Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Light is a form of energy that radiates from its source in waves. Waves have both a frequency (the
number of times the wave repeats in a unit of time) and a length.
The chart below shows the visible spectrum of light verses other types of waves.
The Sun is the main source of light on this planet. Humans have long produced artificial light to
supplement the suns light. This is done by transforming an energy source, such as gas, oil or
electricity into light.
Incandescent Bulb
A halogen lamp is a type of incandescent lamp where high-pressure halogen gas is inside the bulb
allowing the filament to burn hotter and longer.
Halogen Lamp
Gaseous Discharge
This technology passes electricity through a gas, which excites the gas and causes it to glow.
Fluorescent, high-intensity discharge lights (HID) and low-pressure sodium lights use this technology.
HID lamps use different gases to produce light:
Mercury Vapor
Metal Halide
Metal Halide
Fluorescent Tube
These types of lights require a ballast, which is a device that starts the lamp and regulates its
operation.
A Ballast
LED
LEDs are the newest type of artificial light and were born out of the electronics and computer industry.
An LED is a tiny electronic device that emits light.
Red LED
RGB LED
Green LED
Blue LED
White LED
The quantity of light How much light comes out of the light and how much hits the surface
you want to illuminate, such as a desk or countertop.
2.
The quality of light What is the color of the light itself and how does it affect what colors I
actually see. Are the blues really blue or are they washed out? Can I distinguish one item from
another on a dark night with this light?
3.
The fixture efficiency How much light actually leaves the fixture and is directed towards
the area or surface that needs to be illuminated? How does that affect my cost?
As new, more efficient lighting sources are developed, the general public will need to start learning
how to measure light in lumens. For example, a 100 watt incandescent bulb is about 1700 lumens. An
equivalent CFL (Compact Fluorescent Light) would be a 28 watt bulb at 1600 lumens. A 15 watt LED
can output as much as 1620 lumens.
Illuminance is the amount of light measured on the work surface, such as a desk or counter in the
lighted space. This is measured in lux (metric) or footcandles (English). A lux is one lumen per square
meter. A footcandle is one lumen of light density per square foot. One footcandle equals approximately
10 lux.
The chart below shows the illuminance one can expect to see outdoors in different conditions.
Footcandles
Lux
Sunny Day
10,000
100,000
Overcast Day
1000
10,000
100
1,000
Twilight
10
Deep Twilight
.1
Full Moon
.01
.1
Quarter Moon
.001
.01
Starlight
.0001
.001
When determining acceptable light levels, it is usually more important to think of Lux or Footcandles
rather than lumens as this more accurately measures the amount of light the human eye will see.
Often lumens are wasted by throwing light into areas that are not perceived, such as the interior of
the fixture or straight up into the night sky.
When buying a fixture, you can often get a spec sheet from the manufacturer that has a chart showing
the lux levels (or footcandles) at various lengths away from the light source. The mounting height of
the light source will affect these levels, so that is often specified on the spec sheet.
Lights can vary widely in their illuminance and descriptions of Bright or Super-Bright can be very
misleading. A survey of several types of undercabinet lighting from a discount home improvement
store revealed most had lux levels of less than 10% of the recommended levels. With the help of a
lighting expert and a simple light meter, you can be assured to get the light output you really need.
The following light levels are recommended:
Footcandles
Lux
Ambient Light
(Home, Office, Classrooms)
15-30
150-300
50
500
Supermarkets, Stores
75
750
100
1000
150-200
1500-2000
Outdoor Lighting
The Lighting Research Center notes that in the early part of the
twentieth century, when electric street lighting was beginning to be installed in many areas of the
United States, moonlight levels were commonly used as a standard or reference point for outdoor
lighting. In many instances, the visual quality of a street lighting design was measured against
moonlight. When considering the needs of an outdoor lighting installation, it is still helpful to think in
terms of moonlight levels.
In rural areas, moonlight, with an Illuminance of approximately .1 lux on the ground, often provides
enough lighting for peoples basic needs such as walking or finding a house or a car.
Outdoor lighting is measured here as the Illuminance on the ground.
Lux
Footcandle
Parking Lots
10
.05
.5
=5 full moons
Color of Light
Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)
Light has color, whether it emanates from the moon, the sun or your favorite reading light.
It might tend toward:
orange - parking lot lights
yellow - common reading lights
white - daylight and office light
The Correlated Color Temperature indicates the color of the light. The CCT is based on a Kelvin scale,
which is actually a temperature measurement, but in this usage has no bearing on the actual
temperature of the light or the heat it generates. The Kelvin scale is like the Celsius and Fahrenheit
Scale, but starts at 0 to denote absolute zero which is as cold as we think it can possibly get.
Many years ago it was noticed that when a piece of iron burns (called technically a black body), it
changes color as it gets hotter, starting from an orange color, then yellow color and getting to a blue
-white hot color. The temperature of iron burning is measured on the Kelvin scale. This observation
was then used to describe the color of light.
Strangely though, the higher the temperature, the cooler the light is perceived and the lower the
temperature, the warmer the light is perceived.
A CCT below 3200 K is considered a warm light, with more of a yellow tint and a higher CCT, above
4000 K, is considered a cool white, with more of a blue tint.
High Pressure Sodium common highway light
1900 K
2700 K
Incandescent
2700 K
3200 K
4200 K
When you purchase a light it is important to know the Kelvin color of the light. For a home
environment, most people want a lower Kelvin, about 3000K or less. For an office environment,
around 4500K is acceptable. Many bulb manufacturers now indicate the Kelvin color on the packaging
of the bulb or on the bulb itself. This would be shown as 4000K on the base of the bulb. Sometimes
the packaging indicates simply that the bulb is a warm or a cool white.
The Department of Energy is pushing manufacturers to label their products with lumens and Kelvin
color so consumers can accurately select the correct light for their application.
The color of light is also important in an outdoor application. A warm or yellow light is often used for
landscape lighting to give a warm glow around a home. While many outdoor lights used for general
illumination, such as street lighting or parking lot lighting are still quite warm due to the widespread
use of High Pressure Sodium Lighting, there is a push to use higher Kelvin lighting such as Metal
Halide lights as studies have shown that the eye can see better at night with this type of lighting.
Since the CRI rating for any given lamp is an average of eight test results, it can give no particular
insight into the effect of the appearance of any one color. In the example below, the two light sources
illuminating the object have a CRI of 70, however the light source on the right renders blue more
naturally than the one on the left.
The Department of Energy acknowledges the limitations of the CRI, especially when applied to bright
white LEDs. They have the following recommendations:
"A long-term research and development process is underway to develop a revised color quality metric
that would be applicable to all white light sources. In the meantime, CRI can be considered as one
data point in evaluating white LED products and systems. It should not be used to make product
selections in the absence of in-person and on-site evaluations." For more information on this topic, see
the DOE site here.
