Hardware and Networking

MS-DOS
Short for Microsoft Disk operating s ystem, MS-DOS is a non-graphical

command line operating system derived from 86-DOS that was created for
IBM compatible computers. MSDOS originally written by Tim
Paterson
and
introduced
by Microsoft in August 1981 and
was last updated in 1994 when
MS-DOS 6.22 was released.
Today, MS-DOS is no longer
used; however, the command
shell, more commonly known as
the Windows command line is
still used by many users. In the
picture aside, is an example of what a MS-DOS window more appropriately
referred to as the Windows command line looks like under
Microsoft Windows.
The command interpreter is integrated in the file command.com with
the internal commands for MS-DOS. Together with the file io.s ys for simple
device routines like the access to the monitor, keyboard, fixed storage disks
and interfaces as well as the booting code these form the base operating
system. DOS works very hardware near.
FIELD OF APPLICATION
- Booting system for storage media
- File management
- For single user systems only
- Network client (NetBEUI, IPX/SPX, TCP/IP)
- Batch processing
STRUCTURE INFORMATION
- 16-bit Single tasking operating system, (formerly 8-bit)
- Command interpreter for internal and external commands
- External driver software imbedding for periphery devices possible
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SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT
- Minimum: 512 kb RAM, 5 mb hard disk storage (depends on version for full installation)
- FAT file system
- Executable with every x86 compatible CPU
- Low RAM and fixed storage disk needs
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VERSION
VERSION
1981 Aug.
MS-DOS 1.0, formerly QDOS/86-DOS, can use at maximum 128 kb RAM, FAT
established
1982 Aug.
MS-DOS 1.25, support for double-density floppy disks
1983 March
MS-DOS 2.0, support for IBM 10 mb hard disk, directory and DD 5.25" floppy
disk drives with up to 360 kb
1983 Dec.
MS-DOS 2.11, extended character sets
1984 Aug.
MS-DOS 3.0, support for high density floppy disk drives with 1.2 mb and hard disk
devices with 32 mb capacity
1984
MS-DOS 3.1, first time with network support
1987 April
MS-DOS 3.3, extended for IBM's PS/2 computer, supports now bigger 3.5" hard
disk Drives and floppy disk drives, multiple partitions, character sets for different
languages
1988 July
MS-DOS 4.0, XMS support, partitions with up to 2 gbyte, graphical shell, bug fixes
1988 Nov.
MS-DOS 4.01, supports multiple partitions bigger than 32 mb, bug fixes
1991 June
MS-DOS 5.0, Major Release
1992
MS-DOS 5.0a, bug fixes for Undelete and Chkdsk
1993 Aug.
MS-DOS 6.0, Competition to Novell's DR-DOS 6, DoubleSpace, Anti-Virus

program, Defrag, Move command, improved MSBACKUP and several boot
configurations, memory optimizer MEMMAKER, DOS Shell is delivered
separately on floppy disks
1993 Nov.
MS-DOS 6.2, DoubleSpace becomes incompatible to the previous version, Scandisk,

improved of DISKCOPY and SmartDrive
1994 March
MS-DOS 6.21, because of law conflict with Stac Electronics Double Space is
removed from MS DOS
1994 May
MS-DOS 6.22, Microsoft licenses double disk of VertiSoft Systems and designates it
in DriveSpace, last official standalone version
1995 Aug.
MS-DOS 7.0, MS-DOS component for Windows 95, LFS support through VFAT,
more DOS programs are delivered on the Setup CD-ROM in the "oldmsdos"
directory
1996 Aug.
MS-DOS 7.10, MS-DOS component for Windows 95 B and higher, supports the
first time FAT 32 hard disks
2000
MS-DOS 8.0, MS-DOS component for Windows ME, last MS-DOS version
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DATE
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INTERNAL & EXTERNAL COMMANDS

Internal commands are commands that are a part of the MS-DOS command
interpreter. They are small routines and are stored within the COMMAND.COM file.
External commands are not a part of COMMAND.COM. They are stored on a separate disk.
COMMAND.COM contains a table which has the names of all the internal commands stored
in it. After accepting a command, it searches that table for the command just entered. If
found, the command is an internal command and its code from the COMMAND.COM file
will be executed. If the name of the command just entered is not present in the table, the
command is an external command. Hence, it searches for the command on the disk and upon
finding it; the command interpreter loads it into the memory and executes it. Otherwise a
message "Bad command or file name" is displayed.
INTERNAL COMMANDS
All the file names used in internal commands can be preceded by a drive name and a
path which are indicated by the following terms.
d: - drive, sd: - source drive, td: - target drive, cd : - current directory
Clearing the screen- CLS
This command erases all the characters on the screen and takes the cursor
control to the first row of the screen.
Syntax: CLS
Entering the current date- DATE

DATE allows you to reset the system date to the current date or obtain the
current date from the system clock. In all the following commands, the parameters
enclosed in square brackets are optional.
Syntax: DATE (mm-dd -yy) or DATE (mm/dd/yy) or DATE [mm . dd . yy]
Entering the current time- TIME

Displays the current time and allows you to reset the time.
Syntax: Time [ hh : mm[ : ss [ xx ] ] ]
Listing files in a directory- DIR

DIR is used to display the contents of a directory, ie, the file names, the file
size in bytes, the date and time of last modification, the number of bytes available on
the disk, and any subdirectories under the current directory. The file name under DOS
is represented by a primary name and a secondary name. The primary name can be up
to 8 characters of length; it is followed by a dot and a secondary name or extension.
The secondary name can be up to 3 characters of length. The file name can be made
up of alphabets, digits. underscores and hyphens. No other characters are allowed.
Syntax: DIR [d:] [path] [filename] [/P] [/W] [/S]
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Options
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d:path filename-SPECIFY] the drive letter, path name, or file name when you wish
to obtain a directory listing of files that are not in the current directory.
/P- Tells DOS to pause when the screen has been filled. To see the next screen of file
names you have to press any key.
/W- Displays a directory showing only file name in a wide format-five names across
each line.
/S- Displays the files from the subdirectories also.
Displaying the contents of a file-Type
TYPE displays a file's content on the screen. This command continuously
scrolls the file on the screen. To freeze the text use pause key. To stop the TYPE
command press Ctrl-C. The contents of binary files and Exe files will be meaningless.
Only files which are in ASCII format can be typed.
Syntax: Type [ d: ] [path] filename
Copying files- COPY

COPY is used to copy files with the same or different names.
Syntax: COPY [ /A] [/B] [sd:] [spath] sfilename [td : ] [tpath][tfilename]
Options
/A or /B indicates whether the preceding file and all subsequent files are to be read as
ASCll (text) or binary files, and it is in effect until further modified.
sd: spath sfilename- Specifies source file or files to be copied.
td: tpath tfilename- Specifies target file or files to be copied to. The filename can be
specified if you wish to rename the target file during copy. If not specified, the
source file name itself will be given to the target file also. But in this case the
target drive or directory must be specified. This is because we cannot store two
files under same name in the same directory.
Deleting files- DEL

This command is used to delete any or groups of files from the directory.
Syntax: DEL [d:] [path] filename
Renaming files-Rename {REN)

This command will change the name of the given file, with the new name
given by you. REN will not allow two files to have the same name at the same time.
Never rename special files that application programs require to operate.
Syntax: REN[d:] [path] oldfilename newfilename
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Old file name- Specifies the file, to change its name.

New fi1e narne- Specifies the new name to be assigned to the file {must be on the
same drive and path as the file to be renamed).
Creating new subdirectories- Mkdir (MD)
This command creates a new subdirectory.
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Syn-: MD[d:]path
d: -Specifies the drive in which you wish to create the new subdirectory.
Path - Specifies path of directory names, including the name of the sub-directory to be
created. The entire path name must not exceed 63 characters, including the backslashes.
Removing directories- RMDIR ( RD)
Only empty directories may be removed. First you have to remove all the files
in the directory using DEL or Erase command. You cannot delete the root directory.
Syntax: RMDIR [d:] path or RD [d:] path
Changing the system prompt- Prompt

Allows you to change the system prompt.
Syntax: PROMPT [prompt]
Options
The prompt can be any literal message displayed on the screen, and it can include any
one of the following special characters.
$t Current time
$d Current date
$n Default drive
$p Current path
$v DOS version number
$g Greater-than character (>)
$l Less - than character (<)
$b Vertical bar ( I )
$q Equal sign (=)
$- Starts a new line (enters carriage-return/line feed sequence)
$h Backspaces and erases last character
$e ESCAPE character (ASCII 27)
EXTERNAL COMMANDS
All external commands can be preceded by a drive name and path at which it is
available.
Formatting Disks- Format
Prepares a disk by rearranging random magnetic impulses into a series of
tracks and sectors so that is it addressable by DOS.
Syntax: [d : ] [path] FORMAT fd: (Is] [ l u] [14]
Checking the disk-Chkdsk

Reports disk size, space available, and RAM available. Also reports and
optionally corrects internal disk errors.
Syntax: CHKDSK
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Copying disks- Diskcopy
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Copies disks; optionally formats the target disk if it is not formatted

previously. DISKCOPY cannot be issued to virtual disks such as the one formed by a
SUBST command. This cannot be issued for copying hard disk to floppy disk.
Syntax: DI SKCOPY [sd:] [td:]
Displaying directory tree- Tree

Sometimes you may have to see only the directories available in the disk. If
you give DIR command, you will also get the file names along with the directory
names. Hence TREE command can be given to see only directories.
Syntax: TREE [pd:][/F]
/F- Displays all the file names within each subdirectory.
Printing files- Print

