CIRDAP

The Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP) is a
regional,intergovernmentalandautonomousinstitution.Itwasestablishedin1979atthe
initiative of the countries of the AsiaPacific region and the Food and Agriculture
Organisation(FAO)oftheUnitedNationswithsupportfromotherUNorganisationsand
donorcountries/agencies.ThemembercountriesofCIRDAPareAfghanistan,Bangladesh
(host state), India, Indonesia, Iran, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan,
Philippines,SriLanka,ThailandandVietnam.

The main objectives of the Centre are to: (i) assist national action, (ii) promote regional
cooperation,and(iii)actasaservicinginstitutionforitsmembercountriesforpromotion
of integrated rural development through research, action research, training and
information dissemination. Amelioration of rural poverty in the AsiaPacific region has
beentheprimeconcernofCIRDAP.

The programme priorities of CIRDAP are set under four Areas of Concern: 1) Agrarian
development; 2) Institutional/infrastructural development; 3) Resource development
including human resources; and 4) Employment. Within these areas of concern, the
thematic areas are: Poverty alleviation through participatory approaches with emphasis
on social sector development (e.g. health, education and nutrition); Employment
generation through microcredit support, infrastructure development and local resource
mobilisation; GONGO collaboration; Gender issues; Governance issues; and
Environmentalconcernsforsustainableruraldevelopment.

OperatingthroughdesignatedContactMinistriesandLinkInstitutionsinmember
countries,CIRDAPpromotestechnicalcooperationamongnationsoftheregion.Itplaysa
supplementaryandreinforcingroleinsupportingandfurtheringtheeffectivenessof
integratedruraldevelopmentprogrammesintheAsiaPacificregion.

EDITORIALBOARD

Chairperson

DurgaP.Paudyal

Editor

K.A.S.Dayananda

Members

T.Abdullah,DevelopmentConsultant
Q.K.Ahmad,BangladeshUnnayanParishad
MomtazUddinAhmed,DhakaUniversity
MohammedFarashuddin,EastWestUniversity
S.K.Singh,CIRDAP
HosseinShahbaz,CIRDAP

EditorialAssistant

S.M.Saifuddin

ISSN10185291

AsiaPacificJournalof
RuralDevelopment

VOLUMEXIXDecember2009 NUMBER2

CENTREONINTEGRATEDRURALDEVELOPMENTFOR
ASIAANDTHEPACIFIC

ASIAPACIFICJOURNALOFRURALDEVELOPMENT
VolumeXIX,December2009,Number2
ISSN10185291
CIRDAP2009

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ASIAPACIFICJOURNALOFRURALDEVELOPMENT
VolumeXIXDecember2009Number2
CONTENTS
Articles

ImpactofLabourMigrationonFarmEfficiency:AStudyof
MaizeFarminginNorthernThailand
PhaninNonthakotandRenatoVillano

Page

EmpoweringtheMembersofWomenSHGsinLivestock
FarmingthroughNeedBasedTrainings
M.Jothilakshmi,R.KrishnarajandN.K.Sudeepkumar

17

SocioeconomicAnalysisofFishermenatCoastalFishery
ManagementinMaharashtra,India
B.R.Chavan,A.YakupitiyageandS.Kumar

31

EconomicContributionofWomentoGroundnutProductionin
RuralAreaofBornoState,Nigeria
A.O.Ani,S.A.RahmanandP.V.Kwaghe

47

NonconventionalFisheryByproductsofFishMarketsin
DhakaMetropolis,Bangladesh
BhaktaSupratimSarker,MahmudHasan,Mohammad
ShamsurRahmanandA.F.M.ArifurRahman

57

AgriculturalTechnologyAdoptionandLandProductivity:Evidencefrom 73
theRicePrawnGherFarminginSomeSelectedAreasofBangladesh
BasantaKumarBarmon,TakumiKondoandFumioOsanami
MaritalCharacteristicsofHouseholdsinEcotourismCentres:
TheCaseofRuralTourismDevelopmentinPlateauState,Nigeria
H.M.IjeomahandA.A.Alarape