Each light source will have a unique color spectrum. This spectrum is of a flashlight that uses a highpowered Cree white LED. This spectrum shows only the wavelengths that are visible to the eye. The
spectrum determines the appearance of colors to the human eye. This spectrum has a large amount of
blue, but low red color. This LED would render blues intensely, but wash out the red colors.
Fixture Efficiency
The overall energy usage of the fixture including ballasts, drivers and bulb
The life of the light source and replacement costs over the lifetime of the fixture
The amount, color and CRI of the light reaching the surfaces you wish to illuminate
RGB LED
White LED
Another method to produce white light involves coating an LED of one color (usually blue) with
phosphor of different colors to produce white light. The resultant LEDs are called phosphor-based
white LEDs.
LEDs require lower power than traditional lighting sources to emit light. For example
it takes about 10 watts to power an LED that is equal to a 60-watt incandescent bulb. The
same light from a fluorescent takes 40 watts. The chart below shows a comparison of 5
different light source for lumens (a measure of light output) per watt (a measure of energy
consumption).
2.
LEDs are directional only putting light where it is directed, resulting in higher efficiency.
3.
LEDs have an exceptionally long life. An incandescent bulb may last about 1000 hours or
less. A fluorescent tube should last 20,000 hours. A properly engineered LED will last 50,000
hours or more.
2.
3.
Rugged - LEDs are also called Solid State Lighting (SSL) as they are made of solid material
with no filament or tube or bulb to break
4.
5.
Not affected by cold temperatures - LEDs like low temperatures and will startup even in
subzero weather
6.
Directional - With LEDs you can direct the light where you want it, thus no light is wasted
7.
Excellent Color Rendering - LEDs do not wash out colors like other light sources such as
fluorescents, making them perfect for displays and retail applications
8.
9.
LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike
fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or HID lamps that
require a long time before restarting.
LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in
microseconds.
LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of incandescent bulbs
LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike
fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.
LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards.
LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than more
conventional lighting technologies. However, when considering the total cost of ownership
(including energy and maintenance costs), LEDs far surpass incandescent or halogen sources
and begin to threaten compact fluorescent lamps.
The Chart Below compares different light sources based upon the life of the bulb and the
electrical cost at 10 cents per kWh (kilowatt hour). Note: fixture costs and installation costs
are not included.
LEDs must be supplied with the correct voltage and current at a constant flow. This requires
some electronics expertise to design the electronic drivers.
LEDs can shift color due to age and temperature. Also two different white LED will have two
different color characteristics, which affect how the light is perceived.
LEDs were first used for signal lighting, such as in a dashboard and
later in tail lamps. In the past few years several companies have developed high power LEDs which
are extremely bright and can now be used in applications that require a high light output, such as
street lighting and task lighting. These are often referred to as "lighting class LEDs."
The Future of LEDs
LEDs continue to get brighter, more efficient and cheaper. Some predict a 2 or 3 times improvement in
efficiency and brightness before the decade is over with significant price decreases. Whether these
predictions are true or not remains to be seen, but what is certain is that millions of dollars are being
invested in this technology every year ensuring a bright future for LED technology.
The intensity of light is perceived as brightness or darkness and serves as the basis for the brain's judgment of the light
level. (Refer to the Standard Comparative Visual Sensitivity Chart)
Artificial light can be created by combining red (R), green (G) and blue (B) components as shown in the illustration.
Changes in the RGB ratios change the characteristics of the light and therefore the mixture ratios of RGB fluorescent
substances is an important point to be taken into consideration when creating artificial lights
HG X
HG X lamps are three band fluorescent lamps which apply the three primary colors of light. These bright lamps were
developed to provide exceptional color rendering characteristics by increasing the yellow-green component which
emphasizes brightness perception as compared with conventional fluorescent lamps and more carefully balancing the
R, G and B components of the light
Why are Tunnels Colorless Worlds?
The orange colored low-pressure sodium vapor lights often used in tunnels provide monochromatic orange light
Therefore your eyes perceive brightness but are unable to discriminate between colors
Although the human eye is not capable of distinguishing between different types of light, it has a remarkable ability to
perceive slight differences in color between illuminated objects. However, the color rendering properties of light has a
significant effect upon human psychology because it can cause color perception to change in a variety of ways.
Therefore the selection of appropriate light sources is a very important point to be considered when designing lighting.
calm relaxing
Radiant Color of
Lamp
Incandescent Lamp
Yellow Red
White
Red tinge
Warm
Red Orange
Blue
Blue White
Cool
Green Blue
Red Orange
Cool White
Moderate warmth
Orange Blue
Red
high-color rendering
Fluorescent Lamp
Cool White
Moderate warmth
All colors
No change
Mercury Lamp
Green White
Coolness with a
green tinge
Yellow Green
Blue
Red Orange
White
Moderate warmth
Yellow Green
Blue
Red
Orange
Yellowish tinge
Yellow
Effect on
Atmosphere
Color
Emphasized
Color Perceived
as Dark
It is essential that we have an appropriate lighting plan which fits our individual lifestyles when we are relaxing
or engaged in recreational activities or hobbies. Below, we provide several actual examples of lighting plans to
serve as a guide to selecting appropriate light sources for your lifestyle. Please use these examples as
checkpoints when purchasing lamps.
(Relaxation)
Sense of Refinement Emanating from Calm and Tranquil Spaces
Method :
The main lighting is provided by a core of indirect incandescent lights and overall lighting is moderate. Mobile light
stands can be used for reading, etc. Brackets and stands are used to keep the position of light sources low.
(Happy time)
Lively Scene in a Relaxed Atmosphere
Method :
Set the level of illumination high and make the entire room bright. Use diffusion light such as fluorescent lamps so
that peoples faces can be seen clearly.
(Dining A)
Dining with Many People in a Hearty Brightness
Method :
Set the level of illumination high. Using a lamp with good color rendering (such as EX-HG) gives an impression of
cleanliness.
(Dining B)
Relaxing, Quiet Dining
Method :
Imaging the fancying atmosphere of a restaurant.
Keep peripheral lighting moderate.
Concentrate lighting around the table and illuminate nearby decorative objects with small spot lights in order to
give an impression of a spacious room.
(Social gathering)
Create a Brilliant Atmosphere
Method :
Increase the illumination of the entire room and mix fluorescent and incandescent lighting to create a pleasant and
cheerful atmosphere.
