Scientific research is a systematic consecutive process to solve

problems using scientific method, with an objective to find

explanation (theoretical description) governing the problem(s).
A scientific research is usually directed to meet the following
objective(s) :
1. finding new explanation (theoretical description), related to
the problem(s) being investigated.
2. examining, applying and/or developing existing explanation
(theoretical description), related to the problem(s) being
investigated.
What is the scientific method?
The scientific method is a logical, systematic approach to the
solution of a scientific problem.
It includes several steps, i.e. : problem identification, hypothesis
development, design and carry out steps or procedures to test the
hypothesis, and documenting observations and findings to share
with someone else in order to develop theories.
In other words, it is a way to solve a problem.
The scientific method is a tool that helps scientists to solve
problems and determine answers to questions in a logical format
(or framework).
It provides step-by-step directions to help us work through the
problems, called the formal steps of scientific method :
Observations
Problem Identification
Hypothesis Formulation
Experiments : Design & Execution
Conclusions
What is CHEMISTRY?
CHEMISTRY IS THE SCIENCE OF MATTERS AND THEIR
CHANGES, RELATED TO :
- Structure
- Composition
- Properties
- Energy
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY :
is the study of inorganic compounds and their reactions, related to
structure, composition, properties, and energy.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY :
is the study of organic compounds and their reactions, related to
structure, composition, properties, and energy.
Physical chem ---> teoritical device
Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic, atomic,
subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in
terms of physical laws and concepts.
Physical chemistry applies the principles, practices and concepts
of physics, especially thermodynamics, quantum mechanics and
dynamics.
Physical chemistry deals with physical principles and concepts
related to bulk rather than to molecular/atomic structure alone; for
example, chemical equilibrium and kinetics.
Analytical chemistry---> experimental dvice
Analytical chemistry is the study of the separation, identification,
and quantification of chemical components of natural and
artificial materials.
Qualitative analysis gives an indication of the identity of the
chemical species in the sample and

Quantitative analysis determines the amount of one or more of

these components. The separation of components is often
performed prior to analysis.
Analytical methods can be classified into : (1) classical methods
and (2) instrumental methods :
CLASSICAL METHODS (also known as wet chemistry methods)
use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and distillation
and qualitative analysis by color, odor, or melting point.
Quantitative analysis is achieved by measurement of weight or
volume.
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS use an apparatus to measure
physical quantities of the analytes such as light absorption,
fluorescence, or conductivity. The separation of materials is
accomplished using chromatography or electrophoresis methods.
Knowledge and science
It is not chemistry if we only learn theories without facts.
It is not science if we learn only facts without learning
theories.
In chemistry, theories must not replace facts, but they should
explain them.
What do scientists do?
Scientists have to take the time to think logically when they are
investigating a scientific problem.
Scientists have to break things down into many steps that make
sense.
Scientists have to develop a question, gather information and
formulate a hypothesis.
Scientists have to create and conduct experiments in order to test
their hypothesis.
Scientists have to share their experiments and findings with
others.
What is the key of scientific experiments?
A key to experiments is observing what happens and writing it
down. Gathering information or data and documenting it so it is
readable and makes sense to others is really important.
Once a scientist completes an experiment, they often repeat it to
see if they get the same findings and results. This is really what
often called verification (or checking things out) to make sure that
everything was valid and will happen again and again.
That is why scientists have to share their experiments and findings
with others. In that way, scientists can learn from each other and
often use someone elses experiences to help them with what they
are studying.
Scientific Laws :
A scientific law is a concise statement that summarizes and
generalized the results of many observations and experiments. It
doesnt try only to explain, but it describes, the relationship. An
explanation requires a theory.
Scientific Theories :
Once a hypothesis meets the test of repeated experiments, it may
become a theory.
A Scientific theory is a well-tested explanation for a broad set of
observations.
A Scientific theory may need to be changed (revised) at some
point in the future to explain other new observations or
experimental results.