103

SocioeconomicImpactofPulseResearchin
SomeSelectedAreasofBangladesh
M.A.MonayemMiah,Q.M.Alam,A.SarkerandM.S.Aktar

115

CriticalChallengestoSmallscaleRuralBusinessFirms:ACaseStudyof 143
PoultryFarmEnterpriseinIdoLGA,OyoState
M.E.OnuandD.I.Ekine
PractitionersPaper
LandReformsinBihar,India:AnUnfinishedAgenda
MadhulikaSingh

167

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

ImpactofLabourMigrationonFarmEfficiency:A
StudyofMaizeFarminginNorthernThailand
PhaninNonthakot*andRenatoVillano**

Abstract
This paper investigates the relationship between labour migration and
agricultural productivity in the Northern Province of Thailand. Drawing on
maize production data from a household survey, an estimate of stochastic
productionfunctiontoevaluatetheeffectsofmigration,remittancesandsalient
characteristics of migrants on the mean maize output and levels of technical
efficiency was tried. Evidence shows that remittances and number of migrant
workersfacilitatemaizeproduction.Itwasalsofoundthatremittances,duration
ofmigration,genderandeducationofmigrantsenhancetheproductivecapacity
ofmaizefarmers.

1.0Introduction
The role of migration and remittances is an important issue in agricultural
development.Migrationaffectsagriculturalactivities and social life in rural
areas of developing countries. Stark (1991) and Rozelle and Taylor (1999)
argued that migration can complement productivity growth in the farm
sectorbyrelaxingcreditorriskconstraintsfacedbyagriculturalhouseholds
through remittances, and this could contribute to technological change and
rural development. On the other hand, labour outmigration can create
labour shortages. A rapid development of the nonfarm sector stimulates a
rise in nonfarm employment and wage rate. A disparity of wage rate
between farm and nonfarm sectors generates farm labour outmigration
fromlowerwagerateareas.
In Thailand, before the 1997 economic crisis, seasonal rural to urban
migration was common during the dry season. Migrants of the northern
provinceswerethemostmobile(20%ofmenand13%ofwoman)(DeJonget
PhDStudent,SchoolofBusiness,EconomicsandPublicPolicy,UniversityofNew
England,Armidale,NSW,2351Australia.
** Correspondingauthor:SchoolofBusiness,EconomicsandPublicPolicy,University
ofNewEngland,Armidale,NSW,2351Australia.Email:rvillan2@une.edu.au
*

al.1996).Afterthecrisis,manylabourersfromtheurbanareasreturnedto
work on the farms. The number of employed workers declined by one
millionpersonsbetween1997and1998.Mostofthelowskilledworkershad
toreturntotheirhometownandtheagriculturalsectorabsorbedthelaidoff
workers(Chalamwong&Amorntum2002).Asaresult,thelabourshortage
has been partly resolved, but the reduction of remittances may have a
negativeimpactonfarminghouseholds.
The unresolved question regarding labour migration and agricultural
production is whether remittance incomes enhance production enough to
compensate for the reduced availability of labour in any specific setting
(Mochebelele2000).Thishasalsobeenthefocusofpreviousstudiessuchas
Rozelle,TaylorandDebrauw(1999)andMochebelele(2000).
Inordertounderstandthecomplexityoftherelationshipbetweenmigration
and agricultural productivity, this paper aims to examine the technical
efficiency of maize farmers in the northern province of Thailand. It is
considered in the study a stochastic frontier production function and it
examines the effects of migration and remittances on productivity and
efficiency. While previous studies have considered factors such as human
capital and household characteristics, the researchers extended the analysis
byincludingvariouscharacteristicsofmigrantsinthemodel.
The present paper is organised as follows: Section 1 is on introduction.
Section2providesabriefbackgroundofthestudyareaanddatausedinthe
study.ThemethodofanalysisandempiricalmodelispresentedinSection3.
The empirical results are presented in Section 4, and conclusions are
discussedinSection5.