We at NEC provide a variety of lamps for use in peoples' daily lives. Each type of lamp has its own particular
characteristics. We have prepared the graph below to serve as an aid in the selection of the ideal lamp for a particular
purpose or application. This graph plots the color temperature of each type of lamp versus its average color rendering
index (Ra). The horizontal axis of the graph indicates the average color rendering index of each lamp, the characteristic
which affects the way in which the color of objects illuminated by the lamp are perceived.
The more right value indicated the better the color rendering, and the closer the color rendering approaches that of a
standard light source of the same color temperature. The vertical axis indicates the color temperature of the light
radiated by each lamp. The higher the value appears on the graph, the higher the color temperature becomes. The
perceived color characteristics are also noted for the various color temperatures indicated.
In a fluorescent lamp the ultraviolet radiation, efficiently produced by an electric discharge in a mixture of low pressure
mercury vapor and low pressure inert gas such as argon, krypton or neon, stimulates the phosphor material coated on
the inside of the lamp tube to emit visible light. Therefore phosphors could be called converters for changing invisible
ultraviolet light into visible light.
When a fluorescent lamp is switched on, first a heating current passes through the cathodes in order to increase the
temperature of the cathodes and an arc discharge (a current flow through a gas) is produced by applying a high
voltage between the cathodes. Once a discharge is produced, the temperature of the cathodes can be maintained by
the collision of electrons without the need for any other cathode heating, and in addition the mercury vapor pressure
increases due to vaporization by the discharge, and the current increases. Fluorescent lamps are designed to
incorporate ballast and therefore provide continuous discharge in a balanced state at an optimum value.
The fast electrons emitted by the cathode collide with mercury atoms and a transfer of energy occurs between the two.
As a result of this transfer of energy the mercury atom emits an ultra-violet radiation with a wavelength of 253.7nm.
Another energy transfer occurs when this ultra violet radiation collides with the phosphor and visible light is radiated as
a result.
Artificial lighting is not a natural component of the environment. Its production is aimed to replace natural lighting when its
not enough, such as in buildings with insufficient number of windows or during night. The sources of artificial light are
commonly lamps, which are devices that convert electrical energy into electromagnetic radiation.
Despite significant technological progress, no artificial lighting can copy the dynamics of natural light and its spectral
composition. It is therefor less favorable for humans.
Although artificial light cannot be used to replace natural light in a long period of time, it can be used for temporary
replacement with or without combination with day light when needed. The use of artificial light consumes a lot of energy,
which is another reason for capturing as much daylight as possible in building.
Artificial light can be measured in absolute units (lux) because it doesnt vary throughout the day like day light. The daylight
must be completely excluded at the time of measurement. Evenness of artificial lighting (R) expresses the ratio between
minimum and average of E values:
R = E min / E avg
An artificial lighting map is created by isolines (called isoluxes) of illumination. The lines connect places with identical E
values.
Franais
Chapter 46 - Lighting
TYPES OF LAMPS AND LIGHTING
Richard Forster
A lamp is an energy converter. Although it may carry out secondary functions, its
prime purpose is the transformation of electrical energy into visible electromagnetic
radiation. There are many ways to create light. The standard method for creating
general lighting is the conversion of electrical energy into light.
Types of Light
Incandescence
When solids and liquids are heated, they emit visible radiation at temperatures above
1,000 K; this is known as incandescence.
Such heating is the basis of light generation in filament lamps: an electrical current
passes through a thin tungsten wire, whose temperature rises to around 2,500 to 3,200
K, depending upon the type of lamp and its application.
There is a limit to this method, which is described by Plancks Law for the
performance of a black body radiator, according to which the spectral distribution of
energy radiated increases with temperature. At about 3,600 K and above, there is a
marked gain in emission of visible radiation, and the wavelength of maximum power
shifts into the visible band. This temperature is close to the melting point of tungsten,
which is used for the filament, so the practical temperature limit is around 2,700 K,
above which filament evaporation becomes excessive. One result of these spectral
shifts is that a large part of the radiation emitted is not given off as light but as heat in
the infrared region. Filament lamps can thus be effective heating devices and are used
in lamps designed for print drying, food preparation and animal rearing.
Electric discharge
Electrical discharge is a technique used in modern light sources for commerce and
industry because of the more efficient production of light. Some lamp types combine
the electrical discharge with photoluminescence.
An electric current passed through a gas will excite the atoms and molecules to emit
radiation of a spectrum which is characteristic of the elements present. Two metals are
commonly used, sodium and mercury, because their characteristics give useful
radiations within the visible spectrum. Neither metal emits a continuous spectrum, and
discharge lamps have selective spectra. Their colour rendering will never be identical
to continuous spectra. Discharge lamps are often classed as high pressure or low
pressure, although these terms are only relative, and a high-pressure sodium lamp
operates at below one atmosphere.
Types of Luminescence
Photoluminescence occurs when radiation is absorbed by a solid and is then reemitted at a different wavelength. When the re-emitted radiation is within the visible
spectrum the process is called fluorescence or phosphorescence.
Electroluminescence occurs when light is generated by an electric current passed
through certain solids, such as phosphor materials. It is used for self-illuminated signs
and instrument panels but has not proved to be a practical light source for the lighting
of buildings or exteriors.
Evolution of Electric Lamps
Although technological progress has enabled different lamps to be produced, the main
factors influencing their development have been external market forces. For example,
the production of filament lamps in use at the start of this century was possible only
after the availability of good vacuum pumps and the drawing of tungsten wire.
However, it was the large-scale generation and distribution of electricity to meet the
demand for electric lighting that determined market growth. Electric lighting offered
many advantages over gas- or oil-generated light, such as steady light that requires
infrequent maintenance as well as the increased safety of having no exposed flame,
and no local by-products of combustion.
During the period of recovery after the Second World War, the emphasis was on
productivity. The fluorescent tubular lamp became the dominant light source because
it made possible the shadow-free and comparatively heat-free lighting of factories and
offices, allowing maximum use of the space. The light output and wattage
requirements for a typical 1,500 mm fluorescent tubular lamp is given in table 46.1 .
Rating (W)
Diameter (mm)
Gas fill
80
38
argon
4,800
65
38
argon
4,900
58
25
krypton
5,100
50
25
argon
By the 1970s oil prices rose and energy costs became a significant part of operating
costs. Fluorescent lamps that produce the same amount of light with less electrical
consumption were demanded by the market. Lamp design was refined in several
ways. As the century closes there is a growing awareness of global environment
issues. Better use of declining raw materials, recycling or safe disposal of products
and the continuing concern over energy consumption (particularly energy generated
from fossil fuels) are impacting on current lamp designs.
Performance Criteria
hundred hours because the maximum light output is important to the quality of the
image. By contrast, some roadway lighting lamps may be changed every two years,
and this represents some 8,000 burning hours.
