Pallas - Revue d'tudes antiques, Nr. 94, 2014, p.

87-99

Some remarks on ceramic vessels in graves of the Lower

Vardar Valley in the Early Iron Age in relation to their context
(8th-6th century BC)1

Daniela Heilmann
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt Mnchen

Summary

In the Early Iron Age, the southern part of the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM) features a group of cemeteries which show very special burial rites and clearly differ
from the usual habits in the Central Balkan area. The funeral rite (inhumations in stone cists) is
standardized as well as the offerings in the graves.
Considering grave vessel combinations and their contexts, five groups which are distinct from
each other, can be identified. The question is: are the different ceramic forms are an allusion to
different rites carried out on the tombs, according to their social role?

Keywords: Iron Age, Balkans, Macedonia, burial rites, grave vessels

The article is based upon a modified lecture at the conference in Toulouse Lo je t dans la tombe.
A teur et t oi du e ise e s e fu raire. I would like to tha k Prof. Jea -Marc Luce and AnneZahra Chemsseddoha from Universit de Toulouse 2-Le Mirail for the invitation and for the opportunity
to publish the following paper.
1

1. Introduction
1. 1. The Lower Vardar Valley
In the Early Iron Age, the southern part of the Former Yugoslavian Republic of
Macedonia (FYROM)2 features a group of cemeteries, which show very special burial rites and
clearly differ from the usual habits in the Central Balkan area.
This group has been described by R. Vasi as Gevgelija-group3 and is situated in a
geographically unified region (fig. 1). In modern Macedonia, the Vardar meanders mostly
through mountains. After passing the Demir Kapija, the river gets into a more plane region,
which is less forested and appears hilly and is already influenced by Mediterranean climate.

Figure 1. Cemeteries mentioned in the text (map basis Quantum GIS 1.8.0).

The cemeteries found in this area are remarkable because their burials differ from those
found further north4, especially since the Vardar was the most important north-south connection
in prehistoric times and was certainly not unutilized. Settlements in this region were thus
In the follo i g article is used the ter Macedo ia for FYROM .
Vasi,
, p.
-711.
4
In the Early Iron Age from the Balkan area known predominantly grave mounds; however in the Vardar Valley are
found necropolises with flat graves.

geographically convenient for commerce and transport and could easily integrate into lines of
communication.

1. 2. History of research
The first findings in the Vardar Valley of Macedonia were brought to light in larger soil
movements during the two world wars. Many discoveries have since been lost. From 1938 a
letter by H. Dragendorff has survived, which shows that he was able to document the graves
which were excavated in 1917 in Dedeli and Marvinci.5 From then on, the flat tombs out of stone
settings with inhumations were well known and because of their rich bronze finds it was possible
to date them into the Early Iron Age.
An intensive research activity started again from the mid 1970s, during which the
cemeteries Marvinci, Suva Reka (Gevgelija), Dedeli, Milci and elenite (Valandovo) have been
systematically investigated.6 D. Mitrevskis monograph on the necropolis of Dedeli, published in
1991, provides a great number of good observations and findings of the excavations there in the
1970s and 1980s. He provided much important information and made a major contribution to
our understanding of the region during the Iron Age.7
The section of the Vardar in modern Greek Macedonia is also lined with cemeteries that
can be unambiguously attributed to this group. The necropoleis of Bohemitsa and Chauchitsa
were also discovered and examined very early.8 In 1971, nine cist tombs were discovered
southwest of the city of Giannitsa, which are very close to the ones found at Marvinci and Dedeli
as far as construction and inventory are concerned.9

1. 3. The burial customs on the basis of selected burials

1. 3. 1. Burial rites and grave constructions
The cemeteries in the area of the Lower Vardar Valley are relatively well researched and
published, so that on the basis of the graves in Dedeli, Suva Reka, Milci and Marvinci a good
foundation can be established in order to draw conclusions for other Iron Age burial practices in
the region. Distributed among the four necropoleis are a total of 217 graves 10 available for an
evaluation, with more than 90 investigated graves at Dedeli providing the largest share.