Types of Research
General Research
Descriptive Research : These studies involved a detailed
description of a state of affairs. Early studies in a particular field
are often descriptive.
Associational Research : Research that explores relationships is
associational. Correlational and causal-comparative studies are
associational.
Intentional Research : These studies involve manipulation of
variables and/or treatment that influences outcomes.
NOTE THAT : Although there are three types of research, they do
not always function independently of one another. Some studies
can be descriptive and associational; others can be intervention
and associational. The question(s) being investigated dictate the
method.
Quantitative studies are often large and use scientifically drawn
samples from which the findings might be generalized to other
similar (and larger) populations.
Qualitative studies examine one situation and do not attempt to
generalize beyond it.
Specific Research
Experimental Research : An independent variable is manipulated
and one or more dependent variables are controlled to see the
effect.
Correlational Research : This looks at the relationship between
variables. It does not involve manipulation.
Causal-comparative Research : This involves examination of the
causes of differences between two or more groups of population
Survey Research : This involves administration of an instrument
to collect data regarding characteristics of a group.
Historical Research : This research examines the history of an
organization, group, or culture. It may involve documentary
analysis, interviews, and examination of other artifacts.
Action Research : This is generally very work specific and is
undertaken to solve a specific problem. It isnt commonly done in
scholarly research because it can have ethical ramifications.
Quantitative and qualitative researches differ in approach and in
the assumptions underlying each paradigm.
Quantitative research generally assumes that a single reality
underlies most questions, while qualitative research takes the
position that there are multiple realities in any context or situation.
Quantitative research generally involves some sort of hypothesis
testing and examines the relationships between variables, while
qualitative research is guided by research questions and looks at
the relationships among the participants in the research.
In quantitative research, the researcher is assumed to be a rational,
detached observer who is conducting a predesigned, objective
study. Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, recognize their
role in the research process, often as participant observers, and
address this in their reports.
The scientific method is a tool that helps scientists to solve
problems and determine answers to questions in a logical format
(or framework).
It provides step-by-step directions to help us work through the
problems, called the formal steps of scientific method :
OBSERVATIONS
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION : Developing the problem
HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION : Developing a theoretical
solution to the problem and Formulating the hypothesis
EXPERIMENTS DESIGN : Formulating the research plan

(methods) for collecting and analyzing the data

CONCLUSIONS : Interpreting the results - Form conclusions Refining the theory
Observation :
Formulates a clear, concise, and manageable research
problems
Communicates to others
Focus and importance of problem
Research context and scope
Framework for reporting results
Indicates evidence-based inquiry
Sumber : Casual observation,Deductions from theory,Related
literature,Current issues on social, economics, politics,Practical
situations,Personal experience and insight
Problem Identification : Research is about formulating problems
(or questions), whose answers the research or practitioner
community wants to know, and whose answers are not known.
Research is a mean of providing some answer to these problems
(or questions)
Tujuan
Introduces reader to the importance of the problem to be
investigated
Places problem(s) to be investigated in the scientific context
Provides framework for reporting results, findings and
conclusions
Step : Identify scope of the problems, Formulate statement of the
problems
Identification scope the problem : CRITERIA TO BE USED :
Interests
Theoretical values
Practical values
Workability
PROCEDURE :Review the literature : Get a broad overview using
secondary sources, Write a general problem statement
WRITING STATEMENTS :Tells what will be (or was) done
,Identifies variables & relationships to be studied
Formulate statement of the problems
Review primary sources in the literature
Identify primary sources
Read & record the literature
Focus should be on identifying questions that need to be answered
(theoretically & practically)
Make a list of research questions
Provide a rationale for the problem
Identify variables to be studied
Rewrite the problem statement
Outline of the Problems
Results of Previous Studies
Questions to be Answered :
What is the extent of the problems?
What is the nature of the problems?
What are the causes of the problems?
What is the relationship of the cause of problems to each type of
problem?
Are there any factors that explain the causes of problems?
Scope of Problem Selection :
Rationale for a study :
Justifies why an evidence based inquiry is important, and
Indicates interest/choice researcher