Allows you to set up a print queue for printing files while continuing to work
in DOS.
Syntax: PRINT [/C] [/T] [d:] [path] [filename]
/C- Specifies which file or files are to be removed from the print queue. The
preceding files and all subsequent file names on the command line are cancelled until
a /P parameter is encountered on the command line.
/T- Removes all files from the print queue.
DOS INSTALLATION
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Run Z:\INSTALL
Read Copyright agreement
Click on OK
Choose the hard drive on which you want to install the program and
click on NEXT
Choose the directory (Default \BIBLE) and click on NEXT
Click on INSTALL DATA FILES TO HARD DRIVE and click on NEXT
Click on MS-DOS and click on NEXT
Click on each versions you wish to install, ensuring that it is
highlighted. Click on the right-hand arrow and repeat procedure for
each version you wish to install. Use the scroll bar on the right to view
all available versions. Please note that you are restricted to a maximum
of nine versions under DOS. When you have completed your choices,
click on NEXT
Repeat the above procedure with the Notes. You are restricted to eight
Notes under DOS. When you have completed your choices, click on
NEXT
Repeat the procedure for the Topics. When you have completed your
choices, click on NEXT
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Click on finish to complete the Installation
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MOTHERBOARD
If the CPU is the heart of the system the motherboard is its circulatory
system. The CPU has to be fitted on the socket on the Board. The board has
input output ports, ram, PCI slots, IDE port, chipset, Power connector, AGP
slot, other expansion slots, floppy port.
There are primarily two types of motherboards, AT motherboard, and
ATX motherboard. AT motherboards are older and not commonly used. The AT
and ATX motherboards differ in the form factor. Full AT is 12" wide x 13.8"
deep, and Baby AT is 8.57" wide x 13.04" deep. Full-ATX is 12" wide x 9.6"
deep and Mini-ATX is 11.2" wide x 8.2" deep. Other major differences include
power supply connector, and keyboard connector. AT has 5-pin large keyboard
connector, where as ATX has 6-pin mini connector. Similarly, AT has single row
two connectors +/-5V, and +/-12V, whereas ATX motherboard has double row
single connector providing +/-5V, +/-12V, and +3.3V.
Typical ATX PC
motherboard with
constituent
components.
The important components of an ATX Motherboard are given below:

Mouse & keyboard
2.
USB
3.
Parallel port
4.
CPU Chip
5.
6.
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1.
RAM slots
Floppy controller
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7.
IDE controller
8.
PCI slot
9.
ISA slot
10.
CMOS Battery
11.
AGP slot
12.
CPU slot
13.
Power supply plug in
1. MOUSE & KEYBOARD : USB is the General-purpose

connection for PC. You can find USB versions of many
different devices, such as mice, keyboards, scanners, cameras,
and even printers. A USB connector's distinctive
rectangular shape makes it easily recognizable.
2. USB (Universal serial bus): USB is the General-purpose connection for PC.
You can find USB versions of many different devices, such as
mice, keyboards, scanners, cameras, and even printers. a USB
connector's distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily
recognizable.
USB has a number of features that makes it particularly popular
on PCs. First, USB devices are hot swappable. You can insert or remove them
without restarting your system.
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3. PARALLEL PORT: Most printers use a special connector called a parallel

port. Parallel port carries data on more than one wire, as opposed to the serial
port, which uses only one wire. Parallel ports use a
25-pin female DB connector. Parallel ports are
directly supported by the motherboard through a
direct connection or through a dangle.
4. CPU Chip: The central processing unit, also
called the microprocessor performs all the calculations that take place inside a
pc.
CPUs
come
in
Variety
of
shapes
and
sizes.
Modern CPUs generate a lot of heat and thus require a cooling fan or heat
sink. The cooling device (such as a cooling fan) is removable, although some
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CPU manufactures sell the CPU with a fan permanently

attached.
5. RAM slots: Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores
programs and data currently being used by the CPU. RAM is
measured in units called bytes. RAM has been packaged in
many different ways. The most current package is called a
168pin
DIMM
(Dual
Inline
Memory module).
6. Floppy controller: The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin
ribbon cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is
one that is used to control the floppy drive.
7. IDE controller: Industry standards define two common types of hard drives:
EIDE and SCSI. Majority of the PCs use EIDE drives. SCSI drives show up in
high end PCs such as network servers or graphical workstations. The
EIDE drive connects to the hard drive via a 2-inch-wide, 40-pin ribbon cable,
which in turn connects to the motherboard. IDE controller is responsible for
controlling the hard drive.
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8. PCI slot: Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus

protocol. The PCI bus is used to connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID
controllers) to the main logic of the computer. PCI bus has replaced the ISA
bus.
9. ISA slot: (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard architecture of

the Expansion bus. Motherboard may contain some slots to connect ISA
compatible cards.
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10. CMOS Battery: To provide CMOS with the power when

the computer is turned off all motherboards comes with a
battery. These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of
three ways: the obsolete external battery, the most
common onboard battery, and built-in battery.
11. AGP slot: If you have a modern

motherboard, you will almost certainly
notice a single connector that looks like
PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and
usually brown. You also probably have
video card inserted into this slot. This
is an Advanced Graphics Port (AGP)
slot.
a
a
12. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight

down into the slot. Special notches in the slot make it
impossible to install them incorrectly. So remember if it
does not go easily, it is probably not correct. Be sure to
plug in the CPU fan's power.
13. Power supply plug in: The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the
necessary electrical power to make the pc
operate. the power supply takes standard
110-V AC power and converts into +/12-Volt, +/-5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC
power.
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The power supply connector has 20-pins,

and the connector can go in only one
direction.
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CHIPSET
Chipset is usually designed to work with a specific family of

microprocessors, because it controls communications between the processor and
external devices, the chipset plays a crucial role in determining system
performance.
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In computing, the term chipset is commonly used to refer to a set of

specialized chips on a computer's motherboard or an expansion card. In personal
computers, the first chipset for the IBM PC AT was the NEAT chipset by Chips
and Technologies for the Intel 80286 CPU.
NORTH AND SOUTH BRIDGE
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The chipset normally consists of two major microchips. These are

known as the North bridge and the South Bridge. Developments in chip
technologies have meant that chipset and CPU manufacturers are changing the
way the chipset layout works, for example some CPU's come with a built in
memory controller taking that job from the North Bridge, some chipsets have
incorporated the north and south bridge in the same chip, but for now we will
look at the standard setup.
The North Bridge Handles data for the graphics port whether that be
AGP or PCI express and the main memory which includes the FSB (Front side
bus). Although both chips are required for the PC to work the North Bridge
handles most of the very important tasks such as the connection between the
CPU and main memory bank. The South Bridge handles data from the PCI x1
slots and can also have integrated components such as Audio and/or onboard
graphics.
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The North and South bridges will have different chip names even
though they are very often paired with the same opposite bridge to come under
the collective name of the chipset.
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MICROPROCESSOR
The brain or engine of the PC is the
processor
(sometimes
called
microprocessor), or central processing unit
(CPU). Microprocessors are regarded as one
of the most important devices in our
everyday machines called computers. Before
we start, we need to understand what exactly
microprocessors are and their appropriate
implementations. Microprocessor is an
electronic circuit that functions as the
central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, providing computational control.
Microprocessors are also used in other advanced electronic systems, such as
computer printers, automobiles, and jet airliners.
The CPU performs the systems calculating and processing. The
processor is easily the most expensive single component in the system, costing
up to four or more times greater than the
motherboard it plugs into. Intel is generally
credited with creating the first microprocessor in
The
si mp l i fi ed
1971 with the introduction of a chip called the
mod
el of th e
4004. Today Intel still has control over the
c en tral
processor market, at least for PC s ystems. This
p roc essin g
means that all PC-compatible s ystems use either
u ni t.
Intel processors or Intel-compatible processors
from a handful of competitors (such as AMD or
Cyrix).
As there are a great many
variations in architecture between the
different kinds of CPU, we shall begin my
looking at a simplified model of the
structure. The model to be used can be
seen on the right of this page, and is a good basis on
which to build your knowledge of the workings of a
microprocessor. The simplified model consists of five
parts, which are:
ARITHMETIC & LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
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The ALU, or the arithmetic and logic unit, is the

section of the processor that is involved with executing
operations of an arithmetic or logical nature. It works in
conjunction with the register array for many of these, in
particular, the accumulator and flag registers. The
accumulator holds the results of operations, while the flag
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register contains a number of individual bits that are used to store information
about the last operation carried out by the ALU. More on these registers can be
found in the register array section.
You can look at the ALU as comprising many subcomponents for each
specific task that it is required to perform. Some of these tasks and their
appropriate subcomponents are:
Addition and subtraction

These two tasks are performed by constructs of logic gates, such as half
adders and full adders. While they may be termed 'adders', with the aid of they
can also perform subtraction via use of inverters and 'two's complement'
arithmetic.
The topic of logic gates is too expensive and detailed to be covered in
full here. Many resources exist on the internet and elsewhere relating to this
topic, however, so it is recommended that you read further into the areas
outlined above to aid with your learning.
Multiplication and division

In most modern processors, the multiplication and division of integer
values is handled by specific floating-point hardware within the CPU. Earlier
processors used either additional chips known as maths co-processors, or used a
completely different method to perform the task.
Logical tests
Further logic gates are used within the ALU to perform a number of
different logical tests, including seeing if an operation produces a result of
zero. Most of these logical tests are used to then change the values stored in the
flag register, so that they may be checked later by separate operations or
instructions. Others produce a result which is then stored, and used later in
further processing.
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Comparison
Comparison operations compare values in order to determine such
things as whether one number is greater than, less than or equal to another.
These operations can be performed by subtraction of one of the numbers from
the other, and as such can be handled by the aforementioned logic gates.
However, it is not strictly necessary for the result of the calculation to be stored
in this instance.. the amount by which the values differ is not required. Instead,
the appropriate status flags in the flag register are set and checked to determine
the result of the operation.
Bit shifting
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Shifting operations move bits left or right within a word, with different
operations filling the gaps created in different ways. This is accomplished via
the use of a shift register, which uses pulses from the clock within the control
unit to trigger a chain reaction of movement across the bits that make up the
word. Again, this is a quite complicated logical procedure, and further reading
may aid your understanding.
THE CONTROL UNIT
The control unit is arguably the most complicated
this model CPU, and is responsible for controlling much of
operation of the rest of the processor. It does this by issuing
signals to the other areas of the processor, instructing them
on what should be performed next.
Similarly to the ALU, the CU can be broken down
further. As such, the three main elements of the control unit
are as follows :
part of
the
control
Decoder
This is used to decode the instructions that make up a program when

they are being processed, and to determine in what actions must be taken in
order to process them. These decisions are normally taken by looking at the
opcode of the instruction, together with the addressing mode used.
Timer or clock
The timer or clock ensures that all processes and instructions are
carried out and completed at the right time. Pulses are sent to the other areas of
the CPU at regular intervals (related to the processor clock speed), and actions
only occur when a pulse is detected. This ensures that the actions themselves
also occur at these same regular intervals, meaning that the operations of the
CPU are synchronized.
Control logic circuits

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The control logic circuits are used to create the control signals
themselves, which are then sent around the processor. These signals inform the
arithmetic and logic unit and the register array what they actions and steps they
should be performing, what data they should be using to perform said actions,
and what should be done with the results.
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REGISTER
A register is a memory location within the CPU
itself, designed to be quickly accessed for purposes of fast
data retrieval. Processors normally contain a register array,
which houses many such registers. These contain
instructions, data and other values that may need to be
quickly accessed during the execution of a program. Many
different types of registers are common between most
microprocessor designs. These are:
Program Counter (PC)
This register is used to hold the memory address of the next instruction
that has to execute in a program. This is to ensure the CPU knows at all times
where it has reached, that is able to resume following an execution at the
correct point, and that the program is executed correctly.
Instruction Register (IR)
This is used to hold the current instruction in the processor while it is

being decoded and executed, in order for the speed of the whole execution
process to be reduced. This is because the time needed to access the instruction
register is much less than continual checking of the memory location itself.
Accumulator (A, or ACC)
The accumulator is used to hold the result of operations performed by

the arithmetic and logic unit, as covered in the section on the ALU.
Memory Buffer Register (MBR)

