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WOLFGANG SCHUELLER
SPANNING SPACE
HORIZONTAL -SPAN BUILDING
STRUCTURES
Building structures are defined by geometry, materials, load action, and construction as well as form, that
is, its abstract dimensions as taken into account by architecture. When a building has meaning by
expressing an idea or by being a special kind of place, it is called architecture. Although structure is a
necessary part of a building, it is not a necessary part of architecture; without structure, there is no
building, but depending on the design philosophy, architecture as an idea does not require structure.
The relationship of structure to architecture or the interdependence of architectural form and structures is
most critical for the broader understanding of structure and design of buildings in general. On the one hand,
the support structure may be exposed to be part of architecture. On the other hand, the structure may be
hidden by being disregarded in the form-giving process, as is often the case in postmodern buildings.
One may distinguish structure from its visual expression as:
hidden structure vs. exposed structure vs. partially exposed structure
decorative structure vs. tectonic structure vs. sculptural structure
innovative structures vs. standard construction
The purpose of structure in buildings may be fourfold:
Support. The structure must be stable and strong enough (i.e., provide necessary strength) to hold
the building up under any type of load action, so it does not collapse either on a local or global scale
(e.g., due to buckling, instability, yielding, fracture, etc.). Structure makes the building and spaces
within the building possible; it gives support to the material, and therefore is necessary.
Serviceability. The structure must be durable, and stiff enough to control the functional
performance, such as: excessive deflections, vibrations and drift, as well as long-term deflections,
expansion and contraction, etc.
Ordering system. The structure functions as a spatial and dimensional organizer besides identifying
assembly or construction systems.
Form giver. The structure defines the spatial configuration, reflects other meanings and is part of
aesthetics, i.e. aesthetics as a branch of philosophy.
There is no limit to the geometrical basis of buildings as is suggested in the slide about the visual study of
geometric patterns.
The theme of this presentation brings immediately to mind the spanning of bridges, stadiums, and other
large open-volume spaces. However, I am not concerned only with the more acrobatic dimension of the
large scale of spanning space, which is of primary concern to the structural engineer, but also the
dynamics of the intimate scale of the smaller span and smaller spaces.
The clear definition of the transition from short span, to medium span, to long span from the engineer's
point of view, is not always that simple.
Scale range:
Long-span stadium: e.g. Odate-wood dome, Odate, Japan, 1992, Toyo Ito/Takenaka, 178 m on
oval plan
Atrium structure: e.g. San Franciscos War Memorial Opera House, long-span structure behavior
investigation
High-rise floor framing: e.g. Tower, steel/concrete frame, using Etabs
Parthenon, Athens, 430 BC
Gravity structure consisting of floor/roof framing, slabs, trusses, columns, walls, foundations
Flexural systems (e.g. one-way and two-way beams, trusses, floor grids)
Straight, folded and bent line elements: beams, columns, struts, hangars
Straight and folded surface elements: one- or two-way slabs, folded plates, etc.
Cable-supported structures
cable-supported beams and arched beams
cable-stayed bridges
cable-stayed roof structures
Tensegrity structures
planar open and closed tensegrity systems:
cable beams, cable trusses, cable frames
spatial open tensegrity systems: cable domes
spatial closed tensegrity systems: polyhedral twist units
Lateral Stability:
Every building consists of the load-bearing structure and the non-load-bearing portion. The main
load-bearing structure, in turn, is subdivided into:
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(a) The gravity load resisting structure system (GRLS), which consists of the horizontal and vertical
subsystems:
Foor/roof framing and concrete slabs,
Walls, frames (e.g., columns, beams), braced frames, etc., and foundations
(b) The lateral load resisting structure system (LLRS), which supports gravity loads besides
providing lateral stability to the building. It consists of walls, frames, braced frames, diaphragms,
foundations, and can be subdivided into horizontal and vertical structure subsystems:
Floor diaphragm structures (FD) are typically horizontal floor structure systems; they transfer
horizontal forces typically induced by wind or earthquake to the lateral load resisting vertical
structures, which then take the forces to the ground. diaphragms are like large beams (usually
horizontal beams). They typically act like large simply supported beams spanning between
vertical systems.
Vertical structure systems typically act like large cantilevers spanning vertically out of the
ground. Common vertical structure systems are frameworks and walls.