Knowledge of an enduring practice

Theory testing and Generalizability
Extensions of understanding
Methodological advancement
Current issues
Evaluation of a specific practice/policy at a given site
Exploratory research
Significance of Problem Selection
Does problem contribute to one or more of following?
Develops knowledge of an enduring practice
Contributes to theory development
Expands current knowledge
Provides an extension of our understanding
Advances methodology
Related to a current social or political issue
Evaluates specific practice or policy at given site
Explores an issue about which little is known
Research Problems
Situasi dan keadaan yang potensial untuk timbul
Terdapat data/informasi yang menimbulkan kesenjangan
pengetahuan peneliti.
Terdapat dua atau lebih data/informasi akurat yang saling
bertentangan
Terdapat dua atau lebih data/informasi yang bila dianalisis dengan
cara pemahaman (pemikiran) berbeda menghasilkan kesimpulan
yang berbeda.
Kriteria Masalah yang Baik
Benar-benar sangat menarik perhatian bagi peneliti, dan tidak
bertentangan dengan nilai moral yang berlaku.
Merupakan sesuatu yang baru dan penyelesaiannya akan
memberikan manfaat bagi peneliti dan pihak lain yang
berkepentingan.
Dapat dikembangkan ke dalam rancangan yang memili-ki
kompleksitas yang tinggi, sehingga penye-lesaiannya memerlukan
penelitian.
Difahami dengan baik, sehingga penelitian dapat diran-cang untuk
diselesaikan sesuai waktu yang diinginkan.
Keberhasilan identifikasi masalah sangat bergantung pada
intelektualitas peneliti.
NOTES
Keberhasilan identifikasi masalah bergantung pada informasi,
pengalaman, dan pengetahuan yang dimiliki peneliti terhadap
masalah itu.
Dalam ketiadaan informasi, masalah penelitian tidak mungkin
dapat diidentifikasi dan dirumuskan.
Hypothesis
In the first step of scientific research, we have to develop a
theoretical solution to the problem and formulating the hypothesis
A HYPOTHESIS is a proposed description/explanation for an
observation.
Suppose you try to turn on a flashlight and it does not light. An
observation can lead to a question : Whats wrong with the
flashlight? You may expect that the flashlight probably needs new
batteries.
Hypothesis :
IF THERE IS ENOUGH CHARGE IN THE BATTERIES,
THEN THE FLASHLIGHT WILL LIGHT WHEN IT IS
SWITCHED ON.
Testing Hypotheses :

You can test your hypothesis by putting new batteries in the

flashlight.
TESTING HYPOTHESIS IS THE HEART OF SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
If the flashlight lights, you can be fairly certain that your
hypothesis is true.
Hipoesis is :
Perkiraan secara teoritik terhadap penyelesaian masalah penelitian
Deskripsi teoritik tingkah laku, gejala, atau kejadian telah terjadi
dalam kasus lain terkait dengan masalah yang akan diteliti.
Kemungkinan implikasinya deskripsi tingkah laku, gejala, atau
kejadian pada masalah yang akan diteliti
Informasi diperlukan dalam setiap analisis, terma-suk analisis
teoritik dalam rangka perumusan/ formulasi hipotesis.
Dalam ketiadaan informasi, tidak mungkin dapat diformulasikan
hipotesis.
Informasi yang diperlukan terutama pengalaman dan pemikiran
peneliti terdahulu, yang dapat dipertanggung-jawabkan (misalnya
telah dipubli-kasikan).
Hipotesis hanya dapat terformulasi berdasarkan pada berbagai
informasi.
Formulasi Hipotesis
SUATU HIPOTESIS SELALU DISUSUN DENGAN ASUMSI
BAHWA PENGALAMAN DAN PEMIKIRAN PENELITI
TERDAHULU (DIGUNAKAN SEBAGAI LANDASAN
ANALISIS) BERLAKU DALAM PERMASALAHAN YANG
AKAN DITELITI.
HIPOTESIS BIASANYA DIFORMULASIKAN DALAM
BENTUK KALIMAT BERSYARAT (KONDISIONAL).
HUBUNGAN CAUSAL : Jika proses pelarutan zat X merupakan
proses endotermik, maka kelarutan zat itu akan me-ningkat pada
kenaikan temperatur.
HUBUNGAN DEFINITIONAL : Jika K2Cr2O7 merupakan
bahan standar primer, maka K2Cr2O7 memiliki stabilitas tinggi
dan terdapat dalam keadaan murni.
HUBUNGAN DECISIONAL : Jika hidrolisis sakarosa mengikuti
kinetika reaksi order-1, maka nilai logaritma konsentrasi dalam larutan akan merupakan fungsi linear lama hidrolisis.
HUBUNGAN LOGICAL : Jika kelarutan garam perak halida
dalam pelarut polar mengikuti urutan : AgCl > AgBr > AgI, maka
pada pelarutan garam itu karakter kovalen lebih dominan daripada
karakter ionik.
KRITERIA HIPOTESIS YANG BAIK
mengikuti (sesuai dengan) penemuan penelitian terdahulu,
sehingga merupakan ujung mata rantai penelitian terdahulu.
mengemukakan penjelasan yang logis (masuk akal) atas tingkah
laku, gejala, atau kejadian tertentu yang telah dan akan terjadi.
menunjukkan eksistensi hubungan potensial antar variabel
penelitian; baik hubungan sebab-akibat, maupun hubungan
korelasi logikal fungsional.
bersifat dapat diuji secara eksperimental, sehingga dapat
dinyatakan dalam hubungan operasional antara variabel bebas
dan variabel tak bebas.
CONTOH
A hypothesis can be considered as an educated guess or
proposition that attempts to explain a set of facts or natural
phenomenon. It is used mostly in the field of science, where the
scientific method is used to test it.
Testing Hypothesis vs. Tested Hypothesis :
An hypothesis can be used in testing a concept or it can be
developed as a result of study :

