A Critical Review of Rock Slope Failure Mechanisms The Importance PDF

Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Structural Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsg
Review article
A critical review of rock slope failure mechanisms: The importance

of structural geology
Doug Stead a, Andrea Wolter b, *
a
b
Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Dr., Burnaby, BC, Canada

ETH Zurich, 5 Sonneggstrasse, Zurich, Switzerland
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 31 August 2014
Received in revised form
3 February 2015
Accepted 3 February 2015
Available online 14 February 2015
Geological structures such as folds, faults, and discontinuities play a critical role in the stability and
behaviour of both natural and engineered rock slopes. Although engineering geologists have long recognised the importance of structural geology in slopes, it remains a signicant challenge to integrate
structural geological mapping and theory into all stages of engineering projects. We emphasise the
importance of structural geology to slope stability assessments, reviewing how structures control slope
failure mechanisms, how engineering geologists measure structures and include them in slope stability
analyses, and how numerical simulations of slopes incorporate geological structures and processes.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Rock slopes
Stability
Failure mechanisms
Engineering geology
Structural control
1. Introduction
2. Effects of structural geology on rock slope stability
Our understanding of rock slope failure mechanisms has

increased considerably during the last decade in response to
continued development of urban populations in mountainous areas
and to the challenges faced by engineers and geoscientists in the
exploitation of large open pit mines. Design in such large-scale rock
masses necessitates consideration of structural geology from the
micro-scale to the regional tectonic scale. In this paper, we critically
review rock slope failure mechanisms with an emphasis on how
knowledge of the structural geological environment inuences all
stages in the slope characterisation or design process. We discuss
the impacts of broad structural feature types on rock slopes,
highlighting important aspects using relevant case studies. We
then summarise how structures are characterised in engineering
geological projects, and nally review how structural geology is
incorporated into numerical modelling of slopes, a useful technique
in slope design. Our objective is to demonstrate the critical role of
structural features and processes in controlling rock slope stability
and failure type, style, and mechanism.
Structural features, such as folds, faults, and discontinuities,

control rock mass (i.e., intact rock dissected by discontinuities)
behaviour and contribute to either the stabilisation or destabilisation of rock slopes, depending on their orientations and the intensity of associated tectonic damage. Glastonbury and Fell (2000)
demonstrated how the geometry and composition of a rock slope
and its structures determine the potential mechanism of a landslide, ranging from translational to complex multi-mechanism
failure (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). Stead et al. (2006) referred to the
importance of structure in determining the complexity of failure
mechanisms. In this section, we review the importance of tectonic
environment and damage and common brittle and ductile structures related broadly to lithology, with examples drawn from the
published rock slope literature. Table 1 summarises the structural
and lithological features of the cited case studies and additional
examples. Specic structural features are discussed in relation to
each lithological rock type; however, this does not imply they are
exclusive to that lithology.
2.1. Tectonic environment and damage
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: dstead@sfu.ca (D. Stead), awolter@ethz.ch (A. Wolter).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2015.02.002
0191-8141/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
The tectonic environment and history, or inheritance, of a given

slope can determine if and how it fails; in situ stress conditions are
D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23
Fig. 1. Key rock failure modes considered in slope stability analysis: a) planar/translational sliding, b) toppling, and c) wedge sliding. d) Multi-planar translational failure (Palliser
rockslide), demonstrating the complexity slope engineers may encounter.
important to consider when assessing rock mass behaviour. Hoek

et al. (2009) discussed the role of in situ stresses in inuencing
the design of large open pits. They demonstrated numerically that
in situ stresses are typically not signicant as compared to uncertainties related to the geological model, strength and deformation properties, and groundwater pressures within the rock masses
of a given pit slope. Thus, gravitational stress usually dominates
slope stability in open pits. The exception is in areas of high horizontal stress (compressional regime), where stresses can inuence
open pit performance and should be considered. Kinakin and Stead
(2005) demonstrated the importance of in situ stress conditions in
the formation of sackung-type slope failures (or Deep-Seated
Gravitational Slope Deformations (DSGSDs)). Also investigating
natural slopes, Ambrosi and Crosta (2011) emphasised the interaction between geomorphological processes and in situ stress
conditions and slope geometry. They demonstrated that these

factors inuence slope failure type and behaviour. The World Stress
Map (Zoback, 1992) is a useful tool in assessing general in situ stress
conditions.
Past and present seismicity is also important to slope stability.
Not only does each earthquake have the capability of triggering
slope failures, but the cumulative effect of regional seismicity may
also damage and weaken slopes. Moore et al. (2011), for example,
illustrated the production of slope amplication effects at the 1991
Randa instability in Switzerland due to seismicity. Damjanac et al.
(2013) discussed the simulated stability of large open pits in relation to seismic activity and showed that open pits are less susceptible to seismically induced failure than natural slopes. Brian
et al. (2014) examined the role of microseismicity in producing
fatigue and damage in slopes, concluding that microseismic
Fig. 2. Classication of failure modes related to structures. a) Large rock glide, b) rough translational slide, c) planar translational slide, d) toe buckling translational slide, e) biplanar
compound slide, f) curved compound slide, g) toppling failure, h) irregular compound slide (modied after Glastonbury and Fell, 2000).
damage is spatially and temporally limited and may be episodic; it

typically also only occurs in areas of pre-existing damage (Gischig
et al., submitted; Wolter et al., submitted).
Numerous constitutive failure criteria have been developed to
represent the deformation and strength of rock masses in
compression and extension. The most common criterion in rock
slope analysis remains the simple, linear Mohr-Coulomb envelope.
The Hoek-Brown envelope, originally developed by Hoek and
Brown (1980), is also commonly applied to represent the strength
of rock masses. Recently, Diederichs (2003) developed a trilinear
failure criterion, illustrating the importance of brittle fracture
through tensile failure and spalling at low connement. Leith et al.
(2014a,b) applied this criterion to two Alpine valleys to investigate
the effects of geomorphic and tectonic processes on fracture initiation and propagation, and determined stress paths to failure given
in situ stress and landscape evolution. Stead and Eberhardt (2013)
highlighted the relevance of a trilinear failure envelope to rock

slope damage.
A considerable amount of research in structural geology has
been undertaken on damage associated with geological structures
(e.g., Shipton and Cowie, 2003, 2008). A rock slope may be subjected to many forms of damage including tectonic damage, gravitational displacement-induced damage, geomorphic damage,
seismic damage, and damage due to alteration or weathering. Only
recently has the importance of rock damage been fully realised in
the rock slope stability community; much of this has been due to
development of both rock slope mapping technologies and geomechanical modelling incorporating brittle fracture. Brideau et al.
(2009) and Brideau (2010) discussed the importance of damage
in rock slope instability with reference to several major landslides
including the 1965 Hope, 2002 McAuley Creek, and 2007 Chehalis
Lake landslides in British Columbia, and the South Peak, Turtle
Table 1
Summary of case studies presented in the text.
Name
Dominant type
Volume (m3)
Lithology
Structural control
Mechanisms
knes, Norway
>1960 e present
DSGSD
Rockslide
35,000,000
Beauregard, Italy
1951 e present
Downie, British Columbia
10,000 yr ago
DSGSD
663,000,000
DSGSD
1,500,000,000
Rockslide
Debris ows
Rock collapse
n/a
2,000,000
Limestone
Rockslide
8.5e12,000,000,000
Limestone
Rock avalanche
30,000,000
Limestone
Clastics
Goldau, Switzerland
Sept. 2, 1806
Hope, British Columbia
1965
Rockslide
36,000,000
Rockslide
47,000,000
Marl
Conglomerate
Greenstone
Felsite
fels, Austria
Ko
8700 yr ago
re, France
La Clapie
1900 e present
rock avalanche
2,100,000,000
creep
DSGSD
60,000,000
Madison, Montana
Aug. 17, 1959
Rockslide
20,000,000
Gneiss
Schist
Dolostone
Mt Steele, Yukon
Jul. 24, 2007
Rock/ice avalanche
(5/95%)
27e80,000,000
Palliser, Alberta
Prehistoric (2 events)
Rockslide
8,000,000
20,000,000
Granodiorite
Diorite
Gabbro
Cherty carbonates
Randa, Switzerland
Apr. 18, 1991
May 9, 1991
present
Vajont, Italy
Oct. 9, 1963
Rockslide (2-stage)
DSGSD
30,000,000
Foliation, 6 DS, faults, folds

Rear release e tension crack
Lateral release e faults
Sub-vertical DS
Release e fractures, trough
4 main DS, foliation, folds, fault
rear release e ridge crest
Lateral release e joint sets
4 main DS, foliation, cleavage
Release e joint sets
3 main DS
Faults, folds, foliation
Release e joint sets, faults
3 DS, anticline, faults
Rear release e fold hinge
Lateral release e joint sets
Progressive deformation
Joints, bedding
Foliation, DS, shear zones, faults
Rear release e fault
Lateral release e joint sets, faults
Fault, DS, foliation
Release e foliation, joint sets
Foliation, fold, faults
Fold alters foliation orientation
Rear release e fractures
Lateral release e fractures, fold
3e4 DS, foliation, regional faults
Rear release e ridge crest
Lateral release e gullies
Earthquake
Fault, 3 main DS
Earthquake
5 DS, regional thrust, syncline
Syncline curves bedding as base
3 main DS, fault, schistosity
Rear release e joint sets
Lateral release e joint sets, fault
Sliding
Intact rock fracture
Creep
Sliding
Toppling
Creep
Sliding
East Gate, British Columbia

1997
Eiger, Switzerland
Jul. 13, 2006
Flims, Switzerland
8500 yr ago
Frank, Alberta
Apr. 29, 1903
Gneiss
Biotite schist
Gouge
Mica schist
Paragneiss
Micaschist
Gneiss
Quartzite
Phyllite
Rockslide
270,000,000
Carbonates
Clay
Val Pola, Italy