2.0StudyAreaandData
In Thailand, maize is an industrial crop, a source of food, and a feed and
export earning. The production of maize is insufficient for livestock
production, as the statistics show that domestic demand is higher than the
total production of maize (Office of Agricultural Economics 2006). The
demand in the world market has also increased, the value of export
increasingby27percentfrom1996to2005.
ThelargestregionformaizeproductionisinNorthernThailand(53%oftotal
areaplanted)becausethegeographyofthisareaisappropriateforplanting

drycrops.Maizeisoneofthemaincashcropsandmostpeopleworkinthe
agricultural sector. Thirty years ago, the major occupation in this area was
farmingandplantingapoppycrop.TheThaigovernmenttriedtoencourage
a change in the behaviour of the local people and montagnards1, and they
switched to planting industrial crops such as maize because it has a short
productioncycleandislessriskythanothercrops(Ekasingh2004).
Thedatausedinthispaperweretakenfromthedatasetcollectedaspartof
the project Growth, Crisis and Resilience: Household Responses to
Economic Change in Rural Southeast Asia Evidence from Northern
Thailand 2 . This research project focused on the effects of economywide
growth and shocks on agricultural land use, the labour market and
educational decisions of rural households in poorly endowed rural areas.
Aumpher 3 Mae Chaem, in Chiang Mai Province, was the sample area
because it has experienced rapid agricultural development and has many
migrantswhohadmigratedtotheurbanareasinChiangMaiandBangkok.
It is expected that there were significant influences of economic growth on
resourceallocation.Moreover,theeconomiccrisisin1997ledtotherenewed
pressuresonlandresources,accordingtoCoxheadandPlangpraphan(1999)
whoanalysedthesepressuresusingaggregatedatafrom324householdsin
twoyears(1998and1999).
The survey data showed that there were 153 farmers engaged in maize
production. Detailed output and input variables, as well as various
householdcharacteristics,wereusedintheanalysis.Descriptivestatisticsare
presentedinTable1.Onaverage,maizeproductionconstitutedabout75per
cent of the total household income. The average production of maize was
approximately 4450 kg per household, which translates to a mean yield of
5827.61 kg per hectare. Maize production is highly variable, ranging from
100kgto20tonsperhousehold.Onanaverage,about15kgperhectareof
seedwasused.About83kgperhectareoffertiliserwasappliedand285baht
per hectare was spent on herbicides. The average preharvest and harvest
labourusewereabout29persondaysand33persondays,respectively.

HighlandtribesinthenorthofThailand.
ThisprojectwasfundedbytheFordFoundation.
3Anaumpherisadistrict.
1
2

Theaverageageofthehouseholdheadvariedfrom29to80yearsoldand68
percentofthehouseholdmemberswereadults.Theaverageageofmigrants
is30yearsold,withanaverageeducationalattainmentlevelof6years.Most
of them are seasonal migrants (77%) and the average of the duration of
migrationisofalmost3years.Thereareabout87householdswithmigrants
inthesampleddata.Theaverageremittanceis7777bahtperhouseholdper
year.
Table1:DescriptiveStatisticsofOutputandInputVariables
Variablename
Mean
Output/Inputvariables

Maizeharvested(kg/ha)
5827.61
Area(ha)
0.81
Seed(kg)
14.59
Fertiliser(kg)
82.82
Herbicide(baht)
285.39
Preharvest labour (person
29.39
days)
Harvestlabour(persondays)
33.49

Householdcharacteristicsand

economicvariables
Age of the household head 48.76
(years)
Education(years)
2.73
Adultratio(%)
67.64
Proportionofmaizeincometo
0.75
totalincome
Remittances(bahtperyear)
7777
Ageofmigrant(years)
30
Yearsofschooling(years)
6
Durationofmigration(years)
2.93