A testing hypothesis is one that can be tested, meaning you can

measure both what is being done (variables) and the outcome.
A tested hypothesis is tested with research, such as in a research
study in social science.
If I raise the temperature of a cup of water, then the amount of
sugar that can be dissolved in it will be increased.
If the size of the molecules is related to the rate of diffusion as
they pass through a membrane, then smaller molecules will flow
through at a higher rate.
If there is a relation between the wavelength of light and the
photosynthesis rate, then light of shorter wavelength will cause
the plant to make more amounts of oxygen.
If temperature is related to the rate of metabolism in animals, then
raising the ambient temperature will cause an increase in animal
metabolism.
BASIC ABOUT HIPOTESIS
The two types of hypotheses are scientific and working :
A scientific hypothesis is based on experiments and observations
from the past that cannot be explained with current theories.
A working hypothesis is one that is widely accepted and becomes
the basis of further experimentation.
Goal of a Hypothesis
Regardless of the type of hypothesis, the goal of a hypothesis is to
help explain the focus and direction of the experiment or research.
As such, a hypothesis will:
State the purpose of the research
Identify what variables are used
Parameters of a Good Hypothesis
In order to be a good hypothesis that can be tested or studied, a
hypothesis:
Needs to be logical
Must use precise language
Should be testable with research or experimentation
A hypothesis is usually written in a form where it proposes that if
something is done, then something else will occur.
Scientific statement
There are three types of scientific statements :
Hypothesis,
Law,
Theory
A scientific hypothesis will give a plausible explanation that will
be tested. It can also explain future phenomenon that will need to
be tested.
Once a scientific hypothesis has been widely accepted, it is called
a law. This means that it is assumed to be true and will predict the
outcome of certain conditions or experiments. Some laws cannot
yet be proven because technology to test them has not been
invented.
A scientific theory is broader in scope and explains more events
that a law. After hypotheses and laws have been tested many
times, with accurate results, they become theories.
EXPERIMENT DESIGN
The Objective(s) of Scientific Research
finding new explanation (theoretical description), governing the
problem(s) being investigated.
examining, applying and/or developing existing explanation
(theoretical description), governing the problem(s) being
investigated.
Experiment variable
Variables is factors that can influence the results of an experiment.
Independent variable (also known as experimental or manipulated

variable) : Controlled by experimenter - Allowed to change.

A good experiment tests one variable at a time.
Make sure all other aspects of your experiment are controlled so
that any change can be most likely attributed to the effects of the
independent variable
Dependent variable (also known as responding variable) : What
experiment is designed to test.
GROUPING OF EXPERIMENT
Experimental group : Group of tests where experimenter changes
variable.
Control group : Group of tests that will not be affected by the
experimental variable.
Collecting and Organizing Data
Tables : Have title and columns with data and appropriate units
Graphs : Line graphs - Bar graphs - Pie charts - Histograms
(intervals). A good graphs has : title, independent variable on xaxis, dependent variable on y-axis, appropriate scale, key or
legend
PERAN DESIGN EKSPERIMEN
VERIFIKASI EXPERIMENTAL BERLAKUNYA HIPOTESIS
PENELITIAN
STRATEGI OPERASIONAL PELAKSANAAN PENELITIAN
DLM BENTUK RANGKAIAN EKSPERIMEN
KONSTRUKSI PENELITIAN DLM BENTUK HUBUNGAN
ANTARA VARIABEL TAK BEBAS (MEASURABLE) DAN
VARIABEL BEBAS
A hypothesis is an educated guess about the relationship between
the independent and dependent variables.
Independent variable
The independent, or manipulated variable, is a factor that is
intentionally varied by the experimenter.
John is going to use 25g., 50g., 100g., 250g., 500g. of sugar in his
experiment.
Dependent variable
The dependent, or responding variable, is the factor that may
change as a result of changes made in the independent variable.
In this case, it would be the size of the loaf of bread.
Control grup
In a scientific experiment, the control is the group that serves as
the standard of comparison.
The control group may be a no treatment" or an experimenter
selected group.
The control group is exposed to the same conditions as the
experimental group, except for the variable being tested.
ALL EXPERIMENTS SHOULD HAVE A CONTROL GROUP.
Factor
Johns teacher reminds him to keep all other factors the same so
that any observed changes in the bread can be attributed to the
variation in the amount of sugar.
The constants in an experiment are all the factors that the
experimenter attempts to keep the same.
Factors might include :
Other ingredients to the bread recipe, oven used, rise time, brand
of ingredients, cooking time, type of pan used, air temperature and
humidity where the bread was rising, oven temperature, age of