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When an instruction or data is obtained from the memory or elsewhere,

it is first placed in the memory buffer register. The next action to take is then
determined and carried out, and the data is moved on to the desired location.
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Other general purpose registers
These registers have no specific purpose, but are generally used for the
quick storage of pieces of data that are required later in the program execution.
In the model used here these are assigned the names A and B, with suffixes of L
and U indicating the lower and upper sections of the register respectively.
SYSTEM BUS
The system bus is a cable which carries data
communication between the major components of the
computer, including the microprocessor. Not all of
communication that uses the bus involves the CPU,
although naturally the examples used in this tutorial
centre on such instances.
the
will
The system bus consists of three

different groups of wiring, called the data bus,
control bus and address bus. These all have
seperate responsibilities and characteristics,
which can be outlined as follows:
Control Bus
The control bus carries the signals relating to the control and coordination of the various activities across the computer, which can be sent from
the control unit within the CPU. Different architectures result in differing
number of lines of wire within the control bus, as each line is used to perform a
specific task. For instance, different, specific lines are used for each of read,
write and reset requests.
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Data Bus
This is used for the exchange of data between the processor, memory
and peripherals, and is bi-directional so that it allows data flow in both
directions along the wires. Again, the number of wires used in the data bus
(sometimes known as the 'width') can differ. Each wire is used for the transfer
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of signals corresponding to a single bit of binary data. As such, a greater width

allows greater amounts of data to be transferred at the same time.
Address Bus
The address bus contains the connections between the microprocessor
and memory that carry the signals relating to the addresses which the CPU is
processing at that time, such as the locations that the CPU is reading from or
writing to. The width of the address bus corresponds to the maximum addressing
capacity of the bus, or the largest address within memory that the bus can work
with. The addresses are transferred in binary format, with each line of the
address bus carrying a single binary digit. Therefore the maximum address
capacity is equal to two to the power of the number of lines present (2^lines).
CLASSIFICATION OF MICROPROCESSORS
4-BIT MICROPROCESSORS
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INTEL 4004
Introduced in 1971.
It was the first microprocessor by Intel.
It was a 4-bit P.
Its clock speed was 740 KHz.
It had 2,300 transistors.
It
could
execute
around
60,000
instructions per second.
16-pin DIP
INTEL 4040
4-bit microprocessor
Program memory expanded to 8 KB
24-pin DIP
It could execute around 60,000
instructions per second
18-pin DIP
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INTEL 8008
Introduced in 1972.
It was first 8-bit P.
Could execute 50,000
Instructions per second.
Intel 8080
Introduced in 1974.
It was also 8-bit P.
Its clock speed was 2 MHz
Was 10 times faster than 8008.
Could execute 5,00,000 Instructions per
second.
INTEL 8085
Introduced in 1976.
Its clock speed was 3 MHz
Its data bus is 8-bit and address bus is
16-bit.
Could execute 7, 69,230 instructions
per second.
It could access 64 KB of memory.
It had 246 instructions.
40-pin DIP
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Intel 8086
Introduced in 1978.
Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz and 10
MHz, depending on the version.
Its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 20-bit.
Could execute 2.5 million instructions per
second.
It could access 1 MB of memory.
It had 22,000 instructions.
It had Multiply and Divide instructions.
Intel 8088
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Introduced in 1979.
It was created as a cheaper version of
Intels 8086.
It was a 16-bit processor with an 8-bit
external bus.
Could execute 2.5 million instructions per second.
This chip became the most popular in the computer industry when IBM
used it for its first PC.
Note- Here Co- processor introduced like 8087.

Intel 80286
Introduced in 1982.
It was 16-bit P.
Its clock speed was 8 MHz.
It could address 16 MB of memory.
It had 1,34,000 transistors.
It could execute 4 million instructions per second
68-pin PGA (Pin Grid Array)
Co- processor-8087, 80287
INTEL 80386
Introduced in 1985.
It had 2,75,000 transistors.
It could address 4 GB of memory.
Its clock speed varied from 16 MHz to 33 MHz
depending upon the various versions.
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INTEL 80486
Introduced in 1989.
It had 1.2 million transistors.
Its clock speed varied from 16 MHz to 100 MHz
depending upon the various versions.
INTEL PENTIUM
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Introduced in 1993.
It was originally named 80586.
Its clock speed was 66 MHz.
Its data bus is 32-bit and Address bus is 32-bit.
Could execute 110 million instructions per
second.
Cache memory:
8 KB for instructions.
8 KB for data.
273-pin PGA (Pin Grid Array) use socket 7.
INTEL PENTIUM II
Introduced in 1997.
Its clock speed was 233 MHz to 500 MHz.
Could execute 333 million instructions
second.
MMX technology was supported.
L2 cache & processor were on one circuit.
per
INTEL PENTIUM II XEON

Introduced in 1998.
It was designed for servers.
Its clock speed was 400 MHz to 450 MHz
L1 cache of 32 KB & L2cache of 512 KB, 1MB or 2
MB.
It could work with 4 Xeons in same system.
INTEL PENTIUM III
Introduced in 1999.
It had 9.5 million transistors.
It support socket 370.
Its clock speed varied from 500 MHz to 1.4 GHz.
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INTEL PENTIUM IV
Introduced in 2000.
Its clock speed was from 1.3 GHz to 3.8 GHz.
L1 cache was of 32 KB & L2 cache of 256
KB.
It had 42 million transistors.
All internal connections were made from
aluminium to copper.
INTEL DUAL CORE
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Introduced in 2006.
It has two cores.
Both the cores have their own internal bus and L1
cache, but share the external bus and L2 cache
(Next Slide).
It
supported
SMT
(Simultaneously
MultiThreading) technology.
E.g.: Adobe Photoshop supported SMT.
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INTEL CORE 2
Introduced in 2006.
Its clock speed is from 1.2 GHz to 3 GHz.
It has 291 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core and 4 MB of
L2 cache.
It is launched in three different versions:
o Intel Core 2 Duo
o Intel Core 2 Quad
o Intel Core 2 Extreme
INTEL CORE I3
Introduced in 2010.
It has 2 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.93 GHz to 3.33 GHz.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core, 512 KB of L2
cache and 4 MB of L3cache.
INTEL CORE I5
Introduced in 2009.
cache and 8 MB of L3 cache. 30
INTEL CORE I7
Introduced in 2008.
cache and 8 MB of L3 cache.
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RISC processor
[Reduced Instruction Set Computer], computer arithmetic-logic
unit
that uses a minimal instruction set, emphasizing the instructions used most
often and optimizing them for the fastest possible execution. Software for
RISC processors must handle more operations than traditional CISC
[Complex Instruction Set Computer] processors, but RISC processors have
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advantages in applications that benefit from faster instruction execution, such

as engineering and graphics workstations and parallelprocessing systems. They are also less costly to design, test,
and manufacture. In the mid-1990s RISC processors
CISC: Complex Instruction Set Computers

Earlier developments were based around the idea that making the CPU
more complex and supporting a larger number of
potential instructions would lead to increased
performance. This idea is at the root of CISC
processors, such as the Intel X86 ranges, which have
very large instruction sets reaching up to and above
three hundred separate instructions. They also have
increased complexity in other areas, with many more
specialized addressing modes and registers also being
implemented, and variable length of the instruction
codes themselves. Performance was improved here by allowing the
simplification of program compilers, as the range of more advanced
instructions available led to less refinement having to be made at the
compilation process. However, the complexity of the processor hardware and
architecture that resulted can cause such chips to be difficult to understand
and program for, and also means they can be expensive to produce.
CISC
RISC
Instruction Set
Small (100 or less)
Complex (8 to 20)
Addressing Modes
Simple (4 or less)
Specialized
Instruction Format
Simple
Variable
Code Lengths
Fixed
Variable
Execution Cycles
Standard for most
Higher
Cost / CPU Complexity
Lower
Compilation
Simplifies
Processor design
Complicates
Software
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Large (100 to 300)
Processor design
Summary of the main differences between the two competing architectures
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BIOS
The BIOS program runs as soon as the PC is
switched on. It initializes and checks the PC's hardware
(especially on-board chips on the motherboard) and boots
the main operating system from disk.
What is CMOS?
In order for the BIOS to control PC hardware it needs information
about settings for attached devices, e.g. which hard disk to boot from,
whether on-board sound is enabled, or whether to reserve specific IRQs for
particular devices.
These settings are stored in non-volatile BIOS memory . This memory
chip was traditionally battery powered (to keep it from forgetting settings
when the main power is switched off) and thus used CMOS (Complementary
Metal Oxide Semiconductor) static RAM circuit designs, known for their low
power requirements and ability to run on a range of voltages.
The name "CMOS memory" stuck and we still refer to the settings as
"the CMOS" even though all ICs in a modern PC are made using CMOS
technology.
BATTERIES
RTC / CMOS batteries come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The most
common type is the lithium CR2032 cell. These are widely available and
easily replaced. In some machines, however, these cells come in a package
that is directly soldered into the
PCB.
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Other CMOS batteries include

the barrel design (shown), also
soldered into the board, and plug-in
packs. They supply 3V and are
typically rated to last 5 to 10 years. The batteries recharge while the PC is
powered, taking typically several hours to fully charge from flat.
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CMOS Settings
Gaining access
to the BIOS Setup /
CMOS
Settings
program is not as eas y
as it appears. Many
BIOS writers require
you
to
press
a
particular key within
the first few seconds
after power-on:
Some very old equipment (e.g. IBM PS/2) needed a special setup
program from disk.
The increasing use of custom boot displays may require you to
press Tab or Esc before pressing the appropriate setup key.
Main settings
The main settings typically
allow you to alter s ystem date and
time and disk drives.
There is usually a 'default'
option that restores all CMOS
settings back to their factory state.
Hard drives
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The BIOS needs to know the hard drive size and drive settings
(including number of sectors, cylinders and heads) to be able to boot
correctly. This information is usually auto-detected; the setup screen
will display the drive name and capacity. On older systems this autodetection may need to be manually triggered.
IDE hard drives have the ability to lie about the number of sectors,
cylinders and heads. This started when the number of cylinders and
sectors grew too big for normal BIOS parameters. LBA (logical block
addressing) and CHS / Large mode are two common translation
methods.
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Boot sequence
Usually you can specify a specific order but some BIOSes restrict you
to only a few options.
Floppy drive
Hard drive(s) IDE or SCSI (note that SATA drives are often
classed as SCSI by the BIOS)
CD or DVD drive(s)
Network used by thin clients
USB
Advanced settings
Motherboard FSB speed
CPU speed and core voltage often auto-detected
Dynamic RAM speed, timing and voltage
PCI PnP (plug'n'play) settings
Peripherals
Parallel port (IRQ & I/O address; enable, SPP / ECP / EPP)
Serial ports (IRQ & I/O address; enable)
USB, FireWire and IrDA (enable)
On-board devices, e.g. audio, video, network card (enable)
Security
You can specify two levels of BIOS password: a user password that is
required at power-on, and a supervisor password that is required to access
CMOS settings.
Clearing a BIOS password can usually be achieved by shorting the "clear
CMOS" jumpers on the motherboard. However, this is not always practical or
possible. Technicians often have special boot floppies (or bootable CDs)
containing a CMOS clearing utility such as Kill CMOS. Removing the
battery for a period may clear older CMOS memories but modern
motherboards use EEPROM or Flash ROM instead.
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Some manufacturers use a backdoor password that will always gain

access. To find these, search on the World Wide Web for "BIOS backdoor
passwords".
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Pow er management & hardw are monitor