SD

3373.92
0.58
10.55
69.87
198.82
36.81

Minimum Maximum

250
21750
0.04
3.36
1
50
0
460
0
1060
3
284

42.05

420

13.85

29

80

2.46
19.19
0.36

0
25
0.1

12
100
1

8383.91
11.56
3.94
2.56

0
13
0
0.02

36000
73
14
10

Source:SurveyData

Some important characteristics of migrants are provided in Table 2. The

majorityofmigrantsweremale(62.07%)becausewomenhavetolookafter
children and disabled persons in the household. The migrants normally
migrated within their province (77%) and only some of them got a job in a

big city. There are many types of work that the migrants took, with the
majority working in the service industry (70%). The main reason for
migration was to increase family income, and about 63 per cent of
remittancessentwerebacktotheirfamilies.
Table2:DescriptiveStatisticsoftheMigrationVariables
Variablename

Number

Percentage

1.Sex
Male
Female

54
33

62
38

2.Placeofmigration
Inprovince
Otherprovinces
Othercountries

67
19
1

77
22
1

3.Natureofjobasmigrant
Agriculturalwage
Factory
Service
Construction
Salariedjob
Generalwage
4.Reasonsformigration
Freefromagriculturalwork
Toincreaseincomeforfamily
Tocareforsomebody
Gainexperience
Wentwithspouse
Others

4
7
52
11
12
1

12
48
23
1
1
2

5
8
60
13
14
1

14
55
26
1
1
2

5.Sendingremittances
Yes
No

63
24

72
28

Source:SurveyData

3.0MethodofAnalysisandEmpiricalModel
The researchers used a standard stochastic frontier production function,
definedas:
Yt=f(Xi,)exp(i)

(1)

where Yi is the output of farm ith (i = 1, 2, ..., N); Xi is the corresponding

matrix of inputs; is a vector of parameters to be estimated; and i is the
errortermthatconsistsoftwoindependentelements,ViandUi,suchthati
ViUi.TheVisareassumedtobesymmetricidenticallyandindependently
distributed errors that represent random variations in output as a result of
factorsoutsidethecontrolofthefarmers,theeffectsofmeasurementerrorin
theoutputvariable,variablesexcludedfromthemodel,andstatisticalnoise.
They are assumed to be normally distributed with mean zero and variance
2v.TheUisarenonnegativerandomvariablesthatrepresentthestochastic
shortfall of outputs from the most efficient production. Ut is defined by
truncation of the normal distribution with mean Ui = 0 + Jj=1 jZji and
variance2,whereZjisthevalueofthejthexplanatoryvariableassociated
with the technical inefficiency effect of farm i; and 0 and j are unknown
parameterstobeestimated(Battese&Coelli1995).Themaximumlikelihood
method is used to estimate the parameters of both the stochastic frontier
model and inefficiency effects model. The variance parameter of the
likelihoodfunctionisestimatedintermsof2 s2v+2and22 s.The
technicalefficiencyofproductionfortheithfarmisdefinedby:
(2)

TE=exp(Ui)
The technical efficiency index (TEi) is equal to 1 if the farm is perfectly
efficientandequaltozeroifperfectlyinefficient.
Stochastic frontier estimates of the frontier model defined by Equation (1)
wereobtainedbyassumingfirstaCobbDouglasfunctionalformandthena
translogfunctionalform.Asaspecialcaseofthetranslogfunction,theCobb
Douglas functional form imposes severe restrictions on the technology by
restricting the production elasticities to be constant and the elasticities of
input substitution to be unity. Using a likelihoodratio test, the Cobb
Douglaswastestedagainstthetranslogfunctiontodeterminewhetheritis
anadequaterepresentationofthedata,andfoundconclusiveevidencethatit
wasnot4. Therefore,thisfunctionhasbeenexcluded fromfurtherconsideration.

To test H0: js = 0, the LR statistic is used which is defined as = 2{ln[L(H0)]

ln[L(H1)]}whereln[L(H0)]isthevalueoftheloglikelihoodfunctionunderHo.The
valueofis134.242,andH0isrejectedatthe5percentlevelofsignificance.