Jul. 28, 1987
Rock avalanche
34,000,000
Diorite, gabbro
Quartzite
Gneiss, amphibolite
Para/orthogneiss
Schist
Gneiss
schist
Diorite
Ortho/paragneiss
3e9,000,000
Mountain instability in Alberta, Canada. Pedrazzini et al. (2011)

demonstrated the varied rock mass damage associated with
folding at Turtle Mountain and its effect on instability. More
recently, Agliardi et al. (2013) and Stead and Eberhardt (2013)
provided more in-depth discussions on the importance of rock
mass damage to slope stability. We emphasise the importance of
tectonic damage on rock masses. This damage reduces the strength
of rock masses and also provides the kinematics required for slope
displacements; we suggest that tectonically induced damage has a
fundamental inuence on subsequent gravitational damage and is
interlinked with other forms of damage.
2.2. Importance of structures in sedimentary rock slopes
Sedimentary rock masses typically behave anisotropically due to
bedding planes, which act as planes of weakness along which slip
may occur. Closely spaced bedding planes dipping into the slope
may lead to toppling slope failures. Such failures are described in
9 DS, folds, faults

Rear release e tension crack, fault
Lateral release e fault (E only)
2 main DS, fault
Rear release e joint sets, faults
Lateral release e fault, joint sets
Sliding
Flow
Sliding
Rockfall
Sliding
Toppling
Sliding
Toppling
Wedge failure
Subsidence
Sliding
Creep
Sliding
Flow
Sliding
Flow
Toppling
Sliding
Creep
Composite sliding
Wedge failure
(Creep)
Sliding
Flow
Sliding
Wedge failure
Sliding
Toppling
Sliding, rotation
Wedge failure
Creep
Wedge failure
Sliding
surface coal mines, where repeated strata of arenaceous and

argillaceous rock masses dip into the slope (Benko, 1997). Stability
of these slopes is controlled by the relative spacing of bedding and
cross joints, the presence of lateral release joints, and the interbed
shear strength. The inuence of tectonic activity may lead to a
reduction in the interbed shear strength with an important inuence on both sliding and toppling movements.
Originally horizontal beds are frequently uplifted, tilted, and
folded. The folding of sedimentary rock sequences has numerous
and varied effects on both natural and open pit slope stability
(Fig. 3). The orientation of the topographic surface or excavation
face with respect to bedding is of major signicance. Knowledge of
the fold type and orientation, and its structural complexity, are
important in realistic rock slope modelling. We suggest that the
features of a conventional fold classication, such as Fleuty (1964)
or Ramsay (1967), should be considered with respect to how they
inuence rock slope stability (Fig. 4). Horizontal folds may be
associated with simple translational failure (sliding of rock blocks
Fig. 3. Open pit slope showing inuence of structural geology, with translational failure mechanism and low-angle thrust faulting inuencing the footwall instability (along
bedding). Note the seepage at the fold hinge.
in the true dip direction) on one limb and toppling mechanisms on

the other fold limb, depending on their orientation with respect to a
given slope face (Fig. 4ieiii). Steeply plunging folds (Fig. 4ivevii)
may result in complex translational and rotational slope displacements in both planar and toppling modes (Brideau, 2005; Yan,
2008). The bluntness and tightness of a fold will not only inuence the kinematics of slope failure but may also be indicative of
the degree of tectonic damage (reduced rock mass quality) sustained by the rock mass in the form of both fracturing and interbed
slip (Fig. 5). Open folds may show the typical transverse, longitudinal, and conjugate discontinuities associated with folding,
whereas tight and isoclinal folds may develop foliation and cleavage, a sign of increased damage. Whether the folding is of a parallel
or concentric nature or similar/shear type will also inuence kinematics and potential failure block geometry.
It is necessary to consider the number of deformation episodes
and their combined effect on rock mass kinematics and strength.
Folded rock units with plunging hinge lines, for example, have
likely sustained more deformation events than units with horizontal hinges. Folding in two directions and the presence of interference folds has been shown to inuence the complexity of slope
deformations within landslides and, in combination with natural
release surfaces, may explain commonly observed multiple blocktype movement. Fig. 6, for example, shows the sliding scar
morphology of the 1963 Vajont Slide in Italy. This surface is affected
not only by two generations of regional folds, producing complex,
metre-to decametre-scale dome-and-basin to crescent-andmushroom 1e2 (Ramsay, 1967) or K (Thiessen and Means, 1980)
type interference patterns (Fig. 6b; Massironi et al., 2013), but also
by concretions on the centimetre scale. Folding plays a vital role in
providing what are referred to as geologic release surfaces for rock
slope failures on the sides (lateral release), at the back (rear
release), and on the base (basal plane) of failure blocks. Discontinuity sets associated with folding (i.e. transverse, longitudinal and
conjugate) may play a major role in releasing the blocks that slide
along folded bedding surfaces e such release surfaces provide the
necessary kinematic freedom for slope failure. The association of
kinematic rock slope failure modes with anticlinal folding has been
discussed by Badger (2002), who described the relationship between failure (planar/toppling) and the relative location of the rock
slope and discontinuity sets commonly associated with folded,
bedded units. Fig. 7 illustrates how three possible congurations of
the folded bedding (S0) or primary discontinuity set (S1) and secondary discontinuity set (S2) can produce different sliding failures.
Another example of structural analysis associated with natural
slope failures is that conducted by Humair et al. (2013) on the 1903
Frank Slide area in Alberta, Canada (Fig. 8); they demonstrated the
importance of the Turtle Mountain Anticline orientation, dimensions, and associated fractures to slope stability. Relative slope
and fold orientations, as well as damage intensity, affect slope
stability and the range in complexity of the failure kinematics.
Fault planes often form sliding surfaces or release surfaces and
can be associated with the steepening of bedding (drag folding)
that may induce slope instability. For example, Fig. 9a shows a
failure in a coal mine, where a fault acted as a rear release plane for
a translational failure that occurred along drag-folded strata adjacent to the fault. Fig. 9b shows the fault exposed within the mine
and the drag folding. As discussed previously, damage zones
associated with faults may similarly result in a reduction in rock
mass quality inuencing slope stability. Limited work in rock slope
engineering has been undertaken to date considering fault contact
relationships and their inuence on rock slope instability; this includes not only damage but also fault linkage, drag mechanisms,
fault seals, shale smear, the nature of fault gouge, cataclasis, and
diagenetic effects.
Roughness exerts a primary control on rock slope failures and
exists at all scales from primary and secondary small-scale asperities to large-scale undulations. Focus in rock engineering has been
Fig. 4. Modication of Fleuty (1964) fold classication diagram to indicate slope stability and failure complexity. Kinematic complexity is highest in the centre of the diagram, where
multiple modes of failure may be combined. Inset shows an example of the interaction between slopes and tectonic structure at Mount Kidd, Canada.
on the use of roughness measures such as the Joint Roughness

Coefcient, JRC (Barton, 1976, 2011; Barton and Choubey, 1977).
These roughness measures have been linked to empirical approaches for assigning shear strength to joints. The JRC, for
example, is used in the following equation:

JCS
t sn tan 4r JRC log10
sn
Fig. 5. Modication of fold tightness classication, showing how damage increases

with increasing fold tightness (after Fossen, 2010). Transverse, longitudinal, and
converse discontinuities may be present in open folds, whereas tight folds may
develop foliation and cleavage.
where t is shear strength along the discontinuity plane, sn is the

normal stress on the plane, 4r is the residual friction angle, and JCS
is the Joint Compressive Strength. The importance of sedimentary
and tectonic structures on discontinuity surfaces has in the authors'
opinions received insufcient attention. Tectonic effects on
roughness, such as slickensides and polishing, have been recognised as indicators of residual strength and the need for testing the
shear strength in the appropriate direction with respect to surface
structures noted. Cruden and Krahn (1978) described the presence
of slickensides on folded bedding surfaces, as well as minor thrusts,
which controlled the Frank Slide.
Fig. 6. Scales of roughness at the Vajont Slide, ranging from a) global (macro) scale synclines (MS Massalezza Syncline with hinge trending N, ES Erto Syncline trending E) to
meso-scale interference patterns (b), parasitic folds (c), and micro-scale concretions (d). CT Col Tramontin Fault, and CE Col delle Erghene Fault in a).
We suggest that sedimentary structures, such as sole marks,

ute casts, concretions, and ripple marks, also may have a signicant inuence on local or micro-to meso-scale roughness, and
hence affect global rock slope behaviour. For example, concretions
or ripple marks may increase bedding plane frictional resistance
and in some cases even induce dilation and the need for shearing
through asperities during failure. Such features may act as rock
bridges along potential sliding surfaces. Rock bridges are zones of
intact rock classied as either i) in-plane rock bridges on a
discontinuity surface, or ii) out-of-plane rock bridges separating
individual discontinuities (Tuckey, 2012).
2.3. Importance of structures in igneous rock slopes
Rock slope failures in igneous rock types are highly varied,
depending on the topography, in situ stress conditions, and degree
of weathering or alteration. Given the high strength of granites and
similar igneous rock masses, it is not surprising that it is invariably
the structures within the igneous rock that form the weak link and
control slope instability. One example of structural controls in
igneous rock types is the effect of sheet, or exfoliation, joints.
Hencher and Richards (1982), Hencher et al. (2011), and Ziegler
et al. (2013, 2014) discussed the importance of sheet joints,
proto-joints, persistence, rock bridges and fractography in engineering geology, focussing on joint initiation and propagation in
slopes, as well as their effects on slope stability and determining in
situ stresses from fracture patterns. As sheet joints generally parallel the topography, instability may involve undercutting by
excavation, failure by linkage with other structures and, in the case
of high-stress environments, the fracturing and development of
breakout-type failures.
When considering structurally controlled stability of igneous
rock slopes the importance of discontinuity persistence in addition
to orientation and intensity (number of discontinuities along a
line, in an area, or in a volume) is emphasised. Non-persistent
structures must be taken into account as the strength of rock
2.4. Importance of structures in metamorphic rock slopes
Fig. 7. Fold and slope interaction creating slope instability (indicated by grey areas).
S0 bedding, S1 discontinuity set 1, S2 discontinuity set 2. a) Bedding dips parallel
to slope and orthogonal discontinuity set acts as rear release, b) bedding dips into
slope and orthogonal discontinuity set acts as main sliding surface, and c) slope face
intersects with fold hinge and bedding and orthogonal discontinuity set create a
biplanar failure surface (modied from Badger, 2002).
bridges between discontinuities is high and therefore even small