As part of the Advanced Power Management (APM) power management
settings, the BIOS setup also allows you to specify which devices are allowed
to "wake up" an ATX / WTX system.
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The hardware monitor shows system voltages, temperatures and fan

speeds. These are particularly useful when troubleshooting.
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HARD DISK DRIVE

A hard disk drive is a device used to store digital information. The hard
disk was originally developed to store information for computer s ystems, but
over the past decade or so the applications of hard disks have expanded to
include many consumer devices (such as digital audio players and digital
cameras). A hard disk is what is known as a non-volatile storage s ystem; that
is, the device retains data once the power to the device is removed.
How are Hard Disk Drives constructed?
A hard disk consists of a metallic case in which is contained one or
more platters mounted on a spindle that allows the platters to rotate. The
platters are made from a solid, non-magnetic material, normally aluminium or
glass. The platters are coated in a very thin layer of a magnetic material upon
which information is stored in binary form. For both sides of each platter
there is a read/write head mounted on an arm that moves across the surface of
the platters.
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The disk platters are spun at high speed that spins the air contained in
the disk unit around with it. The read/write head is aerodynamically shaped
and uses the movement of air over the platter to enable it to float at a very
precise distance from the surface of the platter. This distance is very small,
much smaller than the diameter of a human hair.
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The construction of hard disks is performed in a clean room to prevent

contamination of the disk surface by dust. If the read/write head ever comes
into contact with anything resting on the surface of the platter, or with the
platter itself, very serious damage to the hard disk can result. For this reason,
a working hard disk should never be opened once it has left the clean room.
In order to prevent differences in external air pressure altering the shape of
the hard disk, there is a small hole in the disk casing protected by a very fine
filter to allow movement of air into and out of the disk drive.
How a Hard Disk Drive Works

As the platters spin, the magnetic read/write heads can write data by
magnetizing minute areas of the magnetic surface and read data by detecting
the magnetism of the previously written areas. The arms containing the
read/write heads are moved using a voice coil that allows the heads to move
over almost the entire surface of the platters. In order to read or write a
particular piece of information on the platter, the arm moves to the
appropriate position over the platter and waits for the rotation of the platter
to bring the requested data under the read/write head. The movement of the
arms over the surface of the platters is what makes the clicking noises that
can be heard from some types of hard disk.
Data is transmitted to and from the hard disk device by one of several
different interface types. They are ATA (also known as IDE, EIDE or PATA),
serial ATA (SATA), SCSI, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) and Fiber Channel.
The most common interface used in everyday PCs was ATA, but most modern
PCs use the SATA interface. SCSI, SAS and Fiber Channel are normally used
in high performance applications such as servers.
Applications of Hard Disk Drives
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In a typical PC application, one or more hard disks are used to store

information that is to be retained once the power to the PC is switched off. In
most PC applications, the operating s ystem (such as Windows, OSX or Linux)
is stored on a hard disk. The PC is instructed to read the operating system
from the disk by a boot program stored on a chip on the main circuit board of
the computer.
Over the past several decades, the amount of data that can be stored on
a hard disk has increased at an exponential rate. Today, a single hard disk
drive can hold approximately one terabyte of data. One or more disks can be
combined using the appropriate technology into a RAID array (RAID stands
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for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) to create a single unit of a larger

size, greater reliability, or higher performance, or any combination of the
three.
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INSTALLATIION OF WINDOWS 7
When installing on a physical computer insert your Windows 7 DVD media into your
DVD drive and reboot your computer. If you're asked to press a key to boot from DVD or
CD, press any key. A black window will appear momentarily while the DVD content is
read.
Next, a Starting Windows screen will appear.
THE INSTALLATION PROCESS

Like in Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, and unlike previous versions of
Windows, Windows 7 does not have a noticeable text phase of the setup process, and it
will boot directly into the Graphical User Interface (GUI) mode.
After a few moments you will see the first prompt:
Click "Next" unless you want to change some regional settings for the installation
process.
Click on the "Install now" button.
Next, accept the license terms and click on "Next".
Next, unless you're upgrading an existing Windows installation, press the Custom
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(Advanced) installation type button.
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The next phase is to pick the installation partition. Since this computer has a new hard
disk that hasn't been formatted before, you will only have the option to create a new
partition on it.
If you want to create, extend, delete, or format a partition, click Drive options (advanced),
click the option you want, and then follow the instructions.
The setup process will now begin to copy files from the installation DVD media to the
hard disk.
Process could take a while depending on the type of hardware your computer uses.
The computer will reboot, and the next thing you'll see is the prompt to set the user's and
computer's name. By default, the computer's name will be username-PC, where username
Page 34
is the username you've entered. Click on "Next".
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Enter the user's password. Remember this password, as it will be the ONLY user on the
system, and unless you create an additional user or enable the built-in administrator
account, if you forget this password you'll need to crack it to gain access to the system.
The best option would be to choose a complex password made of at least 7 characters or
more (something like Pssw0rd or MYpa$$w0rd). You must also enter a password hint.
Click on "Next".
Next, type in your product key. If you do not have the product key at hand you can still
click "Next", and proceed with the installation. You will be asked to enter the product key
Page 35
after Windows is installed.
Choose what sort of protection your computer gets. The recommended settings are best
for someone that doesn't plan to hide their computer behind a corporate firewall.
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Choose your time zone and location and click on "Next".
Select your network location type. This setting can be changed later, but do note that
choosing a profile will have effect on the Windows Firewall and sharing settings. Click on
"Next".
Windows will finalize the settings and your desktop will appear.
This concludes the Windows 7 installation. Next, you would probably want to update
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your computer with the latest hotfixes and/or patches from Microsoft.
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INTERFACE STANDARD
IDE (ATA)
Short
for Integrated
Drive
Electronics or IBM
Disc
Electronics, IDEis
more
commonly
known
as ATA or Parallel
ATA (PATA) and is a
standard interface for IBM
compatible hard drives.
IDE is different from the
Small Computer Systems
Interface
(SCSI)
and
Enhanced Small Device
Interface (ESDI) because
its controllers are on each
drive, meaning the drive
can connect directly to the motherboard or controller. IDE and its updated
successor, Enhanced IDE (EIDE), are the
most common drive interfaces found in IBM
compatible computers today. Below, is a
picture of the IDE connector on the back of
a hard drive, a picture of what an IDE cable
looks like, and the IDE channels it connects
to on the motherboard.
Serial ATA (SATA)
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Short for Serial ATA, SATA 1.0 was first released

in August 2001 and is a replacement for the Parallel
ATA interface used in IBM compatible computers. Serial ATA is
capable
of
delivering
1.5Gbps
(150MBps) of
performance to each drive within a disk array, offers
backwards compatibility for existing ATA and ATAPI
devices, and offers a thin, small cable solution as seen
in the picture to the right. This cable helps make a
much easier cable routing and offers better airflow in
the computer when compared to the earlier ribbon
cables used with ATA drives.
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Page 38
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SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS)

It is the power supply system used in the system box. The switch mode
power supply(SMPS) is use 220v as the input and at the out it gives DC
current with different values used by different component of the computer as
+5v used by keyboard LED , +12v used by SMPS cooling fan and +12v for
processor cooling Fan. The output power supply so we get form the SMPS
while using the different type of color.
We have two type of the SMPS cabinetATX - Advance Technology Exchange
ATX cabinet has ATX SMPS have 20 pin with lock s ystem.
AT - Advance Technology
AT cabinet has AT SMPS have 12 pin with center wire black color
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Different color wire from SMPS with the voltage they have
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NETWORKING
Networking is interconnection of various devices like as pc, scanner,
printer etc. located at different places. In computer network two or more
computers are linked together with a medium and data
communication devices for the purpose of communication of data
and sharing of resources. The computer that provides resources to
other computers on a network is known as server. In the network the
individual computers, which access shared network resources, are known as
client.
APPLICATIONS
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Sharing of hardware
Computer hardware resources
Disks
Printers
Sharing of software
Multiple single user licenses are more expensive than multi-user
license.
Eas y maintenance of software
Sharing of information
Several individuals can interact with each other
Working in groups can be formed
E-MAIL
Communication
E-mail
Internet telephony
Audio conferencing
Video conferencing
Scalability
Individual subsystems can be created and combine it into a main
system to enhance the overall performance.
Distributed systems
In a networked environment computers can distribute the work load
among themselves keeping transparency to the end user.
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A typical network connection

in which no. of computers are
conneted with a shared
printer & a fax machine
through HUB.
HU
SERVER
TYPES
OF NETWORKING
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According to geographical area of limitation networking is divided into 3

groups.
LAN
A LAN is a local area network that is a small collection of
computers
in
a
small
geographic
area of less than couple of
kilometers and is very fast in
data transfer. Depending on
technology implementation a
LAN can be as simple as two
PCs
and
a
printer
got
connected in a small office or it
can extend throughout an
organization
and
include
multimedia
(text,
voice,
video) data transfers.
The
LANs
may
be
configured in many ways.
The peer-to-peer configuration is the simplest form. In this
configuration computers are connected together to share their recourses
among themselves. In such configurations it is very difficult to impose
security features. On the other hand LANs can also be architectured in
a client server model with full control over security and protection.
Client/server describes the relationship between two computer
programs in which one program, the client, makes a service request
from another program, the server, which fulfills the request. In a
network, the client/server model provides a convenient way to
interconnect programs that are distributed efficiently across different
locations. Computer transactions using the client/server model are very
common. For example, to check your bank account from your computer,
a client program in your computer forwards your request to a server
program at the bank. That program may in turn forward the request to
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its own client program that sends a request to a database server at

