondary calcium silicate hydrate (CS
H). These reactions brought favourable changes in the structure of the hydrated cement paste
and the interfacial transition zones in recycled aggregate concrete. The authors claim that
milled waste glass was also found to suppress alkali-silica reactions and also the filling effect
of sub-micron sized milled glass particles resulted to a less permeable microstructure of
recycled aggregate concrete. As it is mentioned in their research paper entitled Strength and
durability of recycled aggregate concrete containing milled glass as partial replacement for
cement, the use of milled waste glass as partial replacement of cement resulted also in
enhanced durability characteristics such as sorption, chloride permeability, and freezethaw
resistance through improvement in pore system characteristics, filling effect of glass particles,
and conversion of CH to CSH available in the old mortar/cement paste attached to the
surface of recycled aggregate. Significant increase in the later age strength was also achieved
through the formation of denser and less permeable microstructure which was expected to be
the result of the filling effect of sub-micron sized glass particles. Milling of waste glass to
sub-micron particle size was the key to benefit from its pozzolanic reaction. Gencel et al.
(2012) studied the combined effects of fly ash and waste ferrochromium on properties of
concrete. Cement was replaced with fly ash at the ratios of 10, 20 and 30 wt.%. Coarse
limestone aggregates were replaced with coarse ferrochromium aggregate at the ratios of 25,
50 and 75 wt.%. The authors concluded that the use of fly ash resulted in lower values of
compressive and splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and wear resistance. In
contrast, freezethaw resistance was increased. The usage of ferrochromium aggregates
increased the strength of concrete and also the abrasion wear resistance. Finally, they have
concluded that the effect of ferrochromium aggregates on the porosity and water absorption
of concrete was insignificant while fly ash enhanced these properties. Finally, Durn-Herrera
et al. (2011) conducted research work for the study of the synergistic effect of fly ash and a
polycarboxylate superplasticizer in the production of conventional concrete. The different
concretes considered in this study were produced with mass substitutions of cement by fly ash
between 15% and 75%, and a target slump of 200 mm 20 mm. The total water content was
minimized through the use of an optimum superplasticizerdosage that resulted in water and
cement reductions.
An exceptional group of sustainable concretes is the so called, Geopolymer Cementless
Concretes. The development of these materials is based on the chemical reaction between
various supplementary cementitious materials with pozzolanic properties (e.g. pfa and ggbs)
with alkaline solutions, for the production of a dense, compact paste with cementing
properties. The utilization of this reaction could enable the production of concrete containing

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no cement. Initial research relating to this reaction and the production of concrete based on it
has mostly been conducted by Bakharev et al. (1999), Puertas et al. (2000), Palomo et al.,
(1999) and Hardjito et al. (2004). These materials are being investigated for structural
concrete applications and hazardous waste immobilization. Two reaction models for alkali
activation of pozzolans have been described in the literature (Palomo et al., 1999). In the first
model, a pozzolan containing high levels of calcium and silicon, e.g. ggbs, reacts with a low
to mild alkali, producing calcium silicate hydrate as in Portland cement hydration. The
reaction is rapid even at ambient temperature and early age strengths may be equivalent to the
28-day strength of Portland cement concrete. The reaction is significantly accelerated by heat
treatment (Bakharev et al., 1999). In the second model, a strong alkali reacts with a pozzolan
containing silicon and aluminium at elevated temperatures. Pozzolans reacting according to
this model include pulverised fuel ash and metakaolin and the reaction product is believed to
be a zeolite precursor. Materials reacting according to this model are frequently referred to as
geopolymers. Low-Ca pfa pastes activated with a solution containing sodium hydroxide and
sodium silicate and cured at 65C have been produced with compressive strengths of 60
N/mm2 after 24 hours (Palomo et al., 1999). The higher temperatures needed make this
material ideal for precast concrete applications where higher curing temperatures are
routinely used to enhance early strength of concrete. Combinations of pfa and ggbs have also
been investigated (Puertas et al., 2000). Pastes containing 50%pfa/50%ggbs activated with
sodium hydroxide and cured at ambient temperature can have 28-day strengths of 50 N/mm2.
In general, the chemical reaction of these systems is fast and there is no significant strength
gain after 24 hours. Although the mechanism of these reactions has been well-established for
some pozzolans, considerable further investigation is required to advance this technology to a
point where it can be exploited by relevant companies and applied at factory scale to produce
environmentally friendly and commercially viable alternatives to Portland cement in concrete.
Geopolymer-like products such as Pyrament (Wheat, 1992) have seen brief commercial
utilization over the past 30 years, and alkali-slag cements have been very successfully used in
the former Soviet Union (Krivenko, 1994, 2002), but large-scale commercial success has
generally been elusive. However, the worlds first commercial geopolymer concrete batching
operation has opened in Australia during 2008, gaining significant media attention in the
current environment where environmental gains are increasingly being viewed as important
(Nowak, 2008). Pilot studies have shown that waste alkali solutions and basic oxygen steel
slag can be successfully used to activate ggbs, but these were not as effective with fly ash.
The reason for having less success with fly ash has been identified as the non-availability of
calcium but this can be supplemented from several other different waste stream sources. More
recent studies on geopolymer concretes have been conducted by scientists around the world.
Vora and Dave (2013) cast 20 geopolymer concrete mixes in order to evaluate the effect of
various parameters affecting compressive strength. The parameters under investigation were
the ratio of alkaline liquid to fly ash, concentration of sodium hydroxide, ratio of sodium
silicate to sodium hydroxide, curing time and temperature, superplasticiser dosage, rest period
and additional water content in the mix. The test results showed that compressive strength
increases with increase in the curing time and temperature, rest period, concentration of
sodium hydroxide solution and decreases with increase in the ratio of water to geopolymer
solids by mass and admixture dosage, respectively. Ahmari et al., (2012) studied the
production of geopolymeric binder from ground waste concrete powder mixed with fly ash,
which was then used with recycled concrete aggregates to produce new concrete. They

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examined the effect of composition and concentration of the alkaline solution and the content
of ground waste concrete on the unconfined compressive strength of the produced
geopolymeric binder. The results revealed that utilization of up to 50% of ground waste
concrete together with fly ash can increase the unconfined compressive strength of the
geopolymeric binder. Further increase of ground waste concrete decreases the unconfined
compressive strength of the geopolymeric binder. Finally, Kupaei et al. (2013) recently
presented the experimental results of an on-going research project which aims to produce
geopolymer lightweight concrete using two locally available waste materials, namely low
calcium fly ash and oil palm shell as the binder and lightweight coarse aggregate,
respectively.

5. RECYCLED FIBRES
The last section of this review chapter will emphasize in the use of recycled waste
materials as fibre reinforcement in concrete mixtures. The most common types of fibres used
in concrete are steel, glass, and plastic. The selection of the appropriate type is based mainly
on the material property that needs to be improved. However, the production of most of these
materials requires considerable energy and affects adversely the ecology of the planet.
Therefore, the use of appropriate recycled waste materials as fibre reinforcement in concrete
mixtures has nowadays become more popular. Ochi et al. (2007) described a method that can
be used to produce concrete-reinforcing polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibres from used
PET bottles. Using this method, the concrete and PET fibres were easily mixed at fibre
contents as high as 3%. The issue of concern in the development of PET fibre is its alkali
resistance; however, the authors encountered no problems when using the fibre in normal
concrete. Similar work on PET fibres has been conducted by Kim et al. (2010), where short
fibres made from recycled PET were used within structural concrete. Experimental results
showed that compressive strength and elastic modulus both decreased as fibre volume
fraction increased. Cracking due to drying shrinkage was delayed in the PET fibre reinforced
concrete specimens, compared to such cracking in non-reinforced specimens without fibre
reinforcement, which indicates crack controlling and bridging characteristics of the recycled
PET fibres. Foti (2013) also used recycled waste PET bottles fibres for the reinforcement of
concrete. The fibers were obtained by simply cutting the bottles. They were added in the
concrete mix or they were used as discrete reinforcement of specimens and small beams in
order to substitute steel bars. Results that have been obtained are very interesting, especially
regarding the adherence between PET and concrete, suggesting a possible use of this material
in the form of flat or round bars, or networks for structural reinforcement. Moreover,
Fraternali et al. (2011) performed an experimental study of the thermo-mechanical properties
of recycled PET fiber-reinforced concrete. Specifically, thermal conductivity, compressive
strength, first crack strength and ductility indices of recycled PET fiber-reinforced concrete
were determined. The authors investigated PET filaments industrially extruded from recycled
PET bottle flakes with different mechanical properties and profiles. They observed significant
improvements in thermal resistance, mechanical strengths and ductility of recycled PET fiberreinforced concrete, as compared to plain concrete.
Recycled steel fibres recovered from post-consumer tyres were used by Graeff et al.
(2012) as reinforcement in concrete in order to enhance its post-cracking flexural behaviour

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and improve its fatigue resistance. The authors examined the use of recycled steel fibres as
fatigue reinforcement for concrete pavements. Concrete prisms were subjected to cyclic thirdpoint flexural loads. Two types of mixes, conventional and roller compacted concrete, and
two recycled fibre contents, 2% and 6% by mass of concrete were used. Unreinforced and
industrially produced fibre reinforced concrete mixes were also tested for comparison
purposes. The recycled fibres were found to improve the fatigue behaviour of concrete,
especially for conventional plastic concrete mixes. Finally, Awwad et al. (2012) used
industrial hemp fibres as concrete reinforcement. They performed tests for the determination
of flexural, compressive and splitting tensile strengths, modulus of elasticity, thermal
conductivity, density and slump. Experimental results indicated that the use of industrial
hemp fibres led to a reduction in coarse aggregate quantity without affecting the flexural
performance of concrete, in addition to a significant enhancement in ductility of load
deflection behaviour.

CONCLUSION
Selected studies that focused on concrete sustainability were reviewed in this chapter. As
it was amply indicated, several waste materials can be used as value-added constituents in
concrete mixes for a wide range of applications. However, the common understanding
remains that, for several waste materials to be accepted as true value-added products in
concrete technology, the modification of existing legislation and practice standards to
incorporate appropriate specifications is required.
Further research on green concrete is considered imperative for the enhancement of the
state-of-the-art knowledge concerning the reuse of waste materials in construction industry
and the boost of the recycling process with all possible social, economic, technical and
environmental benefits. Finally, the findings of such research will contribute to the alleviation
of scepticism of end users regarding green concrete.