(c) The non-load-bearing structure, which includes wind bracing as well as the curtains, ceilings, and
partitions that cover the structure and subdivide the space.
Folded plates
120 ft (37 m)
This change of structure systems with increase of span can also be seen, for example, in bridge design,
where the longer span bridges use the cantilever principle. The change may be approximated from simple
span beam bridges to cantilever span suspension bridges, as follows,
beam bridges
200 ft (61 m)
truss bridges
arch bridges
1,000 ft (305 m)
cable-stayed bridges
Shell beams
L/t 100
The large scale of long-span structures because of lack of redundancy may require unique building
configurations quite different from traditional forms, as well as other materials and systems with more
reserve capacity and unconventional detailing techniques as compared to small-scale buildings.
It requires a more precise evaluation of loading conditions as just provided by codes. This includes the
placement of expansion joints as well as the consideration of secondary stresses due to deformation of
members and their intersection, which cannot be ignored anymore as for small-scale structures.
Furthermore a much more comprehensive field inspection is required to control the quality during the
erection phase; post-construction building maintenance and periodic inspection are necessary to monitor
the effects of loading and weather on member behavior in addition to the potential deterioration of the
materials. In other words, the potential failure and protection of life makes it mandatory that special
care is taken in the design of long-span structures.
Today, there is a trend away from pure structure systems towards hybrid solutions, as expressed in
geometry, material, structure layout, and building use. Interactive computer-aided design ideally makes a
team approach to design and construction possible, allowing the designer to stay abreast of new
construction technology at an early design stage. In the search for more efficient structural solutions a new
generation of hybrid systems has developed with the aid of computers. These new structures do not
necessarily follow the traditional classification presented before.
Currently, the selection of a structure system, as based on the basic variables of material and the type and
location of structure, is no longer a simple choice between a limited number of possibilities. The computer
software simulates the effectiveness of a support system, so that the form and structure layout as well as
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material can be optimized and nonessential members can be eliminated to obtain the stiffest structure
with a minimum amount of material.
From this discussion it is clear that with increase of span, to reduce weight, new structure systems must be
invented and structures must change from linear beams to arched members to spatial surface shapes to
spatial pre-stressed tensile structures to take fully advantage of geometry and the strength of material.
In my presentation I will follow this organization by presenting structural systems in various context. The
examples will show that architecture cannot be defined simply by engineering line diagrams. To
present the multiplicity of horizontal-span structures is not a simple undertaking. Some roof structures
shown in the drawings, can only suggest the many possible support systems.
Examples of horizontal-span roof structure systems
The cases may indicate the difficulty in classifying structure systems considering the richness of the actual
architecture rather than only structural line diagrams.
A.
BEAMS
One-way and two-way floor/roof framing systems (bottom supported and top supported), shallow beams,
deep beams (trusses, girders, joist-trusses, Vierendeel beams, prestressed concrete T-beams), etc.
Individual beams
Floor/roof framing
Large-scale beams including trusses
Supports for tensile columns
Cable-supported beams
Cable beams
space trusses.
They may be not only the typical rigid beams but may be flexible beams such as
cable beams.
The longitudinal profile of beams may be shaped as a funicular form in response to a particular force
action, which is usually gravity loading; that is, the beam shape matches the shape of the moment diagram
to achieve constant maximum stresses.
Beams may be part of a repetitive grid (e.g. parallel or two-way joist system) or may represent individual
members; they may support ordinary floor and roof structures or span a stadium; they may form a stair, a
bridge, or an entire building. In other words, there is no limit to the application of the beam principle.
Individual Beams:
Shanghai-Pudong International Airport, 2001, Paul Andreu principal architect, Coyne et Bellier
structural engineers
Petersbogen shopping center, Leipzig, 2001, HPP Hentrich-Petschnigg
The asymmetrical entrance metal-glass canopies of the National Gallery of Art, Stuttgart, J.
Stirling (1984), counteract and relieve the traditional post-modern classicism of the
monumental stone building; they are toy-like and witty but not beautiful.
Documentation Center Nazi Party Rally Grounds (Nuremberg, 2001, Guenther Domenig
Architect) is located in the unfinished structure of the Congress Hall. It gives detailed information
about the history of the Party Rallies and exposes them as manipulative rituals of Nazi
propaganda. A glass and steel gangway penetrates the North wing of the Congress Hall like a
shaft, the Documentation Center makes a clear contemporary architectural statement.