percentages of rock bridges will increase the overall strength of
the slope resulting in a higher factor of safety. Consideration
should be given to step-path-type failures involving blocks moving
on multiple fractures with possible intact brittle rock fracture.
Characterisation of fracture networks in igneous rocks for use in
subsequent numerical models (see below) requires considerable
care and often the combined use of eld mapping, remote sensing
and borehole methods.
Fault zones within igneous rock masses act as weak zones
within otherwise high quality rock, and are thus signicant in
controlling failure location and behaviour. They also inuence
groundwater ow, which is an important factor in the alteration of
igneous rock masses as well as in pore pressure conditions in
slopes. At Diavik Diamond Mines in Northwest Territories, Canada,
for example, a major fault zone dissects two kimberlite pipes and
directs groundwater ow into the existing open pit (Tuckey, 2012;
Vivas Becerra, 2014). Considerable work has been undertaken recognising the inuence of structure on hydrogeology and pore water
pressure at Diavik, as described by Milmo et al. (2014).
Although usually not a dominant factor in slope stability of
igneous rock masses, micro-scale features should also be considered. The different strengths of various minerals included in a
particular rock mass, as well as grain and lattice distortions and
deformations, affect rock mass weathering and strength. Stressinduced fracture propagation and coalescence in high slopes may
ultimately form persistent structures along which sliding can occur.
Considerable research is ongoing, examining the inuence of
microstructure heterogeneity and micro-cracking on rock strength
(Hamdi et al., 2013; Nicksiar and Martin, 2014).
Numerous large, catastrophic rock slope failures have occurred

in metamorphic lithologies. Foliations, cleavage, and other deformational features strongly inuence stability; the metamorphic
facies level of a given rock mass can also have a signicant inuence
on failure by altering rock mass strength. Catastrophic failures have
occurred in both high-grade metamorphic rocks such as gneisses
and in highly foliated slates, phyllites, and schist. Dominant foliations can be parallel, oblique, or opposite to the sliding direction,
with mechanisms consequently involving planar sliding, oblique
sliding/rotation, or toppling. As discussed previously, it is important
to consider different structural deformation phases and their inuence on foliations. Complex folding of foliations in the dip and
strike directions of a slope adds complexity to failure kinematics
and observed displacements.
An example of a major landslide in metamorphic gneiss terrain
is the 1991 Randa rockslide sequence in Switzerland (Fig. 10)
(Eberhardt et al., 2004; Willenberg et al., 2008; Gischig et al., 2009;
w et al., 2012). This rockslide has been the subject of extensive
Lo
research over the last decade and is an excellent example of the
inuence of geological structure on rock slope failure. Geological
structures form the failure surface and lateral release surfaces
(Table 1).
Another example is the knes rock slope in Norway (Table 1)
(Ganerd et al., 2008; Grneng et al., 2011; Blikra, 2012). This active
slope instability is located in a highly deformed metamorphic region comprising foliated schistose rock types on the western slope
of the Storfjorden fjord and presents a major risk of landslideinduced tsunami. The inuence of the metamorphic structures in
controlling the active movement of the rock slope has been shown
through geophysical and borehole methods, geotechnical instrumentation and numerical modelling. The basal surface of the
landslide is stepped, following discontinuities separated by intact
rock bridges. An interesting aspect of this slide is the multiple
blocks involved in the movement with different rates and movement directions; these may be related to three-dimensional variations in the geological structure along the basal sliding surface.
Such movement of blocks is not uncommon and shows the
importance of understanding three-dimensional geological
structure.
The Downie Slide in British Columbia, Canada, is the largest
prehistoric landslide in North America with an estimated volume of
1.5 billion m3. The toe of this landslide was submerged by a reservoir impounded by the Revelstoke Dam, and hence this landslide
has been extensively investigated. A major slope dewatering
scheme was developed to ensure stability; an excellent discussion
of the characterisation and modelling of this landslide is presented
in Kalenchuk (2010). Like knes, this slide comprises multiple
blocks and is located in metamorphic mica schist, gneiss, and
quartzite.
Examples of toppling-induced landslides in foliated metamorphic rock types are provided in Newman (2013) and Clayton
(2014). An excellent discussion on toppling instability is presented in Goodman (2013). When considering the inuence of
metamorphic structures on hazards associated with rock slopes, it
is important to consider both primary and secondary slope failure
mechanisms. A useful example is presented by Brideau et al. (2006)
at the East Gate slope in Glacier National Park, British Columbia,
Canada. The upper unstable rock slope is situated within phyllites
and involved pseudo-circular rock mass failure inuenced by foliations including crenulation cleavage. Although this failure was at
considerable distance from a major highway (Trans-Canada Highway) at the foot of the mountain slope, it led to the gradual accumulation of friable phyllitic failure debris. Over time, this debris has
Fig. 8. The 1903 Frank Slide in Alberta, Canada. The South Peak area is still unstable and subject to ongoing monitoring.
remobilised as debris ows that have travelled downslope and

caused signicant blockages of the Trans-Canada Highway.
Deep-seated gravitational displacements are an important
variant of deforming rock slopes, which occur in multiple rock
types and are particularly common in post-glacial metamorphic
mountain terrains. DSGSD slopes have characteristic topographic
features such as antiscarps, half-grabens, double-crested ridges,
trenches, and slope toe bulging, providing evidence of previous or
active movement. Although beyond the scope of the current paper,
it is important to emphasise that DSGSDs are often located in
foliated rock slopes; mechanisms of displacement may be highly
variable, including translational sliding, circular and toppling failre landslide in France, for example, is part of a
ures. The La Clapie
larger DSGSD complex (Fig. 11) and has shown varied behaviour
over the past century (Vengeon et al., 1999; Cappa et al., 2004;
Lebourg et al., 2010).
3. Engineering geology methods used to characterise

structures
Various techniques have been applied to rock slopes to characterise and analyse them, ranging from eld surveys to remote
sensing. Traditional rock slope investigations often commence with
eld observations of the rock mass, including intact rock descriptions, and discontinuity measurements and characterisation.
Lithology, degree of weathering, and intact rock strength are
determined through observation and in situ or laboratory tests.
Stress conditions may be measured on site using overcoring, at
jack, or hydraulic fracturing tests to provide direction and magnitude of stress, or using earthquake focal mechanism analysis,
breakout and failure plane orientation observations, or stress relief
measurements to determine the direction of stress. Measurement
of in situ stress conditions in slopes is nonetheless rare and remains

a challenge, as a wide variation in results are common.
Discontinuity surveys using line surveys or circular/rectangular
windows allow the denition of discontinuity sets; the measurement and assessment of discontinuity characteristics, such as
persistence, intensity, roughness, aperture, inll and seepage; and
the delineation of structural domains. Recently, Hencher (2013)
stated that, although the method of discontinuity surveying is
simple and straightforward, the denition of discontinuities is not.
He suggested a revised classication scheme of discontinuities that
includes an estimation of their tensile strength. This indicates
explicitly that not all discontinuities have the same effect on rock
mass strength and slope stability.
By considering specic slope (or design sector) orientations, the
potential stability of a rock slope may be investigated using
stereographic-based kinematic analyses. These methods have
changed little since their introduction, and are summarised in a
large number of publications including Richards et al. (1978), Priest
(1980), Hoek and Bray (1981), and Wyllie and Mah (2004). Computer codes such as DIPS (Rocscience, 2014) are now routinely used
in kinematic analysis of rock slopes to assess potential simple
planar, wedge and toppling (exural and direct) instability modes
(Fig. 12). Limitations of this method can include insufcient
consideration of discontinuity persistence, spacing, and other factors controlling discontinuity shear strength. Over-reliance on
contoured discontinuity orientation data alone can produce either
conservative or, more importantly, unsafe stability assessments. A
recommended procedure is to consider rst the inuence of major
discrete structures, such as faults/shear zones and persistent
bedding planes, on slope stability and then incorporate instability
mechanisms related to joint sets. Ground-truthing of stereographic
kinematic analyses through eld investigations is strongly suggested. Most kinematic analyses are restricted to simple planar,
10
Fig. 9. a) Example of drag folding-induced slope failure at a former UK coal mine. Fault outcrops in the trees at the back of the failure, and dips parallel to general sliding direction
indicated by the white arrow. Note steepening of bedding adjacent to fault in b), which resulted in additional driving forces for failure and ultimately slope instability.
toppling or tetrahedral (/ tension crack) geometries. Often potential failures will have more complex geometries involving
multiple basal, rear and lateral release surfaces. As an example, the
truncation of a tetrahedral wedge by basal surfaces such as bedding
planes often results in a pentahedral or hexahedral wedge geometry. Kinematic analysis of rock slopes, with the exception of direct
toppling, is also generally limited to consideration of translational
failure mechanisms with limited consideration of rotational moments or intact rock fracture (Hungr and Amann, 2011). The most
recent versions of rock slope wedge analysis programs (e.g.,
Swedge (Rocscience, 2014)) allow for limit equilibrium analysis of
pentahedral wedge geometries. Fig. 13 indicates two possible geometries, each with basal and lateral release planes and Fig. 13b
with a rear tension crack. The use of kinematic analysis methods in
Fig. 10. The 1991 Randa rock slope failure in Switzerland. Foliation planes dip into the slope (Gischig et al., 2011).
re landslide, France (inset), an active part of a larger DSGSD complex (from Lebourg et al., 2010).
Fig. 11. La Clapie
11
12
Fig. 12. Kinematic analysis conducted in the stereographic software DIPS (Rocscience, 2014), showing daylight envelope containing poles to planar failures. Friction cone delimits
joints with dip greater than assumed friction angle, and hence potential sliding.
slope stability assessments are suggested to be in general more