Pingel, 1970, p. 7.
Further literature for research history: Vasi,
, p.
-702; Mitrevski, 1991; Mitrevski, Temov, 1996;
Mitrevski, 1997.
7
Mitrevski, 1991.
8
Rey, 1932 ; Casson, 1920 ; Casson, 1925.
9
Chrysostomou, 1991.
10
Mitrevski, 1991 ; Husenovski, 1997 ; Mitre ski, Te o ,
; Videski,
; Pai,
; Pai,
.
6

Common among inhumations in the Lower Vardar Valley is a stretched position in socalled stone cists (fig. 2). The tombs consist of several stone slabs: at the lower and upper part
a stone slab was placed, the sides were constructed - depending on the size of the boxes - of
two, three or more established flagstones. As a covering one or more stone slabs were used.

Figure 2. Distribution of the grave constructions among the graves of the Lower Vardar Valley (n= 217).

Occasionally the floor was paved with stones, but usually the body was laid on the
ground. The stone cists were probably not buried very deep into the ground, because they were
easily found close under the earth layer. There is also evidence that some of the graves were
used several times.
Burials in pithoi are to be considered as a special burial custom. In two of five registered
pithoi the skeleton of a child was found. From the site of Suva Reka, two pithoi are known. 11
Grave 43 contained a skeleton in a stretched position, wherein the upper body is slightly bent
and the legs were crossed. Accompanying artefacts have been found in the two tombs, dating
them to the Early Iron Age. The distribution area of burials in pithoi is oriented to the south: They
appear in the Peloponnese from the Geometric period onwards and are found up to Classical
times in small numbers in flat necropoleis.12 Small numbers of inhumations in pithoi are also
found at Vergina, where they appear from the 10th century BC onwards.13
It is interesting to note, however, that there are exceptions: the richly furnished burial of
a woman (grave 15 in Marvinci), for example, did not take place in an elaborate stone cist, but in
a simple pit in the ground.14

Pai
, p. .
Boardman, Kurtz, 1971, 71.
13
Rhomiopoulou, Kilian-Dirlmeier, 1989, p. 88-89.
14
Videski, 1999, 97.
11

12

1. 3. 2. Combinations of Grave Goods

With a few exceptions, the funeral rite and the tomb construction seem to be very
uniform and one gets the same impression by looking at the grave goods.
Basically, the furnishing can be roughly divided into three categories: tombs with
weapons (mostly spearheads), which are interpreted as male graves, graves without weapons,
but with torques, armlet and/or fibulae, jewelry and beads - interpreted as womens graves - and
tombs with only few objects, which are also identified due to the size of the stone cists and
anthropological hints as childrens graves.15 The following section will briefly describe the metal
finds, before the vessel forms and their combination patterns are examined.
The dominant weapon in mens graves is the spearhead, and there is usually one per
man buried. Swords are rare in comparison, but individuals with swords do not have been
wealthier than those with spearheads. If fibulae are found in mens graves, there is only a single
one.16 Furthermore, they are associated with razors or knives, so that the graves of males are
equipped in a relatively simple, but remarkably uniform fashion.
Among the womens graves, the range of variation is greater. If the woman was buried
wearing a fibula costume, then it is in most cases a pair costume.17 Bracelets are also worn as
pairs. Furthermore, chains of small bronze beads have been found, along with individually
reared amber beads or beads of glass paste as well as pendants and buttons. The equipment in
the womens graves seem to be more diverse, although there is a common repertoire of forms
and jewelry and costumes occur in different combinations.
Besides ceramics, childrens graves usually only show a single, small armlet and/or a
button.18
In general, the pottery is found near the feet of the deceased, so that one can assume
that the body was laid in the grave first and that the vessels were placed near the feet
afterwards.