Beam trusses
Atrium, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg, Germany: the bridge acts not just as connector but
also interior space articulation.
National Gallery of Art, East Wing, Washington, 1978, I.M. Pei
Library, University of Bamberg
TU Munich
Library Gainesville, FL
TU Stuttgart
San Francisco Terminal, 2001, SOM
Documentation Center Nazi Party Rally Grounds, Nuremberg,, 2001, Guenther Domenig
Sobek House, 2001, Stuttgart, Werner Sobek
Integrated urban buildings, Linkstr. Potsdamer Platz), Richard Rogers, Berlin, 1998
Petersbogen shopping center, Leipzig, 2001, HPP Hentrich-Petschnigg
Tokyo International Forum, 1997, Rafael Vignoli Arch, Kunio Watanabe Struct. Eng.
Ski Jump Berg Isel, Innsbruck, 2002, Zaha Hadid
5-story Olivetti Office Building, Florence, Italy, Alberto Galardi, 1971: suspended construction
with prestressed concrete hangers sits on two towers supporting trusses, which in turn carry the
cross-trusses
Shanghai-Pudong Museum, Shanghai, (competition won 2002), von Gerkan
Berlin Stock Exchange, Berlin, Germany, 1999, Nick Grimshaw
Centre George Pompidou, 1978, Paris, Piano & Rogers
43-story Hongkong Bank, Hong Kong, 1985, Foster/Arup: The stacked bridge-like structure
allows opening up of the central space with vertically stacked atria and diagonal escalator bridges
by placing structural towers with elevators and mechanical modules along the sides of the
building. This approach is quite opposite to the central core idea of conventional high-rise
buildings. The building celebrates technology and architecture of science as art. It expresses the
performance of the building and the movement of people. The support structure is clearly
expressed by the clusters of 8 towers forming 4 parallel mega-frames. A mega-frame consists of
2 towers connected by cantilever suspension trusses supporting the vertical hangers which, in
turn,support the floor beams. Obviously, the structure does not express structural efficiency.
Beam buildings
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B.
FRAMES
Gables, A-frames, Arches, Glass enclosures, etc.: parallel, two-way, spatial/polyhedral, trees
Crown Hall, IIT, Chicago, 1955, Mies van der Rohe; the 120-ft (37 m) span building has become a
symbol for the celebration of the portal frame; Mies articulated the power and beauty of the postbeam structure by exposing the lightness of the steel skeleton as contrasted by the glass surface;
the roof platform is suspended from the welded plate girders that are spaced at 60 ft (18 m).
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Arches
C.
Examples of cable-stayed roof structures range from long-span structures for stadiums, grandstands,
hangars, and exhibition centers, to smaller scale buildings for shopping centers, production or research
facilities, to personal experiments with tension and compression. Many of the general concepts of cablestayed bridges, as discussed in the previous section, can be transferred to the design of cable-stayed roof
structures. Typical guyed structures, used either as planar or spatial stay systems, are the following:
D.
Slabs
Folded plates
Space frames
Tree columns
Dome structures
Thin shells
Ribbed shells
Slabs
Folded Plates: trussed vs. concrete, parallel vs. triangular folds, flat vs. warped surfaces, two-way
warped surfaces
Folded plate structures
Folded plate structure systems
Alte Kurhaus, Aachen, Germany
St. Foillan, Aachen, Leo Hugot Arch.
Institute for Philosophy, Free University, Berlin, 1980s, Hinrich and Inken Balle. Glass, openness,
and light-flooded rooms: the architects Hinrich and Inken Baller created transparency in the 1980s
in the design of the new building for the Institute for Philosophy in Habelschwerdter Allee. This
building was the first university institute designed in the style of a villa to fit in with the singlefamily-house character of the district of Dahlem.
Church of the Pilgrimage, Neviges, Germany, Gottfried Boehm, 1968, Velbert, Germany
Air force Academy Chapel, Colorado Springs, 1961, Walter Netsch (SOM)
Center Le Corbusier, Zurich, 1967, Le Corbusier, hipped and inverted hipped roof, each composed
of four square steel panels
21_21 Design Sight, Tokyo, 2007, Tadao Ando; the building is a low-rise structure consisting of
one ground floor and one underground floor. Most of the volume of the building, which has a
unique form featuring a roof made from giant steel plates that slope gently down to the ground, is
buried underground. Once inside, the space opens out on a scale unimaginable given the building's
unobtrusive exterior. The ground floor houses the entrance and reception area, while the
underground floor houses two galleries and a triangular sunken court. A feature of the building is
that it is encased in the longest section of double-glazing in Japan.