another bank computer to retrieve your account balance. The balance is
returned back to the bank data
client, which in
turn serves it back to the client in
your personal computer, which
displays the information for you.
WAN
A
WAN
(Wide
Area
Network) is a data communications
network that covers a relatively broad
geographic area, often a country or continent. It contains a collection
of machines intended for running user programs. These machines are
called hosts.
The hosts are connected by subnet. The purpose of subnet is to
carry messages from hosts to hosts. The subnet includes transmission
facilities, switching elements and routers provided by common
agencies, such as telephone companies. Now-a-days routers with
satellite links are also becoming part of the WAN subnet. All these
machines provide long distance transmission of data, voice, image and
video information.
Unlike LAN which
depend on their own
hardware
for
transmission, WANs may
utilize public, leased, or
private
communication
devices when it come
across and therefore span
an unlimited number of
kilometers. A network
device called a router
connects LANs to a
WAN.
The Internet is the largest WAN in existence.
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MAN
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The metropolitan area network is

designed to cover an entire city. It can
be a single network such as cable TV or
a number of LANs connected together within a city
to form a
MAN. Privately laid cables or public leased lines
may be
used to form such network. It is bounded with
a
distance limitation of 100km.
For
instance
a
business
organization
may choose MAN to inter connect all its
branch
offices
within the city.
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According to the computing model networking is divided

into 2 types.
WORKGROUP MODEL
The workgroup model is best suited for
small networks of no more than twenty computers. The workgroups
model is built into network operating systems such as Windows 9x,
Windows of Workgroups and Windows NT. Windows XP also has the
facility for a PC to join a local workgroup.
In this model there is no centralized
server or database, such as Active
Directory. This type of security is strictly
peer-to-peer. Each computer is equal to
all of the others and can share resources
with the others. This is where the
workgroup name becomes important. All
machines with the same workgroup name will be able to share
resources with that group, for example, the workgroup could be called
Computing. Each computer has a set of user accounts. To log on to any
computer in the workgroup, you must have an account on that
computer.
DOMAIN MODEL
The domain security model is a client/server model that is used
on Windows Server Network Operating Systems (NOS), such as
Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008. With the domain
model there is centralized security that is under the control of the
network administrator.
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The centralized database for a Windows

known as Active Directory.
database
that
contains
information about everything on
network.
The
network
administrator uses Active
Directory to administer user
accounts
and
rights
and
permissions
to
network
resources.
domain
is
This is a
the
One or more computers are servers . Domain users must provide a

password or other credentials each time they access the domain.
It can be accessed through any computer without needing any account

on that computer.
You probably can make only limited changes to a computer's settings

because network administrators often want to ensure consistency among
computers.
There can be thousands of computers in a domain.
The computers can be on different local networks.
NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES
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BUS
In a bus topology all devices are connected to the transmission
medium as backbone. There must be a terminator at each end of the bus
to avoid signal reflections, which may distort the original signal.
Signal is sent in both directions, but some buses are unidirectional.
Good for small networks. Can be used for 10BASE5 (thick net),
10BASE2 (thin net) or 10BROAD36 (broad band) co-axial bus
standards.
The main problem with the bus topology is failure of the medium
will seriously affect the whole network. Any small break in the media
the signal will reflect back and cause errors. The whole network must
be shutdown and repaired. In such situations it is difficult to
troubleshoot and locate where the break in the cable is or which
machine is causing the fault; when one device fails the rest of the LAN
fails.
STAR
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In a star
topology
each
station
is
connected to a
central node. The
central node can
be either a hub or
a switch. The star
topology does not
have the problem
as seen in bus
topology.
The
failure of a media
does not affect
the
entire
network.
Other
stations can continue to operate until the damaged segment is repaired.
Commonly used for 10BASE5, 10BASE-T or 100BASE-TX types.
The advantages are cabling is inexpensive, easy to wire, more
reliable and easier to manage because of the use of hubs which allow
defective cable segments to be routed around; locating and repairing
bad cables is easier because of the concentrators; network growth is
easier.
The disadvantages are all nodes receive the same signal therefore
dividing bandwidth; Maximum computers are 1,024 on a LAN.
Maximum UTP (Unshielded twisted pair) length is 100 meters;
distance between computers is 2.5 meters.
This topology is the dominant physical topology today.
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RING
Each device has a transceiver which behaves like a repeater
which moves the signal
around the ring; ideal
for token passing access
methods.
In this topology
signal degeneration is
FLOW OF MESSAGE
low; only the device
that holds the token can
transmit which reduces
collisions.
Messages
travel around the ring,
with each node reading
those
messages
addressed to it. One of
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the advantages of ring networks is that they can span larger distance
than other types of networks, such as bus networks, because each node
regenerates messages as they pass through it.
If you see its negative aspect it is difficult to locate a problem
cable segment; expensive hardware.
MESH
A mesh physical topology is when every device on the network is
connected to every device on the network; most commonly used in
WAN configurations.
Helps find the quickest route on the network; provides
redundancy. It is very expensive and not eas y to set up.
Types of Mesh topology

1) Full Mesh Topology:In this, like a true mesh, each component is connected to every
other component. Even after considering the redundancy factor and cost
of this network, its main advantage is that the network traffic can be
redirected to other nodes if one of the nodes goes
down. Full
mesh topology is used only for backbone networks.
2) Partial Mesh Topology:This is far more practical as
compared to full mesh topology.
Here, some of the systems are connected
in similar fashion as in mesh topology
while rests of the s ystems are only
connected to 1 or 2 devices. It can be said
that in partial mesh, the workstations
are indirectly connected to other
devices. This one is less costly and also
reduces redundancy.
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HYBRID
A hybrid topology is a combination of any two or more network
topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not have one
of the standard forms. For example, a tree network connected to a tree
network is still a tree network, but two star networks connected
together exhibit hybrid network topologies. A hybrid topology is
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Page 47
always produced when two different basic network topologies are

connected.
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
The means through which data is transformed from one place to another
is called transmission or communication media. There are two categories of
transmission media used in computer communications.
GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media are the physical links through which signals are
confined to narrow path. It is made up of an external conductor
(Usually Copper) bounded by jacket material. Guided media are great
for LABS because they offer high speed, good security and low cast.
However, some time they cannot be used due distance communication.
Three common types of these media are used of the data transmission.
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COAXIAL CABLE
Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation
media. For example TV wire is usually coaxial.
Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors
that are parallel to each other. The center conductor in the cable is
usually copper. The copper can be either a solid wire
or stranded martial.
Outside this central Conductor
is a non-conductive material. It is
usually white, plastic material
used to separate the inner
Conductor form the outer
Conductor.
The
other
Conductor is a fine mesh made
from Copper. Outside the
copper mesh is the final
protective cover.
The actual data travels through the center conductor in the cable.
EMI interference is caught by outer copper mesh. There are different
types of coaxial cable vary by gauge & impedance.
Gauge is the measure of the cable thickness. It is measured by
the Radio grade measurement, or RG number. The high the RG number,
the thinner is the central conductor core, the lower the number the
thicker the core.
COAXIAL STANDARD
50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.
50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF
COAXIAL CABLE
Low cost & Eas y to install
Up to 10Mbps capacity
Medium immunity form EMI
Medium of attenuation
ADVANTAGES COAXIAL CABLE
Inexpensive
Eas y to wire
Eas y to expand
Moderate
level
of
EMI
immunity
DISADVANTAGE COAXIAL CABLE
Single cable failure can take down an entire network
Page 49
TWISTED PAIR CABLE

The most popular network cabling is Twisted pair. It is light
weight, easy to install, inexpensive and support many different types of
network. It also supports the speed of 100 mbps. Twisted pair cabling is
made of pairs of solid or
stranded copper twisted
along each other. The
twists are done to reduce
vulnerably to EMI and
cross talk. The number of
pairs in the cable depends
on the type. The copper
core is usually 22-AWG or
24-AWG, as measured on
the American wire gauge
standard. There are two types of twisted pairs cabling.
1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2
pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector. It can
be either voice grade or data grade depending on the condition. UTP
cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP
and easily available due to its many use. There are five levels of data
cabling.
Category 1
These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
Category 2
These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
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Category 3
These cable supports up to 16 mps
are mostly used in 10 mbps.
Category 4
These are used for large distance and
high speed. It can support 20mps.
Category 5
This is the highest rating for UTP
cable and can support up to 100mps.
Advantages of UTP
low cost
eas y to install
High speed capacity
High attenuation
Effective to EMI
100 meter limit
Disadvantages of UTP
Short distance due to attenuation
and
Page 50
2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding thats protects it
from EMI which allows for higher transmission rate.
IBM has defined category for STP cable.
Type 1
STP features two pairs of
22-AWG
Type 2
This type include type 1
with 4 telephone pairs
Type 6
This type feature two
pairs of standard shielded
26-AWG
Type 7
This type consist of 1 pair
of standard shielded 26AWG
Type 9
This type consist of shielded 26-AWG
wire
ADVANTAGES OF STP
Medium cost & Easy to install
Higher capacity than UTP
Higher attenuation, but same as UTP
Medium immunity from EMI
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100 meter limit

Shielded
Faster than UTP & Coaxial
DISADVANTAGES OF STP:
More expensive than UTP and coaxial
More difficult installation
High attenuation rate
OPTICAL FIBRE
Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses
light. In fiber optic cable light only moves in one direction for two way
communication to take place a second connection must be
made between the two devices. It is
actually two stands of cable. Each
stand
is
responsible
for one
direction
of
communication. A laser at one device sends pulse
of
light through this cable to other device. These
pulses translated into 1s and 0s at the
other end.
In the center of fiber cable is a
glass stand or core. The light from the
laser moves through this glass to the
other device around the internal core is a reflective material
known as CLADDING. No light escapes the glass core because
of this reflective cladding.
Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per
Second)
Page 51
Advantages Of Fiber Optic Cable:

Capable of extreme high speed
Low attenuation
No EMI interference
Disadvantages Fiber Optics:

Very costly
Hard to install
UNGUIDED MEDIA
Unguided or wireless media
doesn't use any physical connectors between
the two devices communicating. These mainly consists of
electromagnetic wave. Signals are normally broadcast through the air
and thus are available to any one who has the device capable of
receiving them. Wireless media is used when a physical obstruction or
distance blocks are used with normal cable media.
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The three types