2. The vessel offerings in the Lower Vardar Valley tombs

2. 1. The ceramic forms
When dealing with graves from the Lower Vardar Valley, the regularity of the vessel
combinations is immediately apparent. All the cemeteries are dominated by the jug with cutaway neck, made on the potters wheel or handmade in rare cases. Although there is a certain

15

Suva Reka grave 17 contains the remains of a child, buried in a stone cist with a length of 1 meter.
Dedeli grave 60, Marvinci grave 20, Milci grave 8 and 27.
17
Woman graves with single fibula: Dedeli grave 37, Suva Reka grave 2 and 9.
18
Dedeli grave 11.
16

variation among the wheel-made jugs19, the vessel shape jug or olpe is found in about twothirds of the graves.20 Kantharoi and/or cups also occur and are often used in combination with
the jugs.

Figure 3. a. jug with cut-away neck (Dedeli grave 22, Mitrevski 1991, t. 6.); b. kantharos (Dedeli grave 19, Mitrevski 1991,
t. 5.); c. cup (Dedeli grave 19, Mitrevski 1991, t. 5.); d. olpe (Dedeli grave 11, Mitrevski 1991, t. 2.).

2. 1. 1. Jugs with cut-away neck (fig. 3a)

Jugs with cut-away neck are widespread among Macedonian vessel types of the Early
Iron Age. The term Krug mit ausgeschnittenem Nacken derives from K. Kilian, who used it in
his work on Trachtzubehr of the Early Iron Age.21 For the first time, however, W.A. Heurtley
used the term jug with cut-away neck for this type of jug and introduced it into research.22 A.
Hochstetter calls them Stufenhalskrge, because in Kastanas in the Vardar Valley further
south there only a certain form of this jug occurred and a generalization should be prevented.23
The neck of the jug, which is so characteristic for the Lower Vardar Valley, looks as
though it was cut off slopes towards the handle. All jugs of this type are very uniform and differ
in their composition only slightly. They show a good quality and are thin-walled. The color of the
jugs ranges from light ochre to orange-red. They are decorated with thick bands, which cover
the whole body of the vessel. The line bands are mainly found at the neck and in the lower third
of the belly, respectively at the points where the handles are attached. The painting contrasts
well with the dark reds and browns of the surface.24
In most cases, the appearance of the jugs is very slight, the largest diameter is located
in the middle or in the lower half of the vessel. The average height is 15 cm, but varies from 11
to 21 cm. The area of the necks cutout is located in the last third, and is not, unlike the handmade variants, very deep. The handle is flat with a few exceptions and located approximately at
19

Those from Chauchitsa are relatively large, plump and monochrome, while the jugs from the more northern
areas appear smaller and proportioned and have a characteristic stripe painting, which may indicate a different
chronological position.
20
In 68% of closed finds from tombs of the necropolis Dedeli, Milci, Suva Reka and Marvinci jugs or olpai occur.
21
Kilian, 1975, p. 22.
22
Heurtley, 1939, p. 103.
23
Hochstetter, 1984, p. 51.
24
Georgiev, 1987, p. 52-53.

the level of the mouth. In the variant with the spherical body of the jug, the handles crosssection is round and also the cutout is a little lower.25
This particular jug shape and ornamentation is characteristic of the Early Iron Age in
Macedonia, where it is known only from cist graves. However, it is not widely distributed, but
rather limited to the Lower Vardar Valley. In the direction of north and east, they appear up until
the region of tip, Pelagonia and the Ohrid region are dominated by the matt painted pottery, a
technique that was also applied to other vessel types. This leaves the south. Among the
previously published pottery from Kastanas our type does not occur, but so far only the wheelmade pottery from layers 19 to 11, which includes the Late Bronze Age, has been published.26
The dating of this form is based mainly on the graves in Dedeli. D. Mitrevski has divided
the cemetery into different phases. The jugs show up in Phase IIa and IIb, in absolute dates in
the seventh century and the first quarter of the 6th century BC.27

2. 1. 2. Olpai (fig. 3d)

