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Compressibleflow
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Compressibleflow(gasdynamics)isthebranchoffluidmechanicsthatdealswithflowshavingsignificantchangesin
fluiddensity.Gases,butnotliquids,displaysuchbehavior.[1]Todistinguishbetweencompressibleandincompressible
flowingases,theMachnumber(theratioofthespeedoftheflowtothespeedofsound)mustbegreaterthanabout0.3
(sincethedensitychangeisgreaterthan5%)beforesignificantcompressibilityoccurs.Thestudyofcompressibleflow
isrelevanttohighspeedaircraft,jetengines,gaspipelines,commercialapplicationssuchasabrasiveblasting,and
manyotherfields.

Contents
1History
2IntroductoryConcepts
3MachNumberandSonicFlows
4OneDimensionalFlow
4.1ConvergingDivergingLavalNozzles
4.2MaximumAchievableVelocityofaGas
4.3IsentropicFlowMachNumberRelationships
4.4AchievingSupersonicFlow
4.5NonIsentropic1DChannelFlowofaGasNormalShockWaves
5TwoDimensionalFlow
5.1ObliqueShockWaves
5.1.1ShockPolarDiagram
5.1.2ObliqueShockReflection
5.1.2.1SolidBoundary
5.1.2.2IrregularReflection
5.2PrandtlMeyerFans
5.2.1PrandtlMeyerExpansionFans
5.2.2PrandtlMeyerCompressionFans
6Applications
6.1SupersonicWindTunnels
6.2SupersonicAircraftInlets
6.3NaturalGasPipeline
7Seealso
8References
9Externallinks

History
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Thestudyofgasdynamicsisoftenassociatedwiththeflightofmodernhighspeedaircraftandatmosphericreentryof
spaceexplorationvehicleshowever,itsoriginsliewithasimplermachine.Atthebeginningofthe19thcentury,
investigationintothebehavioroffiredbulletsledtoimprovementintheaccuracyandcapabilitiesofgunsand
artillery.[2]Asthecenturyprogressed,inventorssuchasGustafdeLavaladvancedthefield,whileresearcherssuchas
ErnstMachsoughttounderstandthephysicalphenomenoninvolvedthroughexperimentation.
Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,thefocusofgasdynamicsresearchshiftedtowhatwouldeventuallybecomethe
aerospaceindustry.LudwigPrandtlandhisstudentsproposedimportantconceptsrangingfromtheboundarylayerto
supersonicshockwaves,supersonicwindtunnels,andsupersonicnozzledesign.[2]TheodorevonKrmn,astudentof
Prandtl,continuedtoimprovetheunderstandingofsupersonicflow.Othernotablefigures(Meyer,Crocco,andShapiro)
alsocontributedsignificantlytotheprinciplesconsideredfundamentaltothestudyofmoderngasdynamics.
Accompanyingtheimprovedconceptualunderstandingofgasdynamicswasapublicmisconceptionthatthereexisteda
barriertotheattainablespeedofaircraft,commonlyreferredtoasthesoundbarrier.Intruth,theonlybarrierthat
existedforsupersonicflightwasatechnologicalbarrier.Amongstotherfactors,conventionalairfoilssawadramatic
increaseindragcoefficientwhentheflowapproachedthespeedofsound.Overcomingthelargerdragproveddifficult
withcontemporarydesigns,thustheperceptionofasoundbarrier.However,aircraftdesignprogressedsufficientlyto
producetheBellX1A.PilotedbyChuckYeager,theX1AachievedsupersonicspeedinOctober1947.[3]This
achievementpavedthewaytothefutureofmodernaircraft,missiles,andspacecraft.
Historicallytwopathsofresearchhavebeenused,inordertofurthergasdynamicsknowledge.Experimentalgas
dynamicscomesintheformofwindtunnelmodelexperimentsandshocktubeswiththeuseofopticaltechniquesto
documentthefindings.Computationalfluiddynamicsappliessupercomputingpowertoanalyzeavarietyofgeometries
andflowcharacteristics.Bothinternalandexternalflowscanbeevaluated.Althoughnotacompletesubstitutefor
experimentalconfirmation,computationalgasdynamicsisaninexpensivealternativethatcontinuestoincreasein
capability.