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INDEX
#
21st century, 9, 45, 54, 230, 294

A
abatement, 28, 50, 351
absorption spectroscopy, 130
access, 49, 52, 59, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 93, 102, 105,
126, 211, 213, 226, 279, 292, 319, 323, 327, 331,
348, 352, 353, 356
accessibility, 116, 263, 346, 347, 350, 351, 355
accommodation, 40, 323, 339
accountability, 64
accounting, 5, 98, 99, 160, 235, 239, 346
accreditation, xii, 14
acid, 146, 150, 247, 248
acidic, 246, 247, 263
acidity, 247
acquisitions, 67
activated carbon, 153, 167, 183
actuality, 44
adaptability, 298
adaptation, 73, 107, 108, 280, 332
ADC, 93
additives, 183, 237
adjustment, 40, 146, 158, 177, 200, 299
adsorption, xvi, 83, 260, 309
adults, 353
advancement, 280, 347
adverse effects, 13, 237, 244, 267
aesthetic, 117, 199, 324
affluence, 330
AFM, 181
Africa, 5, 74, 75, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,
98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
108, 127, 133, 246, 249, 316, 339
age, 89, 173, 244, 379, 380

ageing population, 209


agencies, 9, 14, 256, 258, 323, 332, 351, 352, 353
aggregation, 19, 22, 25, 306, 308
agricultural sector, xvi, xxv, 243, 254
agriculture, xv, xvi, xxv, 24, 27, 28, 51, 73, 74, 75,
76, 78, 96, 99, 102, 104, 105, 114, 117, 124, 125,
127, 131, 211, 231, 251, 254, 255, 267, 270, 297,
298, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 307, 310, 312, 317,
318, 329
agrosystem, 73, 75, 81, 82
AIDS, 90
air emissions, 28, 158
air pollutants, 246, 356, 359
air quality, xxvi, 24, 26, 29, 30, 58, 187, 252, 347,
359, 360, 362, 368
airborne particles, 165
Albania, xxiv
alfalfa, 302
Algeria, 74, 93, 95, 96, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105, 330
alkalinity, 377
alternative energy, 171
alters, 304
aluminium, 136, 204, 372, 380
ambient air, 359
American Psychological Association, 44
amines, 236
amino, 128
amino acid, 128
ammonia, 149, 234, 241, 242, 249
ammonium, 176
Amsterdam Treaty, 3, 11
anaerobic digestion, xiii, 146, 149, 150, 168, 174,
184, 185, 188, 189, 191, 193, 195, 201, 219, 220,
221, 227, 228, 230, 231, 250
anchoring, 41
Angola, 101, 105
annual rate, 260
antagonism, 268
anthropocentrism, 118

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Index

antibiotic, xx
antibiotic resistance, xx
antioxidant, 170
application techniques, 308
aptitude, 372
aqueous solutions, 82
aquifers, 76, 309, 329
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, 307, 318
Argentina, 248, 297, 300, 301, 302, 306, 310, 311,
312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318
Aristotle, xix, xx, xxii, xxv, xxvi, xxvii, 157, 202,
203, 204, 205, 219
armed conflict, 13, 90
arousal, 37
arsenic, 132
Asia, 101, 102, 103, 202, 217, 231, 245, 246, 249,
297, 372
Asian countries, 156
assessment, xiv, 3, 18, 113, 114, 132, 159, 174, 203,
219, 223, 236, 238, 240, 251, 255, 256, 257, 258,
262, 267, 271, 272, 294, 312, 341, 358
assessment tools, 159
assets, 91, 92, 94, 97, 319, 368
assimilation, 40
asthma, 270
athletes, 61
atmosphere, 102, 139, 145, 146, 164, 245, 251, 298
atrium, 52
attitudes, 8, 37, 42, 118, 119, 229, 230, 288, 293
audit, 70, 201, 290
Austria, 96, 357
authenticity, 83, 321, 326
authoritarianism, 331
authority(s), 29, 136, 174, 244, 254, 255, 256, 264,
337, 338, 350, 354, 357
automatic processes, 37
automation, 66, 172, 173, 184, 186
automobiles, 347, 352
autonomy, 171
avoidance, 66, 113, 140, 252, 299
awareness, 1, 35, 38, 39, 60, 115, 128, 211, 288, 289,
292, 293, 319, 322, 325, 326, 333, 334, 340

B
bacteria, 156, 163, 168, 176, 177, 180, 232, 233,
236, 250
balance of payments, 320
balance sheet, 46
bandwidth, 58
Bangladesh, 156, 245, 278
barriers, 49, 63, 147, 180, 227, 285, 349, 352

base, xi, 2, 38, 49, 79, 80, 104, 126, 212, 242, 246,
264, 346, 352
basic needs, 92
basic services, 325
batteries, 367
beams, 79, 379, 381
bedding, 79, 80, 249, 250
beef, 221, 240
beetles, 125
behaviors, xviii, 35, 37, 39, 40, 42, 211
Beijing, vii, xiii
Belgium, 373
belief systems, 63
benchmarking, 296
benchmarks, 59, 324, 338, 365
beneficial effect, 124, 125, 310
benzene, 152
bias, 39, 284
bicarbonate, 76
Bilateral, xxiv
bioavailability, 237, 241
biodegradable materials, 143
biodegradable wastes, 145, 150
biodegradation, 150, 152, 232
biodiesel, 82, 189
biodiversity, vii, xxvii, 2, 18, 24, 27, 30, 37, 89, 92,
103, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117,
118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 128, 130, 131,
133, 277, 297, 299, 326, 327
biogas, 82, 150, 157, 174, 176, 184, 185, 191, 192,
194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223,
226, 227, 250
biological activity, 299, 304, 306
biological processes, 147, 158, 178
biomass, xiii, 78, 82, 97, 98, 99, 100, 139, 166, 167,
221, 222, 226, 233, 247, 259, 304, 312, 313, 317,
366
bioremediation, xxi, xxv
biotechnological applications, xxvii
biotechnology, 44, 124
biotic, 270
birds, 103, 115, 117, 120
births, 289
bleaching, 377
blends, 156, 366
blind spot, 363
blood, 132, 245, 288
blueprint, 9, 42
boilers, 196, 197
boils, 158
Bolivia, 339
bonds, 212
bones, 245

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Index
bonuses, 289, 353
Botswana, 101, 102, 105
brand image, 45
brand loyalty, 353
Brazil, 6, 8, 9, 59, 100, 310, 311, 339
breakdown, 233, 297, 298
breeding, 81, 99, 126, 221, 222, 244
Britain, 311
bronchial asthma, 246, 272
Bulgaria, xxiv
bureaucracy, 49
Burkina Faso, 104, 105
burn, 146
Burundi, 104, 105
business model, 351, 352
business processes, 283
Business Roundtable, 94
business strategy, 54, 63, 66
businesses, 12, 45, 46, 47, 54, 59, 65, 292, 337, 338,
340, 347, 352, 354, 357, 360
by-products, 82, 85, 117, 152, 247, 270, 378

C
cabinets, 357
cadmium, 25, 198
calcium, 78, 100, 254, 258, 259, 307, 378, 379, 380
calcium carbonate, 258
CAM, 339
Cameroon, 96, 99, 104, 105
campaigns, 290, 293, 358
candidates, 187
CAP, 114, 115, 122
capacity building, 93
capital expenditure, 55, 58
capital flows, 93
capital markets, 50
carbohydrate(s), 127, 150
carbon dioxide, 12, 29, 53, 139, 149, 150, 152, 167,
171, 233, 245, 251, 311, 372, 378
carbon emissions, 51, 52, 103
carbon monoxide, 245, 359
carbon neutral, 59
carcinogenicity, 237
career development, 281
cascades, 61
case study(s), 50, 66, 70, 117, 238, 283, 284, 286,
293, 295, 314, 328, 336, 341, 342
cash, 45, 66, 352
cash flow, 45, 66
catalyst, 198
category a, 136, 232
cation, 306

389

cattle, 221, 222, 224, 225, 240, 249, 301, 304


causality, 320
causation, 320
CEC, 120, 251, 259
cell phones, 353
cellulose, 148, 234, 245, 250
Central African Republic, 105
ceramic, 375, 378, 384
certification, 281, 283, 338, 339
Chad, 105
challenges, 14, 35, 36, 48, 50, 54, 60, 63, 64, 65, 70,
87, 90, 104, 109, 112, 147, 188, 218, 241, 276,
279, 317, 324, 343, 346, 347, 348, 349, 361, 364,
366, 367, 368, 369
Chamber of Commerce, xxv
changing environment, 108
cheese, 221
chemical characteristics, 259
chemical properties, 259, 316
chemical reactions, 233
Chicago, 54, 71, 272
chicken, 366
children, 42, 217, 236, 272, 289
Chile, 217, 248
China, vii, xiii, xxiv, 51, 52, 68, 100, 156, 217, 231,
242, 245, 246, 278, 296, 313, 314, 318, 342, 347,
366
chlorine, 173, 259
chromium, 100
chronic diseases, 13
circulation, 41, 161, 162
city(s), 35, 43, 88, 92, 152, 199, 204, 242, 272, 345,
347, 348, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358,
359, 362, 369
citizens, 39, 41, 210, 290, 346, 349, 356, 368
citizenship, 61
civil society, 92, 94, 331
classes, 23, 25, 224, 258
classification, 138, 254
clean air, 41, 103, 359
clean energy, 213
cleaning, 83, 145, 166, 173, 178, 182, 183, 186, 187,
204, 245, 354, 355
clients, 199, 282
climate(s), xvi, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 24, 36, 37,
45, 51, 55, 61, 67, 75, 78, 89, 96, 102, 103, 107,
108, 115, 126, 132, 143, 155, 171, 175, 176, 187,
252, 258, 262, 275, 298, 300, 314, 321, 329, 332,
346, 348, 349, 350, 361, 364, 368, 371
climate change, xvi, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 24, 36,
37, 51, 61, 67, 89, 96, 102, 103, 107, 108, 115,
155, 171, 275, 332, 346, 348, 349, 350, 361, 364,
368, 371

Complimentary Contributor Copy

390

Index

closed economy, 335


closure, 127, 173, 184
clothing, 62, 289
clusters, 351
CO2, 12, 29, 58, 61, 102, 103, 128, 139, 156, 208,
217, 233, 235, 236, 239, 290, 348, 350, 361, 362,
365, 367, 372, 378, 384
coaches, 362
coal, 96, 99, 153, 171, 273, 359
cobalt, 100
cocoa, 53, 100
codes, 65, 280, 281, 283, 285, 287
codes of conduct, 65, 280, 281, 283, 285, 287
coffee, 53, 100
cogeneration, 192
cognition, 44
cognitive dissonance, 37, 43
cognitive process, 40
coherence, 12, 13, 82
collaboration, 118, 281, 289, 290, 291, 293, 337, 343
collective bargaining, 65
colonization, 125, 356
color, 247
combined effect, 379
combustion, 82, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, 153,
154, 171, 181, 188, 191, 194, 196, 197, 198, 217,
226, 227, 247, 359, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368
combustion processes, 147, 148, 153
commerce, 117, 346, 353
commercial, 76, 104, 137, 153, 154, 187, 208, 225,
279, 280, 284, 287, 363, 367, 376, 380
commodity, 88, 89, 208
Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), 10
Common Market, 93
common rule, 368
communication, 17, 18, 21, 24, 27, 41, 115, 116,
118, 120, 284, 285, 288
compaction, 124, 146, 188, 304, 305, 306, 312, 314,
317, 318
comparative analysis, 286, 291, 317
compensation, 65, 114, 363
competition, 118, 133, 282, 321, 343, 350, 363
competitive advantage, 48, 62, 63, 64, 67, 69, 70,
276, 295, 319, 321
competitiveness, 50, 60, 63, 70, 71, 278, 321, 326,
327, 350, 368
competitors, 287
complementarity, 259
complexity, 19, 76, 92, 252, 263, 277, 337
compliance, 49, 51, 54, 70, 71, 140, 255, 277, 286,
287, 288, 290, 360
complications, vii
composites, 378, 384, 385

composition, 99, 100, 129, 132, 136, 137, 139, 143,


153, 155, 176, 231, 235, 236, 242, 244, 250, 258,
260, 261, 301, 307, 318, 375, 381, 383
compost, 82, 140, 147, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156,
229, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239,
240, 241, 242, 246, 247, 272
composting, xiii, xv, xvi, xx, 139, 146, 150, 151,
154, 156, 158, 221, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234,
235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 245, 250,
267, 271, 272
compounds, 128, 163, 176, 185, 191, 194, 197, 233,
234, 236, 237, 248
compression, 190
computer, 52
computing, 51
conception, 70
conceptual model, 256
condensation, 52
conditioning, 52, 157, 172, 187, 191, 227
conductivity, 78, 146, 256, 311, 313, 381, 382
conference, xiv, xix, xxii, xxiii, xxv, xxvii, 2, 7, 9,
14, 15, 48, 348, 369, 385
configuration, 56, 166, 170, 178, 179
conflict, 94, 109, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119,
121, 129
Congo, 105
congress, xxii, 240, 272, 312, 384
connectivity, 309
consciousness, 40, 41, 53, 333
consensus, 15, 21, 94, 106, 275, 280, 326, 336
conserving, 2, 9, 126, 128
consolidation, 306
constituents, 85, 111, 188, 189, 257, 260, 261, 264,
265, 314, 371, 372, 373, 374, 382
Constitution, 8
construction, xviii, 35, 40, 41, 42, 51, 52, 58, 76, 79,
97, 103, 323, 325, 327, 354, 357, 358, 371, 372,
373, 374, 376, 377, 382, 383, 385
consulting, xx, 265
consumer protection, 10
consumers, 37, 43, 50, 53, 62, 162, 209, 213, 225,
276, 277, 290, 331, 371
consumption patterns, 136, 211, 212
consumption rates, 37
containers, 79, 80, 140, 141, 142
contaminant, 31, 257, 372
contaminated sites, 26, 127, 253
contaminated soil(s), xxv, 127, 269, 273
contamination, xvi, xix, xxi, 28, 236, 237, 244, 250,
253, 257, 309, 310, 315
controversial, 114
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 109, 111
convergence, 10, 14