Further, lamp life is affected by operating conditions, and thus there is no simple
figure that will apply in all conditions. Also, the effective lamp life may be determined
by different failure modes. Physical failure such as filament or lamp rupture may be
preceded by reduction in light output or changes in colour appearance. Lamp life is
affected by external environmental conditions such as temperature, vibration,
frequency of starting, supply voltage fluctuations, orientation and so on.
It should be noted that the average life quoted for a lamp type is the time for 50%
failures from a batch of test lamps. This definition of life is not likely to be applicable
to many commercial or industrial installations; thus practical lamp life is usually less
than published values, which should be used for comparison only.
Efficiency: As a general rule the efficiency of a given type of lamp improves as the
power rating increases, because most lamps have some fixed loss. However, different
types of lamps have marked variation in efficiency. Lamps of the highest efficiency
should be used, provided that the criteria of size, colour and lifetime are also met.
Energy savings should not be at the expense of the visual comfort or the performance
ability of the occupants. Some typical efficacies are given in table 46.2 .
Table 46.2 Typical lamp efficacies
Lamp efficacies
100W filament lamp
14 lumens/watt
89 lumens/watt
125 lumens/watt
198 lumens/watt
Over the years, several nomenclature systems have been developed by national and
international standards and registers.
Type (code)
Colour rendering
Colour tem
555
good
2,7005,00
80750
fair
3,3003,80
501,000
poor to good
2,0002,50
5500
good
2,700
2385
good
3,0004,00
26180
12100
good
3,000
352,000
good to excellent
3,0005,00
4100
fair to good
2,7006,50
1002,000
good
3,000
Incandescent lamps
These lamps use a tungsten filament in an inert gas or vacuum with a glass envelope.
The inert gas suppresses tungsten evaporation and lessens the envelope blackening.
There is a large variety of lamp shapes, which are largely decorative in appearance.
The construction of a typical General Lighting Service (GLS) lamp is given in figure
46.1 .
Incandescent lamps are also available with a wide range of colours and finishes. The
ILCOS codes and some typical shapes include those shown in table 46.4 .
Table 46.4 Common colours and shapes of incandescent lamps, with their
ILCOS codes
Colour/Shape
Code
Clear
/C
Frosted
/F
White
/W
Red
/R
Blue
/B
Green
/G
Yellow
/Y
IA
Candle
IB
Conical
IC
Globular
IG
Mushroom
IM
Incandescent lamps are still popular for domestic lighting because of their low cost
and compact size. However, for commercial and industrial lighting the low efficacy
generates very high operating costs, so discharge lamps are the normal choice. A 100
W lamp has a typical efficacy of 14 lumens/watt compared with 96 lumens/watt for a
36 W fluorescent lamp.
Incandescent lamps are simple to dim by reducing the supply voltage, and are still
used where dimming is a desired control feature.
The tungsten filament is a compact light source, easily focused by reflectors or lenses.
Incandescent lamps are useful for display lighting where directional control is needed.
Tungsten halogen lamps
These are similar to incandescent lamps and produce light in the same manner from a
tungsten filament. However the bulb contains halogen gas (bromine or iodine) which
is active in controlling tungsten evaporation. See figure 46.2 .
These were originally designed for slide and film projectors. At 12 V the filament for
the same wattage as 230 V becomes smaller and thicker. This can be more efficiently
focused, and the larger filament mass allows a higher operating temperature,
increasing light output. The thick filament is more robust. These benefits were
realized as being useful for the commercial display market, and even though it is
necessary to have a step-down transformer, these lamps now dominate shop-window
lighting. See figure 46.3.
Although users of film projectors want as much light as possible, too much heat
damages the transparency medium. A special type of reflector has been developed,
which reflects only the visible radiation, allowing infrared radiation (heat) to pass
through the back of the lamp. This feature is now part of many low-voltage reflector
lamps for display lighting as well as projector equipment.
Voltage sensitivity: All filament lamps are sensitive to voltage variation, and light
output and life are affected. The move to harmonize the supply voltage throughout
Europe at 230 V is being achieved by widening the tolerances to which the generating
authorities can operate. The move is towards 10%, which is a voltage range of 207 to
253 V. Incandescent and tungsten halogen lamps cannot be operated sensibly over this
range, so it will be necessary to match actual supply voltage to lamp ratings. See figure
46.4 .
Discharge lamps will also be affected by this wide voltage variation, so the correct
specification of control gear becomes important.
Tubular fluorescent lamps
These are low pressure mercury lamps and are available as hot cathode and cold
cathode versions. The former is the conventional fluorescent tube for offices and
factories; hot cathode relates to the starting of the lamp by pre-heating the
electrodes to create sufficient ionization of the gas and mercury vapour to establish the
discharge.
Cold cathode lamps are mainly used for signage and advertising. See figure 46.5 .
Fluorescent lamps require external control gear for starting and to control the lamp
current. In addition to the small amount of mercury vapour, there is a starting gas
(argon or krypton).
The low pressure of mercury generates a discharge of pale blue light. The major part
of the radiation is in the UV region at 254 nm, a characteristic radiation frequency for
mercury. Inside of the tube wall is a thin phosphor coating, which absorbs the UV and
radiates the energy as visible light. The colour quality of the light is determined by the
phosphor coating. A range of phosphors are available of varying colour appearance
and colour rendering.
During the 1950s phosphors available offered a choice of reasonable efficacy (60
lumens/watt) with light deficient in reds and blues, or improved colour rendering from
deluxe phosphors of lower efficiency (40 lumens/watt).
By the 1970s new, narrow-band phosphors had been developed. These separately
radiated red, blue and green light but, combined, produced white light. Adjusting the
proportions gave a range of different colour appearances, all with similar excellent
colour rendering. These tri-phosphors are more efficient than the earlier types and
represent the best economic lighting solution, even though the lamps are more
expensive. Improved efficacy reduces operating and installation costs.
The tri-phosphor principle has been extended by multi-phosphor lamps where critical
colour rendering is necessary, such as for art galleries and industrial colour matching.
The modern narrow-band phosphors are more durable, have better lumen
maintenance, and increase lamp life.
Compact fluorescent lamps
The fluorescent tube is not a practical replacement for the incandescent lamp because
of its linear shape. Small, narrow-bore tubes can be configured to approximately the
same size as the incandescent lamp, but this imposes a much higher electrical loading
on the phosphor material. The use of tri-phosphors is essential to achieve acceptable
lamp life. See figure 46.6 .
Figure 46.6 Four-leg compact fluorescent
All compact fluorescent lamps use tri-phosphors, so, when they are used together with
linear fluorescent lamps, the latter should also be tri-phosphor to ensure colour
consistency.