IntroductoryConcepts
Thereareseveralassumptionsusedwhendevelopingcalculationsfor
compressibleflow.Fluidsarecomposedofmolecules,whichmeansthat
differentiatingbetweenallmoleculesinasystemmakescalculationsnearly
impossible.However,thecontinuumassumptionstatesthatthedifferences
betweenmoleculesisnegligibleandflowcanbeconsideredacontinuous
substance.Thisassumptionspansoverabroadreachofmostofgasdynamics
onlywhenlookingatrarefiedgasdynamicsdoesthemotionofindependent
moleculesbecomeimportant.
Thenextassumptionmadeisnoslipconditionwheretheflowvelocityatasolid
surfaceisequaltothevelocityofthesurface.Manytimesthetheflowatthe
surfaceorwalliszero.Thenoslipconditionestablishesthattheflowisviscous
andasaresultdevelopstheneedforaboundarylayer.

BreakdownofFluidMechanicsChart

Mostproblemsinincompressibleflowhavetwounknowns:pressureandvelocity.Theseunknownsweresolvedby
usingtheunderlyingprinciplesfromthecontinuityandlinearmomentumconservationequations.Incompressibleflow
pressureandvelocityremainunknownbutdensityandtemperaturealsobecomeafactor.Thishintsattheneedfortwo
additionalequationsinordertosolve:equationofstateforgasandtheconservationofenergyequation.
Thesetypesoffluiddynamicsquestionshavetwotypesofreferencesframes,thelagrangianandeulerian.The
lagrangianapproachfollowsaparticularparticleoragroupofparticlesoffixedidentity.Theeulerianreferenceframeis
differentinthatitdoesnotmovewiththeparticles,ratheritisafixedframeorcontrolvolumethatfluidcanflow
through.Sincecompressibleflowhasawiderangeoffieldsandpotentialproblemsbothframesareneededformorein
depthproblemanalysis.
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MachNumberandSonicFlows
Machnumber(M)isdefinedastheratioofthespeedofanobjecttothespeedofsound.Mcanrangefrom0to,but
thisbroadrangeisbrokenupintoseveralflowregimes.Theseregimesaresubsonic,transonic,supersonic,hypersonic,
andhypervelocityflow.Forinstance,inairatroomtemperature,thespeedofsoundisabout340m/s(760mph).The
figurebelowillustratesthespectrumofMachnumberflowregimes.

MachNumberFlowRegimes

Asanobjectacceleratesfromsubsonictowardsupersonicspeed,certainregimesofwavephenomenaoccur.To
illustratethesechanges,thefigurebelowshowsastationarypoint(M=0)thatemitssymmetricsoundwaves.Onecan
thinkofthispointasaboomboxfloatingintheairandprojectingsoundwavesinalldirections.Fromthisstationary
point,theboomboxbeginstoacceleratetoasubsonicspeed.Astheboomboxaccelerates,thesoundwavesitcreates
pileupinthedirectionofmotionandstretchoutintheoppositedirection.Whentheboomboxreachessonicspeed
(M=1),itistravellingatthesamespeedasthesoundwavesitcreates.Therefore,aninfinitenumberofthesewaves
stackupinthedirectionofmotiontoformashockwave.Uponachievingsupersonicflow,theboomboxleavesits
pressurewavesbehind.Whenthisoccurs,thepressurewavescreateanangleknownastheMachwaveangle(or
Dopplerangle),:

wherearepresentsthespeedofsoundinairandVrepresentsthevelocityoftheobject.AlthoughnamedforAustrian
physicistErnstMach,theseobliquewaveswereactuallyfirstdiscoveredbyChristianDoppler.

