Professional Documents
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LAB MANUAL
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
INDEX
S. No.
Experiment
Page No.
Date
Marks
Atterberg Limits
1
Field density
3
Sieve Analysis
Permeability of Soil
6
Compaction Tests
10
Compaction test
11
CBR Test
Distribution of Marks:
Lab Record:
15
Internal Exam: 10
Total Marks:
25
Sign.
The moisture content expressed in percentage at which the soil has the smallest plasticity is
called the plastic limit. Just after plastic limit the soil displays the properties of a semi solid
For determination purposes the plastic limit it is defined as the water content at which a soil just
begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of 3mm in diameter.
The values of liquid limit and plastic limit are directly used for classifying the fine grained soils.
Once the soil is classified it helps in understanding the behavior of soils and selecting the suitable
method of design construction and maintenance of the structures made-up or and resting on soils.
APPARATUS
1. Casagrande Liquid limit device
8.
2. Grooving tool
9.
Drying oven
3. Glass plate
10.
Sensitive balance
4. Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device; smooth the surface with
spatula to a maximum depth of 1 cm. Draw the grooving tool through the sample along
the symmetrical axis of the cup, holding the tool perpendicular to the cup.
5. Turn the handle at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and count the blows until the two
parts of the soil sample come in contact with each other, at the bottom of the groove,
along a distance of 10mm.
6. Transfer about 15 gm of the soil sample forming the wedge of the groove that flowed
together to a water content bin, and determine the water content by oven drying.
7. Transfer the remaining soil in the cup to the main soil sample in the bowl and mix
thoroughly after adding a small amount of water.
8. Repeat steps 4 7 .Obtain at least five sets of readings in the range of 10 40 blows.
9. Record the observations in the Table.
(B) PLASTIC LIMIT
1. Take about 30g of air dried soil sample passing through 425 sieve.
2. Mix thoroughly with distilled water on the glass plate until it is plastic enough to be shaped
into a small ball.
3. Take about 10g of the plastic soil mass and roll it between the hand and the glass plate to
form the soil mass into a thread of as small diameter as possible. If the diameter of the
thread becomes less than 3 mm without cracks, it indicates that the water added to the
soil is more than its plastic limit, hence the soil is kneaded further and rolled into thread
again.
4. Repeat this rolling and remoulding process until the thread start just crumbling at a
diameter of 3mm.
5. If the soil sample starts crumbling before the diameter of thread reaches 3mm (i.e. when
the diameter is more than 3mm) in step 3, it shows that water added in step 2 is less than
the plastic limit of the soil. Hence, some more water should be added and mixed to a
uniform mass and rolled again, until the thread starts just crumbling at a dia of 3mm.
6. Collect the piece of crumbled soil thread at 3mm diameter in an airtight container and
determine moisture content.
7. Repeat this procedure on the remaining masses of 10g.
8. Record the observations in Table and obtain the average value of plastic limit.
Experiment No.: 3
Unit weight is designed as the weight per unit volume. Here the weight and volume of soil
comprise the whole soil mass. The voids in the soil may be filled with both water and air or only
air or only water consequently the soil may be wet, dry or saturated. In soils the weight of air is
considered negligible and therefore the saturated unit weight is maximum, dry unit weight is
minimum and wet unit weight is in between the two. If soils are below water table, submerged unit
weight is also estimated.
Unit weight of soil reflects the strength of soil against compression and shear. Unit weight of soil
is used in calculating the stresses in the soil due to its overburden pressure. It is useful in
estimating the bearing capacity and settlement of foundations. Earth pressure behind the
retaining walls and in cuts is checked with the help of unit weight of the associated soils. It is the
unit weight of the soil which controls the field compaction and it helps in the design of
embankment slopes. Permeability of soil depends on its unit weight .It may be noted here that , in
the field the unit weight refers to dry unit weight only because the wet unit weight of soil at
location varies from season to season and based on the fluctuations of the local water table level
and surface water.
APPARATUS
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the height (h) and internal diameter (d) of the core cutter and apply grease to
the inside of the core cutter.
2. Weigh the empty core cutter (W1).
3. Clean and level the place where density is to be determined.
4. Drive the core cutter, with a steel dolly on its top in to the soil to its full depth with the help
of a steel rammer.
5. Excavate the soil around the cutter with a crow bar and gently lift the cutter without
disturbing the soil in it.