RADIO WAVES
of
unguided
media are:
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with

wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light.
Radio waves have frequencies from 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, and
corresponding wavelengths from 1 millimeter to 100 kilometers. Like
all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light.
Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by
astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for
fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting, radar and other
navigation systems, satellite communication, computer networks and
innumerable other applications. Different frequencies of radio waves
have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's atmosphere;
long waves may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter
waves can reflect off the ionosphere and travel around the world, and
much shorter wavelengths bend or reflect very little and travel on a line
of sight. Radio waves have following types:
Radio waves has the following types.
SHORT WAVES:There are different types of antennas used for radio waves. Radio
waves transmission can be divided into following categories.
LOW POWER , SINGLE FREQUENCY:As the name shows this system transmits from one frequency and
has low power out. The normal operating ranges on these devices are
20 to 25 meter.
CHARACTERISTICS
o Low cost
o Simple installation with pre-configured
o 1 M bps to 10 M bps capacity
o High attenuation
o Low immunity to EMI
Page 52
HIGH POWER, SINGLE FREQUENCY:This is similar to low power single frequency. These devices can
communicate over greater distances.
CHARACTERISTICS
o Moderate cost
o Easier to install than low power single frequency
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o 1 Mbps to 10 Mbps of capacity

o Low attenuation for long distances
o Low immunity to EMI
VHF (Very High Frequency)

UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
MICROWAVE
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The
Transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive station.
This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on the
local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature
is only 50 km to the horizon. Repeater stations must be placed so the
data signal can hop, skip and jump across the country. The distance
covered by microwave signals is based upon the height of the antenna.
In order to increase this coverage each antenna has a built-in repeater
that regenerates the signal before passing it on to the next antenna in
line. The placement of the antenna to do this is approximately 25 miles.
The main drawback of microwave signals is that they can be
affected by weather, especially rain.
Following are the types of Micro waves.
Terrestrial Micro waves:Terrestrial Micro waves are used are used to transmit wireless
signals across a few miles. Terrestrial s ystem requires that direct
parabolic antennas can be pointed to each other. These systems operate
in a low Giga Hertz range.
CHARACTERISTICS of Terrestrial Micro waves: Moderate to high cost.

Moderately difficult installation
1 M bps to 10 M bps capacity
Variable attenuation
Low immunity to EMI
Satellite Micro waves
The main problem with aero wave communication is the
curvature of the earth, mountains & other structure often block the line
of side. Due to this reason, many repeats are required for long distance
which increases the cost of data transmission between the two points.
This problem is recommended by using satellites.
Satellite micro wave transmission is used to transmit signals
through out the world. These system use satellites in orbit about 50,000
Km above the earth. Satellite dishes are used to send the signals to the
satellite where it is again send back down to the receiver satellite.
Page 53
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These transmissions also use directional parabolic antenna with in line

of side.
In satellite communication micro wave signals at 6 GHz is
transmitted from a transmitter on the earth through the satellite
position in space. By the time signal reaches the satellites becomes
weaker due to 50,000 Km distance. The satellite amplifies week signals
and transmits it back to the earth at the frequency less than 6 GHz.
Characteristics of Satellite Micro waves:
High cost
Extremely difficult and hare installation.
Variable attenuation.
Low immunity to EMI
High security needed because a signal send to satellite is
broadcasts through all receivers with in satellite.
Page 54
INFRARED
Infrared frequencies are just below visible light. These high
frequencies allow high sped data transmission. This technology is
similar to the use of a remote control for a TV. Infrared transmission
can be affected by objects obstructing sender or receiver. Infrared (IR)
light is electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of
visible light, extending from the nominal red edge of the visible
spectrum at 0.74 micrometres (m) to 300 m. This range of
wavelengths corresponds to a frequency range of approximately 1 to
400 THz and includes most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects
near room temperature.
These transmissions fall into two categories .
Point to Point:Point to point infrared transmission signal directly between two
systems. Many lap top system use point to pint transmission. These
systems require direct alignment between many devices.
Characteristics of Point to point: Wide range of cost
Moderately eas y installation.
100 k bps to 16 Mb of capacity.
High immunity to EMI
Broad Cast:These infrared transmission use sprayed signal, one broad cast in
all directions instead of direct beam. This help to reduce the problems
of proper alignment and abstraction. It also allows multiple receiver of
signal
Characteristics of Broad Cast:
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Inexpensive.
Single installation.
1M bps capacity.
Page 55
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NETWORK DEVICES
The hardware which is required to establish a network connection is
network devices. These are,
HUB
Hubs act as junction boxes, linking cables from several computers
on a network. Hubs are usually sold with 4, 8, 16 or 24 ports. Some
hubs allow connection of more than one kind of cabling, such as UTP
and coax. Hubs also repeat (reconstruct and strengthen) incoming
signals. This is important since all signals become weaker with
distance. The maximum LAN segment distance for a cable can therefore
be extended using hubs.
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NIC CARD
Network interface cards (NIC), also called network cards and
network adapters include a cable socket allowing computers to be
connected to the network. All NICs have a unique address (sometimes
called a MAC address), placed in them by their manufacturer.
Before sending data onto the
network, the network card also
organizes data into frames and then
sends them out on the network.
Notebook computers often use NICs
that are plugged into the PCMCIA
port.
Wireless LAN adapters are needed
for WLANs.
NIC card functions:
Monitoring activity on the communication medium.
Providing each workstation/server with a
unique
identification address (MAC).
Recognizing and receiving data transmitted
to the computer.
Creating (building) the frames needed to
transmit data on the communication
medium.
Controlling LAN transmission speed.
Transmission error detection and recovery.
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Page 57
In general use Hub can be referred to any connecting device and can
be considered as multipoint repeater. Hubs can be used to
create
tree structure like topology (Technically it is bus topology).
Network
point
of
view it is a logical
device and does not
have an address. The
added
benefit
of
using Hub is it removes
the
length
restriction
100 meters in 10BaseT.
SWITCH
A
Switch
is
more
sophisticated
than hub and can remember
and check node addresses.
In fact this phenomenon can
affect
logical
topology of the network! They
physically
resemble
hubs and like hubs, they vary in number of ports, stand-alone vs.
stackable, and managed vs. unmanaged.
While a hub broadcasts data frames to all ports, the switch reads the
destination address of the data frame and only sends it to the
corresponding port. The effect is to turn the network into a group of
point-to-point circuits and thus changes the logical topology of the
network from a bus to a star.
When a switch is first turned on, its internal forwarding table is
empty. It then learns which ports correspond to which computers by
reading the source addresses of the incoming frames along with the
port number that the frame arrived on. If the switchs forwarding table
does not have the destination address of the data frame, it broadcasts
the frame to all ports.
Thus, a switch starts by working like a hub and then works more and
more as a switch as it fills its forwarding table. Thus they work at
machine address level.
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BRIDGE
A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into
two smaller, more efficient networks. If you are adding to an older
wiring scheme and want the new network to be up-to-date, a bridge can
connect the two.
A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the
network so that it can pass packets of information to the correct
location. Most bridges can "listen" to the network and automatically
figure out the address of each computer on both sides of the bridge.
The bridge can inspect each message and, if necessary, broadcast it on
the other side of the network.
The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on
both sides of the network. You might say that the bridge is like a traffic
cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps information
flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary
traffic through. Bridges can be used to connect different types of
cabling, or physical
topologies.
They
must, however, be
used
between
networks with the
same protocol.
REPEATER
Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often
necessary to boost the signal with a device called a repeater. The
repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it.
Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a
concentrator.
They are used when the total length of your network
cable
exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being used.
A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a
local
area network using a star topology with unshielded
twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for unshielded
twisted-pair cable is 100 meters. The most
common
configuration
is
for
each
workstation to be connected by twisted-pair
cable to a multi-port active concentrator.
The concentrator amplifies all the signals
that pass through it allowing for the total length of
cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit
Page 58
ROUTER
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A router translates information from one network to another; it is

similar to a super intelligent bridge. Routers select the best path to
route a message, based on the destination address and origin. The
router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart
enough to know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.
While bridges
know the addresses of all computers on each side
of
the
Page 59
network, routers know the

addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the network.
Routers can even "listen" to the entire network to determine which
sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those sections
until they clear up. If you have a school LAN that you want to connect
to the Internet, you will need to purchase a router. In this case, the
router serves as the translator between the information on your LAN
and the Internet. It also determines the best route to send the data over
the Internet.
Routers can:
Direct signal traffic efficiently
Route messages between any two protocols
Route messages between linear bus, star, and star-wired ring topologies
Route messages across fiber optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair cabling
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ROUTER & REPEATER
Page 60
CONFIGURATION
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CABLING & COLOR CODING STANDARD

RJ-45 conductor data cable contains 4 pairs of wires each consists of a
solid colored wire and a strip of the same color. There are two wiring
standards for RJ-45 wiring: T-568A and T-568B. Although there are 4 pairs of
wires, Ethernet uses only 2 pairs: Orange and Green. The other two colors
(blue and brown) may be used for a second Ethernet line or for phone
connections.
568A
568B
There are three types of

cabling being used:
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STRAIGHT THROUGH CABLING