suited to surface mine bench scale or highway road cuts than to
large-scale landslides or open pit mine slopes unless highpersistence, discrete structures control instability.
A rapidly developing number of remote sensing techniques,
including laser scanning, digital photogrammetry, InSAR and
thermal imaging are allowing, in combination with conventional
eld mapping, improved characterisation of rock slopes (Jaboyedoff
et al. (2007), Lato et al. (2009), Sturzenegger and Stead (2009), and
Petley (2012)). Using such ground-based, airborne and satellitebased methods provides the ability to map previously inaccessible rock slope areas, often with sub-centimetre accuracy. A major
recent development, increasingly used in engineering geological
mapping, is the use of Unmanned Airborne Vehicle (UAV) platforms. Remote discontinuity surveys allow the measurement of
discontinuity orientation, persistence, spacing, and even
Fig. 13. Two pentahedral wedge geometries in Swedge (Rocscience, 2014).
discontinuity roughness (see, for example Haneberg, 2007; Tatone

and Grasselli, 2010); ductile structural features such as folds may
also be characterised. As demonstrated by Wolter et al. (2014), fold
hinge orientations and interference patterns may be quantitatively
assessed using remote sensing, with implications for failure initiation and propagation. If possible, eld validation of remote observations is advised.
Finally, subsurface studies, where conducted, contribute greatly
to the improved spatial characterisation of rock slope masses, and
may include both borehole logging and geophysical surveys. For
13
example, geophysical borehole logging, 1D borehole radar reection surveys, 3D surface georadar, and seismic refraction surveys, as
well as inclinometer and televiewer data were all used in the
w
characterisation of subsurface structures at the Randa slope (Lo
et al., 2012). Clayton (2014) showed the use of borehole TimeDomain Reectometry (TDR) in characterising the location of
landslide failure surfaces.
One of the most extensively and intensively monitored sites is
the knes slope (Grneng et al., 2011; Blikra, 2012). Here, borehole
data sets, such as core logs, measurements of water pressure and
Fig. 14. Geological Strength Index (GSI) chart, based on block size and joint condition (from Hoek et al., 1995).
14
ow and penetration velocity, resistivity proles, and P-wave velocity proles, have allowed the determination of hydrologic conditions and rock mass quality, and the identication of large
fractures and sliding surfaces underground. These data complement surface observations and measurements of structures such as
discontinuities. Unfortunately, for many natural rock slope instabilities in remote mountainous areas such data are rare and
often prohibitively expensive to obtain.
4. Structural geology and the numerical modelling of rock
slopes
4.1. Limit equilibrium analysis
The simplest and most common form of slope analysis involves
force and moment equilibrium and uses iterative methods of slices
to calculate the factor of safety (FS resisting forces (or moments)/
driving forces (or moments)). The most accurate methods determine
the factor of safety for both moment and force equilibrium and use
different assumptions for the interslice forces (Bromhead, 1992;
Duncan and Wright, 2005). The methods incorporate a searching
algorithm that, in its simplest form, determines the critical circular
slip surface for a slope (lowest factor of safety), which is in reality
only valid for extremely weak rock masses or soil-like materials. To
allow analyses of more complex slope failure mechanisms, composite or block searching algorithms have been developed that
search for critical, non-circular block geometries. Facilities exist to
import groundwater conditions varying from simple water tables to
coupled limit equilibrium-groundwater numerical models, thereby
providing the ability to consider transient slope instability. Seismic
disturbance may be included using a pseudo-static approach and a
wide range of support may be applied in the software. In practice the
inuence of geological structure often determines the location of the
critical sliding surface which may be:
Along major discrete structures, such as bedding planes (usually
adversely dipping or folded), faults, and shear zones. These may
lead to single-plane or multi-plane (e.g. combining bedding and

faults) failures.
Through the rock mass and controlled by anisotropy within the
rock mass due to discontinuity sets (bedding, jointing, cleavage,
foliation).
A combination of failure along discrete structures and failure
through intact rock.
Recent developments have seen an increasing use of anisotropic
functions in limit equilibrium analyses to allow for directional
weakness created by pre-existing geological structure (Rocscience,
2014). Modications have also allowed the inclusion of rock bridges
by the use of apparent cohesion and friction values to represent
percentage of intact rock that must be sheared through for failure to
occur (Jennings, 1970; Baczynski, 2000). Analyses have in the past
been predominantly deterministic, providing one factor of safety
for the slope, and have often been accompanied by sensitivity analyses to determine the inuence of geological structure, slope
geometry, mechanical properties and groundwater. Both two- and
three-dimensional limit equilibrium methods exist; however
three-dimensional methods are mostly applied in the analysis of
simple tetrahedral wedge geometries. Elegant methods of columns
have been developed to allow three-dimensional limit equilibrium
analyses of more complex failure surfaces, but have seen less
frequent use in the analysis of landslides. Probabilistic analyses
have become increasingly common, with the need to consider the
risk and consequence of slope instability and both model and
parameter uncertainty. Although limit equilibrium methods provide useful preliminary analysis and may be adequate for simple
slope failure mechanisms, they consider only forces or moments
and not slope displacements, and as such are unable to fully capture
complex slope failure mechanisms.
4.2. Continuum analysis of rock slope failure
Numerical modelling of rock slopes is often undertaken
assuming a continuum approach, where the rock mass is treated as
Fig. 15. GSI chart for heterogeneous rock masses such as ysch (from Marinos and Hoek, 2000).
15
Fig. 16. Examples of continuum analysis. a) Phase2 simulations of a 60-m-high slope using different joint networks e continuous (left), non-persistent (centre), and Voronoi (right)
(modied after Hammah et al., 2009). b) RS3 model of an open pit (from Rocscience website, http://www.rocscience.com). c) FLAC2D model of the Frank Slide showing deformation
along a presumed failure surface (after Benko and Stead, 1998). d) FLAC3D model geometry of the knes, Norway, rock slope instability (after Grneng et al., 2010).
16
an equivalent medium. The rock mass is usually meshed using elements of triangular or quadrilateral shape in 2D. A constitutive
criterion allows simulation of varied stress-strain behaviour from
simple elastic to elasto-plastic or time-dependent creep. The
strength of the modelled rock mass comprises components of
intact rock and discontinuity strength in compression, shear and
tension. The strength is hence inherently scale-dependent and it is
here that the inuence of structure is paramount. A Geological
Strength Index (GSI) ranging from 0 to 100 (Fig. 14) was introduced
by Hoek et al. (1995) and modied by Cai et al. (2004) and Hoek
et al. (2013), and is currently used as the main method for
deriving equivalent media properties of a rock mass suitable for
incorporation into 2D and 3D continuum geomechanical models.
Discontinuity spacing (block size) and surface condition are
considered to derive the GSI value and, indirectly, the rock mass
strength; both of these input criteria are controlled by the structural geology of an area. A modication in the GSI approach was
proposed for tectonically disturbed ysch rock masses (Marinos
and Hoek, 2000) (Fig. 15).
It is essential always to consider a slope rock mass using a
structural geology domain approach recognizing characteristic
structures within an area; such a domain approach is often
extended to consider hydrogeological and geotechnical domains,
both again often a function of the tectonic history and structural
geology. In open pit mining geomechanics, the approach adopted is
to consider the structural geological model of the slope, the
hydrogeological model, and the rock mass model. These models are
combined in a geotechnical model of the slope or open pit (Read
and Stacey, 2009). An adequate structural model of the pit slope
is hence an essential prerequisite for optimal slope design.
The most common continuum numerical modelling approaches
for rock slope analysis are the nite element and the nite difference methods. The most popular codes for each approach are,
respectively, Phase2 and RS3 (Rocscience, 2014), and FLAC2D and
FLAC3D (Itasca, 2014). Both nite element and nite difference
methods have the ability to incorporate discrete structures such as
faults but these methods are not optimal in the analysis of jointed
media. Recent developments in the nite element code Phase2
have allowed incorporation of jointed media (e.g. bedding, discrete
fracture networks and Voronoi tessellation) and the modelling of
structurally controlled rock slope failures, such as toppling, planar
and biplanar modes. Fig. 16 shows examples of the use of 2D and 3D
continuum codes in the modelling of landslides and rock slopes.
Where discrete major structures control rock slope instability, the
use of the GSI in deriving the rock mass strength is not recommended as the shear strength of the structures, not the rock mass,
will control the kinematics of slope failure. In such slopes, discontinuum methods are used to simulate slope deformation.
of constitutive behaviour including elastic, elasto-plastic, strainsoftening, and time-dependent options. Modelling of rock slopes
using Distinct Element methods can thus simulate movement along
major structures, such as faults, as well as the translation and
rotation of joint-bounded blocks, in 2D and 3D. Although sophisticated software exists, considerable challenges remain in simulating the inuence of geological structures on rock slope
deformation, including:
4.3. Discontinuum analyses

To accurately represent jointed media and large displacements
of rock slopes, the use of discontinuum simulations is most
appropriate. A range of discontinuum numerical modelling
methods exist and are usually grouped under Discrete Element
Methods. The most commonly used in rock engineering are the
Distinct Element and Discontinuous Deformation Analysis
methods. Stead and Coggan (2012) provide a more detailed
description of these methods; here, we will focus on the Distinct
Element Method, which is the most commonly used for modelling
rock slopes. A rock slope is discretized into joint-bounded blocks;
the joints are assigned a shear strength constitutive criterion and
shear and normal stiffnesses (controlling displacement along
joints). The intact rock blocks can be rigid or deformable. If the
blocks are treated as deformable they can be assigned a wide range
Fig. 17. Examples of discontinuum analysis. a) UDEC model of the Vajont Slide, Italy
(after Wolter, 2014). Note that the sliding surface follows folded bedding. b) 3DEC
model of the Beauregard, Italy, landslide, showing discrete movement blocks (after
Kalenchuk, 2010). c) UDEC model of the Frank Slide, Canada (after Benko and Stead,
1998).
The persistence of structures, such as joints, both along strike

and dip is usually difcult to quantify in the eld. Most models
routinely assume persistent, through-going structures e an
over-simplication in practice.
Where non-persistent structures exist, the engineer must
consider rock bridges.
Rock masses are typically heterogeneous. Properties such as
strength and discontinuity intensity vary temporally and
spatially. Shear zones, damage zones, and folds should be noted
and treated as separate domains in analysis.
The level of detail to include is challenging to determine.
Although it is impossible to model every discontinuity, engineering judgement must be used to determine which structures
are important for the specic problem at hand. Scale effects
must be considered.
Four levels of discontinuum modelling of rock slopes, from the
simplest to the most complex, can be recognised in the literature:
17
i. Consideration of the dominant discrete failure surfaces only.