Some compact lamps include the operating control gear to form retro-fit devices for
incandescent lamps. The range is increasing and enables easy upgrading of existing
installations to more energy-efficient lighting. These integral units are not suitable for
dimming where that was part of the original controls.
High-frequency electronic control gear: If the normal supply frequency of 50 or 60 Hz
is increased to 30 kHz, there is a 10% gain in efficacy of fluorescent tubes. Electronic
circuits can operate individual lamps at such frequencies. The electronic circuit is
designed to provide the same light output as wire-wound control gear, from reduced
lamp power. This offers compatibility of lumen package with the advantage that
reduced lamp loading will increase lamp life significantly. Electronic control gear is
capable of operating over a range of supply voltages.
There is no common standard for electronic control gear, and lamp performance may
differ from the published information issued by the lamp makers.
The use of high-frequency electronic gear removes the normal problem of flicker, to
which some occupants may be sensitive.
Induction lamps
Lamps using the principle of induction have recently appeared on the market. They
are low-pressure mercury lamps with tri-phosphor coating and as light producers are
similar to fluorescent lamps. The energy is transferred to the lamp by high-frequency
radiation, at approximately 2.5 MHz from an antenna positioned centrally within the
lamp. There is no physical connection between the lamp bulb and the coil. Without
electrodes or other wire connections the construction of the discharge vessel is simpler
and more durable. Lamp life is mainly determined by the reliability of the electronic
components and the lumen maintenance of the phosphor coating.
High-pressure mercury lamps
High-pressure discharges are more compact and have higher electrical loads;
therefore, they require quartz arc tubes to withstand the pressure and temperature. The
arc tube is contained in an outer glass envelope with a nitrogen or argon-nitrogen
atmosphere to reduce oxidation and arcing. The bulb effectively filters the UV
radiation from the arc tube. See figure 46.7 .
Figure 46.7 Mercury lamp construction
At high pressure, the mercury discharge is mainly blue and green radiation. To
improve the colour a phosphor coating of the outer bulb adds red light. There are
deluxe versions with an increased red content, which give higher light output and
improved colour rendering.
All high-pressure discharge lamps take time to reach full output. The initial discharge
is via the conducting gas fill, and the metal evaporates as the lamp temperature
increases.
At the stable pressure the lamp will not immediately restart without special control
gear. There is a delay while the lamp cools sufficiently and the pressure reduces, so
that the normal supply voltage or ignitor circuit is adequate to re-establish the arc.
Discharge lamps have a negative resistance characteristic, and so the external control
gear is necessary to control the current. There are losses due to these control gear
components so the user should consider total watts when considering operating costs
and electrical installation. There is an exception for high-pressure mercury lamps, and
one type contains a tungsten filament which both acts as the current limiting device
and adds warm colours to the blue/green discharge. This enables the direct
replacement of incandescent lamps.
Although mercury lamps have a long life of about 20,000 hours, the light output will
fall to about 55% of the initial output at the end of this period, and therefore the
economic life can be shorter.
Metal halide lamps
The colour and light output of mercury discharge lamps can be improved by adding
different metals to the mercury arc. For each lamp the dose is small, and for accurate
application it is more convenient to handle the metals in powder form as halides. This
breaks down as the lamp warms up and releases the metal.
A metal halide lamp can use a number of different metals, each of which give off a
specific characteristic colour. These include:
dysprosiumbroad blue-green
indiumnarrow blue
lithiumnarrow red
scandiumbroad blue-green
sodiumnarrow yellow
thalliumnarrow green
tinbroad orange-red
The arc tube is similar in size to the fluorescent tube but is made of special ply glass
with an inner sodium resistant coating. The arc tube is formed in a narrow U shape
and is contained in an outer vacuum jacket to ensure thermal stability. During starting,
the lamps have a strong red glow from the neon gas fill.
The characteristic radiation from low-pressure sodium vapour is a monochromatic
yellow. This is close to the peak sensitivity of the human eye, and low-pressure
sodium lamps are the most efficient lamps available at nearly 200 lumens/watt.
However the applications are limited to where colour discrimination is of no visual
importance, such as trunk roads and underpasses, and residential streets.
In many situations these lamps are being replaced by high-pressure sodium lamps.
Their smaller size offers better optical control, particularly for roadway lighting where
there is growing concern over excessive sky glow.
High-pressure sodium lamps
These lamps are similar to high-pressure mercury lamps but offer better efficacy (over
100 lumens/watt) and excellent lumen maintenance. The reactive nature of sodium
requires the arc tube to be manufactured from translucent polycrystalline alumina, as
glass or quartz are unsuitable. The outer glass bulb contains a vacuum to prevent
arcing and oxidation. There is no UV radiation from the sodium discharge so
phosphor coatings are of no value. Some bulbs are frosted or coated to diffuse the
light source. See figure 46.8 .
As the sodium pressure is increased, the radiation becomes a broad band around the
yellow peak, and the appearance is golden white. However, as the pressure increases,
the efficiency decreases. There are currently three separate types of high-pressure
sodium lamps available, as shown in table 46.5 .
Table 46.5 Types of high-pressure sodium lamp
Colour (K)
Efficacy (lumens/watt)
Life (hours)
Standard
2,000
110
24,000
Deluxe
2,200
80
14,000
White (SON)
2,500
50
Generally the standard lamps are used for exterior lighting, deluxe lamps for industrial
interiors, and White SON for commercial/display applications.
Dimming of Discharge Lamps
The high-pressure lamps cannot be satisfactorily dimmed, as changing the lamp power
changes the pressure and thus the fundamental characteristics of the lamp.
Fluorescent lamps can be dimmed using high-frequency supplies generated typically
within the electronic control gear. The colour appearance remains very constant. In
addition, the light output is approximately proportional to the lamp power, with
consequent saving in electrical power when the light output is reduced. By integrating
the light output from the lamp with the prevailing level of natural daylight, a near
constant level of illuminance can be provided in an interior.
CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR VISUAL COMFORT
Fernando Ramos Prez and Ana Hernndez Calleja
The prerequisites that an illumination system must fulfil in order to provide the
conditions necessary for visual comfort are the following:
uniform illumination
optimal luminance
no glare
correct colours
It is important to consider light in the workplace not only by quantitative criteria, but
also by qualitative criteria. The first step is to study the work station, the precision
required of the tasks performed, the amount of work, the mobility of the worker and
so on. Light should include components both of diffuse and of direct radiation. The
result of the combination will produce shadows of greater or lesser intensity that will
allow the worker to perceive the form and position of objects at the work station.
Annoying reflections, which make it harder to perceive details, should be eliminated,
as well as excessive glare or deep shadows.