Thespecificationofthetranslogfunctionalformisgivenby:
7

ln Yi = 0 + j ln X ij +
j =1

5
1 7 7
js ln X ij ln X is + k Dk + Vi U i (3)

2 j =1 s =1
k =1

whereYrepresentsthequantityofanimalfeedcorn(inkilograms);X1isthe
totalseeds(inkilograms);X2isthetotalareaplantedtomaize(inhectares);
X3isthefertiliser(asnitrogen,phosphorusandpotassiuminkilograms);X4
is the herbicide applied (as costin baht); X5 is the total labour before
harvesting(persondays);X6isthetotallabourforharvesting(persondays);
X7 is the migration remittances (bahtyears); and the input variable is zero
value.Byusingadummyvariablewiththeincidenceofthezeroobservation,
the appropriate parameters of CobbDouglas production functions can be
estimated in an unbiased way (Battese 1997). D1 is the dummy variable for
fertiliser,withavalueof1ifX3=0and0ifX3>0;D2isthedummyvariable
for herbicide, with a value of 1 if X4 = 0 and 0 if X4 > 0; D3 is the dummy
variableformigration,withavalueof1ifthehouseholddoesnotexperience
migration and 0 if the household does experience migration; D4 is the
dummyvariableforthereceiptofremittances,withavalueof1ifX7>0and
0ifX4=0,D5isthedummyvariableforyear,withavalueof0iftheyearis
1998and1iftheyearis19995;thesubscripts,j,iandtrefertothejthinput(j
=1,2,,7),ithfarmer(i=1,2,,153)andtthyear(t=1,2),respectively;and
thesandsareunknownparameterstobeestimated.
Following Battese and Coelli (1995), a technical inefficiency model
wasalsoconsidered:
12

uit = 0 + j jit ,

(4)

j=1

where the js (j = 0,1,, 12) are unknown parameters; Z1 is the age of the
household head; Z2 defines the years of education completed by the
household head; Z3 is credit received by the household for cropping; Z4 is
the amount of remittances; Z5 represents the number of migrants in the
household; Z6 is the proportion of maize income to total income; Z7 is the
ratioofadultstototalhouseholdsize;Z8representstheperiodofmigration;
5

As mentioned earlier, data were collected for two years. The data set used here was a pooled
data set for farmers engaged in maize production.

Z9 defines the time of migration;Z10 is a dummy variable forthe genderof

thehouseholdhead;Z11denotestheageofthemigrant;andZ12definesthe
educationlevelofthemigrant.
The age of the household head could have negative or positive effects on
efficiency.Thecoefficientwouldbepositiveifolderfarmersarenotwilling
to adopt better practices. On the other hand, older farmers may have more
experienceandknowledgeoftheproductionactivitiesandbemorereliable
in performing production tasks, in which case the coefficient would be
negative. Next, the coefficient of education is expected to have a negative
signbecauseahigherlevelofeducationwouldhelpfarmerstoincreasethe
qualityofmaizeproduction.Thesignofthecoefficientoftheratioofadult
members of the household could be negative or positive. The coefficient
would be negative if more adult members in the household mean more
available labour capable of performing farming tasks. The sign of the
coefficientoftheadultratiocouldbepositiveifadultmembershavetowork
offfarm.
Among the economic factors, the credit variable could also have either a
positiveornegativeeffectonefficiency.Thesignonthecoefficientcouldbe
positive if the farmers get subsidised credit that distorts the efficiency of
inputusage.Ontheotherhand,thesignonthecoefficientcouldbenegative
if the access to credit allows farmers to exploit scale efficiency and release
financialconstraintsonfarmoperators.Thecoefficientofthevariableforthe
proportion of maize income to total income is expected to have a negative
sign because maize is an important cash crop in this area, and the farmers
can get more income than from other crops. A high proportion of maize
incometototalincomeexplainsthesignificanteffectonhouseholdincome.It
canbehypothesisedthatthehouseholdswhichobtainorearnmainincome
from maize will pay greater attention to maize production, leading to
increased efficiency. Thesign on the coefficientsof the remittances variable
and the number of migrants in the family variable could be negative or
positive. If there are many migrants and remittances, the farmers will get
moremoneyfromthemigrantstoincreasemaizeproduction,whichwould
act in a manner similar to a release of the credit constraint. However,
migration could affect social life andthe morale of the farmers families. In
addition, labour supply may be insufficient for the crucial periods of
planting and harvesting, causing bottlenecks, and then the coefficient of