Fig. 17a shows an example application of the 2D UDEC code
(Itasca, 2014) in modelling the Vajont landslide. The discrete
surface in this analysis follows folded bedding with a lowangle seat and high-angle rear forming a chair-shaped failure surface. Such an analysis allows identication of the
interaction mechanisms between the upper driving block
and the lower passive block, with the formation of a transitional Prandtl prism or yield zone. Fig. 17b shows a similar
approach in the 3D Distinct Element code 3DEC (Itasca,
2014), applied to the Beauregard landslide in Italy
(Kalenchuk, 2010). This model involved consideration of the
primary basal failure surface, and the lateral and rear release
surfaces. It is important to constrain the failure surface based
on observed structures; this was possible at Beauregard using available borehole and surface mapping data as well as
interpretation of best-t failure geometry. A comparable 3D
model of the Mitchell Creek landslide in British Columbia has
Table 2
Summary of numerical modelling approaches used to simulate brittle fracture.
Approach
Advantages
Limitations
Comments
Finite-Discrete Element Hybrid (Elfen/

YGEO)
Simulates intact rock fracture in

rock slopes from continuum to
discontinuum
Possible to fracture across or
around triangular elements
Possible to include inuence of
groundwater table (Styles, 2009)
DFNs can be incorporated within
rock slope models
Directional weakness may be
simulated
Simulates intact rock fracture
associated with slope failure, can
incorporate polygons within
bedded/through-going jointed rock
masses
Possible to incorporate DFNs, but
adds complexity
Triangular
elements
allow
increased kinematic freedom
Possible to incorporate inuence of
groundwater pressure in UDEC
Voronoi and Trigon simulation of
slopes (Vivas Becerra, 2014)
Brittle fracture of slopes can be
modelled through breaking of
bonds between particles in 2D or
spheres in 3D
Ability to include DFNs and
groundwater pressures
SRM testing possible
Derivation of large scale rock mass
properties through simulated
brittle fracture testing of large scale
uniaxial, triaxial and tensile tests
using PFC3D DFN (SRM)
Properties used for subsequent
modelling in continuum 3D
models (FLAC3D directional
strain softening) of large-scale
(800 m high) rock slopes
Models brittle fracture through
breaking of springs between nodes
Allows simulation of large-scale
rock slopes in 3D
Ability to import DFNs
Possible to undertake coupled
hydro-mechanical-brittle fracture
modelling of a rock slope
Slope modelling mainly conned to

2D to-date with future development in 3D pending
Simulation
of
groundwater
pressure dissipation in slopes
varies in different FDEM models
Successfully used in modelling both

natural and engineering rock slopes
(Eberhardt et al., 2004; Stead et al.,
2006).
Careful calibration required of

Voronoi polygon/Trigon contact
properties
Polygon
size
may
inuence
kinematics of movement
May need to edit DFNs to allow
solution
Limited experience in use of Trigon
modelling
Long model run times for largescale problems especially for 3D
problems which may not be
feasible in some cases
Require careful calibration
Large rock slope models possible in
2D but computationally expensive
in 3D
Limited use in 3D models to date
Used successfully in modelling of

natural rock slopes and engineered
rock slopes. Further research required
on calibration of model properties.
SRM testing programs required for

important lithological units within
rock slopes
Fracture does not occur in nal
continuum model of rock slope
Successful use predominantly for

major mine slopes to date.
Limited to small-scale displacements compared to UDEC/3DEC

Typical model properties provided
but calibration required
Runtime for hydro-mechanical
models may limit size of problem
New code with signicant potential in

future rock slope modelling.
Successfully used in modelling of
large open pit slopes and high natural
landslides.
Distinct Element Voronoi/Trigon

(UDEC 2D, 3DEC 3D)
Particle Flow Codes (PFC2D/PFC3D)
SRM approach (PFC3D/DFN/FLAC3D)
Lattice Spring Models (SlopeModel)
Used to successfully model footwall

failures in mines, large rock slopes
and subsequent runout and large
open pits slope.
18
Fig. 18. Examples of brittle fracture and damage modelling. a) Progressive development of failure due to excavation of an open pit in an FDEM simulation (after Vyazmensky et al.,
2010). b) Brittle fracture within a Trigon model of the 1963 Vajont Slide, Italy, in UDEC, where red lines indicate tensile failure, and green lines indicate shear failure (after Wolter,
2014). c) Failure of a slope with 70% fracture persistence in PFC2D (after Wang et al., 2003). d) Combination of particle ow code and DFN in an open pit slope (after Lorig et al.,
2009).
recently been constructed by Clayton (2014) utilizing

detailed borehole investigations and engineering geological/
geomorphological surface mapping. It is essential in any 3D
geomechanical modelling that engineers work closely with
structural geologists in order to optimise the interpretation
of failure surface geometry and the inuence of tectonics on
rock mass strength and failure mechanism.
ii. Incorporation of the full geological structure e that is, inclusion
of both major structures (faults and folds) and discontinuity
sets (bedding and joint sets). Joint sets within Distinct
Element models are simulated by dening their dip (and dip
direction if in 3D), spacing, and strength properties (e.g.
cohesion, friction angle, dilation, tensile strength). It is also
necessary in bedded materials to dene an offset between
orthogonal joints. The overriding assumption in conventional models is that discontinuities are persistent
throughout the model (Fig. 16a shows the different assumptions between continuous and discontinuous joints). In
order to address variability, it is possible to dene a standard
deviation for input values such as dip, dip direction, joint
stiffness, cohesion, friction angle, and dilation angle.
Complex, continuously folded bedding surfaces can be

simulated through the use of arc commands as seen in the
simulation of the Frank Slide in Fig. 17c (Benko and Stead,
1998); this gure shows the incorporation of two joint sets,
discrete structures, and a major fold. An analysis assuming
continuous through-going structures is usually a very conservative assumption, as discontinuities are often separated
by rock bridges.
iii. Inclusion of rock bridges along discontinuity surfaces. Rock
bridges are incorporated into models by using continuous
joints but specifying a persistence factor between 0 and 1,
which assigns percentages of rock bridge strength to the
overall strength of the discontinuity (for example, Franz
(2009); Brideau et al. (2012)). Variants of this approach are
used in many model types whereby the strength of the
discontinuity is adjusted to include a component of strength,
simulating non-persistence or rock bridges.
iv. Explicit incorporation of rock bridges using a Discrete Fracture
Network (DFN). DFNs are increasingly being used in all elds
of rock engineering, including underground and surface rock
mechanics, petroleum geomechanics, enhanced geothermal
19
Fig. 19. The 1963 Vajont Slide, Italy, simulated using an imported DEM and assumed sliding surface in the new lattice-spring code Slope Model (after Wolter, 2014; Havaej et al.,
2013).
systems, and groundwater ow in fractured rock. DFN generation can be undertaken using numerous commercial and
public domain codes such as Fracman (Golder Associates,
2012), Move4D (Midland Valley, 2014), and FracSim3D (Xu
and Dowd, 2010). The principal inputs required from structural mapping for DFN generation are statistical data on joint
trace length, joint intensity, joint orientation, and joint
termination. Discrete fracture networks are then imported
into geomechanical models to allow explicit representation
of non-persistent discontinuities and rock bridges. Once
again it is extremely important to consider the structural
geology and tectonic history of an area to ensure realistic
geomechanical models. It is possible to incorporate major
observed discontinuities into a model and combine these
with a statistically generated DFN; ground-truthing DFN
models is important wherever feasible and care must always
be taken to ensure that engineering geological judgement is
used prior to the simulation of Distinct Element models
incorporating DFNs. We emphasise that further research is
required in rock engineering in collaboration with structural
geologists to characterise discontinuity persistence, rock
bridges and termination modes. Characterising the percentage of rock bridges is an important challenge of major
importance in future rock engineering design. Although this
subject has been extensively researched, insufcient attention has been given to the structural geological aspects.
Tuckey (2012) and Tuckey et al. (2013) described recent attempts in characterising persistence and rock bridges in large
open pit rock slopes. Dowd et al. (2007) and Alghalandis et al.
(2014) provided important contributions to understanding
the fundamental properties of DFNs, including the
connectivity of fracture networks. Work such as the Leeds

Rock Fracture Experiment on fracture connectivity has
important relevance to rock slopes and landslides. Hencher
(2013) and Hencher and Richards (2014) described key
research in the constraint of fracture geometry in rock
masses. Their work emphasised the need to consider the
fundamentals of joint genesis in rock engineering investigations with associated implications for geomechanical
modelling.
4.4. Modelling rock damage and brittle fracture