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Index
conviction, 332
cooking, 143
cooling, 58, 59, 171, 190, 192, 197, 227, 233
cooperation, 108, 265, 281, 287, 292, 322, 346
coordination, 62, 109, 114, 118, 121, 130, 354
copper, 198, 244, 259
corporate governance, 65, 92, 93
Corporate Social Responsibility, 280, 293, 294, 296
correlation, 3
corrosion, 146
corruption, 13, 45, 331
cosmetic, 81
cost, 21, 49, 53, 56, 58, 59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 82, 83,
84, 104, 136, 152, 160, 161, 165, 166, 175, 176,
177, 178, 179, 180, 183, 185, 192, 193, 199, 201,
204, 231, 253, 267, 276, 277, 321, 331, 332, 335,
338, 350, 357, 361, 365, 377
cost benefits, 178
cost effectiveness, 66
cost saving, 53, 61, 175, 177
Costa Rica, 339
Cte dIvoire, 95, 99
cotton, 53, 125, 222, 224
Council of Ministers, 273
covering, xii, 111, 230, 277, 278, 279, 287, 290, 291,
292, 305, 357
CPU, 56
cracks, 308
creative potential, 89
creep, 376
crises, 67, 107, 275, 330, 331, 332
critical period, 305, 310
critical thinking, 39
criticism, 113, 338
Croatia, 247
crop production, xix, 130, 241, 244, 246, 298, 301,
304, 312, 313
crop residue, 246, 298, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309,
310, 311, 313, 315, 318
crop rotations, 298, 299, 316
cross-fertilization, 339
crowns, 76
crude oil, 99, 364, 365, 366, 368
crystallization, 11
CSA, 377
CST, 339
CT, 307, 314
cultivars, 126, 130, 131
cultivation, 53, 73, 74, 75, 78, 85, 126, 226, 247,
248, 301, 316, 361
cultural differences, 115
cultural heritage, 326
cultural influence, 83

cultural tradition, 325


culture, xii, 10, 44, 61, 75, 84, 117, 288, 292, 321,
327, 331, 333, 338, 340, 347, 369
currency, 212
customer relations, 290
customers, 52, 53, 61, 63, 64, 66, 276, 278, 280, 281,
285, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293, 351, 352, 357, 358,
367
cycles, xxi, 210, 262, 304, 330
cycling, xix, 299, 306, 307, 315, 362
Cyprus, xii, xv, xvi, xviii, xxii, xxiv, xxvi, xxvii, 17,
35, 44, 45, 87, 109, 229, 247, 254, 319, 329, 341,
344, 371

D
damages, 39
danger, 113
data analysis, 95, 285
data center, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59
data collection, 139, 284
database, xxiii, 255, 256, 258, 266, 267, 360
deaths, 364
decay, 139, 306
decentralisation, 331
decision makers, 118
decision-making process, 3, 49, 113, 118
decomposition, 146, 147, 150, 152, 163, 231, 232,
233, 238, 248, 260, 261, 299, 303, 304, 306, 307,
309, 311, 315
deconstruction, 377
decontamination, xix, 186, 187
decoupling, 22, 27, 62, 97, 106
deforestation, 22, 37, 89, 104, 297
deformation, 306, 374
DEFRA, 368
degradation, xxi, 28, 89, 92, 97, 104, 142, 146, 211,
234, 245, 252, 257, 258, 261, 262, 263, 267, 272,
297, 298, 301, 305, 309, 327, 328, 373
degradation mechanism, 373
degradation process, 252
degradation rate, 245
deindustrialisation, 88
democracy, 12, 92
democratic elections, 94
democratisation, 331
demographic structure, 211
demography, 135
denitrification, 165, 176, 178, 185
Denmark, xxv, 14, 49, 228, 356, 373
density values, 306
Department of Agriculture, 252
deposition, 189, 306

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392

Index

deposits, 75, 145, 212


depth, 145, 256, 258, 261, 264, 266, 283, 298, 303,
306, 309, 312, 320, 375
deregulation, 277, 331
designers, 62
destruction, 2, 158, 196, 304, 328
detection, xx, xxvii, 143
detection system, 143
detoxification, 144
developed countries, 11, 14, 15, 49, 93, 136, 138,
140, 217, 277, 350, 361
developing countries, 14, 15, 63, 70, 100, 156, 230,
332, 333, 361, 364
development goals, vii, 94
dibenzo-p-dioxins, 246
diesel engines, 367
diet, 244
diffusion, 68, 164, 168, 184, 265, 266
digestion, 149, 150, 160, 168, 184, 191, 192, 193,
195, 196
diminishing returns, 55
direct investment, 341
direct measure, 261
directives, 30, 31, 115, 260, 277, 278, 279
directors, 65
disability, 326, 327
disaster, 37
discharges, 49, 211, 231, 328, 329
discrimination, 280, 326, 327, 364
diseases, 87, 124, 128, 246, 289, 299, 309
disinfection, 157, 168, 169, 170, 175, 183, 186, 200
dispersion, 236
disposable income, 212
dissolved oxygen, 173, 177, 184, 185, 186
dissonance, 37, 43
distillation, 18, 148, 248
distribution, 13, 53, 75, 76, 77, 81, 125, 128, 129,
147, 173, 186, 208, 212, 213, 257, 259, 261, 264,
265, 266, 267, 304, 315, 318, 323, 326, 354, 366,
376
district heating, 227
diversification, 93, 299, 331
diversity, vii, 3, 9, 26, 29, 65, 75, 82, 91, 103, 124,
126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 293, 304, 313, 317, 321,
324, 327
Doha, 12
DOI, 203
domestication, 74
donations, 281, 289
donors, 123, 126, 128
dosage, 170, 173, 312, 380
draft, 120, 145
drainage, 74, 147, 258, 273, 301, 304, 310, 317

draught, 145
drawing, 53, 145, 284, 293
drinking water, 31, 117, 158, 244, 328
drought, xvii, 74, 75, 103, 127, 307
dry matter, 25, 174
drying, 145, 152, 160, 161, 168, 191, 194, 196, 197,
227, 328, 381
ductility, 381, 382
dumping, 231
duopoly, 50
durability, 372, 374, 375, 376, 378, 379, 384, 385
dynamism, 61

E
early warning, 17
earnings, 325
Earth Summit, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16
earthworms, 259, 304, 306
East Asia, 347
ecological indicators, 21, 32
ecological processes, 2, 4, 117, 324, 326
ecological restoration, 127
ecological systems, 21, 89, 117
ecology, xxii, xxvii, 32, 117, 122, 129, 241, 373, 381
economic activity, 46, 78, 81, 211, 320, 331, 334,
335, 351
Economic and Monetary Union, 93
economic crisis, 8, 347
economic damage, 50, 347
economic development, vii, 9, 46, 90, 109, 110, 111,
112, 115, 116, 118, 301, 320, 342, 347, 348, 351
economic downturn, 319
economic efficiency, 91, 226, 353
economic growth, 2, 3, 22, 27, 46, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94,
95, 106, 119, 208, 210, 212, 320, 334, 340, 341,
342, 345, 346, 347, 348, 350
economic indicator, 291
economic integration, 11, 347
economic performance, 10, 278, 279, 282, 291, 292,
293
economic problem, 226
economic progress, 368
economic systems, 36, 103, 210
economic values, 81
economic welfare, 355
economics, xii, 3, 49, 68, 322, 340
economies of scale, 339
ecosystem, vii, 3, 22, 24, 28, 31, 92, 97, 104, 132,
143, 240, 252, 257, 263, 275, 324
ecosystem capacity, vii
ecosystem integrity, vii
Ecotourism, 121, 339, 341

Complimentary Contributor Copy

Index
Ecuador, 339
editors, 68
education, 9, 10, 93, 158, 279, 281, 290, 337, 346,
362
educational opportunities, 210
educational system, 289
EEA, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30,
32, 244, 271, 314, 329, 341, 358
effluent(s), xix, 157, 158, 161, 162, 165, 168, 173,
175, 176, 187, 190, 244, 248, 250, 270
egg, 125, 366
Egypt, xxiv, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105,
330, 331, 332
electric current, 198
electrical conductivity, 78, 257, 259, 261, 263
electricity, 26, 52, 53, 101, 152, 153, 158, 160, 161,
162, 171, 174, 175, 180, 186, 190, 191, 194, 195,
196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 213, 219, 220, 221, 226,
227, 361, 362, 364, 365, 367, 372
electrolyte, 197
electron(s), 197, 198
e-mail, 284
emission, 15, 29, 139, 272, 311, 351, 358, 359, 360,
364, 365, 367
emitters, 361
empirical studies, 49, 320
employees, 46, 49, 51, 52, 61, 65, 67, 282, 283, 284,
287, 288, 289, 292, 293, 327, 357
employers, 352, 357
employment, 10, 46, 65, 89, 95, 115, 125, 211, 280,
321, 324, 325, 326, 327, 330, 346, 356
employment opportunities, 324, 327
EMS, 49
encouragement, 280
endangered, 103, 115, 116, 329, 330
endangered species, 115, 329
endotoxins, 236
endowments, 334
enemies, 125
energy conservation, 51, 323
energy consumption, 26, 52, 53, 54, 59, 65, 96, 102,
160, 161, 163, 166, 169, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176,
177, 179, 180, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 192, 194,
207, 208, 209, 227, 327, 366, 372
energy efficiency, 13, 15, 54, 55, 155, 171, 172, 179,
196, 202, 207, 208, 213, 218, 350, 365
energy input, 192
energy prices, 227
energy recovery, 145, 160, 171, 188, 189, 191, 192,
194, 195, 201, 204, 228, 231, 251
energy security, 208, 367
energy supply, 28, 168, 364, 368
enforcement, 49, 68, 69, 70, 355, 362, 364