6. Trim the top and bottom surfaces of the sample and clean the outside surface of the
cutter.
7. Weigh the core cutter with soil (W2).
8. Remove the soil from the core cutter, using a sample ejector and take a representative
soil sample from it to determine the moisture content (w).
Experiment No.: 4
To determine the field density of soil at a given location by sand replacement method
APPARATUS
In core cutter method the unit weight of soil obtained from direct measurement of weight and
volume of soil obtained from field. Particularly for sandy soils the core cutter method is not
possible. In such situations the sand replacement method is employed to determine the unit
weight. In sand replacement method a small cylindrical pit is excavated and the weight of the soil
excavated from the pit is measured. Sand, whose density is known, is filled into the pit. By
measuring the weight of sand required to fill the pit and knowing the density of soil, volume of the
pit is calculated .Knowing the weight of soil excavated from the pit and the volume of pit the
density of soil is calculated. Therefore in this experiment there are two stages (1) Calibration of
sand density and (2) Measurement of soil density.
PROCEDURE
CALIBRATION OF SAND DENSITY
1. Measure the internal dimensions diameter (d) and height (h) of the calibrating can and
compute its internal volume V.
2. Fill the sand pouring cylinder (SPC) with sand with 1 cm top clearance to avoid any
spillover during operation and find its weight (W1)
3. Place the SPC on a glass plate, open the slit above the cone by operating the valve and
allow the sand to run down. The sand will freely run down till it fills the conical portion.
When there is no further downward movement of sand in the SPC, close the slit.
4. Find the weight of the SPC along with the sand remaining after filling the cone (W2)
5. Place the SPC concentrically on top of the calibrating can. Open the slit to allow the sand
to rundown until the sand flow stops by itself. This operation will fill the calibrating can and
the conical portion of the SOC. Now close the slit and find the weight of the SPC with the
remaining sand(W3)
MEASUREMENT OF SOIL DENSITY
1. Clean and level the ground surface where the field density is to be determined.
2. Place the tray with a central hole over the portion of the soil to be tested.
3. Excavate a pit into the ground, through the hole in the plate, approximately 12cm deep
(Close the height of the calibrating can) the hole in the tray will guide the diameter of the
pit to be made in the ground.
4. Collect the excavated soil into the tray and weigh the soil (W)
5. Determine the moisture content of the excavated soil.
6. Place the SPC, with sand having the latest weight of W3, over the pit so that the base of
the cylinder covers the pit concentrically.
7. Open the slit of the SPC and allow the sand to run into the pit freely, till there is no
downward movement of sand level in the SPC and then close the slit.
8. Find the weight of the SPC with the remaining sand W4.
Experiment No.: 5
9. Arrange the sieves in order such that coarse sieve is kept at the top and the fine sieve is
at the bottom. Place the closed pan below the finest sieve.
10. Take the oven dried soil obtained after washing into the top sieve and keep the lid to
close the top sieve.
11. Position the sieve set in the sieve shaker and sieves the sample for a period of 10
minutes.
12. Separate the sieves and weigh carefully the amount of soil retained on each sieve, This is
usually done by transferring the soil retained on each sieve on a separate sieve of paper
and weighing the soil with the paper.
13. Enter the observations in the Table and calculate the cumulative percentage of soil
retained on each sieve.
14. Draw the grain size distribution curve between grain size on log scale on the abscissa
and the percentage finer on the ordinate.
Experiment No.: 6
To determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil by conducting constant head method.
THEORY AND APPLICATION
The property of the soil which permits water to percolate through its continuously connected voids
is called its permeability .Water flowing through the soil exerts considerable seepage forces which
has direct effect on the safety of hydraulic structures. The quantity of water escaping through and
beneath and earthen dam depends on the permeability of the embankment and the foundation
soil respectively. The rate of settlement of foundation depends on the permeability properties of
the foundation soil.
APPARATUS
1. Permeability apparatus with accessories
2. Stop watch
3. Measuring jar
PROCEDURE
1. Compact the soil into the mould at a given dry density and moisture content by a suitable
device. Place the specimen centrally over the bottom porous disc and filter paper.
2. Place a filter paper, porous stone and washer on top of the soil sample and fix the top
collar.