The periodic maintenance of the lighting installation is very important. The goal is to
prevent the ageing of lamps and the accumulation of dust on the luminaries that will
result in a constant loss of light. For this reason it is important to select lamps and
systems that are easy to maintain. An incandescent light bulb maintains its efficiency
until the moments before failure, but this is not the case with fluorescent tubes, which
may lower their output down to 75% after a thousand hours of use.
Levels of illumination
Each activity requires a specific level of illumination in the area where the activity
takes place. In general, the higher the difficulty for visual perception, the higher the
average level of illumination should be as well. Guidelines for minimal levels of
illumination associated with different tasks exist in various publications. Concretely,
those listed in figure 46.9 have been gleaned from European norms CENTC 169, and
are based more on experience than on scientific knowledge.
The level of illumination is measured with a luxometer that converts luminous energy
into an electrical signal, which is then amplified and offers an easy reading on a
calibrated scale of lux. When selecting a certain level of illumination for a particular
work station the following points should be studied:
differences with natural light and the need for daytime illumination
Several magnitudes are commonly used in the field of illumination. The basic ones
are:
Luminous flux: Luminous energy emitted per unit of time by a light source. Unit:
lumen (lm).
Luminous intensity: Luminous flux emitted in a given direction by a light that is not
equally distributed. Unit: candela (cd).
Level of illumination: Level of illumination of a surface of one square metre when it
receives a luminous flux of one lumen. Unit: lux = lm/m 2.
Luminance or photometric brilliance: Is defined for a surface in a particular direction,
and is the relation between luminous intensity and the surface seen by an observer
situated in the same direction (apparent surface). Unit: cd/m 2.
Contrast: Difference in luminance between an object and its surroundings or between
different parts of an object.
Reflectance: Proportion of light that is reflected by a surface. It is a non-dimensional
quantity. Its value ranges between 0 and 1.
Factors that affect the visibility of objects
The degree of safety with which a task is executed depends, in large part, on the
quality of illumination and on visual capacities. The visibility of an object can be
altered in many ways. One of the most important is the contrast of luminances due to
reflection factors, to shadows, or to colours of the object itself, and to the reflection
factors of colour. What the eye really perceives are the differences of luminance
between an object and its surroundings, or between different parts of the same
object. Table 46.6 lists the contrasts between colours in descending order.
Table 46.6 Colour contrasts
Black
Yellow
Green
White
Red
White
Blue
White
White
Blue
Black
White
Yellow
Black
White
Red
White
Green
White
Black
The luminance of an object, of its surroundings, and of the work area influence the
ease with which an object is seen. It is therefore of key importance that the area where
the visual task is performed, and its surroundings, be carefully analysed.
The size of the object that must be observed, which may be adequate or not depending
on the distance and the angle of vision of the observer, is another factor. These last
two factors determine the arrangement of the work station, classifying different zones
according to their ease of vision. We can establish five zones in the work area
(see figure 46.10).
Another factor is the time frame during which vision occurs. The time of exposure
will be greater or smaller depending on whether the object and the observer are static,
or whether one or both of them are moving. The adaptive capacity of the eye to adjust
automatically to the different illuminations of objects can also have considerable
influence on visibility.
Light distribution; glare
Key factors in the conditions that affect vision are the distribution of light and the
contrast of luminances. In so far as the distribution of light is concerned, it is
preferable to have good general illumination instead of localized illumination in order
2. Location of the source of light: This kind of glare occurs when the source of light
is within a 45-degree angle of the observers line of sight, and will be minimized to
the degree that the source of light is placed beyond that angle. Ways and methods of
avoiding direct and reflective glare can be seen in the following figures (see figure
46.12).
In general, there is more glare when sources of light are mounted at lower elevations
or when installed in large rooms, because sources of light in large rooms or sources of
light that are too low can easily fall within the angle of vision that produces glare.
3. Distribution of luminance among different objects and surfaces: The greater the
differences in luminance are among the objects within the field of vision, the greater
will be the glare created and the greater will be the deterioration in the capacity to see
due to the effects on the adaptive processes of sight. The maximum recommended
luminance disparities are:
4. Time frame of the exposure: Even light sources with a low luminance can cause
glare if the length of the exposure is prolonged too much.
Avoiding glare is a relatively simple proposition and can be achieved in different
ways. One way, for example, is by placing grilles under the sources of illumination, or
by using enveloping diffusers or parabolic reflectors that can direct light properly, or
by installing the sources of light in such a way that they will not interfere with the
angle of vision. When designing the work site, the correct distribution of luminance is
as important as the illumination itself, but it is also important to consider that a
distribution of luminance that is too uniform makes the three-dimensional and spatial
perception of objects more difficult.
Lighting Systems
The interest in natural illumination has increased recently. This is due less to the
quality of illumination it affords than to the well-being that it provides. But since the
level of illumination from natural sources is not uniform, an artificial lighting system
is required.
The most common lighting systems used are the following:
General uniform illumination
In this system light sources are spread out evenly without regard to the location of the
work stations. The average level of illumination should be equal to the level of
illumination required for the task that will be carried out. These systems are used
mainly in workplaces where work stations are not fixed.
It should conform to three fundamental characteristics: The first is to be equipped with
anti-glare devices (grilles, diffusers, reflectors and so on). The second is that it should
distribute a fraction of the light toward the ceiling and the upper part of the walls. And
the third is that the light sources should be installed as high as possible, to minimize
glare and achieve illumination that is as homogeneous as possible. (See figure 46.13)
This system tries to reinforce the general illumination scheme by placing lamps close
to the work surfaces. These types of lamps often produce glare, and reflectors should
be placed in such a way that they block the source of light from the direct sight of the
This type of illumination consists of ceiling sources distributed with two things in
mindthe illumination characteristics of the equipment and the illumination needs of
each work station. This type of illumination is indicated for those spaces or work areas
that will require a high level of illumination, and it requires knowing the future
location of each work station in advance of the design stage.
Colour: Basic Concepts
Selecting an adequate colour for a worksite contributes a great deal to the efficiency,
safety and general well-being of the employees. In the same way, the finish of the
surfaces and of the equipment found in the work environment contributes to creating
pleasant visual conditions and a pleasant work environment.
Ordinary light consists of electromagnetic radiations of different wavelengths that
correspond to each of the bands of the visible spectrum. By mixing red, yellow and
blue light we can obtain most of the visible colours, including white. Our perception
of the colour of an object depends on the colour of the light with which it is
illuminated and on the way the object itself reflects light.
Lamps can be classified into three categories depending on the appearance of the light
they emit:
colour with a warm appearance: a white, reddish light recommended for
residential use
colour with a cold appearance: a white, bluish light recommended for tasks that
require a high level of illumination or for hot climates.
Colours may also be classified as warm or cold according to their tonality (see figure
46.15).