393

engineering, xiii, xix, xxii, 59, 145, 156, 226, 377


England, xiv, 121, 131, 156, 357
entrepreneurs, 49
entropy, 191
environmental aspects, 210, 277
environmental awareness, 37, 49, 61
environmental conditions, 21, 22, 75, 211, 260, 298
environmental crisis, 2
environmental degradation, 10, 90
environmental effects, 311
environmental factors, 126, 150, 232, 233
environmental impact, xiv, 9, 24, 53, 54, 66, 89, 92,
96, 106, 143, 145, 146, 199, 207, 213, 229, 230,
251, 293, 303, 340, 348, 377
environmental issues, xx, 18, 19, 20, 21, 38, 52, 143,
211, 332, 372
environmental management, xiv, xix, 18, 49, 50, 68,
69, 92, 211, 256, 287, 323, 338, 371, 373
environmental policy, xvi, 8, 9, 17, 32, 68, 70
environmental protection, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14, 24,
49, 211, 227, 246, 255, 276, 347, 351
environmental quality, 28, 31, 36, 251, 321
environmental regulations, 49, 70
environmental resources, 4, 312, 321, 325, 326
environmental services, 94
environmental standards, 49, 53, 231
environmental stress, 22
environmental sustainability, 3, 17, 32, 35, 39, 40,
42, 54, 58, 65, 89, 90, 95, 104, 118, 119, 295
environmental variables, 19, 25
environmentalism, 42, 324
environments, 36, 56, 67, 82, 92, 126, 127, 252, 298
enzyme(s), xxi, 192, 193, 194
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 49, 68,
162, 170, 172, 185, 186, 191, 199, 204, 231, 236,
240, 242, 248, 271
equality, 13, 276, 280, 281, 282, 333
Equatorial Guinea, 105
equilibrium, 2, 320
equipment, 28, 59, 142, 147, 156, 158, 160, 161,
162, 165, 166, 168, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178,
184, 185, 186, 187, 193, 196, 208, 264, 301, 306,
320, 346
equity, 3, 4, 36, 47, 69, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 119, 209,
212, 321, 323, 326, 327, 337
Eritrea, 104, 105
erosion, 28, 104, 124, 128, 236, 252, 253, 258, 262,
297, 298, 299, 301, 304, 308, 310, 313
ethics, 63, 121, 284, 287
ethylene, 148
EU ETS, 15
Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, 341

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394

Index

European Commission, xii, xviii, xix, 2, 15, 27, 32,


78, 84, 120, 213, 230, 232, 240, 270, 271, 338,
340, 347, 350, 359, 363, 364
European Community, 3, 10, 12, 14, 16, 260
European Court of Justice, 10
European integration, 43
European Investment Bank, 46
European market, 53
European Parliament, 10, 70, 239, 270, 340, 358
European Union, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 16, 30, 46, 63,
71, 109, 120, 121, 218, 231, 290, 331, 344, 347,
348, 349, 364, 371, 373, 374
EUROSTAT, 231, 240, 246, 271
evaporation, 76, 271, 303, 305
evapotranspiration, 78, 305
everyday life, 53
evidence, 19, 37, 48, 59, 61, 66, 70, 85, 125, 217,
282, 283, 288, 291, 314, 342, 347, 355, 374
evidence-based policy, 19
evolution, 1, 7, 35, 50, 82, 131, 217, 233, 236, 239,
295, 356
exclusion, 111, 212
exercise, 37, 47, 226, 339, 348
expertise, xiv, xx
exploitation, 36, 113, 226, 227, 238, 245, 327, 329
exporter, 100, 278
exports, 88, 93, 97, 98, 99, 100, 107, 320
exposure, 28, 29, 256, 356, 358, 359, 362, 378
external costs, 348
external environment, 279, 280
external shocks, 324
external validity, 283
externalities, 50, 66, 280, 290, 341
extinction, 103
extraction, 53, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 136, 147, 186, 246,
247, 248, 270, 335
extracts, 130

F
Facebook, 40
facies, 76
factories, 62, 278
fairness, 3
faith, 14, 48
families, 13, 127, 352
family relationships, 325
famine, 126
fantasy, 118
farm size, 88
farmers, 63, 81, 114, 116, 123, 251, 261, 266, 301,
354
farmland, 116, 234

farms, 81, 221


fauna, 120, 304
fear(s), 38, 115, 118
feces, 188
federal regulations, 142
feedstock, 82, 83, 219, 221, 222, 231, 232, 367
fencing, 117
fermentation, xx, 146, 176, 248
fertility, xix, 234, 260, 263, 271, 297, 298, 301, 307
fertilization, xix, 129, 260, 266, 273, 306, 307, 315,
316
fertilizers, 97, 104, 235, 267, 274, 298, 299, 302,
306, 307, 308, 310
fiber(s), 58, 74, 79, 80, 125, 165, 297, 299, 381, 383,
384
field trials, 251
filters, 145, 164, 167, 168, 173, 188, 258
filtration, 166, 167, 183
financial, 4, 14, 15, 35, 46, 48, 50, 59, 60, 61, 64, 66,
67, 68, 70, 115, 140, 209, 212, 227, 230, 266,
289, 293, 325, 349, 355, 360
financial capital, 4, 212
financial community, 60
financial crisis, 36, 227
financial incentives, 115, 355
financial institutions, 60
financial performance, 61, 66, 70
financial resources, 293, 325
financial support, 59, 227
fingerprints, 241
Finland, 52, 114, 120
fires, 235
first generation, 377
fish, 29, 104
fisheries, 24, 81
fishing, 80, 99, 104, 112, 113
fitness, 236
fixation, 128, 246, 307, 309
flame, 144, 196
flame retardants, 144
flavonoids, 128
flexibility, 349
flocculation, 173, 183, 202
flooding, 217, 300
flora, 120, 128, 129, 130, 132, 262, 324
flora and fauna, 324
flotation, 184, 185
flour, 81
fluctuations, 163, 165, 175, 303
flue gas, 145, 148, 168, 175
fluid, 147
fluidized bed, 148
food chain, xx, 97, 250

Complimentary Contributor Copy

Index
food industry, 221, 243, 244, 250, 296
food production, 81, 116, 361
food products, 279, 282, 288, 289
food safety, xx, xxv
food security, 88, 98, 131
forage crops, 302
force, 10, 11, 14, 22, 25, 46, 55, 113, 174, 325, 345,
364
forecasting, 21
foreign direct investment, 93
foreign exchange, 320, 325
forest resources, 28, 29, 104
formation, xxi, 146, 156, 193, 237, 239, 298, 303,
304, 359, 379
fouling, 147, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 201
foundations, 3, 67, 289
fragility, 324
France, 32, 119, 121, 217, 218, 247, 248, 329
franchise, 323
freedom, 266, 279, 345, 346, 368
freezing, 175, 379
freshwater, 26, 89, 104, 318, 328
friction, 182
fruits, 74, 79, 81, 125
fuel cell, 152, 180, 197, 198, 201, 203, 204
fuel prices, 349, 368
functional food, 128
funding, xvi, 93, 109, 114, 339, 350
funds, 47, 59, 66, 69
fungi, 232, 233, 234, 236

G
Gabon, 93, 101, 102, 105
garbage, 139, 140, 156
gasification, 146, 148, 154, 188
GDP, 22, 28, 29, 88, 97, 98, 102, 103, 104, 136, 213,
319, 346, 347, 349
gender balance, 280
gene pool, 126
genes, xx, 126
genetic diversity, 2, 3, 126, 128
genus, 74, 234
Geographic Information System, xxii
geography, 68, 102, 135
geology, 256, 258
Georgia, 296
Germany, xvi, 207, 217, 226, 248, 296, 313, 329,
354, 356, 361, 374
germination, xxii, 82, 247, 298, 309
GHG, 12, 15, 30, 102, 139, 235, 236, 238, 350, 364,
365, 368
GIS, xxiv, 255, 256, 263, 267

395

glass ceiling, 340


global climate change, 207
global competition, 346
global demand, 88, 372
global economy, 48, 349
global markets, 276
global scale, 210
global trade, 93
global warming, 11, 15, 171, 239, 242, 364
glycine, 310
goods and services, 88, 104, 211, 323
governance, 8, 12, 13, 51, 59, 65, 90, 94, 109, 114,
121, 331
government intervention, 49, 211
government revenues, 325
governments, 9, 10, 14, 89, 92, 103, 136, 140, 207,
328, 339, 347
GPS, xxiv, 351, 352
grading, 373, 375
graduate students, xxv
grain size, 376
graph, 25
grasslands, 317
grassroots, 92
gravity, 75, 175, 179
grazing, 99, 114, 199, 221, 244, 254, 301, 304
Greece, xvi, xviii, xix, xx, xxii, xxiv, xxvii, 50, 69,
119, 121, 123, 124, 157, 164, 165, 169, 200, 203,
219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228,
229, 240, 243, 246, 254, 272, 319, 329
green buildings, 383
greenhouse, 11, 12, 14, 15, 25, 26, 27, 29, 52, 64, 65,
121, 139, 152, 158, 197, 208, 235, 239, 241, 242,
251, 290, 347, 350, 356, 361, 362, 367
greenhouse gas(s) (GHG), 11, 12, 14, 15, 25, 26, 27,
29, 52, 64, 65, 121, 139, 152, 158, 208, 235, 239,
241, 242, 251, 290, 347, 350, 356, 361, 362
greenhouse gas emissions, 14, 15, 25, 26, 27, 29, 64,
65, 121, 152, 208, 241, 242, 290, 347, 361, 362
greening, 68, 95, 155
grids, 213
gross domestic product, 29, 88, 136, 334
groundwater, 74, 75, 76, 142, 236, 237, 256, 257,
266, 308, 328, 329
growth rate, 22, 94, 150, 217, 329, 330
guidance, 120, 347, 348
guidelines, 3, 9, 60, 119, 120, 249, 261, 263, 277
guiding principles, 12, 252
guilty, 278
Guinea, 105

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Index

H
habitat(s), xxvii, 9, 24, 92, 103, 113, 114, 115, 116,
117, 123, 125, 128, 327, 328, 348
hair, 37
hardness, 306
harmful effects, 358
hazardous materials, 65
hazardous waste(s), xii, 49, 71, 142, 270, 380
hazards, 103, 257
health, xii, xx, 4, 9, 13, 24, 27, 31, 45, 51, 66, 67, 93,
124, 132, 133, 144, 159, 211, 230, 235, 236, 237,
252, 257, 263, 270, 271, 278, 279, 281, 282, 288,
290, 291, 292, 346, 348, 350, 355, 359
health care, 132, 133
health care system, 133
health effects, 24, 124
health information, 279
health risks, 236
heat pumps, 190
heat release, 233
heating rate, 148
heavy metals, xvi, 28, 123, 127, 130, 144, 150, 152,
176, 236, 237, 241, 248, 254, 255, 257, 263, 272
height, 162, 173, 190
hemicellulose, 234
hemisphere, 317
hemp, 382
herbicide, 124, 309, 310, 318
high strength, 374
high-value crops, 241
hiring, 352
history, 44, 74, 75, 78, 83, 85, 117, 126, 210, 256,
264, 297
HIV, 13
HIV/AIDS, 13
hobby, 238
Holocene, 74
homes, 53
honesty, 287
hormones, 245
horses, 301
horticultural crops, 84, 245
host, 51, 56, 321, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327
host population, 324
hot spots, 193, 273
hotel(s), 323, 328, 335, 336, 339, 358
hotspots, 117, 119, 121, 132
housing, 210, 249, 250, 278, 353
HPC, 382
hub, 204
human activity, 36, 97, 114, 347
human behavior, 35, 37, 38, 42

human capital, 4, 212, 280


human development, 348
human existence, 36
human health, 24, 31, 234, 237, 238, 239, 244, 246,
252, 256, 298, 358, 359
human input, 212
human resources, xxiii, 39, 280, 282, 287
human right(s), 3, 45, 60, 61, 67, 276, 279, 290
human security, 4
human welfare, 17
humidity, 168, 237
humus, 234, 236
Hungary, xxiv
hunting, 96, 112, 113, 114
hurricanes, 217
husbandry, 300
hybrid, 133, 188, 199, 349, 362, 367
hybridization, 74
hydrocarbons, 155
hydrogen, 149, 197, 198, 201, 362, 364, 365, 367
hydrogen sulfide, 149, 201
hydrolysis, 192, 193
hydroxide, 378, 380
hygiene, 242
hypothesis, 320, 331