Salone Agnelli, Turin Exhibition Hall, 1948, Pier Luigi Nervi
Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts, Philadelphia, Rafael Vinoly, 2001, steel-and-glass barrel
vault (160 ft high), the roof structure uses the depth of the vaulted section to creat a vierendeel
truss that arches across the atrium, the trusses are propped against each adjacent element to
provide a folded plate action that resists the longitudinal wind loads
Sydney Olympic Train Station, Homebush, Hassell Pty. Ltd Arch, Tierney & Partners Struct.
Eng., 1998, single span vaulted 'leaf' roof truss, repeated folded vault configuration , Plan shape
rectangular - 200m x 35m, 18 modules spaced at 12m , 14m long arched entrance canopy, 5.5m
wide side awning, support structures columns, buttresses, arched trusses Combining the use of
an arch with that of a truss resulted in two layers. First, the two arches in each truss, which use
arch action to span a large distance and provide a column, free space. Secondly, the truss to
provide depth (to take bending moments) in the roof plane which is important to resist asymmetric
loads under wind pressure in addition to resisting uplift forces. To cater for gravitational and uplift
forces, the arched truss is designed to cater for both compression as well as tension. Arched roof
truss members: 355CHS twin arch at the ridge (centre of leaf) and 355CHS inclined arches at the
bottom (leaf's border). Each arch is composed of three sections joined together. Truss web
members: 200 x 100 RHS with tubular bracing, link top and bottom arches. Roof cladding: speed
deck 500, zincalume finish ribbed cladding. Internal roof lining: perforated aluminium sheets.
Addition to Denver Art Museum, 2006, Daniel Libeskind/ Arup Eng.
Space Frames
Dome Structures: typical domes, inverted domes, segments of dome assembly, etc.
Thin shells
Shell shapes may be classified as follows:
Geometrical, mathematical shapes
Conventional or basic shapes: single-curvature surfaces (e.g. cylinder, cone), doublecurvature surfaces (e.g. synclastic surfaces such as elliptic paraboloid, domes, and
anticlastic surfaces such as hyperbolic paraboloid, conoid, hyperboloid of revolution)
Segments of basic shapes, additions of segments, etc.
Translation and/or rotation of lines or surfaces
Corrugated surfaces
Complex surfaces such as catastrophe surfaces
Structural shapes
Minimal surfaces, with the least surface area for a given boundary,
constant skin stress, and constant mean curvature
Funicular surfaces, which is determined under the predominant load
Optimal surfaces, resulting in weight minimization
Free-form shells, may be derived from experimentation
Composed or sculptural shapes
Exhibition hall Leipzig, Germany, 1996, von Gerkan, GMP, in cooperation with Ian Ritchie
P&C Luebeck, Luebeck, 2005, Ingenhoven und Partner, Werner Sobek, At the very heart of
Lbeck's historical centre a new commercial building was constructed. The building had to be
inserted very carefully into the UNESCO-listed Old Town. For this reason the roof played a major
role in the design concept. The roof consists of 16 shells in reinforced concrete that have a
thickness of 14 cm each. In plan view the shells are trapezoids that are arranged in alternating
alignments. The shells span 8.75 m in cross direction and up to 28 m in machine direction.
Central Railway Station Cologne, Germany
CNIT Exhibition Hall Paris, 1958, Bernard Zehrfuss Arch, Nicolas Esquillon Eng. Thin-concrete
shells, form-passive membranes in compression, tension and shear: 720-ft (219 m) span
suspended between the floor and the ceiling of the main conference hall, is lit up, the building
seems to vibrate. The construction also changes completely depending on the viewpoint of the
observer.
Metropol Parasol", Jrgen Mayer Arch, a redevelopment project by J. Mayer H. for Plaza de la
Encarnacion in Seville, Spain is one of the most striking projects I've seen in ages. Amazingly, it's
under construction and is expected to be complete this year.
E.