ExplanationofSonicMotion
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OneDimensionalFlow
Onedimensional(1D)flowreferstotheflowofgasthroughaductorchannelinwhichtheflowparametersare
assumedtochangesignificantlyalongonlyonespatialdimension,namely,theductlength.Inanalyzingthe1Dchannel
flow,anumberofassumptionsaremade:
Ratioofductlengthtowidth(L/D)isabout5(inordertoneglectfrictionandheattransfer),
Steadyvs.UnsteadyFlow,
Flowisisentropic(i.e.areversibleadiabaticprocess),
Idealgaslaw(i.e.P=RT)

ConvergingDivergingLavalNozzles
Asthespeedofaflowacceleratesfromthesubsonictothesupersonicregime,thephysicsofnozzleanddiffuserflows
isaltered.Usingtheconservationlawsoffluiddynamicsandthermodynamics,thefollowingrelationshipforchannel
flowisdeveloped(combinedmassandmomentumconservation):
,
wheredPisthedifferentialchangeinpressure,MistheMachnumber,isthedensityofthegas,Visthevelocityof
theflow,Aistheareaoftheduct,anddAisthechangeinareaoftheduct.Thisequationstatesthat,forsubsonicflow,
aconvergingduct(dA<0)increasesthevelocityoftheflowandadivergingduct(dA>0)decreasesvelocityoftheflow.
Forsupersonicflow,theoppositeoccursduetothechangeofsignof(1M2).Aconvergingduct(dA<0)nowdecreases
thevelocityoftheflowandadivergingduct(dA>0)increasesthevelocityoftheflow.AtMach=1,aspecialcase
occursinwhichtheductareamustbeeitheramaximumorminimum.Forpracticalpurposes,onlyaminimumareacan
accelerateflowstoMach1andbeyond.SeeTableofSubSupersonicDiffusersandNozzles.

Tableshowingthereversalinthe
physicsofnozzlesanddiffuserswith
changingMachNumbers

Therefore,toaccelerateaflowtoMach1,anozzlemustbedesignedtoconvergetoaminimumcrosssectionalareaand
thenexpand.ThistypeofnozzletheconvergingdivergingnozzleiscalledadeLavalnozzleafterGustafdeLaval,
whoinventedit.Assubsonicflowenterstheconvergingductandtheareadecreases,theflowaccelerates.Upon
reachingtheminimumareaoftheduct,alsoknownasthethroatofthenozzle,theflowcanreachMach1.Ifthespeed
oftheflowistocontinuetoincrease,itsdensitymustdecreaseinordertoobeyconservationofmass.Toachievethis
decreaseindensity,theflowmustexpand,andtodoso,theflowmustpassthroughadivergingduct.Seeimageofde
LavalNozzle.

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NozzledeLavaldiagram

MaximumAchievableVelocityofaGas
Ultimately,becauseoftheenergyconservationlaw,agasislimitedtoacertainmaximumvelocitybasedonitsenergy
content.Themaximumvelocity,Vmax,thatagascanattainis:

wherecpisthespecificheatofthegasandTtisthestagnationtemperatureoftheflow.

IsentropicFlowMachNumberRelationships
Usingconservationslawsandthermodynamics,anumberofrelationshipsoftheform

canbeobtained,whereMistheMachnumberandistheratioofspecificheats(1.4forair).SeetableofIsentropic
FlowMachNumberRelationships.

IsentropicFlowRelationshipTable.
Equationstorelatethefield
propertiesinisentropicflow.

AchievingSupersonicFlow
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Aspreviouslymentioned,inorderforaflowtobecomesupersonic,itmustpassthroughaductwithaminimumarea,or
sonicthroat.Additionally,anoverallpressureratio,Pb/Pt,ofapproximately2isneededtoattainMach1.Onceithas
reachedMach1,theflowatthethroatissaidtobechoked.Becausechangesdownstreamcanonlymoveupstreamat
sonicspeed,themassflowthroughthenozzlecannotbeaffectedbychangesindownstreamconditionsaftertheflowis
choked.

NonIsentropic1DChannelFlowofaGasNormalShockWaves
Normalshockwavesareshockwavesthatareperpendiculartothelocalflowdirection.Theseshockwavesoccurwhen
pressurewavesbuildupandcoalesceintoanextremelythinshockwavethatconvertsusefulenergyintoheat.Becausea
lossofenergyoccursoverthethinshockwave,theshockisconsiderednonisentropicandenthalpyincreasesacrossthe
shock.Whenanalyzinganormalshockwave,onedimensional,steady,andadiabatic(stagnationtemperaturedoesnot
changeacrosstheshockwave)flowofaperfectgasisassumed.