I
ICE, 196
ideal(s), 92, 143, 234, 276, 380
idealism, 50
identification, 19, 40, 85, 111, 116, 145, 256, 257,
264, 286, 288
identity, 40, 41, 42, 43, 62, 82, 288, 325, 336
image(s), 21, 40, 41, 48, 50, 76, 277, 278, 290, 292,
321
imbalances, 268
immigrants, 301
immobilization, 245, 380
Impact Assessment, xii, xxvi, 6
imported merchandise, 63
imports, 81, 97, 98, 100
improvements, 49, 54, 55, 60, 66, 87, 89, 106, 124,
180, 208, 275, 276, 281, 282, 290, 315, 334, 350,
352, 357, 364, 381
in transition, 26
incidence, 291
income, 22, 81, 91, 92, 102, 117, 139, 211, 226, 320,
326, 329, 335
income distribution, 91, 92
indentation, 378
independence, 46, 171, 199

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397

Index
India, 74, 100, 132, 154, 156, 217, 245, 246, 271,
273, 366
indirect effect, 211
individuals, 47, 211, 212
Indonesia, 50, 70, 245
induction, 287
industrial policy, 10
industrial revolution, 73, 81
industrial sectors, 49
industrial wastes, xiii, 150
industrialization, 88, 101
industrialized countries, 7, 11, 12, 364, 368
industry(s), xii, xx, 41, 50, 54, 55, 58, 62, 63, 64, 66,
68, 71, 81, 85, 88, 93, 105, 117, 148, 158, 208,
220, 227, 243, 245, 246, 248, 250, 270, 278, 279,
282, 283, 319, 323, 325, 328, 338, 339, 346, 350,
362, 371, 372, 373, 376, 378, 382, 384, 385
industry consolidation, 63
inefficiency, 97
INF, 272
inflation, 350
information exchange, 282
infrastructure, 13, 54, 55, 59, 87, 90, 93, 107, 113,
116, 147, 188, 189, 212, 213, 226, 323, 325, 333,
338, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 356, 361, 362, 365,
366, 367, 368
ingestion, 236
ingredients, 53
inhibition, 247
injury(s), 257, 283
insecticide, 315, 316
insects, 125, 309
insecurity, 107
inspections, 49, 68
instinct, 37
institutions, xiv, 10, 60, 63, 92, 212, 281, 353, 358
insulation, 150, 233
integration, 8, 12, 64, 93, 109, 111, 118, 124, 176,
185, 210, 276, 352, 367, 369
integrity, vii, 10, 91, 290, 321, 324, 327
intelligence, xxiii, 350
interdependence, 210
interface, 92, 95, 165, 182, 265
interference, 131
intermediaries, 322
internal environment, 280
internal validity, 283
internalization, 50, 92
International Energy Agency (IEA), 101, 102, 103,
107, 208, 213, 217, 349
international standards, 21, 49, 277
interrelations, 110, 322
intervention, 31, 54, 67, 114, 127, 175, 269, 332, 348

intonation, 285
inversion, 299, 305
investment(s), 47, 48, 51, 59, 63, 66, 67, 69, 88, 93,
107, 115, 185, 212, 222, 319, 321, 322, 323, 325,
330, 332, 343, 350, 355, 357, 358, 361
investors, 47, 51, 59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67
ions, 82
Iran, 74
Iraq, 74
Ireland, 44, 59, 114, 126, 270
iron, 100, 177, 185, 204, 244, 259, 263, 273
irrigation, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 83, 85, 97, 104,
176, 247, 258, 260, 261, 266, 328
islands, 111, 224, 324
isolation, 324
isotherms, 300
Israel, 329, 330, 332
issues, xx, xxiii, xxvii, 2, 3, 10, 12, 19, 20, 29, 42,
45, 48, 51, 54, 62, 64, 66, 67, 91, 92, 94, 109,
110, 111, 119, 138, 143, 236, 257, 278, 279, 288,
315, 320, 324, 325, 326, 332, 337, 339, 343, 346,
347, 349
Italy, xxi, xxv, 74, 83, 84, 243, 246, 248, 254, 329
Ivory Coast, 107

J
Japan, 8, 11, 96, 246
job creation, 332, 345, 346, 348
job performance, 358
jobless, 89
Jordan, 16, 74, 124, 131, 308, 315, 330, 332
jurisdiction, 141, 325, 334, 335

K
Kazakhstan, xviii, 17, 45
Kenya, 93, 96, 99, 104, 105, 133, 339
knowledge-based economy, 13
Kuwait, 74
Kyoto Protocol, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

L
labor market, xxiii
laboratory studies, 257
labour force, 106, 321
lakes, 231
land abandonment, 114
land disposal, 142

Complimentary Contributor Copy

398

Index

land use, vii, 30, 81, 84, 97, 98, 99, 107, 113, 116,
117, 118, 122, 123, 143, 256, 258, 264, 298, 328,
348
Land Use Policy, 122
landfills, 139, 140, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149, 152,
155, 158, 220, 221, 229, 230, 235, 251
landscape(s), xxvii, 28, 48, 73, 75, 76, 81, 82, 83, 84,
85, 109, 117, 118, 122, 132, 322, 327, 328, 329,
356
languages, 61
Latin America, 59, 101, 102, 103, 297, 320, 339, 341
laws, 68, 114, 355, 361
leaching, 236, 249, 260, 261, 297, 302, 306, 307,
309, 311, 315
lead, xviii, 18, 21, 54, 62, 67, 109, 117, 118, 150,
172, 174, 235, 237, 244, 278, 282, 292, 301, 308,
324, 328, 329, 330, 333, 366, 367, 376, 377, 383
leadership, 51, 94, 354
leaks, 143
learning, 20, 42, 89, 92, 122, 343
learning process, 343
Lebanon, 330, 332
legislation, 7, 18, 29, 30, 31, 50, 115, 120, 227, 254,
263, 276, 290, 293, 382
legs, 53
legume, 127, 130
leisure, 153, 212, 323, 331, 342
lending, 307
lens, 61, 232
liberalisation, 331
liberalization, 227
Liberia, 105
liberty, 12, 284
LIFE, xxiv, 118, 122, 247, 256
life cycle, xiv, 24, 54, 65, 139, 159, 251, 299
life expectancy, 359
life quality, 336
light, 150, 184, 254, 346, 363, 376
limestone, 372, 379
liquid fuels, 367
liquid phase, 170
liquidity, 59
liquids, 157, 161, 162, 200, 249
Lisbon Strategy, 8, 13
liver, 85
livestock, 99, 221, 223, 224, 225, 244, 250, 262, 301
living conditions, 3, 110
local authorities, xv, xx, 47, 256, 258, 263, 338, 340
local community, 289, 325, 338, 340
local conditions, 259, 267
local government, 150, 347
logging, 104
logistics, 59, 346, 349, 354, 365, 369

longevity, 119
Louisiana, xxvi
LPG, 362
lung cancer, 359
lying, 300

M
Maastricht Treaty, 3, 6, 10, 11
Macedonia, xxiv, 203, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226
machinery, 196, 212, 306
macroeconomics, xxiii
macronutrients, 248, 260
macropores, 308
magnesium, 254, 259, 307
magnitude, 95, 98, 167, 170, 225, 257, 331, 361
majority, 37, 47, 94, 106, 119, 183, 257, 323, 337,
338, 340
malaria, 13
malnutrition, 13, 90
mammal, 103
man, 35, 92, 239, 275, 334, 335
manganese, 100, 244, 259
manipulation, 336
manufacturing, 53, 54, 59, 71, 88, 89, 93, 98, 117,
198, 277, 349, 372, 373, 376
manure, 220, 221, 222, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242,
244, 245, 249, 250, 254, 316
map unit, 258
mapping, 64, 119, 256, 258, 259, 265, 266, 352, 358
marine fish, 26
market segment, 340
market share, 320
market structure, 63, 66
marketing, 44, 68, 82, 116, 290, 293, 337, 338, 339,
353, 358
marketing strategy, 337
marketplace, 209, 278, 292
Marx, 273
Maryland, 385
mass, 29, 41, 117, 145, 146, 173, 233, 240, 329, 332,
334, 372, 379, 380, 382
mass loss, 240
mass media, 41
material resources, 28
materials, xvii, xix, 52, 53, 54, 59, 62, 65, 73, 76, 81,
96, 99, 100, 136, 140, 141, 143, 144, 146, 147,
150, 151, 219, 227, 233, 234, 242, 245, 276, 314,
354, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379,
381, 382, 383
matrix, 232, 233, 237, 306, 377

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Index
matter, 69, 78, 119, 139, 145, 167, 189, 210, 234,
236, 243, 247, 263, 298, 303, 305, 314, 316, 325,
357, 359, 372
Mauritania, 101, 104, 105
Mauritius, 104, 105
measurement(s), 14, 19, 49, 64, 69, 160, 173, 177,
282, 295, 296, 312, 323, 324, 376
meat, 85, 294
mechanical properties, 374, 375, 376, 378, 381, 382,
383, 385
media, 14, 28, 41, 65, 69, 210, 217, 235, 236, 276,
277, 283, 340, 352, 380
medical, 124, 209
medicine, 74, 124
Mediterranean, xvii, xviii, xxi, xxiv, xxv, 71, 75,
123, 124, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 203, 234, 243,
246, 256, 320, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 338, 341,
343, 344
Mediterranean countries, 320, 329
membership, 64
membrane permeability, 182
membranes, 168, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183
memory, 40, 56, 58
mergers, 67
Mesopotamia, 74
messages, 39, 213
meta-analysis, 66
metabolism, 107, 167, 233
metals, xvi, 100, 127, 137, 145, 147, 151, 237, 259,
260, 272, 274, 373, 374
meter, 165, 217
methodology, 22, 230, 275, 283, 285, 293
metropolitan areas, 351, 354
Mexico, 272
microbial community(s), 233, 234, 239, 272, 313
microbiota, xx
microclimate, 75, 78
microorganisms, 127, 150, 158, 232, 233, 234, 252,
309
Microsoft, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 70
microstructure(s), 376, 379
microturbines, 201
middle class, 331, 347
Middle East, 74, 75, 85, 102, 103, 330, 331
migrants, 13
migration, 211, 375
mineral resources, 100, 346
mineralization, 132, 259, 303, 307, 311, 314
mission(s), xviii, 3, 65, 287, 350, 371, 373, 375
mixing, 164, 175, 177, 250, 306, 307, 372, 385
mobile device, 351
mobile office, 52
modelling, xxvii, 369

models, xii, 6, 19, 21, 128, 180, 187, 329, 331, 333,
334, 352, 380
modern society, 41
modernisation, 331
modernization, 295
modifications, 76, 157, 172, 184, 315, 367
modules, 180
modulus, 374, 379, 381, 382
moisture, 128, 147, 150, 156, 191, 231, 233, 250,
262, 299, 303, 307
moisture content, 147, 150, 233, 250
molecules, 81, 309
monetary union, 10, 11
morality, 325
Morocco, 11, 74, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105,
247, 330, 331, 332
morphology, 258
mortality, 81, 125
motivation, 18, 63, 282, 288, 292, 319
Mozambique, 93, 101, 104, 105
MSW, 155, 221, 223, 230, 231, 232, 237
multidimensional, vii, 333
municipal solid waste, 135, 137, 140, 144, 150, 153,
154, 155, 156, 221, 223, 228, 229, 230, 239, 240,
241, 242
Muslims, 73
mussels, 25
mutuality, 48, 63
mycotoxins, 236