Recent developments in geomechanical codes have provided an
impetus for consideration of the roles of brittle fracture and damage in large rock slopes. Continuum and discontinuum codes are
able to simulate damage in different ways. In continuum codes,
damage within a rock slope may be characterised implicitly by
considering the change in number of yielded elements compared to
the total number of elements. In discontinuum codes, brittle fracture and damage may be simulated explicitly using a variety of
approaches (Table 2). Methods include hybrid Finite-Discrete
Element codes (FDEM), Distinct Element codes (DEM) incorporating a Voronoi or Trigon mesh, Particle Flow Codes (PFC), and
lattice spring codes. In FDEM approaches, the rock slope is discretized into nite elements and, by incorporating a fracture mechanics criterion, the mesh is able to simulate fragmentation from
an intact continuum to a discontinuum comprising rock fragments,
enabling the full failure process to be captured. The simulation
incorporates continuous remeshing of fragments as they are
formed by new fracturing. It is also possible to incorporate non-
20
persistent joints into the rock slope either as step-path features or

DFNs. Fig. 18a shows an example of an open pit slope where fracturing of rock bridges within a DFN are induced due to stresses
related to underground mining (Vyazmensky et al., 2010).
Distinct Element codes may be used to model brittle fracture in
both 2D and 3D using four methods e Voronoi, Trigon, PFC, and
lattice spring methods. In the rst method, intact rock properties
are given to the sides of the polygonal Voronoi mesh; cracks
develop when the induced stresses cause failure of contacts according to predened shear and tensile strength properties. A
variant of the Voronoi code, Trigon, has recently been introduced
where the rock slope is discretized into triangular, not polygonal,
blocks; as before, new stress-induced cracks are developed when
the intact rock properties on the Trigon elements are exceeded.
Fig. 18b shows the use of Trigon in the 2D UDEC code to simulate
brittle fracture. A DFN can be incorporated within the Voronoi or
Trigon meshes to allow simulation of rock bridge failure between
pre-existing joints. A 3D Voronoi/Trigon method has been developed by Gao and Stead (2014) to allow simulation of 3D fracture in
rock slopes, but has yet to be used for detailed rock slope analyses.
The third method of simulating brittle fracture in rock slopes is
through the use of PFC either in 2D or 3D. The rock slope is simulated using particles that are bonded together; stress-induced
failure of the particle bonds simulates the development of cracks
in the rock. Wang et al. (2003) describe the successful use of PFC
(Itasca, 2014) to model footwall slopes (Fig. 18c), while Lorig et al.
(2009) show the use of PFC with an incorporated DFN to model
large rock slopes (Fig. 18d). The combination of a PFC with an
incorporated DFN is referred to as a synthetic rock mass (SRM)
(Sainsbury et al., 2008). In this method, 3D SRM models are used to
dene the strength of jointed rock masses up to 100 m in size, and,
based on these strengths, continuum 3D codes are used to model
large open pit slopes up to 1 km in height. Finally, a recent development has been the lattice spring code approach, Slope Model
(Itasca, 2014). In this approach the particles and bonds within a PFC
code are replaced by nodes and springs. The method has been used
both in the simulation of natural rock slopes, such as the Vajont
Slide in Italy (Fig. 19), and large open pit slopes incorporating DFNs.
Havaej et al. (2014), for example, show the use of damage ellipsoids
and Flinn plots in the analysis of brittle fracture modelling data
from large open pits and landslides.
A wide range of sophisticated geomechanical models exist for
both 2D and 3D modelling of rock slopes; however, their successful
application requires careful consideration of structural geology and
tectonics:
Highly tectonized weak rock mass may be amenable to continuum modelling, whereas major discrete faults may dictate the
Fig. 20. Summary of the inuence of structure on rock slope stability and failure mechanisms.

use of discontinuum codes. Highly foliated rocks may necessitate the use of special strength models allowing for directional
planes of weakness. Realistic simulation of the kinematics and
selection of the appropriate model, as well as the choice of peak
and residual shear strengths and the directional shear strength
properties, are intimately related to structure and tectonics.
Geological structures may control not only the basal sliding
surface but also the lateral and rear release surfaces.
Rock mass strength and kinematics will vary and models must
consider structural domains.
Discrete fracture networks will dictate the use of DFN model
generators that are able to simulate the true variation of fracture
intensity and orientation associated with faulting, folding, etc.
Groundwater pressures may be controlled by structures, which
may result in multiple groundwater tables or partitioning of the
groundwater ow.
The presence of faults or large-scale structures may have
important controls on slope failures in seismically active areas.
Faults may act as sources of dynamic disturbance leading to
failure; major discrete structures, if present in the slope, may
also affect amplication of seismic waves.
5. Conclusions
There are many similarities between structural geology and
geotechnical investigations. Both disciplines utilise eld characterisation, geophysical, and remote sensing methods to analyse
features and investigate kinematics and mechanics. The aims of
each discipline differ, however, one focussing on the history of the
Earth's deformation and the other concerning soil and rock materials and how they interact with the engineered world. Nonetheless, structural geology concepts and principles are extremely
valuable in geotechnical studies. Currently, common practice in
slope design often neglects the investigation of the evolution of
structural conditions throughout a project's lifespan. We advocate
continued reassessment of structural features.
The inheritance of structural settings and features controls slope
stability and failure behaviour from the micro-scale to macro-scale
(Fig. 20). Structure can and often does affect fundamental rock mass
properties, such as apparent cohesion, frictional resistance, and
shear strength, as well as failure kinematics and mechanism. Small
features such as centimetre-scale sedimentary structures, fractures,
and folds affect local behaviour of rock masses. Large features such
as decametre-scale folds and faults inuence the geometry of rock
failures, as well as their kinematics. In general, the orientations and
dimensions of structures determine whether an instability is a
planar, wedge, toppling, rotational, or compound failure. The locations of planes of weakness, such as faults or fold hinges, which
increase rock mass damage and thus degrade rock mass strength,
can control failure location and sliding surface geometry and also
inuence landslide runout. In addition, structures commonly affect
hydrogeological conditions, a crucial factor in slope stability, acting
as either water conduits or aquitards.
Whether it is from the consideration of stress and strain techniques or the delineation of major structures and their inuence on
the rock mass, structural geology is of fundamental importance in
rock slope investigations. Numerous studies have shown the role of
major structures in dening the limits of landslides. Consideration
of mechanical stratigraphy, as discussed in structural geology, is
equally relevant to slope engineers when considering rock mass
deformation and strength variations in high mountain slopes. We
believe that integrated structural geological e geotechnical studies
are essential to improve knowledge of landslide mechanisms.
Recent landslide studies have shown the immense value of multidisciplinary studies involving rock engineers, engineering
21
geologists, and structural geologists in both natural and engineered