TheRankineHugoniotEquations
relateconditionsbeforeandaftera
normalshockwave.

Normalshockwavescanoccurintworeferenceframes:thestandingnormalshockandthemovingshock.Theflow
beforeanormalshockwavemustbesupersonic,andtheflowafteranormalshockmustbesubsonic.TheRankine
Hugoniotequationsareusedtosolvefortheflowconditions.

TwoDimensionalFlow
Althoughonedimensionalflowcanbedirectlyanalyzed,itismerelyaspecializedcaseoftwodimensionalflow.It
followsthatoneofthedefiningphenomenaofonedimensionalflow,anormalshock,islikewiseonlyaspecialcaseof
alargerclassofobliqueshocks.Further,thenamenormaliswithrespecttogeometryratherthanfrequencyof
occurrence.Obliqueshocksaremuchmorecommoninapplicationssuchas:aircraftinletdesign,objectsinsupersonic
flight,and(atamorefundamentallevel)supersonicnozzlesanddiffusers.Dependingontheflowconditions,anoblique
shockcaneitherbeattachedtotheflowordetachedfromtheflowintheformofabowshock.

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Bowshockexampleforabluntbody
AttachedshockwaveshownonaX
15Modelinasupersonicwindtunnel

ObliqueShockWaves
Obliqueshockwavesaresimilartonormalshockwaves,buttheyoccuratangles
lessthan90withthedirectionofflow.Whenadisturbanceisintroducedtothe
flowatanonzeroangle(),theflowmustrespondtothechangingboundary
conditions.Thusanobliqueshockisformed,resultinginachangeinthe
directionoftheflow.
ShockPolarDiagram
Basedonthelevelofflowdeflection(),obliqueshocksarecharacterizedas
eitherstrongorweak.Strongshocksarecharacterizedbylargerdeflectionand
moreentropylossacrosstheshock,withweakshocksastheopposite.Inorderto
gaincursoryinsightintothedifferencesintheseshocks,ashockpolardiagram
canbeused.Withthestatictemperatureaftertheshock,T*,knownthespeedof
soundaftertheshockisdefinedas,

Diagramofobstruction

withRasthegasconstantandasthespecificheatratio.TheMachnumbercan
bebrokenintoCartesiancoordinates
Shockpolardiagram

withVxandVyasthexandycomponentsofthefluidvelocityV.WiththeMachnumberbeforetheshockgiven,a
locusofconditionscanbespecified.Atsomemaxtheflowtransitionsfromastrongtoweakobliqueshock.With=
0,anormalshockisproducedatthelimitofthestrongobliqueshockandtheMachwaveisproducedatthelimitofthe
weakshockwave.
ObliqueShockReflection

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Duetotheinclinationoftheshock,afteranobliqueshockiscreated,itcaninteractwithaboundaryinthreedifferent
manners,twowhichareexplainedbelow.
SolidBoundary

Incomingflowisfirstturnedbyanglewithrespecttotheflow.Thisshockwaveisreflectedoffthesolidboundary,and
theflowisturnedbytoagainbeparallelwiththeboundary.Itisimportanttonotethateachprogressiveshockwave
isweakerandthewaveangleisincreased.
IrregularReflection

Anirregularreflectionismuchlikethecasedescribedabove,withthecaveatthatislargerthanthemaximum
allowableturningangle.Thusadetachedshockisformedandamorecomplicatedreflectionoccurs.