N
Namibia, 101, 102, 106
national curricula, 217
national policy, 354
National Research Council, 173, 201
national strategy, 119, 251
NATO, xxiv
natural disaster(s), 13, 90
natural enemies, 125, 133
natural evolution, 126
natural gas, 99, 149, 152, 157, 196, 198, 201, 219,
225, 226, 365, 367, 372
natural habitats, 111, 120
natural resource management, 117
natural resources, xxi, 9, 13, 62, 81, 87, 88, 111, 126,
171, 209, 211, 212, 230, 244, 267, 279, 299, 324,
332, 334, 335, 372, 377
Natural Resources Conservation Service, 252
nature conservation, 109, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116,
117, 118, 119, 120, 121
needy, 289
negative consequences, 88

Complimentary Contributor Copy

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Index

negative effects, 113, 116, 119, 211, 257


negotiation, 14, 41, 106
Nepal, 119
net exports, 100
Netherlands, 8, 10, 120, 274, 356, 373
neutral, 41, 124, 125, 150
New South Wales, 135, 137, 138
New Zealand, 342
NGOs, 10, 64, 277, 279, 280, 292, 339
niche market, 321
Nigeria, 93, 96, 99, 101, 104, 105, 106, 155, 368
Nile, 74
nitrates, 251, 255
nitrification, 165, 176, 177, 178, 185, 259
nitrite, 176, 177, 244
nitrogen, 124, 125, 130, 150, 152, 154, 158, 165,
167, 176, 178, 185, 201, 203, 237, 240, 242, 244,
245, 254, 259, 261, 263, 272, 299, 303, 306, 307,
308, 311, 313, 314, 316, 317, 359
nitrogen compounds, 165
nitrogen dioxide, 359
nitrogen fixation, 299
nitrogen gas, 176
nitrous oxide, 12, 245, 249
non-inflationary growth, 10
non-renewable resources, 99, 100, 267, 327
North Africa, 74, 89, 105
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, 273
nuisance, 232, 236, 237, 240, 257, 349
numerical analysis, 377
nutraceutical, 128
nutrient(s), xvi, xix, 26, 84, 127, 146, 154, 158, 166,
173, 176, 179, 181, 233, 236, 237, 243, 245, 251,
254, 255, 257, 260, 267, 270, 273, 297, 299, 302,
303, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 315
nutrition, xix, 84, 130, 299, 320

operating range, 179, 184


operating system, 56
operations, xii, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 59, 69, 151, 166,
221, 231, 251, 255, 279, 282, 294, 295, 296, 306,
321, 323, 326, 353
opportunities, 39, 51, 59, 62, 63, 89, 95, 114, 162,
166, 172, 179, 180, 188, 209, 211, 226, 280, 281,
282, 289, 319, 324, 326, 327, 355, 356
optimization, xxv, 157, 166, 171, 174, 180, 182, 184,
200, 201, 272, 348
ores, 97, 100
organ(s), 80, 94, 336, 351
organic compounds, 28, 61, 144, 150, 183, 194, 221,
237, 274
organic food, 53
organic matter, xix, 124, 127, 139, 150, 152, 221,
232, 233, 234, 236, 237, 239, 243, 245, 248, 251,
253, 254, 260, 261, 263, 267, 268, 273, 297, 298,
299, 302, 303, 305, 306, 308, 309, 310, 314, 317
organic polymers, 183
organism, 40
Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), 19, 21, 22, 27, 29, 32, 94,
96, 101, 102, 103, 108, 342, 348, 369
ornamental plants, 68, 82
overlap, 115, 117
overtime, 278, 292
ownership, 38, 50, 114, 353
oxidation, xii, 167, 177, 185, 191, 194, 241, 297,
298, 303, 306
oxygen, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 157, 162, 163,
164, 165, 166, 170, 176, 177, 178, 185, 186, 188,
191, 197, 200, 231, 232, 233, 235, 248, 380
ozonation, 170
ozone, 24, 26, 27, 29, 65, 170, 171, 204, 237, 359
ozone layer, 237

objectification, 41
obstacles, 276
occupational health, 278, 280, 283
ODS, 29, 30
officials, 10
OH, 247
oil, 53, 68, 82, 96, 100, 127, 148, 151, 152, 153, 154,
162, 188, 208, 246, 247, 248, 267, 288, 346, 349,
350, 362, 365, 366, 368, 381, 384
oil production, 53, 246, 247, 365
olive oil, 246, 247, 256, 267, 270, 271
open economy, 335
open spaces, 139, 248, 357
operating costs, 143, 160, 184

Pacific, 156, 170, 202, 203


pacing, 173
paints, 144
Pakistan, 131
palm oil, 53, 82
PAN, 116
paradigm shift, 301, 337
parallel, 11, 82, 182, 339, 367
parents, 217
participants, 352
passenger travel, 208
pasture(s), 104, 125, 127, 244, 299, 301, 302
patents, xiii

Complimentary Contributor Copy

Index
pathogens, xx, 81, 115, 158, 176, 196, 233, 236, 237,
238, 239, 254, 255
pathologist, xxv
pathology, xxv
pathways, 295, 365, 366, 367
peace, 12, 87, 90, 92, 94, 325
peat, 96, 236, 238
peer review, xv, xix, xx, xxvi
penalties, 63, 65, 360
performance indicator, 22, 61, 64, 279, 281, 292
performance measurement, 64, 282, 295
performance related pay, 288
permeability, 184, 244, 311, 375, 376, 379
permit, 220, 243, 255, 256, 264
perseverance, 42
Persian Gulf, 74
personality, 337
Peru, 339
pest populations, 125
pesticide, 132, 308, 309, 310, 311, 318
pests, 125, 299, 310
PET, 381, 383, 384
Petroleum, xiv, xxiii, 99, 101, 135, 153
pH, 28, 125, 146, 150, 233, 234, 235, 246, 247, 248,
254, 259, 263, 268
pharmaceutical, 124
Philadelphia, 352
Philippines, 271
phosphate(s), 100, 311, 312, 377
phosphorous, 244, 247, 259, 261, 263
phosphorus, 154, 167, 173, 176, 185, 203, 244, 254,
273, 306, 307, 314, 315
photodegradation, 309
physical and mechanical properties, 373
physical characteristics, 247
physical environment, 31
physical properties, 124, 301, 311, 314, 315, 316,
376
physical structure, 304
physico-chemical changes, 233
physicochemical properties, 128, 260
Physiological, 315
phytoremediation, 127
phytosterols, 128
pigs, 224, 225
pilot study, 108
pipeline, 149, 225
pku, vii
plant diseases, 238, 241
plant growth, 78, 82, 246, 262
plastics, 150, 151
platelet aggregation, 132
platform, 16, 64

401

playing, 99, 154


pluralism, 92
PM, 366
point of origin, 321
Poland, 120
polarity, 114
polarization, 182
police, 355
policy, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24,
25, 29, 53, 59, 92, 94, 96, 111, 113, 114, 115,
118, 119, 121, 136, 207, 210, 227, 230, 284, 285,
315, 336, 337, 343, 346, 347, 348, 350, 351, 353,
354, 355, 368
policy initiative, 59
policy issues, 21
policy makers, 136, 343
policy making, 115, 118, 336
policy options, 207
policy responses, 20, 22, 136
policymakers, 27, 29, 88, 90, 106, 332
political leaders, 326
politics, 333
pollutants, 31, 51, 154, 230, 236, 237, 246, 257, 263,
314, 348, 359
polluters, 264
polychlorinated biphenyl, 145
polychlorinated dibenzofurans, 246
polymer, 178, 179, 184
polyphenols, 128, 247, 248, 257, 263
ponds, 176, 185, 271
population, vii, 2, 22, 36, 37, 45, 78, 88, 89, 98, 101,
104, 105, 106, 116, 126, 136, 138, 139, 174, 211,
221, 223, 232, 233, 245, 275, 280, 297, 336, 343,
345, 346, 347, 356, 358, 359, 362, 372
population density, 139, 362
population growth, 22, 98, 101, 104, 105, 211, 345,
346, 372
population size, 138
porosity, 256, 299, 305, 306, 310, 311, 317, 375,
376, 379
portfolio, 62
Portugal, 8, 247, 275, 289, 294
positive attitudes, 37
positive behaviors, 40
positive correlation, 305
positive relationship, 292
potassium, 154, 244, 254, 259, 261, 263, 273, 306,
307, 314, 315
potato, 126, 131, 237
potential benefits, 211
poultry, 221, 237
poverty, 2, 9, 13, 71, 87, 89, 90, 106, 108, 211, 217,
326

Complimentary Contributor Copy

402

Index

poverty alleviation, 326


poverty eradication, 90, 108
poverty reduction, 89, 106
power generation, 198
precipitation, 75, 307, 313, 332
predation, 125
predators, 125
prejudice, 15, 47
premature death, 347
preparation, xii, xxv, 27, 82, 169, 170, 183, 205, 332,
373
preservation, 83, 244, 299, 325
president, xii, xvii, xx, xxiv, 52, 213
prevention, xv, xx, 32, 54, 129, 229, 230, 234, 238,
240, 277, 332
price instability, 88
price signals, 208
principles, 6, 9, 12, 60, 61, 279, 287, 292, 297, 299,
319, 332, 333, 334, 338, 346, 371
private investment, 321
private sector, 92, 321, 336, 337
probability, 257, 282
procurement, 13, 65, 295
producers, 106, 247, 254, 278, 371
product life cycle, 280
production technology, 226
productive capacity, 323
productivity growth, 107
professionals, 37, 293, 339, 346
profit, 47, 51, 53, 115, 277, 289, 323, 339
profitability, 62, 292, 323, 336
project, xviii, xxiii, xxv, 6, 60, 61, 113, 114, 116,
198, 203, 225, 256, 261, 262, 264, 265, 323, 331,
339, 354, 369, 372, 381
proliferation, 21, 24
propagation, 68
propane, 152
proposition, 58
prosperity, 212, 276, 321, 326, 327, 333, 345, 346,
351
protected areas, xxvii, 104, 109, 111, 113, 114, 115,
116, 117, 119, 121
protection, xxv, 3, 6, 10, 12, 13, 28, 31, 43, 83, 109,
111, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 121, 164, 244, 251,
252, 253, 255, 260, 264, 267, 277, 303, 327, 351,
361, 366
proteins, 150, 233
pruning, 247, 250
psychological processes, 35, 39, 41, 42
psychological well-being, 103
psychology, xviii, 35, 44
public awareness, 20
public concern(s), 143

public goods, 334, 335, 341


public health, 13, 29
public interest, 113
public investment, 47
public life, 351
public parks, 139
public policy, 54
public resources, 350
public sector, xvi, 319, 321, 322, 331
public service, 208
pulp, 49, 245, 247
pumps, 160, 162, 172, 176, 179, 184, 185, 186, 196
punishment, 71
purification, 219, 328
purity, 164, 321, 327
pyrolysis, 146, 148, 153, 155, 156