Figure 46.15 Tonality of "warm" and "cold" colours
Colour contrasts are influenced by the colour of the light selected, and for that reason
the quality of illumination will depend on the colour of the light chosen for an
application. The selection of the colour of light to be used should be made based on
the task that will be carried out under it. If the colour is close to white, the rendition of
colour and the diffusion of light will be better. The more light approaches the red end
of the spectrum the worse the reproduction of colour will be, but the environment will
be warmer and more inviting.
The colour appearance of illumination depends not only on the colour of light, but
also on the level of luminous intensity. A colour temperature is associated with the
different forms of illumination. The sensation of satisfaction with the illumination of a
given environment depends on this colour temperature. In this way, for example, a
100 W incandescent filament light bulb has a colour temperature of 2,800 K, a
fluorescent tube has a colour temperature of 4,000 K and an overcast sky has a colour
temperature of 10,000 K.
Kruithof defined, through empirical observations, a diagram of well-being for
different levels of illumination and colour temperatures in a given environment
(see figure 46.16). In this way, he demonstrated that it is possible to feel comfortable in
certain environments with low levels of illumination if the colour temperature is also
lowif the level of illumination is one candle, for example, with a colour temperature
of 1,750 K.
Figure 46.16 Comfort diagram as a function of illumination and colour
temperatures
The colours of electric lamps can be subdivided into three groups related to their
colour temperatures:
The selection of colours is very relevant when we consider it together with those
functions where identifying the objects that must be manipulated is important. It is
also relevant when delimiting avenues of communication and in those tasks that
require sharp contrast.
The selection of tonality is not as important a question as the selection of the proper
reflective qualities of a surface. There are several recommendations that apply to this
aspect of work surfaces:
Ceilings: The surface of a ceiling should be as white as possible (with a reflection
factor of 75%), because light will then reflect from it in a diffuse way, dissipating
darkness and reducing the glare from other surfaces. This will also mean a savings in
artificial lighting.
Walls and floors: The surfaces of walls at eye level can produce glare. Pale colours
with reflective factors of 50 to 75% tend to be adequate for walls. While glossy paints
tend to last longer than matte colours, they are more reflective. Walls should therefore
have a matte or semi-gloss finish.
Floors should be finished in slightly darker colours than walls and ceilings to avoid
glare. The reflective factor of floors should be between 20 and 25%.
Equipment: Work surfaces, machinery and tables should have reflective factors of
between 20 and 40%. Equipment should have a lasting finish of pure colourlight
browns or greysand the material should not be shiny.
The proper use of colours in the work environment facilitates well-being, increases
productivity and can have a positive impact on quality. It can also contribute to better
organization and the prevention of accidents.
There is a generalized belief that whitening the walls and ceilings and supplying
adequate levels of illumination is all that can possibly be done as far as the visual
comfort of employees is concerned. But these comfort factors can be improved by
combining white with other colours, thus avoiding the fatigue and the boredom that
Colour/material
White
100
White paper
8085
Ivory, lime-yellow
7075
Bright yellow, light ochre, light green, pastel blue, light pink,
cream
6065
5055
4045
3035
2025
1015
Black
Machinery: The colouring of stop or emergency devices with bright colours on all
machinery is critical. It is also advisable to mark with colour the areas that need
lubrication or periodic maintenance, which can add ease and functionality to these
procedures.
Tubing and pipes: If they are important or carry dangerous substances the best
advice is to colour them completely. In some cases it may be enough to colour only a
line along their length.
Stairways: In order to make descent easier, one band for every step is preferable to
several.
Risks: Colour should be used to identify a risk only when the risk cannot be
eliminated. Identification will be much more effective if it is carried out according to a
predetermined colour code.
GENERAL LIGHTING CONDITIONS
N. Alan Smith
The provision of a safe working environment has to be at the top of the list of
priorities, and, in general, safety is increased by making hazards clearly visible. The
order of priority of the other two requirements will depend to a large extent upon the
use to which the interior is put. Task performance can be improved by ensuring that
task detail is easier to see, while appropriate visual environments are developed by
varying the lighting emphasis given to objects and surfaces within an interior.
Our general feeling of well-being, including morale and fatigue, is influenced by light
and colour. Under low lighting levels, objects would have little or no colour or shape
and there would be a loss in perspective. Conversely an excess of light may be just as
unwanted as too little light.
In general, people prefer a room with daylight to a room which is windowless.
Furthermore, contact with the outside world is considered to aid the feeling of well-
Lighting systems used in commercial interiors can be sub-divided into three major
categoriesgeneral lighting, localized lighting and local lighting.
General lighting installations typically provide an approximately uniform illuminance
over the whole of the working plane. Such systems are often based upon the lumen
method of design, where an average illuminance is:
Average illuminance (lux) =
Since the human eye will perceive surfaces and objects only through light which is
reflected from them, it follows that surface characteristics and reflectance values
together with the quantity and quality of light will influence the appearance of the
environment.
When considering the lighting of an interior it is essential to determine the
illuminance level and to compare it with recommended levels for different tasks
(see table 46.8).
Table 46.8 Typical recommended levels of maintained illuminance for
different locations or visual tasks
Location/Task
General offices
500
Computer workstations
500
300
Medium work
500
Fine work
750
1,000
Jewellery assembly/repairs
1,500
50,000
and upon the contrast between task and surrounding background. Figure 46.18 shows
the effects of illuminance upon visual activity. When considering visual task lighting
it is important to consider the ability of the eye to carry out the visual task with both
speed and accuracy. This combination is known as visual performance. Figure
46.19 gives typical effects of illuminance on the visual performance of a given task.
Figure 46.18 Typical relationship between visual acuity and illuminance
The lumen method of lighting design leads to an average horizontal plane illuminance
on the working plane, and it is possible to use the method to establish average
illuminance values on the walls and ceilings within an interior. It is possible to convert
average illuminance values into average luminance values from details of the mean
reflectance value of the room surfaces.
The equation relating luminance and illuminance is:
Figure 46.21 shows a typical office with relative illuminance values (from an overhead
general lighting system) on the main room surfaces together with suggested
reflectances. The human eye tends to be drawn to that part of the visual scene which is
brightest. It follows that higher luminance values usually occur at a visual task area.
The eye acknowledges detail within a visual task by discriminating between lighter
and darker parts of the task.
The variation in brightness of a visual task is determined from calculation of the
luminance contrast:
where
Lt = Luminance of the task
Lb = Luminance of the background
and both luminances are measured in cdm2
The vertical lines in this equation signify that all values of luminance contrast are to
be considered positive.
The contrast of a visual task will be influenced by the reflectance properties of the
task itself. See figure 46.21 .