PrandtlMeyerFans
PrandtlMeyerfanscanbeexpressedasbothcompressionandexpansionfans.PrandtlMeyerfansalsocrossaboundary
layer(i.e.flowingandsolid)whichreactsindifferentchangesaswell.Whenashockwavehitsasolidsurfacethe
resultingfanreturnsasonefromtheoppositefamilywhilewhenonehitsafreeboundarythefanreturnsasafanof
oppositetype.
PrandtlMeyerExpansionFans
Tothispoint,theonlyflowphenomenathathavebeendiscussedareshock
waves,whichslowtheflowandincreaseitsentropy.Itispossibletoaccelerate
supersonicflowinwhathasbeentermedaPrandtlMeyerexpansionfan,after
LudwigPrandtlandTheodoreMeyer.Themechanismfortheexpansionis
showninthefigurebelow.
Asopposedtotheflowencounteringaninclinedobstructionandformingan
obliqueshock,theflowexpandsaroundaconvexcornerandformsanexpansion
fanthroughaseriesofisentropicMachwaves.Theexpansionfaniscomposed
PrandtlMeyerExpansionFan
ofMachwavesthatspanfromtheinitialMachangletothefinalMachangle.
Diagram
Flowcanexpandaroundeitherasharporroundedcornerequally,astheincrease
inMachnumberisproportionaltoonlytheconvexangleofthepassage().The
expansioncornerthatproducesthePrandtlMeyerfancanbesharp(asillustratedinthefigure)orrounded.Ifthetotal
turningangleisthesame,thenthePMflowsolutionisalsothesame.
ThePrandtlMeyerexpansioncanbeseenasthephysicalexplanationoftheoperationoftheLavalnozzle.Thecontour
ofthenozzlecreatesasmoothandcontinuousseriesofPrandtlMeyerexpansionwaves.
PrandtlMeyerCompressionFans
APrandtlMeyercompressionistheoppositephenomenontoaPrandtlMeyer
expansion.Iftheflowisgraduallyturnedthroughanangleof,acompression
fancanbeformed.ThisfanisaseriesofMachwavesthateventuallycoalesce
intoanobliqueshock.Becausetheflowisdefinedbyanisentropicregion(flow
thattravelsthroughthefan)andananisentropicregion(flowthattravelsthrough
theobliqueshock),asliplineresultsbetweenthetwoflowregions.

Applications
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SupersonicWindTunnels
Supersonicwindtunnelsareusedfortestingandresearchinsupersonicflows,approximatelyovertheMachnumber
rangeof1.2to5.Theoperatingprinciplebehindthewindtunnelisthatalargepressuredifferenceismaintained
upstreamtodownstream,drivingtheflow.

SupersonicWindTunnelClassificationList

Windtunnelscanbedividedintotwocategories:continuousoperatingandintermittentoperatingwindtunnels.
Continuousoperatingsupersonicwindtunnelsrequireanindependentelectricalpowersourcethatdrasticallyincreases
withthesizeofthetestsection.Intermittentsupersonicwindtunnelsarelessexpensiveinthattheystoreelectrical
energyoveranextendedperiodoftime,thendischargetheenergyoveraseriesofbrieftests.Thedifferencebetween
thesetwoisanalogoustothecomparisonbetweenabatteryandacapacitor.

Blowdownsupersonicwindtunnel
schematic
Langleyindraftsupersonicwind
tunnelvacuumsphere

BlowdowntypesupersonicwindtunnelsofferhighReynoldsnumber,asmallstoragetank,andreadilyavailabledryair.
However,theycauseahighpressurehazard,resultindifficultyholdingaconstantstagnationpressure,andarenoisy
duringoperation.
Indraftsupersonicwindtunnelsarenotassociatedwithapressurehazard,allowaconstantstagnationpressure,andare
relativelyquiet.Unfortunately,theyhavealimitedrangefortheReynoldsnumberoftheflowandrequirealarge
vacuumtank.Thereisnodisputethatknowledgeisgainedthroughresearchandtestinginsupersonicwindtunnels
however,thefacilitiesoftenrequirevastamountsofpowertomaintainthelargepressureratiosneededfortesting
conditions.Forexample,ArnoldEngineeringDevelopmentComplexhasthelargestsupersonicwindtunnelintheworld
andrequiresthepowerrequiredtolightasmallcityforoperation.Forthisreason,largewindtunnelsarebecomingless
commonatuniversities.