slopes.
References
Alghalandis, Y.F., Dowd, P.A., Xu, C., 2014. Connectivity eld: a measure for characterising fracture networks. Math. Geosci. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11004014-9520-7.
, M.G., 2013. Giant non-catastrophic
Agliardi, F., Crosta, G.B., Frattini, P., Malusa
landslides and the long-term exhumation of the European Alps. Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett. 365, 263e274.
Ambrosi, C., Crosta, G.B., 2011. Valley slope inuence on deformation mechanisms
of rock slopes. In: Jaboyedoff, M. (Ed.), Slope Tectonics. Geological Society of
London, London, pp. 215e233.
Baczynski, N.R.P., 2000. STEPSIM4 step-path method for slope risks. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Geotechnical and Geological Engineering (GeoEng 2000), Melbourne, Australia, November 2000. Technomic
Publishing Co., Lancaster, pp. 86e92.
Badger, T.C., 2002. Fracturing within anticlines and its kinematic control on slope
stability. Environ. Eng. Geosci. 8, 19e33.
Barton, N.R., 1976. The shear strength of rock and rock joints. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 13, 1e24.
Barton, N.R., 2011. From empiricism, through theory, to problem solving in rock
engineering. In: Qian, Q., Zhou, Y. (Eds.), Harmonising Rock Engineering and the
Environment. Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 3e14.
Barton, N.R., Choubey, V., 1977. The shear strength of rock joints in theory and
practice. Rock Mech. 10, 1e54.
Benko, B., 1997. Numerical Modelling of Complex Slope Deformations. Ph.D. thesis.
University of Saskatchewan.
Benko, B., Stead, D., 1998. The Frank slide: a re-examination of the failure mechanism. Can. Geotech. J. 35, 299e311.
Blikra, L.H., 2012. The knes rockslide, Norway. In: Clague, J.J., Stead, D. (Eds.),
Landslides: Types, Mechanisms and Modelling. Cambridge University Press,
New York, pp. 323e335.
Brian, M.J., Rosser, N.J., Norman, E.C., Petley, D.N., 2014. Are microseismic ground
displacements a signicant geomorphic agent? Geomorphology 207, 161e173.
Brideau, M.-A., 2005. The Inuence of Tectonic Structures on Rock Mass Quality and
Implications for Rock Slope Stability. Master's thesis. Simon Fraser University.
Brideau, M.-A., 2010. Three-dimensional Kinematic Controls on Rock Slope Stability
Conditions. Ph.D. thesis. Simon Fraser University.
Brideau, M.-A., McDougall, S., Stead, D., Evans, S.G., Couture, R., Turner, K., 2012.
Three-dimensional distinct element modelling and dynamic modelling analysis
of a landslide in gneissic rock, British Columbia, Canada. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 71, 467e486.
Brideau, M.-A., Stead, D., Couture, R., 2006. Structural and engineering geology of
the east gate landslide, Purcell mountains, British Columbia, Canada. Eng. Geol.
84, 183e206.
Brideau, M.-A., Yan, M., Stead, D., 2009. The role of tectonic damage and brittle rock
fracture in the development of large rock slope failures. Geomorphology 103,
30e49.
Bromhead, E.N., 1992. The Stability of Slopes. Blackie Academic & Professional,
Glasgow.
Cai, M., Kaiser, P.K., Uno, H., Tasaka, Y., Minami, M., 2004. Estimation of rock mass
deformation modulus and strength of jointed hard rock masses using the GSI
system. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 41, 3e19.
Cappa, F., Guglielmi, Y., Soukatchoff, V.M., Mudry, J., Bertrand, C., Charmoille, A., 2004.
Hydromechanical modelling of a large moving rock slope inferred from slope
levelling coupled to spring long-term hydrochemical monitoring: example of the
re landslide (Southern Alps, France). J. Hydrol. 291, 67e90.
La Clapie
Clayton, M.A., 2014. Characterization and Analysis of the Mitchell Creek Landslide: a
Large-scale Rock Slope Instability in North-western British Columbia. Master's
thesis. Simon Fraser University.
Cruden, D.M., Krahn, J., 1978. Frank rockslide, Alberta, Canada. In: Voight, B. (Ed.),
Rockslides and Avalanches. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 97e112.
Damjanac, B., Varun, Lorig, L., 2013. Seismic stability of large open pit slopes and
pseudo-static analysis. In: Dight, P.M. (Ed.), Slope Stability 2013. Australian
Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 1203e1216.
Diederichs, M.S., 2003. Manuel Rocha medal recipient rock fracture and collapse
under low connement conditions. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 36, 339e381.
Dowd, A., Xu, C., Mardia, K.V., Fowell, R.J., 2007. A comparison of methods for the
stochastic simulation of rock fractures. J. Math. Geol. 39, 697e714.
Duncan, J.M., Wright, S.G., 2005. Soil Strength and Slope Stability. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Eberhardt, E., Stead, D., Coggan, J.S., 2004. Numerical analysis of initiation and
progressive failure in natural rock slopes e the 1991 Randa rockslide. Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. 41, 69e87.
Fleuty, M.J., 1964. The description of folds. Proc. Geol. Assoc. 75, 461e492.
Fossen, H., 2010. Structural Geology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Franz, J., 2009. An Investigation of Combined Failure Mechanisms in Large Scale
Open Pit Slopes. Ph.D. thesis. University of New South Wales.
Ganerd, G.V., Grneng, G., Rnning, J.S., Dalsegg, E., Elvebakk, H., Tnnesen, J.F.,
Kveldsvik, V., Eiken, T., Blikra, L.H., Braathen, A., 2008. Geological model of the
knes rockslide, western Norway. Eng. Geol. 102, 1e18.
22
Gao, F.Q., Stead, D., 2014. The application of a modied Voronoi logic to brittle
fracture modelling at the laboratory and eld scale. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci.
68, 1e14.
w, S., Kos, A., Moore, J.R., Raetzo, H., Lemy, F., 2009. Identication of
Gischig, V., Lo
active release planes using ground-based differential InSAR at the Randa rock
slope instability. Switz. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 9, 2027e2038.
w, S., Eisenbeiss, H., Stempfhuber, W., 2011.
Gischig, V., Amann, F., Moore, J.R., Lo
Composite rock slope kinematics at the current Randa instability, Switzerland,
based on remote sensing and numerical modelling. Eng. Geol. 118, 37e53.
Glastonbury, J., Fell, R., 2000. Report on the Analysis of Rapid Natural Rock Slope
Failures. University of New South Wales. School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering Report No. R390.
Golder, 2012. Fracman (v. 7.4). Golder Associates, Redmond, WA, USA.
Goodman, R.E., 2013. Toppling e a fundamental failure mode in discontinuous
materials, description and analysis. Geo Congr. 2338e2368.
Grneng, G., Christiansen, H.H., Nilsen, B., Blikra, L.H., 2011. Meteorological effects
on seasonal displacements of the knes rockslide, western Norway. Landslides
8, 1e15.
Grneng, G., Lu, M., Nilsen, B., Jenssen, A.K., 2010. Modelling of time-dependent
behaviour of the basal sliding surface of the knes rockslide area in western
Norway. Eng. Geol. 114, 412e422.
Hamdi, P., Stead, D., Elmo, D., 2013. Numerical simulation of damage during laboratory testing on rock using a 3D-FEM/DEM approach. In: Proceedings ARMA
2013. ARMA Paper 13e583.
Hammah, R.E., Yacoub, T., Curran, J.H., 2009. Variation of failure mechanisms of
slopes in jointed rock masses with changing scale. In: Diederichs, M.,
Grasselli, G. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd CANUS Rock Mechanics Symposium.
Canadian Association of Rock Mechanics, Toronto, ON. Paper 3956.
Haneberg, W.C., 2007. Directional roughness proles from three-dimensional
photogrammetric or laser scanner point clouds. In: Eberhardt, E., Stead, D.,
Morrison, T. (Eds.), Rock Mechanics: Meeting Society's Challenges and Demands. Proceedings of the 1st Canada-US Rock Mechanics Symposium, Vancouver, BC, Canada, pp. 101e106.
Havaej, M., Stead, D., Mayer, J., Wolter, A., 2014. Modelling the relationship between
failure kinematics and slope damage in high rock slopes using a lattice scheme
approach. ARMA.
Havaej, M., Wolter, A., Stead, D., Tuckey, Z., Lorig, L., Eberhardt, E., 2013. Incorporating brittle fracture in three-dimensional modelling of high rock slopes. In:
Dight, P.M. (Ed.), Slope Stability 2013, Brisbane, September, 2013. Australian
Centre for Geomechanics, Perth.
Hencher, S.R., 2013. Characterizing discontinuities in naturally fractured outcrop
analogues and rock core: the need to consider fracture development over
geological time. In: Spence, G.H., Redfern, J., Aguilera, R., Bevan, T.G.,
Cosgrove, J.W., Couples, G.D., Daniel, J.-M. (Eds.), Geological Society, London,
Special Publications 374, pp. 113e123.
Hencher, S.R., Richards, L.R., 1982. The basic frictional resistance of sheeting joints in
Hong Kong Granite. Hong Kong Eng. 11, 21e25.
Hencher, S.R., Richards, L.R., 2014. Assessing the shear strength of rock discontinuities at laboratory and eld scales. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/s00603-014-0633-6.
Hencher, S.R., Lee, S.G., Carter, T.G., Richards, L.R., 2011. Sheeting joints: characterisation, shear strength and engineering. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 44, 1e22.
Hoek, E., Bray, J.W., 1981. Rock Slope Engineering. Taylor & Francis.
Hoek, E., Brown, E.T., 1980. Empirical strength criterion for rock masses. J. Geotech.
Eng. Div. ASCE 1013e1025.
Hoek, E., Carter, T.G., Diederichs, M.S., 2013. Quantication of the geological
strength index chart. In: Proceedings of the 47th US Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium, San Francisco, CA, USA, June 23e26, 2013. ARMA, Paper
13e672.
Hoek, E., Hutchinson, J., Kalenchuk, K., Diederichs, M., 2009. Appendix 3: inuence
of in situ stresses on open pit design. In: Read, J., Stacey, P. (Eds.), Guidelines for
Open Pit Slope Design. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Australia, pp. 437e445.
Hoek, E., Kaiser, P.K., Bawden, W.F., 1995. Support of Underground Excavations in
Hard Rock. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Humair, F., Pedrazzini, A., Epard, J.-L., Froese, C.R., Jaboyedoff, M., 2013. Structural
characterization of Turtle Mountain anticline (Alberta, Canada) and impact on
rock slope failure. Tectonophysics 605, 133e148.
Hungr, O., Amann, F., 2011. Limit equilibrium of asymmetric laterally constrained
rockslides. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 48, 748e758.
Itasca, 2014. 3DEC (v. 5.0), FLAC2D (v. 7.0), FLAC3D (v. 5.0), PFC (v. 5.0), Slope Model
(v. 2.9), UDEC (v. 6.0). Itasca Consulting Group, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
Jaboyedoff, M., Metzger, R., Oppikofer, T., Couture, R., Derron, M.-H., Locat, J.,
Turmel, D., 2007. New insight techniques to analyze rock-slope relief using DEM
and 3D-imaging cloud points: COLTOP-3D software. In: Eberhardt, E., Stead, D.,
Morrison, T. (Eds.), Rock Mechanics: Meeting Society's Challenges and Demands. Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 61e68.
Jennings, J.E.B., 1970. A mathematical theory for the calculation of the stability of
slopes in open cast mines. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on the Planning of
Open Pit Mines, Johannesburg, South Africa, August/September 1970. Balkema,
Cape Town, pp. 87e102.
Kalenchuk, K.S., 2010. Multi-dimensional Analysis of Large, Complex Slope Instability. Ph.D. thesis. Queen's University.
Kinakin, D., Stead, D., 2005. Analysis of the distributions of stress in natural ridge
forms: implications for the deformation mechanisms of rock slopes and the
formation of sackung. Geomorphology 65, 85e100.
Lato, M., Diederichs, M.S., Hutchinson, D.J., Harrap, R., 2009. Optimization of LiDAR
scanning and processing for automated structural evaluation of discontinuities
in rock masses. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. 46, 194e199.
, J., Samyr, E.B.B., Thomas, B., Swann, Z., Emmanuel, T.,
Lebourg, T., Mickael, H., Herve
Maurin Jr., V., 2010. Temporal evolution of weathered cataclastic material in
gravitational faults of the La Clapiere deep-seated landslide by mechanical
approach. Landslides 8, 241e252.
w, S., 2014a. Subglacial extensional fracture
Leith, K., Moore, J.R., Amann, F., Lo
development and implications for Alpine Valley evolution. J. Geophys. Res.
Earth Surf. 119, 62e81.
w, S., 2014b. In situ stress control on microcrack
Leith, K., Moore, J.R., Amann, F., Lo
generation and macroscopic extensional fracture in exhuming bedrock.
J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 119, 594e615.
Lorig, L., Stacey, P., Read, J., 2009. Slope design methods. In: Read, J., Stacey, P. (Eds.),
Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood,
pp. 237e264.
w, S., Gischig, V., Willenberg, H., Alpiger, A., Moore, J.R., 2012. Randa: kinematics
Lo
and driving mechanisms of a large complex rockslide. In: Clague, J.J., Stead, D.
(Eds.), Landslides: Types, Mechanisms and Modelling. Cambridge University
Press, New York, pp. 297e309.
Marinos, P., Hoek, E., 2000. GSI: a geologically friendly tool for rock mass strength
estimation. In: Proceedings of the GeoEng2000 at the International Conference
on Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Melbourne. Technomic Publishers,
Lancaster, UK, pp. 1422e1446.
Massironi, M., Zampieri, D., Superchi, L., Bistacchi, A., Ravagnan, R., Bergamo, A.,
Ghirotti, M., Genevois, R., 2013. Geological structures of the Vajont landslide.
Italian J. Eng. Geol. Environ. Book Ser. 6, 573e582.
Midland Valley, 2014. MOVE4D. Midland Valley Exploration Ltd.
Milmo, P., Rogers, S., Raynor, M., Beale, G., 2014. Appendix 3: case study: Diavik
North-west wall. In: Read, J., Beale, G. (Eds.), Guidelines for Evaluating Water in
Pit Slope Stability. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, pp. 436e485.
w, S., F
Moore, J.R., Gischig, V., Burjanek, J., Lo
ah, D., 2011. Site effects in unstable rock
slopes: dynamic behaviour of the Randa instability (Switzerland). Bull. Seismol.
Soc. Am. 101, 3110e3116.
Newman, S., 2013. Deep-seated Gravitational Slope Deformations Near the TransAlaska Pipeline, East-central Alaska Range. Master's thesis. Simon Fraser
University.
Nicksiar, M., Martin, C.D., 2014. Factors affecting crack initiation in low porosity
crystalline rocks. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 47, 1165e1181.
Pedrazzini, A., Jaboyedoff, M., Froese, C.R., Langenberg, C.W., Moreno, F., 2011.
Structural Analysis of Turtle Mountain: Origin and Inuence of Fractures in the
Development of Rock Slope Failures. In: Geological Society, London, Special
Publications 351, pp. 163e183.
Petley, D., 2012. Remote sensing techniques and landslides. In: Clague, J.J., Stead, D.
(Eds.), Landslides: Types, Mechanisms and Modelling. Cambridge University
Press, New York, pp. 159e171.
Priest, S.D., 1980. The use of inclined hemisphere projection methods for the
determination of kinematic feasibility, slide direction and volume of rock
blocks. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr. 17, 1e23.
Ramsay, J.G., 1967. Fold and Fracturing of Rocks. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Read, J., Stacey, P. (Eds.), 2009. Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.
Richards, L.R., Leg, G.M.M., Whittle, R.A., 1978. Appraisal of stability conditions in
rock slopes. In: Bell, F.G. (Ed.), Foundation Engineering in Difcult Ground.
Butterworths, London, pp. 449e512.
Rocscience, 2014. DIPS (v. 6.0), Phase2 (v. 9.0), RS3 (v. 1.0), Swedge (v. 6.0). Rocscience Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada.
Sainsbury, B., Pierce, M.E., Mas Ivars, D., 2008. Analysis of caving behaviour using a
synthetic rock mass-ubiquitous joint rock mass modelling technique. In: Proceedings of the 1st Southern Hemisphere International Rock Mechanics Symposium (SHIRMS 2008), Perth, Australia. International Society for Rock
Mechanics, pp. 243e253.
Shipton, Z.K., Cowie, P.A., 2003. A conceptual model for the origin of fault damage
zone structures in high-porosity sandstone. J. Struct. Geol. 25, 333e344.
Shipton, Z.K., Cowie, P.A., 2008. Damage zone and slip-surface evolution over mm to
km scales in high-porosity Navajo sandstone, Utah. J. Struct. Geol. 23,
1825e1844.
Stead, D., Coggan, J.S., 2012. Numerical modelling of rock-slope instability. In:
Clague, J.J., Stead, D. (Eds.), Landslides: Types, Mechanisms and Modelling.
Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 144e158.
Stead, D., Eberhardt, E., 2013. Understanding the mechanics of large landslides.
Invited keynote and paper. Italian J. Eng. Geol. Environ. Book Ser. 6, 85e112.
Stead, D., Eberhardt, E., Coggan, J.S., 2006. Developments in the characterization of
complex rock slope deformation and failure using numerical modelling techniques. Eng. Geol. 83, 217e235.
Sturzenegger, M., Stead, D., 2009. Quantifying discontinuity orientation and
persistence on high mountain rock slopes and large landslides using terrestrial
remote sensing techniques. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 9, 267e287.
Styles, T.D., 2009. Numerical Modelling and Analysis of Slope Stability within
Fracture Dominated Rock Masses. Ph.D. thesis. Camborne School of Mines,
University of Exeter.
Tatone, B.S.A., Grasselli, G., 2010. A new 2D discontinuity roughness parameter and
its correlation with JRC. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 47, 1391e1400.
Thiessen, R., Means, W.D., 1980. Classication of fold interference patterns: a reexamination. J. Struct. Geol. 2, 311e326.