Olpai have to be put in the category of the jugs. The term is derived from the Greek
spectrum of forms, where they describe slight wine jugs with a round or trefoil-shaped mouth.28
In the Lower Vardar Valley both olpai and the jugs with cut-away neck look very slight.
However, they are only about half the size of the discussed jugs and have no details on
the neck. The handle is only slightly higher than the lip. As far as their make and painting are
concerned, olpai are comparable to the jugs discussed above.
The vessel form is well-known from the necropolis of Dedeli and found there frequently
in childrens graves or small stone cists, which could likewise suggest childrens graves.29

2. 1. 3. Kantharoi (fig. 3b)

In Macedonia, Kantharoi were known since the Bronze Age and first appear in wheelmade forms in the Early Iron Age. Two distinct variants are to be differentiated.
Variant 1 is round bodied without a foot and a flattened base. The short neck is sharp
shouldered and drawn out from the belly in the shape of a funnel. The two strap handles are
only slightly above the rim and are added onto the belly below the neck. They are made of lightcoloured clay (ochre to orange) and are painted with dark (red or brown), horizontal bands. The
pieces are designed in an extremely uniform fashion with sizes varying from 7 to 9 cm. In
25

The jar from grave 2 in Dedeli seems like the hand-made equivalents.
Jung, 2002.
27
Mitrevski, 1991, p. 51.
28
Simon, 1976, p. 48-49.
29
Dedeli grave 11, grave 26, grave 31 or grave 66.
26

Macedonia they are found in stone cist graves and belong to the same temporal and spatial
context as the striped painted jugs.
Variant 2 is less round bodied as the first one and has a low base. The neck is very short
and cylindrical, the rim straight. The strap handles are relatively broad and are grooved in the
middle, and they extend well beyond the rim. The clay is ochre to reddish, and the vessels have
a red-glossy layer. On average, they are about 12.5 cm high, and they are very wide-mouthed.

2. 1. 4. Cups (fig. 3c)

The cups made on the wheel are all uniform. Nearly all of them are 8 cm high, with some
going up to 9 or 10 cm. The body is round and the short, funnel-shaped neck is sharply
differentiated from the body. The strap handle is attached below the neck and onto the belly.
They do not have a base, but are flattened on the bottom. The vessels are painted with ochre
and dark stripes and appear together with striped painted jugs and kantharoi.

2. 2. The vessel combinations in the graves

In Early Iron Age tombs of the Lower Vardar Valley jugs and olpai, kantharoi and cups
are most common. If these objects are considered together, they can be regarded as a service:
jugs and olpai fulfil the function of cans, with the kantharos serving as a drinking and the cup as
ladling vessel. Large mixing vessels such as craters or cauldrons are absent from the graves
discussed here. However, only in a few cases has the complete set has been added to the
grave;30 it seems that certain forms are selected on the basis of certain norms and rules (fig. 4).

Figure 4. Distribution of the vessel combinations among the graves of the Lower
Vardar Valley (n= 40, graves with special forms are not included).
30

Milci grave 8 and 27, Suva Reka grave 32 and 49.

The following will attempt to highlight the respective combinations and their contexts, in
order to find a way to hone in on the question, from where this apparent regularity came.
This analysis will take into account a total of 52 grave contexts with ceramic vessels, all
of which are single graves and can be described as closed finds (table). Multiple burials were
not included, because the vessels can no longer be assigned to an individual and the question
of whether there is a relationship between the deceased and the type of vessel in the grave
cannot be answered. In these single graves has been found 43 jugs, 10 olpai, 22 kantharoi and
16 cups. 14 graves contain vessels with not reconstructible forms or special forms which occur
only several times and where no regularity can be observed.

2. 2. 1. Group I: Jug kantharos

The most common combination (28% of the analyzed single graves) is the set of jug and
kantharos, which occurs almost exclusively in graves without weapons. The orientation of the
deceased in the graves is in Dedeli southeast-northwest or east-west, so that the vessels were
laid down in the western part of the tomb. In Marvinci, the orientation is the other way round and
the vessels are laid down in the south-eastern part of the stone cist.
All examples are relatively large tombs with a minimum length of 1.90 m, so it is safe to
assume that adult individuals were buried in the stone cists.
The tombs are equipped throughout with a variety of bronzes, which is typical for the
Lower Vardar Valley. Only in grave 11 in Suva Reka is found a spearhead, so most of the
graves seem to be womans graves.