3. Connect the stand pipe to the inlet of the top plate. Fill the stand pipe with water.
4. Connect the reservoir with water to the outlet at the bottom of the mould and allow the
water to flow through and ensure complete saturation of the sample.
5. Open the air valve at the top and allow the water to flow out so that the air in the cylinder
is removed.
6. When steady flow is reached, collect the water in a measuring flask for a convenient time
intervals by keeping the head constant. The constant head of flow is provided with the
help of constant head reservoir
7. Repeat the for three more different time intervals
Experiment No.: 7
To determine the coefficient of permeability of a given soil sample by conducting Variable head
test.
THEORY AND APPLICATION
The property of the soil which permits water to percolate through its continuously connected voids
is called its permeability .Water flowing through the soil exerts considerable seepage forces which
has direct effect on the safety of hydraulic structures. The quantity of water escaping through and
beneath and earthen dam depends on the permeability of the embankment and the foundation
soil respectively. The rate of settlement of foundation depends on the permeability properties of
the foundation soil.
APPARATUS
1. Permeability apparatus with accessories
2. Stop watch
3. Measuring jar
4. Funnel
PROCEDURE
1. Compact the soil into the mould at a given dry density and moisture content by a suitable
device. Place the specimen centrally over the bottom porous disc and filter paper.
2. Place a filter paper, porous stone and washer on top of the soil sample and fix the top
collar.
3. Connect the stand pipe to the inlet of the top plate. Fill the stand pipe with water.
4. Connect the reservoir with water to the outlet at the bottom of the mould and allow the
water to flow through and ensure complete saturation of the sample.
5. Open the air valve at the top and allow the water to flow out so that the air in the cylinder
is removed.
6. Fix the height h1 and h2 on the pipe from the top of water level in the reservoir
7. When all the air has escaped, close the air valve and allow the water from the pipe to flow
through the soil and establish a steady flow.
8. Record the time required for the water head to fall from h1 to h2.
9. Change the height h1 and h2 and record the time required for the fall of head.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Calculate the coefficient of permeability of soil using the equation.
K = 2.303 Al / At Log10 (h1/h2)
K = Coefficient of permeability
a = Area of stand pipe (sq.cm)
t = Time required for the head to fall from h1 to h2 (sec)
A = Cross sectional area of the soil sample (sq.cm)
L = Length of soil sample (cm)
h1 = Initial head of water in the stand pipe above the water level in the reservoir (cm)
h2 = final head of water in the stand pipe above the water level in the reservoir (cm)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Experiment No.: 8
Experiment No.: 9
f = C + tan
f = shear strength of the soil
C = Cohesion
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the inner dimension of the soil container.
2. Put the parts of the soil container together.
3. Calculate the volume of the container. Weigh the container.
4. Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick). If a dense sample is desired tamp
the soil.
5. Weigh the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight of the soil. Calculate the
density of the soil.
6. Make the surface of the soil plane.
7. Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of soil.
8. Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
9. Apply the desired normal load.
10. Remove the shear pin.
11. Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
12. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
13. Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that there is no connection between
two parts except sand/soil.
14. Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the reading.
15. Take volume change readings till failure.
16. Add 5 kg normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 and continue the experiment till failure
17. Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the experiment
Experiment No.: 10
To determine Optimum Moisture Content and Maximum dry density for a soil by conducting
standard proctor compaction test.
THEORY
Compaction is the process of densification of soil mass, by reducing air voids under dynamic
loading. On the other hand though consolidation is also a process of densification of soil mass but
it is due to the expulsion of water under the action of continuously acting static load over a long
period.
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry density. The degree of
compaction mainly depends upon its moisture content during compaction, compaction energy and
the type of soil. For a given compaction energy, every soil attains the maximum dry density at a
particular water content which is known as optimum moisture content (OMC)
APPLICATIONS
Compaction of soil increases its dry density, shear strength and bearing capacity. The compaction
of soil decreases its void ratio permeability and settlements. The results of this test are useful in
studying the stability earthen structures like earthen dams, embankments roads and airfields .In
such constructions the soils are compacted. The moisture content at which the soils are to be
compacted in the field is estimated by the value of optimum moisture content determined by the
Proctor compaction test.