Straight-Through refers to cables that have the pin assignments on
each end of the cable. In other words Pin
1
connector A goes to Pin 1 on connector
B,
Pin 2 to Pin 2 respectively.
Straight-Through wired
cables are most commonly
used to connect a host to
client. To create a straightthrough cable, we will have
to use either T-568A or T568B on both ends of the
cable. Commonly 568B is
used while cabling. When
we talk about cat5e patch cables, the Straight-Through wired cat5e
patch cable is used to connect computers, printers and other network
client devices to the router switch or hub (the host device in this
instance).
CROSSOVER CABLING
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A crossover cable directly connects two network devices of the same

type to each other over Ethernet. Examples would be connecting a
computer directly to
another
computer,
connecting a switch
directly
to
another
switch, or connecting
a router to a router.
Ethernet crossover
cables are commonly
used when temporarily
networking
two
devices in situations
where
a
network
router, switch or hub
is not present. Crossover wired cables (commonly called crossover
cables) are very much like Straight-Through cables with the exception
that TX(transmitter) and RX(receiver) lines are crossed (they are at
opposite positions on either end of the cable). Using the 568-B
standard as an example below you will see that Pin 1 on connector A
goes to Pin 3 on connector B. Pin 2 on connector A goes to Pin 6 on
connector B.
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ROLLOVER CABLING
Rollover wired cables most commonly called rollover cables, have
opposite Pin assignments on each end of the cable or in other words it
is "rolled over". Pin 1 of connector A would be connected to Pin 8 of
connector B. Pin 2 of connector A would be connected to Pin 7 of
connector B and so on. Rollover cables, sometimes referred to as Yost
cables are most commonly used to connect to a devices console port to
make programming changes to the device. Unlike crossover and
straight-wired cables, rollover cables are not intended to carry data but
instead create an interface with the device.
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PROTOCOL
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between
computers on a network. These rules include guidelines that regulate the
following characteristics of a network: access method, allowed physical
topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer. Protocols specify
interactions between the communicating entities. Sometimes protocol is
called language for communication that means both Tx & Rx end should have
same protocol.
On the basis of connection of protocol it is of two types
Connection oriented
Connection-Oriented means that when devices communicate, they
perform handshaking to set up an end-to-end connection.
Connection-Oriented systems can only work in bi-directional
communications environments. To negotiate a connection, both sides
must be able to communicate with each other. This will not work in
a unidirectional environment.
Example: TCP
Connection less
A Connectionless Protocol is a data communication method in
which communication occurs between hosts with no previous setup.
The device at one end of the communication transmits data to the
other, without first ensuring that the recipient is available and ready
to receive the data. The device sending a message simply sends it
addressed to the intended recipient.
Example: IP, UDP, ICMP, DNS and SNMP
NOTE
ROUTABLE PROTOCOL: A communication protocol that contains
a network address as well as a device address is routable protocol. It allows
packets to be forwarded from one network to another. It can cross the
router.
Exa mples: TCP/IP, IPX, AppleTalk, SNA, XNS and DECnet.
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NON-ROUTABLE PROTOCOL: A communications protocol that

contains onl y a device address and not a network address is non-routable
protocol. It cant cross the router. It does not incorporate an addressing
sche me for sending data from one network to another.
Exa mples: NetBIOS
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Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection.

For example, there are protocols for the data interchange at the hardware
device level and protocols for data interchange at the application program
level. In the standard model known as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI),
there are one or more protocols at each layer in the telecommunication
exchange that both ends of the exchange must recognize and observe.
TCP/IP
The Internet protocols consist of a suite of communication protocols, of
which the two best known are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
the Internet Protocol (IP). Internet protocols were rst developed in the mid1970s, when the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
became interested in establishing a packet-switched network that would
facilitate communication between dissimilar computer systems at research
institutions
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which uses a set of rules to
exchange messages with other Internet points at the information packet level.
Internet Protocol (IP), which uses a set of rules to send and receive messages
at the Internet address level.
Features of TCP/IP:
It is open standard
Specially designed for LAN & WAN
Support both connection oriented & connectionless protocol
It is routable protocol
It uses manual configuration
It is divided into four layers
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TCP/IP architecture omits some features found under the OSI model,
combines the features of some adjacent OSI layers and splits other layers
apart. The 4-layer structure of TCP/IP is built as information is passed down
from applications to the physical network layer. When data is sent, each layer
treats all of the information it receives from the upper layer as data, adds
control information (header) to the front of that data and then passes it to the
lower layer. When data is received, the opposite procedure takes place as
each layer processes and removes its header before passing the data to the
upper layer.
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The TCP/IP 4-layer model and the key functions of each layer are
described below:
Application Layer
The Application Layer in TCP/IP groups the functions of OSI
Application, Presentation Layer and Session Layer. Therefore any process
above the transport layer is called an Application in the TCP/IP architecture.
In TCP/IP socket and port are used to describe the path over which
applications communicate. Most application level protocols are associated
with one or more port number.
Transport Layer
In TCP/IP architecture, there are two Transport Layer protocols. The
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) guarantees information transmission.
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) transports datagram without end-to-end
reliability checking. Both protocols are useful for different applications.
Network Layer
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the primary protocol in the TCP/IP Network
Layer. All upper and lower layer communications must travel through IP as
they are passed through the TCP/IP protocol stack. In addition, there are
many supporting protocols in the Network Layer, such as ICMP, to facilitate
and manage the routing process.
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Network Access Layer

In the TCP/IP architecture, the Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are
normally grouped together to become the Network Access layer. TCP/IP
makes use of existing Data Link and Physical Layer standards rather than
defining its own. Many RFCs describe how IP utilizes and interfaces with the
existing data link protocols such as Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, HSSI, and
ATM. The physical layer, which defines the hardware communication
properties, is not often directly interfaced with the TCP/IP protocols in the
network layer and above.
TCP/IP MODEL OF DATA

COMMUNICATION
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PROTOCOL
DESCRIPTION
SNMP
Simpl
e
Network Management Protocol ): Used

monitoring of local or remote device.
for
manage
DHCP
(Dynamic
Host
Configuration
Protocol ):
automatically sends IP address to DHCP client.
&
It
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) : It is used for file upload &

downloads.
TELNET: Terminal emulation software used for remote login.
WWW (World Wide Web): It hosts the website.
MAIL: It is used for mail purpose.
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NFS (Network File System): Used to share files & folder

between Unix to Unix PC.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol ): It is
oriented reliable protocol used for packet transfer.
connection
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UDP (User Datagram Protocol ): It is connectionless protocol

& is broadcasting in nature.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol ): Mainly for error
handling. Ping command is controlled by this protocol.
IP (Internet Protocol): It contains addressing information and
control information to enable packets to be routed in a
network.
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ARP (Address Resolution Protocol ): It is used to reserve IP

address or MAC address.
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IP ADDRESSING
As with any other network-layer protocol, the IP addressing scheme is
integral to the process of routing IP datagram through an internetwork. Each
IP address has specific components and follows a basic format. These IP
addresses can be subdivided and used to create addresses for sub networks.
Each host on a TCP/IP network is assigned a unique 32-bit logical
address that is divided into two main parts: the network number and the host
number. The network number identifies a network and must be assigned by
the Internet Network Information Center (Inter NIC) if the network is to be
part of the Internet. An Internet Service Provider (ISP) can obtain blocks of
network addresses from the Inter NIC and can itself assign address space as
necessary. The host number identifies a host on a network and is assigned by
the local network administrator.
IP ADDRESS FORMAT
The 32-bit IP address is grouped eight bits at a time, separated by dots,
and represented in decimal format (known as dotted decimal notation). Each
bit in the octet has a binary weight (128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1). The minimum
value for an octet is 0, and the maximum value for an octet is 255.
IP ADDRESS CLASS
IP addressing supports five different address classes: A, B, C, D, and E
in which only classes A, B, and C are available for commercial use. The leftmost (high-order) bits indicate the network class.
CLAS
N/W
Host
MAX.
RANGE
S
A
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B
C
D
E
Purpose
ID
ID
Host
1. 0 . 0. 0
F EW L A R G E
8 BIT
2 4 B IT
24
- 2
1 2 6 . 0. 0 . 0
1 2 8. 1 . 0. 0
O R G A N I ZATI O N S
M E D I UM - S I ZE
1 6 B IT
1 6 B IT
216 - 2
1 9 1 . 2 5 4. 0 . 0
1 9 2. 0 . 1. 0
R E L ATI V E LY SM A L L
2 4 B IT
8 BIT
28 - 2
2 2 3 . 2 5 5. 2 5 4 . 0
2 2 4. 0 . 0. 0
N/A
N/A
N/A
M ULTI C A S T
N/A
N/A
N/A
RESEARCH
2 3 9 . 2 5 5. 2 5 5 . 2 5 5
2 4 0. 0 . 0. 0
2 5 4 . 2 5 5. 2 5 5 . 2 5 5
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One address is reserved for broadcast address & one is reserved for network
address.
N/A Not Available for comme rcial use.
WINDOWS IN WORKGROUP MODEL

Workgroups provide a basis for file and printer sharing, but do
not actually set up sharing for you. In this model there is no
centralized server or database, such as Active Directory. This type
of security is strictly peer-to-peer. Each computer is equal to all of
the others and can share resources with the others.
REQUIREMENTS:
At least 2 PCs must having Ethernet card & driver loaded.
A switch
Connectivity media (straight through cable)
Each PC should have a same workgroup name
Firewall should must be turned off
192.168.
METHOD:
Switch on all the PCs and devices.
Give IP address to PC1 as 192.168.1.1 and to PC2 1 9 2 .1 6 8 .
192.168.1.5
Run ping command from each PC so that we confirm each PC
is responding to each other.
Syntax: Ping <IP address of the PC>
If there is no response check for the firewall setting.
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CONFIRMING THE CONNECTION:

Create a folder in any PC
Right click on the folder & go to its properties
Click on share tab & give a share name for the folder
Click on add share and provide the selective permission to the
folder like as read, write, etc
Go to other PC
Click on Run in Start menu and type the following
\\computer name or IP address of the shared folder
Now we can see the shared folder in other PC
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NETWORK PRINTING
It is basically the connection of a network printer with number
of PC. It is mainly used in large organization where there is large
demand of printing from different members. It is cumbersome of
providing an individual printer to each member of the organization
so this type of configuration is required. In this configuration if a
member want to give a print command then it is required to be
authorized by the server to pass the command to the printer.
REQUIREMENTS:
Network printer & a PC
Connecting media
A switch
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METHODS:
Press the green button on the printer for a while.
We get a window for the IP address of the printer on PC
Provide the IP address
Run ping command from PC so that we confirm it is
responding to the network.
Syntax: Ping <IP address of the PC>
Open Internet Explorer with address
http://IP address of the printer
Under network button we give the IP address
We can also give the subnet mask if we are working in office
range
Change the PC IP address to previous IP address & load the
driver
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ACTIVE DIRECTORY SERVICE

Microsoft Active Directory Service provides the structure to centralize
the network management and store information about network resources
across the entire domain. Active Directory uses Domain Controllers to keep
this centralized storage available to network users. In order to configure a
Windows Server 2008 machine to act as Domain Controller, several
considerations and prerequisites should be taken into account, and several
steps should be performed.
procedure is for a laboratory environment and you are not integrating

this environment into your existing DNS infrastructure, you can use
something generic, such as mycompany.com , for this setting.
Click Next.
Accept the default domain NetBIOS name. Click Next.
Set the database and log file location to the default setting of the
c:\winnt\ntds folder, and then click Next.
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Insert the Windows Server 2003 CD-ROM into your computer's CDROM or DVD-ROM drive.
Click Start, click Run, and then type dcpromo.
Click OK to start the Active Directory Installation Wizard, and then
click Next.
Click Domain controller for a new domain , and then click Next.
Click
Domain
in
a
new
forest
,
and
then
click
Next.
Specify
the
full DNS
name
for
the
new
domain.
Note
that
because
this
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Set the Sysvol folder location to the default setting of the

c:\winnt\s ysvol folder, and then click Next.
Click Install and configure the DNS server on this computer , and
then click Next.
Click Permissions compatible only with Windows 2000 or Windows
Server 2003 servers or operating systems , and then click Next.
Because this is a laboratory environment, leave the password for the
Directory Services Restore Mode Administrator blank. Note that in a
full production environment, this password is set by using a secure
password format. Click Next.
Review and confirm the options that you selected, and then click Next.
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The installation of Active Directory proceeds. Note that this operation

may take several minutes.
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Adding Users and Computers to the Active Directory Domain