SupersonicAircraftInlets

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Perhapsthemostcommonapplicationforobliqueshocksisinhighspeedaircraftinlets.Thepurposeoftheinletisto
slowincomingsupersonicflowtothesubsonicregimebeforeitenterstheturbojetengine,withthecaveatofminimizing
lossesacrosstheshock.Knowledgeofnormalandobliqueshockssuggeststhatthisbeaccomplishedwithaseriesof
weakeningobliqueshocksfollowedbyaveryweaknormalshock,usuallylessthanM=1.4.Thismaysoundrelatively
straightforward,butthereisoneratherlargeissuetobedealtwithwhendesigningasupersonicaircraftinlet:
acceleration.Betweentakingoff,maneuvering,andcruising,anaircrafttravelsatarangeofMachnumbers.Inorderto
ensureefficientflight,theaircraftintakemustbecapableofvariablegeometry.Ifitisnot,theshockwaveswillnot
reflectproperlythroughtheinletandnegativelyaffectperformance.

McDonnellDouglasF15C

ConcordeonBristol

LockheedSR71Blackbird

Althoughvariablegeometryisauniversallyrecognizedapproachtoimproveaircraftefficiencyandperformanceovera
rangeofMachnumbers,thereisnoonemethodtoachievevariablegeometry.TheF15Eagleemployswedgeinlets
withadjustableflapstocontroltheflow.Forsubsonicflow,theflapsarecompletelyclosedandforsupersonicflow,the
flapsareopen.TheConcordeemployedanexternalcompressioninlet,usingaseriesofobliqueshocksfollowedbya
normalshocktoslowtheflowsufficientlyfortheturbojetengine.Perhapsthemostrecognizablesupersonicaircraft,the
SR71,usedahydraulicallyactuatedconetoreducethespeedofthesupersonicflowthroughtheaircraftinlet.

NaturalGasPipeline
Naturalgaspipelinesareusedtotransportnaturalgasfromextractionsitesto
refinementorchemicalprocessingfacilities.IntheUnitedStatestherearemore
than210naturalgaspipelinesystemswithmorethan305,000milesofintrastate
transmissionpipelines.[4]Twocompressibleflowphenomenoncharacterizethe
flowthroughthesepipelines:friction(Fannoflow)and(Rayleighflow)andheat
transfer.Naturalgaspipelinesareburiedinthegroundataconstanttemperature
of15C.However,thefrictiongeneratedbytheflowoffsetstheheatlosstothe
Earth,thusresultinginanisothermalflow.
Constructingnaturalgaslinein
winter,Finland

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FrictionfactorasafunctionofMachnumberinFannoFlow

TherelationshipbetweenfLmax/DandMachnumberforFannoflowsuggeststhatonlysubsonicflowcanbeusedinthe
longpipesusedtotransportnaturalgas(eventhesepipesmustbebrokenintoshortersegmentswithcompressorstations
atthediscontinuitiesinthepipeline).Additionallyusingconservation,anequationcanbederivedtodescribetheflow.

ThisequationdescribesflowthatchokesatM*=0.87fornaturalgas=1.32howeverchokingrequiresaninfiniteheat
flux.Therefore,acombinationofintuitionandmathematicsexplainswhyitismosteconomicallyfeasiblethatsubsonic
naturalgasispumpedthroughlongsectionsofpipetoreachitsintendeddestination.

Seealso
Conservationlaws
Equationofstate
ThermodynamicsespeciallyCommonlyConsideredThermodynamicProcessesandLawsof
Thermodynamics
Enthalpy
Entropy
LagrangianandEulerianspecificationoftheflowfield
Heatcapacityratio
Chokedflow
Hypersonicflow
Transonicflow
Isothermalflow
PrandtlMeyerfunction
Isentropicnozzleflow

References
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1. Butseecompressibilitywhichlistscompressibilitiesforwaterandsomeotherliquids
2. [1](http://www.ibiblio.org/potto/text.pdf)
3. [2](http://history.nasa.gov/SP4219/Chapter3.html)
4. http://www.eia.gov/pub/oil_gas/natural_gas/analysis_publications/ngpipeline/index.html

Externallinks
NASABeginner'sGuidetoCompressibleAerodynamics(http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K
12/airplane/bgc.html)
VirginiaTechCompressibleFlowCalculators
(https://engineering.purdue.edu/~wassgren/applet/java/comp_calculator/Index.html)
[3](http://www.dept.aoe.vt.edu/~devenpor/aoe3114/calc.html)
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Compressible_flow&oldid=658068536"
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