APPARATUS
1. Cylindrical mould of capacity 1000cc ,internal diameter 100mm and height 127.3 mm
2. Rammer
3. Mould accessories
4. Balance
5. Graduated jar
6. Straight edge
7. Spatula
8. Oven
9. Moisture bins
PROCEDURE
1. Take about 3 kg of air dried soil
2. Sieve the soil through 20mm sieve. Take the soil that passes through the sieve for testing
Department of Civil Engineering, B.V. Raju Institute of Technology (BVRIT)
3. Take 2.5 kg of the soil and add water to it to bring its moisture content to about 4% in
coarse grained soils and 8% in case of fine grained soils
4. Clean , dry and grease the mould and base plate .Weigh the mould with base plate. Fit
the collar.
5. Compact the wet soil in three equal layers by the rammer with 25 evenly distributed blows
in each layer.
6. Remove the collar and trim off the soil flush with the top of the mould. In removing the
collar rotate it to break the bond between it and the soil before lifting it off the mould.
7. Clean the outside of the mould and weigh the mould with soil and base plate.
8. Remove the soil from the mould and obtain a representative soil sample from the bottom,
middle and top for water content determination
9. Repeat the above procedure with 8,12,16 and 210 % of water contents for coarse grained
soil and 14,18,22 and 26 % for fine grained soil samples approximately. The above
moisture contents are given only for guidance. However, the moisture contents may be
selected based on experience so that, the dry density of soil shows the increase in
moisture content. Each trial should be performed on a fresh sample.
Attach the cutting edge to the mould and push it gently into the ground.
Remove the soil from the outside of the mould which is pushed in .
When the mould is full of soil, remove it from weighing the soil with the mould or by any
field method near the spot.
Remoulded specimen
Prepare the remoulded specimen at Proctors maximum dry density or any other density
at which C.B.R is required.
Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture content or the field moisture as required.
The material used should pass 20 mm I.S. sieve but it should be retained on 4.75 mm I.S.
sieve.
Dynamic Compaction
Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water.
Department of Civil Engineering, B.V. Raju Institute of Technology (BVRIT)
Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the
base
Compact the mix soil in the mould using either light compaction or heavy compaction. For
light compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 55 blows by
the 2.6 kg rammer. For heavy compaction compact the soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to each
layer by the 4.89 kg rammer.
Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc.
Weigh the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry density.
Put filter paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the perforated
base plate on to it.
Static compaction
Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give the desired
density when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould from the expression.
W =desired dry density * (1+w) V
Where W = Weight of the wet soil
w = desired water content
3
V = volume of the specimen in the mould = 2250 cm (as per the mould available in
laboratory)
Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and place it in the mould.
Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of soil.
Keep the mould assembly in static loading frame and compact by pressing the displacer
disc till the level of disc reaches the top of the mould.
Keep the load for some time and then release the load. Remove the displacer disc.
The test may be conducted for both soaked as well as unsoaked conditions.
If the sample is to be soaked, in cases of compaction, put a filter paper on the top of the
soil and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper.
Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base material and
pavement expected in actual construction. Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm
construction. A minimum of two weights should be put.
Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours.
Remove the mould from tank.
Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test machine.
Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible load,
but in no case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample is
established.
Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that the
penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.
Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10
and 12.5 mm. Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a
penetration less than 12.5 mm.
Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from the top
3 cm layer and determine the moisture content.
ATTERBERG LIMITS
Liquid Limit Determination
Sample No.
,
a) Calibration of Apparatus
Sample No.
b = (Ws/ Wb) s
Water content of in-situ soil (grams)
Dry Density of in-situ soil (g/cm3)
,
IS Sieve
Empty
Weight of
Sieve (g)
Weight of
Sieve + Soil
Retained (g)
Soil
Retained (g)
Percentage
Retained (%)
Percentage
Passing
(%)
(mm)
(1)
(2)
100 (4)
4.75
2
1
0.600
0.425
0.300
0.150
0.075
Total Weight:
D10
mm
% Sand
D30
mm
% Fines
D60
mm
Cu = D60 / D10
PERMEABILITY OF SOIL
(Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil)
CONSTANT HEAD TEST
(For permeable soils, K20 > 10-4 cm/s)
Diameter of sample, D (cm) =
Length of sample, L (cm)
=
3
Constant
Elapsed
Overflow
Water
KT
K20
No.
Head, h
Time, t
Volume, Q
Temperature, T
cm/sec
cm/sec
(cm)
(Seconds)
(cm )
( C)
1
2
3
Trial No.