remittancesandthenumberofmigrantscouldbepositiveindicatinggreater
technicalinefficiency.
Ofthenoneconomicfactors,thesignofthecoefficientfortheperiodoftime
migrantshavetakentoworkawayfromthefarmisexpectedtobenegative.
The coefficient would be negative if the migrants have worked for many
years because they would send more remittances to their families than the
migrants who have worked for few years. If there are many migrants and
remittances, the farmers will get more money from the migrants for
improvementinagriculturalproduction.
The coefficient of the gender of migrants could be positive. Male out
migration implies that there would be fewer workers at the farm. The sign
on the coefficient of the age of migrants could be positive. Lastly, the
educational attainment of migrant is expected to have a negative sign
because a higher level of education can help the migrants to get more
income,sotheremittancethattheysendbacktotheirfamilieswillincrease.
TheresearchersestimatedtheempiricalmodelusingFRONTIER6.1.Several
testswereconductedtoexaminethevalidityofthemodel.Thegeneralised
likelihoodratiotestfortheonesidederrorwassignificantatthe5percent
level(LR=128.39).

4.0EmpiricalResults
4.1ProductionFrontierEstimates
The maximum likelihood estimates for the parameters of the translog
stochasticfrontierproductionfunctionarepresentedinTable3.Becausethe
variablesofthetranslogmodelweremeancorrectedtozero,thefirstorder
coefficients are the estimates of elasticities at the mean input levels. Seed,
farm area, fertiliser, herbicide, harvest labour and remittances are all
significant at the 1 per cent level for the translog model, and preharvest
labourissignificantat5percent.Theseedvariablehasanegativesignonits
coefficient.
The coefficient of the dummy variable for migration has a negative sign,
which implies that a higher number of migrants in the household reduces
maizeoutputbecauseifmembersofahouseholdmigratetogetjobsinurban
areas,theshortageoflabourwillaffecttheplantingandharvestingactivities

of maize production. There is a negative association between the dummy

variableforyearandmaizeoutput,whichindicatesthatthefirstyear(1998)
hadmoremaizeoutputthanthesecondyear(1999).
Table 3: Maximum Likelihood Estimates for the Parameters of the
Translog Stochastic Frontier Production Models for Maize
ProductionintheNorthofThailand
Variable

Parameter

Coefficient

SE

Constant

0.397***

0.021

Seed

0.153***

0.023

Farmarea

0.643***

0.028

Fertiliser

0.236***

0.036

Herbicide

0.253

0.017

Preharvestlabour

Harvestlabour

***
**

0.050

0.027

***

0.154

0.031

Remittance

***

0.227

0.288

Dummyvariablefor
migration

0.073***

0.020

Dummyvariableforfertiliser

0.070***

0.025

Dummyvariableforherbicide

***

0.090

0.012

Dummyvariablefor
remittance

***

0.074

0.020

Dummyvariableforyear

0.120***

0.010

Varianceparameters

0.179***

0.021

Gamma

1.000

0.000

Loglikelihoodfunction

84.742

***

Note:*,**and***denotesignificanceat10percent,5percentand1percentrespectively.
Thisisanabridgedformofthetranslogstochasticproductionfunction.

4.2TechnicalInefficiencyEstimates
The maximum likelihood estimates for the parameters of the inefficiency
modelforthetranslogfunctionarepresentedinTable4.Thecoefficientsof
thevariablesofage,education,proportionofmaizeincometototalincome,
periodofmigrationandeducationofmigrantsintheinefficiencymodelare
significant at the 1 per cent level. The coefficients of the variables of