After the new Active Directory domain is established, create a user
account in that domain to use as an administrative account. When that user is
added to the appropriate security groups, use that account to add computers to
the domain.
To create a new user, follow these steps:
Click Start, point to Administrative Tools , and then click Active
Directory Users and Computers to start the Active Directory Users
and Computers console.
Click the domain name that you created, and then expand the contents.
Right-click Users, point to New, and then click User.
Type the first name, last name, and user logon name of the new user,
and then click Next.
Type a new password, confirm the password, and then click to select
one of the following check boxes:
Users must change password at next logon (recommended for
most users)
User cannot change password
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To add the new user to a group

After you create the new user, give this user account membership in a
group that permits that user to perform administrative tasks. Because this
is a laboratory environment that you are in control of, you can give this
user account full administrative access by making it a member of the
Schema, Enterprise, and Domain administrators groups. To add the account
to the Schema, Enterprise, and Domain administrators groups, follow these
steps:
On the Active Directory Users and Computers console, right-click the
new account that you created, and then click Properties.
Click the Member Of tab, and then click Add.
In the Select Groups dialog box, specify a group, and then click OK to
add the groups that you want to the list.
Repeat the selection process for each group in which the user needs
account membership.
Click OK to finish.
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Password never expires

Account is disabled
Click Next.
Review the information that you provided, and if everything is correct,
click Finish.
Adding a member to domain

The final step in this process is to add a member server to the domain.
This process also applies to workstations. To add a computer to the domain,
follow these steps:
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A message that welcomes you to the domain is generated.

Click OK to return to the Computer Name tab, and then click OK to
finish.
Restart the computer if you are prompted to do so.
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Log on to the computer that you want to add to the domain.

Right-click My Computer and then click Properties.
Click the Computer Name tab, and then click Change.
In the Computer Name Changes dialog box, click Domain under
Member Of, and then type the domain name. Click OK.
When you are prompted, type the user name and password of the
account
that
you
previously created,
and
then
click OK.
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DHCP SERVER
"Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is an IP standard
designed to reduce the complexity of administering IP address
configurations." A DHCP server would be set up with the appropriate settings
for a given network. Such settings would include a set of fundamental
parameters such as the gateway, DNS, subnet masks, and a range of IP
addresses. Using DHCP on a network means administrators don't need to
configure these settings individually for each client on the network. The
DHCP would automatically distribute them to the clients itself.
The DHCP server assigns a client an IP address taken from a predefined
scope for a given amount of time. If an IP address is required for longer than
the lease has been set for, the client must request
an extension before the lease expires. If the client
has not requested an extension on the lease time,
the IP address will be considered free and can be
assigned to another client. If the user wishes to
change IP address then they can do so by typing
"ipconfig /release", followed by "ipconfig /renew" in the command
prompt. This will remove the current IP address and request a new one.
Reservations can be defined on the DHCP server to allow certain clients to
have their own IP address. Addresses can be reserved for a MAC address or a
host name so these clients will have a fixed IP address that is configured
automatically. Most Internet Service Providers use DHCP to assign new IP
addresses to client computers when a customer connects to the internet.
The DHCP Server itself contains an IP Address Database which holds
all the IP addresses available for distribution. If the client (a member of the
network with a Windows 2000 Professional/XP operating system, for
example) has "obtain an IP address automatically" enabled in TCP/IP settings,
then it is able to receive an IP address from the DHCP server.
After you have installed the DHCP service and started it, you must
create a scope, which is a range of valid IP addresses that are available for
lease to the DHCP client computers on the network. Microsoft recommends
that each DHCP server in your environment have at least one scope that does
not overlap with any other DHCP server scope in your environment. In
Windows Server 2003, DHCP servers in an Active Directory-based domain
must be authorized to prevent rogue DHCP servers from coming online. Any
Windows Server 2003 DHCP Server that determines itself to be unauthorized
will not manage clients.
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How to Create a New Scope

Click Start, point to Programs, point to Administrative Tools , and then
click DHCP.
In the console tree, right-click the DHCP server on which you want to
create the new DHCP scope, and then click New Scope.
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In the New Scope Wizard, click Next, and then type a name and
description for the scope. Click Next.
Type the range of addresses that can be leased as part of this scope (for
example, use a range of IP addresses from a starting IP address of
192.168.100.1 to an ending address of 192.168.100.100). Because these
addresses are given to clients, they must all be valid addresses for your
network and not currently in use. If you want to use a different subnet
mask, type the new subnet mask. Click Next.
Type any IP addresses that you want to exclude from the range that you
entered. Click Next.
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Type the number of days, hours, and minutes before an IP address lease
from this scope expires. This determines how long a client can hold a
leased address without renewing it. Click Next, and then click Yes, I want
to configure these options now to extend the wizard to include settings
for the most common DHCP options. Click Next.
Type the IP address for the default gateway that should be used by clients
that obtain an IP address from this scope. Click Add to add the default
gateway address in the list, and then click Next.
If you are using DNS servers on your network, type your organization's
domain name in the Parent domain box. Type the name of your DNS
server, and then click Resolve to make sure that your DHCP server can
contact the DNS server and determine its address. Click Add to include
that server in the list of DNS servers that are assigned to the DHCP
clients. Click Next, and then follow the same steps if you are using a
Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) server, by adding its name and
IP address. Click Next.
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Click Yes, I want to activate this scope now to activate the scope and
allow clients to obtain leases from it, and then click Next.
Click Finish.
In the console tree, click the server name, and then click Authorize on the
Action menu.
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IP SHARING
It is a Microsoft Windows technology that allows computers on a
network to access online services through a single Internet connection. To use
Internet Connection Sharing to share your Internet connection, the host
computer must have one network adapter that is configured to connect to the
internal network and one network adapter or
modem that is configured
to connect to the Internet.
SERVER/HOST CONFIGURATION:
NIC1- Automatic IP
NIC2- IP (192.168.0.1)
CONFIGURE FOR INTERNAL CONNECTION:
Log on to the host computer as Administrator or as Owner.

Click Start, and then click Control Panel .
Click Network and Internet Connections .
Click Network Connections .
Right-click the connection that you use to connect to the Internet. For
example, if you connect to the Internet by using a modem, right-click the
connection that you wants under Dial-up.
Click Properties.
Click the Advanced tab.
Under Internet Connection Sharing , select the Allow other netw ork
users to connect through this computer's Internet connection check
box.
If you are sharing a dial-up Internet connection, select the Establish a
dial-up connection whenever a computer on my netw ork attempts to
access the Internet check box if you want to permit your computer to
automatically connect to the Internet.
Click OK. You receive the following message:
When Internet Connection Sharing is enabled, your LAN adapter
will be set to use IP address 192.168.0.1. Your computer may lose
connectivity with other computers on your network. If these other
computers have static IP addresses, it is a good idea to set them to
obtain their IP addresses automatically. Are you sure you want to
enable Internet Connection Sharing?
Click Yes
The connection to the Internet is shared to other computers on
the local area network (LAN). The network adapter that is connected to
the LAN is configured with a static IP address of 192.168.0.1 and a
subnet mask of 255.255.255.0
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To configure the client computer to use the shared Internet connection,

follow these steps:
Click Start, and then click Control Panel .
Click Network and Internet Connections .
Click Internet Options.
In the Internet Properties dialog box, click the Connections tab.
Click the Setup button.
The New Connection Wizard starts.

On the Welcome to the New Connection Wizard page, click Next.
Click Connect to the Internet , and then click Next.
Click Set up my connection manually , and then click Next.
Click Connect using a broadband connection that is alw ays on , and then
click Next.
On the Completing the New Connection Wizard page, click Finish.
Quit Control Panel.
Page 81
When you now start Microsoft Internet Explorer, the client computer
will try to connect to the Internet by using the host computer's shared
Internet connection.
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MS-DOS

Short for Microsoft Disk operating s ystem, MS-DOS is a non-graphical

MS-DOS 1.25, support for double-density floppy disks

MS-DOS 2.11, extended character sets

MS-DOS 3.1, first time with network support

MS-DOS 5.0, Major Release

MS-DOS 5.0a, bug fixes for Undelete and Chkdsk

MS-DOS 6.0, Competition to Novell's DR-DOS 6, DoubleSpace, Anti-Virus

MS-DOS 6.2, DoubleSpace becomes incompatible to the previous version, Scandisk,

INTERNAL & EXTERNAL COMMANDS

Entering the current date- DATE

Entering the current time- TIME

Listing files in a directory- DIR

Copying files- COPY

Deleting files- DEL

Renaming files-Rename {REN)

Old file name- Specifies the file, to change its name.

Changing the system prompt- Prompt

Checking the disk-Chkdsk

Copying disks- Diskcopy

Copies disks; optionally formats the target disk if it is not formatted

Displaying directory tree- Tree

Printing files- Print

Click on finish to complete the Installation

The important components of an ATX Motherboard are given below:

Power supply plug in

1. MOUSE & KEYBOARD : USB is the General-purpose

3. PARALLEL PORT: Most printers use a special connector called a parallel

CPU manufactures sell the CPU with a fan permanently

8. PCI slot: Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus

9. ISA slot: (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard architecture of

10. CMOS Battery: To provide CMOS with the power when

11. AGP slot: If you have a modern

12. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight

The power supply connector has 20-pins,

Chipset is usually designed to work with a specific family of

In computing, the term chipset is commonly used to refer to a set of

The chipset normally consists of two major microchips. These are

The ALU, or the arithmetic and logic unit, is the

Addition and subtraction

Multiplication and division

This is used to decode the instructions that make up a program when

Control logic circuits

Program Counter (PC)

Instruction Register (IR)

This is used to hold the current instruction in the processor while it is

Accumulator (A, or ACC)

The accumulator is used to hold the result of operations performed by

Memory Buffer Register (MBR)

When an instruction or data is obtained from the memory or elsewhere,

Other general purpose registers

The system bus consists of three

of signals corresponding to a single bit of binary data. As such, a greater width

Note- Here Co- processor introduced like 8087.

INTEL PENTIUM II XEON

advantages in applications that benefit from faster instruction execution, such

CISC: Complex Instruction Set Computers

Small (100 or less)

Standard for most

Cost / CPU Complexity

Large (100 to 300)

Summary of the main differences between the two competing architectures

Other CMOS batteries include