Figure 46.21 Typical relative illuminance values together
with suggested reflectance values
Obstruction
If a lamp is installed within an opaque enclosure with only a single aperture for the
light to escape, then the light distribution will be very limited, as shown in figure
46.22 .
Figure 46.22 Lighting output control by obstruction
Reflection
This method uses reflective surfaces, which may vary from a highly matt finish to a
highly specular or mirror-like finish. This method of control is more efficient than
obstruction, since stray light is collected and redirected to where it is required. The
principle involved is shown in figure 46.23 .
Diffusion
If a lamp is installed within a translucent material, the apparent size of the light source
is increased with a simultaneous reduction in its brightness. Practical diffusers
unfortunately absorb some of the emitted light, which consequently reduces the
overall efficiency of the luminaire. Figure 46.24 illustrates the principle of diffusion.
Figure 46.24 Light output control by diffusion
Refraction
This method uses the prism effect, where typically a prism material of glass or
plastic bends the rays of light and in so doing redirects the light to where it is
required. This method is extremely suitable for general interior lighting. It has the
advantage of combining good glare control with an acceptable efficiency. Figure 46.25
shows how refraction assists in optical control.
Figure 46.25 Light output control by refraction
In many cases a luminaire will use a combination of the methods of optical control
described.
Luminance distribution
The light output distribution from a luminaire is significant in determining the visual
conditions subsequently experienced. Each of the four methods of optical control
described will produce differing light output distribution properties from the
luminaire.
Veiling reflections often occur in areas where VDUs are installed. The usual
symptoms experienced in such situations are reduced ability to read correctly from the
text on a screen due to the appearance of unwanted high-luminance images on the
screen itself, typically from overhead luminaires. A situation can develop where
veiling reflections also appear on paper on a desk in an interior.
If the luminaires in an interior have a strong vertically downward component of light
output, then any paper on a desk beneath such a luminaire will reflect the light source
into the eyes of an observer who is reading from or working on the paper. If the paper
has a gloss finish, the situation is aggravated.
The solution to the problem is to arrange for the luminaires used to have a light output
distribution which is predominantly at an angle to the downward vertical, so that
following the basic laws of physics (angle of incidence = angle of reflection) the
reflected glare will be minimized. Figure 46.26 shows a typical example of both the
problem and the cure. The light output distribution from the luminaire used to
overcome the problem is referred to as a batwing distribution.
Figure 46.26 Veiling reflections
Light distribution from luminaires can also lead to direct glare, and in an attempt to
overcome this problem, local lighting units should be installed outside the 45-degree
forbidden angle, as shown in figure 46.27 .
These include:
susceptibility to glare
age
These include:
configuration of detail
contrast of detail/background
background luminance
specularity of detail.
If errors result from the performance of the task, are the consequences considered
to be serious?
In order to produce optimal workplace lighting conditions it is important to consider
the requirements placed upon the lighting installation. Ideally task lighting should
reveal colour, size, relief and surface qualities of a task while simultaneously avoiding
the creation of potentially dangerous shadows, glare and harsh surroundings to the
task itself.
Glare.
Glare occurs when there is excessive luminance in the field of view. The effects of
glare on vision can be divided into two groups, termed disability glare and discomfort
glare.
Consider the example of glare from the headlights of an oncoming vehicle during
darkness. The eye cannot adapt simultaneously to the headlights of the vehicle and to
the much lower brightness of the road. This is an example of disability glare, since the
high luminance light sources produce a disabling effect due to the scattering of light in
the optic media. Disability glare is proportional to the intensity of the offending
source of light.
Discomfort glare, which is more likely to occur in interiors, can be reduced or even
totally eliminated by reducing the contrast between the task and its surroundings.
Matt, diffusely reflecting finishes on work surfaces are to be preferred to gloss or
specularly reflecting finishes, and the position of any offending light source should be
outside the normal field of vision. In general, successful visual performance occurs
when the task itself is brighter than its immediate surrounds, but not excessively.
The magnitude of discomfort glare is given a numerical value and compared with
reference values in order to predict whether the level of discomfort glare will be
acceptable. The method of calculation of glare index values used in the UK and
elsewhere is considered under Measurement.
Measurement
Lighting surveys
One survey technique often used relies upon a grid of measuring points over the
whole area under consideration. The basis of this technique is to divide the whole of
the interior into a number of equal areas, each ideally square. The illuminance at the
centre of each of the areas is measured at desk-top height (typically 0.85 metres above
floor level), and an average value of illuminance is calculated. The accuracy of the
value of average illuminance is influenced by the number of measuring points used.
A relationship exists which enables the minimum number of measuring points to be
calculated from the value of room index applicable to the interior under consideration.
Here, length and width refer to the room dimensions, and mounting height is the
vertical distance between the centre of the light source and the working plane.
The relationship referred to is given as:
where x is the value of the room index taken to the next highest whole number,
except that for all values of RI equal to or greater than 3, x is taken as 4. This equation
gives the minimum number of measuring points, but conditions often require more
than this minimum number of points to be used.
When considering the lighting of a task area and its immediate surround, variance in
illuminance or uniformity of illuminance must be considered.
Over any task area and its immediate surround, uniformity should be not less than 0.8.
At any point in the major area of the interior, the diversity of illuminance should not
exceed 5:1.
Instruments used for measuring illuminance and luminance typically have spectral
responses which vary from the response of the human visual system. The responses
are corrected, often by the use of filters. When filters are incorporated, the instruments
are referred to as colour corrected.
Illuminance meters have a further correction applied which compensates for the
direction of incident light falling upon the detector cell. Instruments which are capable
of accurately measuring illuminance from varying directions of incident light are said
to be cosine corrected.
Measurement of glare index
The system used frequently in the UK, with variations elsewhere, is essentially a twostage process. The first stage establishes an uncorrected glare index value
(UGI). Figure 46.28 provides an example.
Figure 46.28 Elevation and plan views of typical interior used in example
The height H is the vertical distance between the centre of the light source and the eye
level of a seated observer, which is normally taken as 1.2 metres above floor level.
The major dimensions of the room are then converted into multiples of H. Thus, since
H = 3.0 metres, then length = 4H and width = 3H. Four separate calculations of UGI
have to be made in order to determine the worst case scenario in accordance with the
layouts shown in figure 46.29 .
Tables are produced by lighting equipment manufacturers which specify, for given
values of fabric reflectance within a room, values of uncorrected glare index for each
combination of values of X and Y.
The second stage of the process is to apply correction factors to the UGI values
depending upon values of lamp output flux and deviation in value of height (H).
The final glare index value is then compared with the Limiting Glare Index value for
specific interiors, given in references such as the CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting
(1994).
REFERENCES
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE). 1993. Lighting Guide.
London: CIBSE.
Franais