Q
quality assurance, 240
quality control, 290, 293
quality improvement, 126
quality of life, 10, 36, 280, 327, 345, 347, 351, 368
quality of service, 327
quality standards, 31, 256
quantification, 331
Queensland, 138, 273
questioning, 91
quotas, 28, 217

R
race, 42, 326, 327, 350
radiation, 27, 130, 170, 198, 303
rainfall, 75, 147, 258, 261, 300, 301, 302, 308, 312
rationality, 44
raw materials, 17, 53, 79, 97, 136, 237, 290, 371,
373
REA, xv
reaction rate, 152, 234
reactions, 150, 234, 359, 379, 380
reactivity, 385
reagents, 183
real estate, 58
real time, 52, 213
realism, 40
reality, 18, 41, 49, 62, 107, 275, 360
reasoning, 37, 158, 335
recall, 278
reception, 120, 150
receptors, 256, 257
recession, 81

Complimentary Contributor Copy

403

Index
reciprocating engine, 196
recognition, vii, 3, 8, 95, 116, 280, 292, 339, 355
recommendations, 15, 273, 280, 283, 308, 373
recovery, 27, 135, 140, 141, 145, 151, 154, 155, 157,
158, 168, 175, 188, 189, 191, 192, 194, 202, 221,
230, 231, 238, 243, 251, 313
recreation, 113, 114, 117, 121, 355
recreational, 158, 322, 356
recycling, xx, 26, 37, 38, 52, 140, 141, 142, 146,
151, 154, 155, 156, 166, 181, 221, 229, 230, 234,
237, 243, 246, 251, 267, 270, 323, 338, 371, 373,
374, 377, 382, 384
Red List, 130
redevelopment, 354
redistribution, 360
reformers, 197
reforms, 93, 114, 331
regenerate, 334
regeneration, 298, 334
regional integration, 90, 331
regions of the world, 101, 347
regression, 212
regulations, 30, 49, 63, 71, 113, 260, 290
regulatory framework, 15
regulatory requirements, 152
reinforcement, 80, 372, 381, 383
rejection, 8
relative prices, 321
relatives, 125, 130, 131
relevance, 21, 263
reliability, 172, 199, 213, 263, 351, 355
relief, 92
religion, 74, 107, 327
remediation, vii, xvi, xix, 253, 257, 258, 267
remote sensing, xxiv, 19, 122
renewable energy, xvi, xxiii, xxv, 13, 14, 15, 51, 53,
59, 95, 171, 198, 199, 227, 350
rent, 88
repair, 186
replacement ratios, 374, 375
representativeness, 21
reprocessing, 143
reproduction, 336
Republic of the Congo, 101, 104
reputation, 60, 63, 66, 277, 278, 282, 292
RES, 199, 227
researchers, 1, 180, 183, 233, 282, 284, 298, 310,
320, 342, 352, 373, 374, 378
reserves, 100, 101, 161, 187, 236, 342, 365
residuals, 188, 237, 246, 367
residues, xvii, xxv, 82, 83, 132, 145, 221, 222, 231,
233, 242, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 254, 270, 298,
299, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 378

resilience, 32, 92, 213, 299


resistance, xvii, 38, 78, 84, 126, 130, 132, 306, 309,
333, 374, 375, 377, 379, 381, 382, 383, 384
resolution, 94, 288
resource management, 27, 231, 240
resource utilization, 55
respiration, 233, 259
response, 7, 21, 22, 25, 54, 78, 84, 96, 133, 213, 262,
276, 285, 318, 340
responsiveness, 67
restaurants, 53, 358
restoration, 127, 154, 213, 234, 253
restrictions, 114, 115, 157, 158, 243, 260
retail, 52, 62, 294
revenue, 45, 61, 87, 93, 103, 352, 357, 358
rewards, 288
rights, 12, 47, 61, 92, 279, 364
risk(s), xix, xxii, 3, 28, 45, 54, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66, 67,
73, 83, 94, 103, 117, 118, 127, 128, 131, 159,
235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 250, 253, 255, 256, 257,
258, 264, 265, 266, 267, 273, 277, 292, 304, 308,
309, 333, 359
risk assessment, xix, xxii, 66, 255, 256, 257, 258
risk management, 45, 54
ROI, 66
Romania, xviii, xxiii, 202, 207, 218
root(s), 6, 78, 133, 230, 306, 307, 308, 315
root system, 307
rotations, 299, 311, 317
routes, 353, 355, 365
routines, 38, 356
Royal Society, 155
rules, 11, 39, 42, 48, 260, 261, 265, 290, 321, 348,
363, 364
runoff, 76, 273, 307, 308, 309, 310, 313, 315, 316,
317
rural areas, 88, 122, 359
rural development, 111, 119
rural population, 88
Rwanda, 93, 106

S
safe haven, 35
safety, xii, xx, xxiii, 13, 51, 66, 67, 92, 278, 279,
280, 281, 282, 284, 285, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292,
348, 349, 356, 363, 365
Safety Management System, xxvi
saline water, 78
salinity, 74, 76, 78, 84, 85, 247, 268
Salmonella, 250
salt concentration, 76
salt tolerance, 74

Complimentary Contributor Copy

404

Index

salts, 76, 78, 236, 244


Samoa, 343
samplings, 265
sanctions, 63, 278
saponin, 129
saturation, 277
Saudi Arabia, 85, 135
savannah, 99, 127
savings, 58, 61, 93, 172, 174, 175, 177, 179, 184,
186, 187, 209
scarce resources, 91, 327
scarcity, 2, 79, 104
scattering, 250
school, xxii, 82, 217, 289
schooling, 289
science, xvii, xxv, 18, 84, 93, 113, 118, 119, 121,
155, 156
scientific knowledge, vii, 117
scientific papers, xii, xv, xxvi
scope, 21, 95, 106, 119, 335
SCP, 30
scripts, 284
sea level, 329, 332
sea-level, 103
sea-level rise, 103
seasonality, 243, 315, 331
second generation, 377
Second World, 374
secondary data, 283, 285
sectoral policies, 27
security(s), 10, 12, 59, 66, 67, 88, 90, 92, 93, 208,
281, 282, 318, 348, 350
sediment(s), 31, 127, 300, 308, 310, 316
sedimentation, 175, 188
seed, xxii, xxv, 68, 82, 127, 133, 244, 247
seeding, 298, 301, 306, 311, 317
segregation, 230
selectivity, 242
self-employed, 46
self-enhancement, 43
self-interest, 64
semiconductors, 198
semi-structured interviews, 283, 284
senescence, 250
sensitivity, 21, 78, 126
sensors, 173, 177, 353
servers, 54, 55, 56, 59
service provider, 54, 140, 287, 290, 353
services, 53, 54, 58, 89, 132, 211, 212, 226, 276,
277, 280, 281, 290, 323, 326, 327, 333, 343, 346,
351, 353, 354, 355, 364, 368, 369
SES, 117
settlements, 104

sewage, 28, 144, 150, 157, 158, 162, 165, 168, 171,
175, 187, 190, 194, 198, 200, 223, 241, 242, 251,
255, 260, 271, 272
Seychelles, 96, 99, 101, 103, 105, 106
shade, 79
shape, 40, 42, 48, 49, 62, 211, 309, 356, 372, 373,
376
shareholder value, 62
shareholders, 47, 62, 65
shear, 181, 182, 183
sheep, 221
shelter, 299
shock, 176
shortage, 78, 349, 372
showing, 182, 208, 262, 280
shrubs, 132, 299
side effects, 211
Sierra Leone, 106
signalling, 322
signals, 27, 170, 233, 355
signs, 2, 88, 119, 285, 340
silica, 374, 379, 383
silicon, 198, 380
simulations, xii, 19
Single European Act, 3
single market, 346, 348
skills training, 326
slag, 376, 378, 380, 382, 385
slavery, 281, 290
Slovakia, 114, 121
sludge, 150, 152, 160, 161, 162, 163, 166, 167, 168,
169, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 184, 185, 186,
188, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 200, 201, 221,
223, 241, 242, 251, 254, 255, 260, 261, 271, 272
small firms, 349
smart com, 69
smog, 372
SO42-, 257, 263, 269
social acceptance, 70
social activities, 289
social behaviour, 289
social benefits, 116, 121, 326
social capital, 212
social change, 43
social conflicts, 113
social context, 40
social costs, 350
social development, 4, 91, 92, 209, 333
social environment, 38
social exchange, 41
social exclusion, 13
social goals, vii
social identity, 43

Complimentary Contributor Copy

Index
social indicator, 285, 291
social inequalities, 91
social justice, 118
social learning, 119
social network, 212
social organization, 211
social problems, 111, 289, 290
social programs, 326
social relations, 333
social resources, 3
social responsibility, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 277, 280,
287, 290, 294, 295, 340
social rules, 39, 63, 212
social services, 87, 90, 326
social structure, 327, 328
social welfare, 90
society, 12, 21, 41, 45, 48, 65, 67, 70, 78, 80, 81, 82,
91, 92, 94, 110, 118, 135, 207, 210, 211, 212,
218, 280, 291, 295, 298, 329, 331, 332, 333, 337,
345, 349, 355, 364, 368
sodium, 259, 380
sodium hydroxide, 380
software, 52, 53, 58, 174, 265
soil erosion, 128, 298, 299, 301, 304, 308, 310, 328,
329
soil particles, 308
soil pollution, xix, 127, 249, 297
soil type, 254, 263, 267
solar cells, 198
solid phase, 232, 309
solid waste, xii, xiii, xiv, xxii, xxvii, 135, 136, 137,
138, 139, 140, 141, 145, 146, 150, 154, 155, 156,
219, 220, 223, 230, 242, 247, 248, 250, 328, 371
solidarity, 10, 12, 289, 333
solubility, 237
solution, 39, 51, 84, 136, 152, 186, 221, 238, 258,
269, 274, 309, 313, 347, 378, 380
Somalia, 103, 104, 106
sorption, 309, 379
South Africa, 8, 93, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104,
106, 248, 339
South America, 104, 217
Southern African Development Community, 93
Soviet Union, 380
sowing, 133, 302, 307, 310, 316
soybeans, 296, 301
Spain, xvii, xxi, 73, 74, 81, 84, 85, 130, 132, 228,
243, 246, 247, 248, 254, 315, 320, 329, 343
specialists, 67, 284
specialization, xxiii
species, vii, xvii, xxvii, 2, 3, 26, 28, 29, 74, 84, 97,
103, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 123, 124, 125, 126,
127, 128, 129, 233, 244, 245, 299