Tuckey, Z., 2012. An Integrated Field Mapping-numerical Modelling Approach to
Characterising Discontinuity Persistence and Intact Rock Bridges in Large Open
Pit Slopes. Master's thesis. Simon Fraser University.
Tuckey, Z., Stead, D., Eberhardt, E., 2013. An Integrated Approach for Understanding
Uncertainty of Discontinuity Persistence and Intact Rock Bridges in Large Open
Pit Slopes, Slope Stability 2013. Brisbane, Sept 2013.
Vengeon, J.-M., Giraud, A., Antoine, P., Rochet, L., 1999. Contribution
a l'analyse de la
deformation et de la rupture des grands versants rocheux en terrain cristallophyllien. Can. Geotech. J. 36, 1123e1136.
Vivas Becerra, J., 2014. Groundwater Characterization and Modelling in Natural and
Open Pit Rock Slopes. Master's thesis. Simon Fraser University.
Vyazmensky, A., Stead, D., Elmo, D., Moss, A., 2010. Numerical analysis of block
caving-induced instability in large open pit slopes: a nite element/discrete
element approach. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 43, 21e39.
Wang, C., Tannant, D.D., Lilly, P.A., 2003. Numerical analysis of the stability of
heavily jointed rock slopes using PFC2D. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 3,
415e424.
w, S., Eberhardt, E., Evans, K.F., Spillman, T., Heinke, B., Maurer, H.,
Willenberg, H., Lo
Green, A.G., 2008. Internal structure and deformation of an unstable crystalline
rock mass above Randa (Switzerland): part I e internal structure from integrated geological and geophysical investigations. Eng. Geol. 101, 1e14.
23
Wolter, A., 2014. Characterisation of Large Catastrophic Landslides Using an Integrated Field, Remote Sensing, and Numerical Modelling Approach. Ph.D. thesis.
Simon Fraser University.
Wolter, A., Stead, D., Clague, J.J., 2014. A morphologic characterisation of the 1963
Vajont Slide, Italy, using long-range terrestrial photogrammetry. Geomorphology 206, 147e164.
Wyllie, D.C., Mah, C.W., 2004. Rock Slope Engineering: Civil and Mining, fourth ed.
Spon Press, New York.
Xu, C., Dowd, P., 2010. A new computer code for discrete fracture network
modelling. Comput. Geosci. 36, 292e301.
Yan, M., 2008. Numerical Modelling of Brittle Fracture and Step-path Failure: from
Laboratory to Rock Slope Scale. Ph.D. thesis. Simon Fraser University.
w, S., Bahat, D., 2014. Growth of exfoliation joints and near-surface
Ziegler, M., Lo
stress orientations inferred from fractographic markings observed in the upper Aar valley (Swiss Alps). Tectonophysics 626, 1e20.
w, S., Moore, J.R., 2013. Distribution and inferred age of exfoliation
Ziegler, M., Lo
joints in the Aar Granite of the central Swiss Alps and relationship to quaternary landscape evolution. Geomorphology 201, 344e362.
Zoback, M.L., 1992. First- and second-order patterns of stress in the lithosphere: the
world stress map project. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 97, 11703e11728.

A Critical Review of Rock Slope Failure Mechanisms The Importance PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Critical Review of Rock Slope Failure Mechanisms The Importance PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Structural Geology

A critical review of rock slope failure mechanisms: The importance

Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Dr., Burnaby, BC, Canada

2. Effects of structural geology on rock slope stability

Our understanding of rock slope failure mechanisms has

Structural features, such as folds, faults, and discontinuities,

The tectonic environment and history, or inheritance, of a given

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

important to consider when assessing rock mass behaviour. Hoek

conditions and slope geometry. They demonstrated that these

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

damage is spatially and temporally limited and may be episodic; it

highlighted the relevance of a trilinear failure envelope to rock

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

Foliation, 6 DS, faults, folds

East Gate, British Columbia

Val Pola, Italy

Mountain instability in Alberta, Canada. Pedrazzini et al. (2011)

9 DS, folds, faults

surface coal mines, where repeated strata of arenaceous and

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

in the true dip direction) on one limb and toppling mechanisms on

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

on the use of roughness measures such as the Joint Roughness

Fig. 5. Modication of fold tightness classication, showing how damage increases

where t is shear strength along the discontinuity plane, sn is the

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

We suggest that sedimentary structures, such as sole marks,

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

2.4. Importance of structures in metamorphic rock slopes

bridges between discontinuities is high and therefore even small

Numerous large, catastrophic rock slope failures have occurred

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

remobilised as debris ows that have travelled downslope and

3. Engineering geology methods used to characterise

of in situ stress conditions in slopes is nonetheless rare and remains

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

slope stability assessments are suggested to be in general more

Fig. 13. Two pentahedral wedge geometries in Swedge (Rocscience, 2014).

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

discontinuity roughness (see, for example Haneberg, 2007; Tatone

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

lead to single-plane or multi-plane (e.g. combining bedding and

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

4.3. Discontinuum analyses

D. Stead, A. Wolter / Journal of Structural Geology 74 (2015) 1e23

The persistence of structures, such as joints, both along strike

i. Consideration of the dominant discrete failure surfaces only.

Finite-Discrete Element Hybrid (Elfen/

Simulates intact rock fracture in

Slope modelling mainly conned to

Successfully used in modelling both

Careful calibration required of

Used successfully in modelling of

SRM testing programs required for

Successful use predominantly for

Limited to small-scale displacements compared to UDEC/3DEC