The viscosity of the water changes with temperature. As temperature increases viscosity
decreases and the permeability increases. The coefficient of permeability is standardized
at 20C, and the permeability at any temperature T is related to K20 by the following ratio:
Vertical deformation
Elapsed
strain
time
(min)
Vertical
(div.)
Corrected
Compressive
area
load
Compressive
stress
(mm)
(div.)
(kg)
(kg/cm2)
(6)
(7)
(8) = (7)/(6)
(cm2)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Computations:
Plot stress-strain curve, and show unconfined compressive strength qu as the peak
stress or the stress at 20% strain.
Draw a Mohr circle using qu and determine undrained shear strength c = qu/2
Results
From the stress-strain curve and Mohrs circle,
Unconfined compressive strength, qu (kg/cm2)
Shear
Strain
(L / L)
Load dial
reading
(div)
Horizontal
Shear Force
(kg)
Shear
Stress
(kg/cm2)
Load dial
reading
(div)
Horizontal
Shear Force
(kg)
Shear
Stress
(kg/cm2)
Shear
Strain
(L / L)
Horizontal dial
Horizontal
reading
displacement, L
(div)
(mm)
Load dial
reading
(div)
Horizontal
Shear Force
(kg)
Shear
Stress
(kg/cm2)
Computations:
Plot the shear stress versus horizontal displacement. Read the maximum value of
shear stress if failure has occurred, otherwise read the shear stress at 20% shear
strain.
Plot the maximum shear stress versus the corresponding normal stress for each test,
draw the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope, and determine the cohesion and the angle
of shearing resistance of the soil.
Results
Cohesion, c (kg/cm2)
COMPACTION TEST
Diameter of mould, d (cm)
Weight of rammer
No. of layers
No. of blows/layer
11
14
17
21
Result:
1. Optimum Moisture Content (%)
1370
5.0
2055
7.5
2630
10.0
3180
12.5
3600
Unsoaked condition
Days Soaked =
(Soaked Specimen)
=
3
Penetration Depth
(mm)
Div
Corrected Load
Kg
(Kg)
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
CBR
Annexure I
(Page 1 of 5 )
BRIEF DETAILS OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION
(Ref: IS: 1498 - 1970)
Background and Basis of Classification:
The Geotechnical Engineers/Agencies had evolved many soil classification systems, over
the world. The soil classification system developed by Casegrande was subsequently
modified and named as 'Unified Classification system. In 1959, Bureau of Indian
Standards adopted, the Unified classification system as a standard, which was revised in
1970. According to BIS classification system, soils are primarily classified based on
dominant particle sizes and its plasticity characteristics. Soil particles mainly consist of
following four size fractions.
Gravel :
Sand :
Silt
:
Clay :
80 4.75 mm
4.75mm 0.075mm (75 micron)
75 2 micron
less than 2 micron
Secondary Letter
G:
S:
M:
C:
O:
P:
W:
P:
M:
C:
L:
I :
H:
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay
Organic soil
Peat
well-graded
poorly graded
with non-plastic fines
with plastic fines
of low plasticity
of medium plasticity
of high plasticity
Annexure -I
(Page 3 of 5)
GW
0-5
GP
0-5
GM
> 12
GC
> 12
Laboratory criteria
Grading
Plasticity
Cu > 4
1 < Cc < 3
Not satisfying
GW requirements
Below A- line or
PI < 4
Above A- line and
PI > 7
SW
0-5
Cu > 6
1 < Cc < 3
SP
0-5
Not satisfying
SW requirements
Silty sands
SM
> 12
Below A- line
or PI < 4
Clayey sands
SC
> 12
ML
CL
Description
Coarse
grained
soils:
Fine
particles
(size smaller
than 75
micron) less
than 50%
Group
Symbol
Gravels
(particles
larger than
4.75mm)
more than
50% of
coarse
fraction
Sands
particles
more than
50% of
coarse
fraction (size
above 75
micron)
Fine
grained
soils
particles
(size less
than 75
micron)
more than
50%
Silts and
clays (Liquid
Limit <35)
Silts and
clays (Liquid
limit 35-50)
Silts and
clays (Liquid
limit > 50)
Fines (%)
CL-ML
MI
CI
MH
CH
Notes
A dual symbol,
if fines are 5
12 %.
Dual symbols, if
above A-line
and 4 < PI < 7