10

remittances,adultratioandageofmigrantsaresignificantat5percent.The
age variable has a negative association, indicating younger farmers tend to
be more inefficient. It can be explained that the older farmers have more
experienceandknowledgeoftheproductionactivitiesandaremorereliable
inperformingproductiontasks.ThisisthesameresultasreportedbyTauer
(1995) whose research found that the productivity of farmers peaked
between ages 35 and 45, where it was 30 per cent greater than for farmers
underage25.Beyond45yearsofage,theproductivityoffarmersdecreased
withadditionalage.Lockheed,etal.(1980)andPhillips(1994)hypothesised
thateducationhasapositiveeffectonfarmerefficiency.Theyfoundthaton
averagefouryearsofschoolingcanimproveoutputbyabout7.4percent.In
this study, education has a negative association, which indicates that a
higher level of education can help the farmers to decrease inefficiency
becausetheyarebetterabletoobtainnewknowledgeandskillstoimprove
farmmanagement.
The remittance variable has a negative association, indicating that higher
remittances are associated with more efficient maize production. The
proportion of maize income to total income also has a negative association
withtechnicalefficiency,whichindicatesthatagreaterproportionofmaize
income to total income is associated with greater efficiency. It is expected
that maize is the important cash crop in this area because the farmers can
earn income faster than they can from other crops. Therefore, households
thatderivetheirmainincomefrommaizecropswillpayattentiontomaize
productionandachieveincreasedefficiencyinitsproduction.Theadultratio
variable has a positive association with technical inefficiency, which
indicates that the higher the proportion of adults to total members of the
householdthemoreinefficientmaizeproductionis.Itispossiblethatmany
adults are old members of the household who cannot work effectively if at
all. The period of migration has a negative association with technical
inefficiency. It can be deduced that if many of the household members
migrate to work all year, the households will increase technical efficiency
because they can invest more income from the remittances to improve
production efficiency. The age of migrants has a positive association,
explained by the fact that the migration of older migrants causes a loss of
farmexperience.Thefinalvariable,theeducationofmigrants,hasanegative
associationwithtechnicalinefficiencywhichindicatesthatahigherlevelof

11

education can increase the income of migrants so they can send the
remittancetohelptheirfamilies.
The generalised likelihood ratio test statistic was estimated to test the null
hypothesisthattheparametersarenotsignificantforthefollowingvariables
intheinefficiencymodel:credit,thenumberofmigrants,timeofmigration,
and the gender of households. It was found that all of variables cannot be
dropped,andthereforethenullhypothesiscannotberejected.Therefore,the
inefficiencymodelreportedinTable4containsallvariables.
Table 4: Maximum Likelihood Estimates for the Parameters of the
InefficiencyEffectsModeloftheTranslogFunctionsforMaize
ProductionintheNorthofThailand
Variable

Parameter

Constant
Ageofhouseholdhead
Educationofhouseholdhead
Credit
Remittances
Thenumberofmigrants
Proportionofmaizeincometototal
income
Adultratio
Durationofmigration
Timeofmigration
Genderofmigrants
Ageofmigrants
Educationofmigrants

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Translog
Coefficient
SE
***
1.073
0.438
0.016***
0.005
0.086***
0.024
0.387
0.361
0.00002**
0.000008
0.132
0.230
0.243***
0.025
0.005**
0.093***
0.206
0.122
0.011**
0.145***

0.003
0.038
0.299
0.209
0.005
0.031

Note: *, ** and *** denote significance at the 10 per cent, 5 per cent and 1 per cent
respectively.

Descriptive statistics for the timeinvariant technical efficiency model are

presentedinTable5.Theoverallmeanforallthemigrantfarmsinthetwo
yearperiodis0.86,implyingthattheirproductioncouldbeincreasedby14
per cent using the same amounts of inputs if they were able to reach
maximumefficiency.Ontheotherhand,thenonmigrantfarmshaveamean
technical efficiency of 10 per cent less than the migration farms. It can be
concluded that the migrant farms produce maize more efficiently than the

12

nonmigrantsfarms6.Themaximumtechnicalefficiencyis0.99,achievedby
bothamigrantfarmandanonmigrantfarm.
Table5:MeanTechnicalEfficiency19981999