405

specifications, 226, 242, 290, 373, 382


spending, 320, 326, 355
spiders, 125
spillover effects, 331
spore, 233
Spring, 330, 331, 332
SSA, 94, 298
stability, 41, 87, 88, 91, 163, 213, 236, 239, 240,
303, 305, 306, 318
stabilization, 146, 150, 156, 168, 175, 176, 184, 185,
195, 304, 311
stakeholder analysis, 64
stakeholders, 18, 19, 47, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
115, 118, 119, 158, 210, 213, 230, 261, 263, 266,
277, 280, 282, 287, 291, 292, 319, 321, 322, 324,
326, 327, 336, 338, 342
standard of living, 10, 12, 278
starch, 233
state(s), 2, 10, 19, 22, 25, 28, 29, 37, 39, 42, 50, 81,
88, 90, 92, 94, 107, 113, 119, 140, 142, 154, 155,
159, 191, 221, 227, 230, 232, 236, 332, 333, 336,
337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 348, 359, 382
statistics, 17, 19, 74, 84, 107, 240, 372
steel, 49, 58, 69, 101, 136, 141, 142, 372, 378, 380,
381, 383, 385
steel industry, 378
stimulation, 325
stock, 9, 59, 66, 91, 92, 212, 323, 334
stock price, 59, 66
stomata, 127
storage, 15, 145, 175, 227, 232, 240, 251, 254, 308,
311, 354, 367
stratification, 131, 303, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 314,
315
stress, 21, 103, 104, 126
stretching, 356
structural dimension, 293
structure, 10, 28, 40, 52, 73, 78, 81, 82, 100, 128,
154, 223, 235, 237, 239, 254, 256, 297, 298, 304,
305, 311, 312, 313, 325, 352, 379
style, 42, 212
sub-Saharan Africa, 88, 94, 105, 107
substitutes, 235, 261
substitution(s), 277, 375, 379
substrate(s), xx, 78, 82, 83, 180, 232, 233, 235, 237,
238, 303, 304
succession, xv, 239
Sudan, 96, 99, 101, 104, 106
sugar beet, 126
sugarcane, 317
sulfur, 197, 259, 261, 307
sulphur, 12, 195, 236, 237, 245, 254, 359
supervision, xxv, 258

Complimentary Contributor Copy

406

Index

supervisor, xxiv
supplementation, 272
supplier(s), 51, 63, 65, 100, 181, 213, 276, 277, 278,
280, 281, 285, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293
supply chain, 50, 53, 59, 66, 71, 275, 276, 277, 278,
279, 280, 282, 283, 284, 289, 290, 291, 293, 294,
295, 296, 340
suppression, 130, 182
surface area, 147, 178, 266
surface layer, 303, 309
surging, 347
survival, 35, 36, 42, 97
susceptibility, 304, 310
sustainable economic growth, 13, 90
sustainable energy, 53, 199, 207, 213, 365
sustainable growth, 10, 62, 207, 338
Sweden, xxv, 339, 356
Switzerland, 130
symbiosis, 127
synergistic effect, 379
synthetic fuels, 152
Syria, 247, 330, 332

T
Taiwan, 320, 342
talent, 51, 66
tanks, 162, 173, 175, 177, 178, 179, 185, 188, 193
Tanzania, 50, 70, 104, 106
tar, 148, 151
target, 25, 29, 31, 61, 63, 111, 174, 256, 257, 263,
269, 288, 310, 323, 350, 359, 361, 364, 365, 366,
379
Task Force, 368
taxa, 128
taxes, 211, 290
taxis, 362
teachers, 9
teams, 54, 56, 66
technician, xviii
techniques, xxiv, 75, 122, 125, 128, 147, 179, 246,
257, 267, 283, 299, 314, 354, 356, 372
technological advances, 36
technological change, 302
technological progress, 14, 334
telecommunications, 212
teleconferencing, 52
telephone, 61, 285
telephone numbers, 61
temperature, 14, 15, 26, 27, 75, 146, 150, 156, 176,
179, 193, 194, 195, 196, 201, 227, 231, 233, 241,
254, 261, 299, 300, 303, 380
tenants, 353

tensile strength, 79, 374, 375, 377, 379, 382


tension(s), 175, 331, 334
territorial, 104, 119, 331, 334, 335
territory, 28, 97, 140, 347
terrorism, 13
testing, 156, 272, 273, 373
textbooks, 289
textiles, 284
texture, 78, 256, 258, 268, 300, 311, 314, 376
Thailand, 271
thermal destruction, 243, 251
thermal energy, 160, 190
thermal resistance, 381
Third World, 340
threats, 13, 39, 63, 114, 253, 254
threshold level, 263
time frame, 146
time periods, 213, 266, 320
tissue, 80, 188, 245
tobacco, 100
Togo, 96, 99, 104, 105, 106
toluene, 152
tones, 153, 247, 328, 372
top-down, 109, 113
total costs, 166
total energy, 157, 160, 164, 166, 170, 177, 187, 200
total product, 246, 250
tourism, 24, 27, 70, 71, 93, 103, 112, 115, 116, 120,
121, 211, 223, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325,
326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335,
336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344
toxic metals, 131, 260
toxic substances, 123, 127, 144, 257, 277
toxicity, 237, 257, 259, 273, 274, 316, 377
toys, 278
trace elements, 254, 297
tracks, 62, 306
trade, 9, 64, 87, 93, 95, 98, 100, 117, 292, 340, 343,
346, 350, 353
trade union, 9
trade-off, 95, 292
traditions, 49, 327
trafficking, 13
trafficking in persons, 13
training, xxvi, 49, 67, 211, 280, 281, 282, 283, 288,
289, 293, 338, 341, 363
traits, xvii, 124
transactions, 59
transcription, 285
transformation(s), 67, 88, 89, 94, 106, 108, 122, 225,
226, 244, 311, 331, 368
transmission, 225, 226

Complimentary Contributor Copy

407

Index
transparency, 51, 67, 109, 113, 118, 276, 282, 283,
288
transpiration, 74, 78
transport, 13, 24, 26, 27, 30, 52, 62, 64, 75, 80, 140,
160, 170, 178, 196, 208, 213, 256, 309, 310, 323,
327, 331, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 354,
355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 364, 365,
366, 368, 369, 372, 373
transportation, vii, 53, 59, 114, 150, 225, 227, 345,
346, 347, 348, 351, 352, 354, 355, 356, 358
treaties, 3, 5, 6, 7, 14, 29, 290, 348
treatment methods, 135
Treaty of Amsterdam, 8, 11, 16
Treaty of Rome, 11
Treaty on European Union, 14, 16
trial, 316
trickle-down effects, 91
trimmings, 245
trustworthiness, 285
tuberculosis, 13
turbulence, 182
Turkey, 200, 247, 329
turnover, 46, 240, 283, 291

U
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 245
U.S. Geological Survey, 101
Ukraine, 384
ultrasound, 193
UNESCO, 73, 75, 217, 343
uniform, 11, 31, 126, 145, 146
unions, 278
United Kingdom (UK), xvi, xviii, xix, xxi, xxii, xxvi,
43, 44, 51, 52, 107, 129, 155, 241, 272, 273, 329,
339, 340, 341, 342, 354, 356, 368, 369
United Nations (UN), 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 16, 22,
33, 36, 37, 59, 61, 64, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 93,
94, 104, 107, 108, 133, 229, 242, 276, 289, 290,
325, 326, 330, 339, 343, 361
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), 11, 14
United Nations Industrial Development
Organization, 88
United States, xxvi, 49, 56, 68, 136, 203, 245, 248,
252, 278
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 279, 290
universities, xxi, 47, 289
urban, 26, 28, 35, 73, 75, 77, 82, 88, 117, 140, 143,
152, 155, 188, 196, 202, 204, 210, 211, 239, 242,
247, 250, 252, 325, 327, 328, 345, 346, 347, 349,
350, 351, 353, 354, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361,
362, 367, 368, 369

urban areas, 26, 28, 140, 152, 188, 202, 357, 360,
367
urban life, 351
urban policy, 347
urban population, 88, 359
urbanisation, 61
urbanization, 88, 107, 372
urine, 245
Uruguay, 130
USA, xviii, xxi, xxiv, xxvi, 44, 49, 126, 156, 204,
231, 236, 239, 242, 246, 248, 249, 310, 313, 314,
315, 318, 341, 342, 383
USDA, 245, 250, 272, 300
UV, 27, 169, 170, 173, 183, 184, 186, 187, 200
UV irradiation, 173
UV radiation, 170, 184

V
vacuum, 148, 165
Valencia, xxi, 74, 83, 84
valorization, xix
valuation, 84, 92, 272
variables, 19, 24, 97, 236, 238, 261, 262, 283, 323
variations, 76, 176, 375, 383
varieties, 124, 126, 130
vegetables, 125
vegetation, 115, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128,
129, 133, 247, 273, 313
vegetative cover, 125
vehicles, 13, 28, 61, 150, 154, 213, 349, 350, 352,
354, 355, 356, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 365,
366, 367, 368
velocity, 259, 308, 376
ventilation, 157, 172, 177, 187
venture capital, 47
versatility, 145
vertical integration, 323
vessels, 104
vibration, 181, 182, 201
Vietnam, 245
vinasse, 248
vinyl chloride, 152
violent behaviour, 335
virtualization, 54, 55, 56, 58
viruses, 250
vision(s), 3, 6, 9, 42, 53, 62, 214, 276, 287, 293, 337,
351, 364
vitamins, 128
vocational training, 10, 363
volatile organic compounds, 236, 359
volunteerism, 51
voting, 47, 48

Complimentary Contributor Copy

408

Index

vulnerability, 103, 107, 108, 126, 129, 275, 324, 333

W
Wales, 138, 357
walking, 52, 362
war, 94
Washington, 44, 59, 107, 108, 295
waste disposal, 65, 135, 139, 146, 151, 226, 255,
258, 265, 266, 267, 273
waste disposal sites, 273
waste heat, 175, 188, 192, 196
waste incineration, xiii, 139, 145, 155
waste management, xvii, xx, 136, 140, 141, 146,
151, 154, 229, 230, 232, 234, 235, 238, 243, 251,
267
waste treatment, 135, 145, 146, 147, 148, 154, 226,
230, 232, 236, 239, 240, 254
waste water, 58, 162, 163, 201, 202
water absorption, 374, 375, 379
water ecosystems, 328
water evaporation, 307
water permeability, 256
water policy, 32
water quality, xxi, 20, 22, 24, 26, 244, 308, 313, 314,
318, 328
water resources, 28, 29, 127, 308, 329, 332
water shortages, 28
water supplies, vii, 76
waterways, 158, 254
wealth, 212, 213, 347, 348, 350
wear, 360, 379
weather patterns, 262
web, 54, 354
websites, 283, 284, 285
weight reduction, 365
welfare, 25, 33, 65, 87, 91, 348
welfare loss, 348
well-being, 4, 12, 33, 45, 94, 106, 111, 117, 120,
210, 212, 213, 275, 280, 281, 327, 358
West Africa, 93, 98, 155
Western Australia, 138, 155
wetlands, 78, 328
wetting, 146, 147, 152
White Paper, 348, 350, 364, 365

wilderness, 117
wildlife, 115, 117, 125, 327
wind farm, 52, 115
wind power, 199
wind turbines, 52, 53
windows, 58
Wisconsin, 273, 312
withdrawal, 105, 114, 162
wood, 53, 79, 97, 144, 227, 372
wood products, 97, 144
workers, 51, 277, 278, 281, 287, 288, 326, 354
workforce, 61, 212, 280, 282
working conditions, 277, 280, 291, 349, 363, 368
working groups, xxvi, 288
working hours, 278, 279, 281, 283, 291, 369
workplace, 187, 279, 280, 281, 282, 288, 289, 290,
291
World Bank, 60, 69, 107, 108, 320
World Health Organization, 358
World Water Council, 343
worldwide, 13, 37, 38, 39, 45, 91, 109, 113, 119,
176, 194, 217, 243, 246, 249, 259, 260, 277, 312,
320, 329, 330, 339, 371, 372, 373, 378
WTO, 322, 324, 325, 326, 336, 339, 343, 344
WWW, 340

X
xenophobia, 13

Y
Yale University, 44
yield, 78, 82, 83, 85, 91, 126, 128, 244, 245, 246,
297, 298, 301, 302, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311, 312,
314, 315, 316, 318
young people, 89, 289, 349

Z
zeolites, xvi
Zimbabwe, 101, 104, 105, 106, 317
zinc, 259

Complimentary Contributor Copy

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