2. 2. 2 Group II: Jug cup

The combination of jug and cup occurs almost as frequently (21%). Again, only in one
grave in Suva Reka this combination is found together with a spearhead, otherwise, cups
appear in womans graves. The orientations are different here and we find west-east, east-west,
and north-south positions. In addition to the burials in the already mentioned large stone cists,
cups are also found in smaller stone cists.31
On the whole Group II seems to be more heterogeneous than group I and a regularity is
difficult to constitute, if orientations and the size of the stone cists are considered. What is
similar, however, is the variegated furnishing of the graves with bronze jewelry.

31

See Dedeli grave 28 and 34.

Table. Combinations Group I-V as well as two undefined groups.

10

2. 2. 3. Group III: One or more jugs

Jugs do not only occur in combination, but can also be added to burials on their own
(15%). This group is known from graves with or without weapons. The graves without weapons,
which can be interpreted as female graves, are, however, much less richly furnished and the
grave goods are limited to some beads or buttons. Bracelets, fibulae, or torques do not occur.
The size of the stone cists shows that they must all have been for adults. The orientation of the
stone cists seems to obey no discernible pattern.

2. 2. 4. Group IV: Jug - kantharos cup

From the cemeteries of Milci and Suva Reka we have four closed inventories with a full
set. Maybe grave 30 in Suva Reka and grave 38 in Milci can be added to this group, if the
assigned bowl and the skyphos are regarded as drinking vessels and are treated like the
kantharoi.
Four of these also include weapons. Grave 8 from Milci is richly furnished, by
comparison with other graves with weapons, because it includes not only a spearhead, but also
two tweezers, knives and razors. The addition of several identical jugs and kantharoi to tombs
32 and 49 makes them stand out as better equipped than contemporary graves. Invariably
these are large stone cists for burials for adults, but the orientation is irregular.

2. 2. 5. Group V: Olpai
From 26% of the single graves are known olpai. Stone cists with this ceramic form are
relatively small with a range from 0.84 to 1.30 m. Because of the small size, they can be
considered as childrens graves. Orientations are even in the cemeteries irregular, what arises
from the fact, that children are buried within or in the case of single graves besides adult
graves and follow their orientation.

2. 2. 6. The groups compared

By looking at the grave vessel combinations and their respective contexts five groups
can be identified and distinguished from each other.
The first two groups are relatively similar and differ at first glance merely by the addition
of a cup or kantharos, which cannot stand alone as a differentiating criterion. However, a closer
look at the other bronze offerings in these graves allows one to detect further differences:
Graves in which cups occur include no torques, no pairs of armlets or spectacle fibulae. The
typical jug-stoppers and certain pendants, for example, are found only together with cups and

11

not with kantharoi. The graves with kantharoi seem to have besides the regular forms like
buttons, beads and earrings additional forms like armlets, fibulae or a torque.
On the one hand, the possibility remains that it is a chronological phenomenon and the
older kantharos was replaced by the more recent form of the cup. On the other hand, the
kantharos in the Balkan area is a very old and long-lasting shape. In Kastanas it was already
known in the Bronze Age and the two-handled form is found - albeit in modified form - in each
layer.32 And in later cemeteries, as in Trebenite33 and Sindos34, the shape is typical and
common, so there is no reason to assume that the form has been replaced by a one-handle for
reasons of style.
The third group of adult individuals is less furnished and seems to be mens graves or
very scarce furnished womans graves.
The full set does not occur in Marvinci or Dedeli, but only in some graves in Milci and
Suva Reka and represent male graves.
As already mentioned, the fifth group with the olpai is composed probably of childrens
graves.
If the graves and their contents are compared, a difference can be made in general
between the cemeteries Dedeli/Marvinci and Suva Reka/Milci. Only in Suva Reka and Milci
occur full sets and cups as well as kantharoi appear in male graves. There seems to be a
slight difference regarding the conventions of grave furniture.
Further two groups within the womans graves can be established, which only slightly
differ from each other, male individuals are often buried with jugs and children with olpai.
However, is there a meaning behind the differentiated addition of ceramic forms or is it to be
seen as accidental and insignificant?