In contrast to traditional surface structures, tensile cablenet and textile structures lack stiffness and weight.
Whereas conventional hard and stiff structures can form linear surfaces, soft and flexible structures must
form double-curvature anticlastic surfaces that must be prestressed (i.e. with built-in tension) unless they
are pneumatic structures. In other words, the typical prestressed membrane will have two principal
directions of curvature, one convex and one concave, where the cables and/or yarn fibers of the fabric are
generally oriented parallel to these principal directions. The fabric resists the applied loads biaxially; the
stress in one principal direction will resist the load (i.e. load carrying action), whereas the stress in the
perpendicular direction will provide stability to the surface structure (i.e. prestress action). Anticlastic
surfaces are directly prestressed, while synclastic pneumatic structures are tensioned by air pressure. The
basic prestressed tensile membranes and cable net surface structures are
Simply-suspended structures
Dulles Airport, Washington, 1962, Eero Saarinen/Fred Severud, 161-ft suspended tensile vault
Trade Fair Hall 26, Hanover, 1996, Herzog/ Schlaich
National Indoor Sports and Training Centre, Australia, 1981, Philip Cox
Olympic Stadium for 1964 Olympics, Tokyo, Kenzo Tange/Y. Tsuboi, the roof is supported by
heavy steel cables stretched between concrete towers and tied down to anchorage blocks.
Tent architecture
Dorton (Raleigh) Arena (1952), North Carolina, Matthew Nowicki, with Frederick Severud
Subway Station to Allianz Arena, Stadium Railway Station Froettmanning, Munich
IAA 95 motor show, Frankfurt
New roof for the Olympic Stadium Montreal, 1975, Roger Taillibert
Grand Arch de la Defense, Paris, 1989, Paul Andreu
Olympic Stadium, Munich, 1972, Behnich/Frei Otto/Leonardt, saddle-shaped prestressed
membranes
King Fahd International Stadium, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1986, Horst Berger
Canada Place, Vancouver, 1986, Eberhard Zeidler/ Horst Berger
San Diego Convention Center, 1989, Arthur Erickson/ Horst Berger
Schlumberger Research Center, Cambridge, UK (1985, Hopkins/Hunt); The ship like masts and
rigging support the spatial domelike undulating tensile fabric membrane. The high level
technology and detailing reminds one of Roger's earlier work. The central portion of the building
is subdivided by four parallel exposed portal steel frames into three bays, each 24 x 18 m (79 x 59
ft) in size. It consists of horizontal 24-m (79-ft) open triangulated truss girders and nearly 8-ft
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(c.2.5 m) wide vertical trusses which support two pairs of upper and lower booms. The two
inclined upper tubular masts are supported by tie rods which are braced by lower masts (struts).
Cables are suspended from the masts to give support to two parallel ridge cables at certain pick-up
points. The translucent Teflon coated fiberglass membrane is clamped and stretched between ridge
cables and steel work.
Denver International Airport Terminal, Denver, 1994, Horst Berger/ Severud,the folded Tefloncoated fiberglass membrane spans about 220 ft (67 m), the roof weighs less than 2 psf (96 Pa)
Hybrid tensile surface structures
Pneumatic structures
Air-supported structures
Air-supported structures form synclastic, single-membrane structures, such as the typical basic domical
and cylindrical forms, where the interior is pressurized; they are often called low-pressure systems
because only a small pressure is needed to hold the skin up and the occupants dont notice it.
Pressure can be positive causing a convex response of the tensile membrane or it can be negative (i.e.
suction) resulting in a concave shape. The basic shapes can be combined in infinitely many ways and
can be partitioned by interior tensile columns or membranes to form chambered pneus.
The typical normal operating pressure for air-supported membranes in the USA is in the range of 4.5 to
8 psf (22 kg/m2 to 39 kg/m2) or roughly 1.0 to 1.5 inches of water as read from a water-pressure gage.
Pneumatic structures
Low-profile, long-span roof structures
Soap bubbles
To house a touring exhibition
Examples of pneumatic structures
Norways National Galery, Oslo, 2001, Magne Magler Wiggen Architect
Effect of wind loading on spherical membrane shapes
Eden Project in Cornwall/England Humid Tropics Biome, 1996, Nicholas Grimshaw, A. Hunt
Metrodome, Minneapolis, 1981, SOM
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