the yeast
Experiment and trials
John writes out his procedure for his experiment along with a
materials list in his notebook. He has both of these checked by his
teacher where she checks for any safety concerns.
Trials refer to replicate groups that are exposed to the same
conditions in an experiment.
John is going to test each sugar variable 3 times.
Data : Collection and Analyzes
John comes up with a table he can use to record his data.
John gets all his materials together and carries out his experiment.
Data evaluation
John examines his data and notices that his control worked the
best in this experiment, but not significantly better than 100 g of
sugar.
Conclusion
John rejects his hypothesis, but decides to re-test using sugar
amounts between 50 g. and 100 g.
Conclusion
John finds that 70 g of sugar produces the largest loaf.
His hypothesis is accepted.
Communication
John tells his grandmother about his findings and prepares to
present his project in a Science Class.
Pemilihan Teknik Pengukuran
RELIABILITAS&VALIDITAS :
Sensitivitas
Selektivitas/Spesifisitas
Ketrampilan
Biaya & Fasilitas
Kecepatan
RELIABILITAS
Kemampuan metode untuk memberikan data yang konsisten.
Konsistensi data hasil pengukuran sangat tergantung pada
kesesuaian antara peralatan dan teknik yang dipilih.
Penggunaan peralatan dan teknik yang se-suai akan memberikan
data dengan memiliki kecermatan (precision) tinggi.
VALIDITAS
kemampuan teknik pengukuran untuk meng-hasilkan data yang
benar (sesuai dengan nilai sesungguhnya).
Teknik pengukuran yang memiliki validitas tinggi adalah teknik
pengukuran yang dapat menghasilkan data dengan ketepatan
(accuracy) tinggi.
Accuracy and Precision
Measurements are qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative measurements give results that are descriptive
and non-numerical.
Quantitative measurements give results that are definite,
usually as numbers and units.
ACCURACY is a measure of how close a measurement comes to
the actual or true value of whatever is measured. To evaluate the
accuracy of a measurement, it must be compared to the correct
value.
PRECISION is a measure of how close a series of measurements
are to one another. The precision of a measurement depends on
more than one measurement.

In this picture, all of the darts land on the bulls-eye which

illustrates good precision and accuracy.
In this picture, all of the darts land near each other, but away from
the bulls-eye which illustrates good precision, but poor accuracy.
Here the darts are not close to each other, but are close to the
bulls-eye indicating poor precision, but good accuracy.
Finally, the darts are not close to each other or near the bulls-eye
indicating both poor accuracy and poor precision.
SENSITIVITAS
memberikan informasi tentang banyaknya bahan yang
diperlukan dalam eksperimen untuk mendapatkan data yang
informatif.
Faktor proporsionalitas antara besarnya para-meter terukur pada
pengukuran dan banyaknya bahan yang diukur
batas deteksi besarnya konsentrasi mini-mum ba-han yang
diukur yang dapat menghasilkan hasil pengukuran yang dapat
dibedakan secara signifikan dari blanko
SELECTIVITAS
didefinisikan sebagai sensitivitas relatif metode untuk suatu
komponen terhadap kompo-nen lain dalam suatu matriks.
Makin tinggi sensitivitas relatif suatu metode untuk suatu
komponen terhadap komponen lain dalam matriks, makin selektif
dan spesifik metode itu un-tuk komponen tersebut.
KETRAMPILAN
kualitas data hasil pengukuran tidak ditentu-kan secara eksklusif
oleh kecanggihan pera-latan yang digunakan.
Metode klasik yang ditangani oleh operator yang trampil dan
familiar, dapat memberikan hasil yang cermat dan akurat.
metode modern yang ditangani oleh operator yang kurang trampil
dan belum familiar, mungkin akan memberikan hasil yang tidak
cermat dan tidak akurat.
PENELITIAN KIMIA
INTEGRITAS SAMPEL
OPTIMASI KINERJA PERALATAN
PREPARASI SAMPEL
REPLIKASI PENGUKURAN
REMARKS
Rancangan eksperimen umumnya hanya difo-kuskan pada
keterlibatan variabel terkendali.
Kesesuaian teknik pengukuran dalam rancangan eksperimen
sangat menentukan keberhasilan penelitian.
Replikasi pengukuran dalam penelitian kimia umumnya bukan
merupkan faktor krusial, karena teknik pengukuran kimia
memiliki reliabilitas relatif tinggi
Theory is something that nobody believes, except one who made
it. Experiment is something that everybody believes, except one
who made it