2. 3. Ceramics in the context of funeral rituals

The various cemeteries of the Lower Vardar Valley function as social spaces built for a
particular community and maintained for a specific purpose. The deceased were not buried in a
private place, but have rather been transferred to a distinct space, which gives us certain
insights into the living community as it also constitutes a social space.
Since we are dealing with a public space, it can be inferred that also the burial rituals
took place publicly. Archaeologically only a few stages are comprehensible: as preparation for
the cists, stone slabs had to be cut out of the rock, then an appropriate place in the necropolis
had to be selected and a shallow pit had to be dug to stabilize the stone slabs. The deceased
were dressed in their costume and their jewelry or weapons and then taken to the cemetery.
32

Hochstetter, 1984, p. 62.

Filow, 1927, p. 30.
34
Sindos, 1985, p. 289.
33

12

The rituals at the grave itself are difficult to reconstruct, but we know that at some point the body
was laid down in the prepared grave and probably followed by the ceramics, and was then
finally covered with stone slabs. Striking social inequalities cannot be determined: The grave
constructions are uniform, so for any individual the same effort was done. Nevertheless,
distinctions were made by giving the deceased different ceramic forms or using different
ceramic forms during burial rituals.
Regarding the olpai, they were probably added to childrens graves - a rare hint that the
vessel form can correlate with a certain age and/or a certain social role. Could this not also
apply to the other vessel types as well?
Kantharoi in connection with a jug seem to be assigned mainly to adult women, which
were also wearing certain forms of jewelry. In addition to beads and pendants they could wear
armlets, spectacle fibulae or a torque - bronze jewelry which has maybe a higher value
because of its size than smaller beads or pendants did.
The cups were mainly laid down in stone cists for adults, but also in smaller ones: grave
34 from Dedeli is just 1.32 meters long - probably too small for a fully-grown individual in a
stretched-out position plus grave goods. Spectacle fibulae, torques or bracelets are missing, but
the individual is buried with many glass beads, bronze pendants and - a diadem. In the Glasinac
region as well, diadems are found in graves of young woman. In the tumuli of Podilijak, three
graves of 10-12 year old children contain diadems.35 The same can be observed for grave
mounds in modern Albania, where individuals, which were buried with diadems, have been also
young woman.36 So, this grave could be a hint, that maids did not receive a kantharos, but a
cup.
On the basis of the graves in Vergina, S. Pabst-Drrer assigns a special meaning also to
spectacle fibulae. Individuals, who wore a pair of spectacle fibulae, are by their jewelry and one
anthropological date identified as adult women. In one grave a man with a sword and a woman
with two spectacle fibulae have been found, so that the assumption is plausible that this
costume could be worn by married women.37 In the proposed Group I are also noticed three
graves with double fibula costume, which could have had a similar meaning also for the woman
in the Lower Vardar Valley.

3. Conclusion
In the Early Iron Age of the Vardar Valley specific burial rites are noted, which appear at
first glance very homogeneous. Taking a closer look at the grave constructions and especially
their content, some slight differences can be observed. Men, woman and children differ by
wearing certain personal artifacts at the moment when the burial took place. Certain jewelry and

o i,
, p. .
Papadopoulos, 2010, p. 35-43.
37
Pabst-Drrer, 2007, p. 649-651.
35

36

13

weapons are found in graves for adult individuals and some objects, like the mentioned diadems
and spectacle fibulae, seem to have had a special symbolic meaning.
The proposed classification of ceramic combinations from selected graves of the Lower
Vardar Valley and the comparison with the personal furniture of individuals in these graves
seem to indicate a relationship between the added ceramic form and the age as well as the
gender of the deceased.

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