Mean
Standarddeviation
Maximum
Minimum

Migrantfarms
0.86
0.16
0.99
0.34

Nonmigrantfarms
0.76
0.18
0.99
0.30

ThedistributionoftechnicalefficiencyestimatesispresentedinFigure1.A
majority of migrant farms have technical efficiency estimates between 0.86
and 1.00, whereas nonmigrant farms are distributed more widely. The
efficiencyindicesforthenonmigrantfarmsvariedfrom0.61to1.00,and54
per cent had technical efficiencies above the groups averagewhereas more
than 60 per cent of the migrant farms had efficiencies above the groups
average.Only9percentofthemigrantfarmshadefficiencyindiceslessthan
0.61whereasmorethan10percentofthenonmigrantfarmshadefficiencies
inthisrange.
The comparison of technical efficiency between nonmigrant and migrant
households implies that migrant farms have higher technical efficiency on
averagethannonmigrantfarms.Themigrantfarmsappeartohaveagreater
abilitytoallocatetheirinputseffectively.Itcanbesaidthattheremittances
frommigrantscanincreasetheefficiencyofmaizeproductionbecausethey
canuseremittancestobuyfertiliserandhirepreandpostharvestlabourfor
theirfarmingoperationsinatimelymanner.Thefindingsalsosuggestthat
the head of households knowledge of farm management can help increase
efficiencyinmaizeproduction.Scopeexistsforfarmersinbothcategoriesto
increase maize output. About 21 per cent of the migrant farms and 46 per
centofthenonmigrantfarmshavetechnicalefficiencieslessthan0.76.Thus,
migration and associated remittances combined with greater knowledge of
farmmanagementcanhelpproducerstoincreasetechnicalefficiency.

Theresearcherstestedthesamplingdistributionofthedifferencebetweentwomeans
byusingaZtest.ThevalueoftheteststatisticisZ=3.543whichfallsintherejection
region.Thus,theyrejectH0.

13

4.3ElasticitiesandReturntoScale
The parameters of the frontier model for the translog function indicate that
the elasticity of output is highest with respect to the area planted to maize
(0.643atthemeaninputvalues).TheseelasticitiesarepresentedinTable6.
Thiselasticityisapproximatelytripletheestimatedfertiliseroutputelasticity
(0.236)andherbicideoutputelasticity(0.253),whichareinturnhigherthan
theharvestlabouroutputelasticity(0.154)andpreharvestoutputelasticity
(0.050).
Figure1:TheDistributionofTechnicalEfficiency
50

Frequency

40

30

20

10

0.3000

0.4000

0.5000

0.6000

0.7000

0.8000

0.9000

1.0000

Mean of technical efficiency

The estimated returnstoscale parameters, computed as the sum of

estimatedoutputelasticitiesofall inputattheirmeanvalues,is1.183for the
translog model. This estimate suggests increasing returns to scale on the
frontier.TheproductivityofmaizeproductioninthenorthofThailandcould
beincreasedbyexpandingthescaleofmaizefarmingonindividualfarms.

14

Table6:

EstimatesofOutputElasticitiesforInputsintheStochastic
FrontierProductionFunction

Input
Seed
Farmarea
Fertiliser
Herbicide
Preharvestlabour
Harvestlabour
Returnstoscale

Translog
0.153(0.023)
0.643(0.028)
0.236(0.036)
0.253(0.017)
0.050(0.027)
0.154(0.031)
1.183(0.006)

Note:Thefiguresinparenthesesarestandarderrors.

5.0Conclusion
Inthispaper,theresearchersuseastochasticfrontierproductionmodelwith
inefficiency effects to find the relationships between labour migration,
remittances and maize productivity. The analysis used a pooleddata set
from the Northern Province of Thailand. Seasonal migration is common in
thenorthernprovince,especiallyduringthedryseason.
Theresultsindicatethatremittanceshaveapositiveandsignificanteffecton
maizeproduction.Characteristicsofmigrantsshowedasignificanteffecton
the level of technical efficiencies of maize farmers. The average technical
efficiencyofmigrantfarmswas86percent,whichwasmorethan10percent
higherthanonnonmigrantfarms.Theageandeducationalattainmentofthe
household head, remittances, proportion of maize income to total income,
period of migration, and age and education of migrants in the household
were found to have significant effects in decreasing technical inefficiency.
Theanalysisoftherelationshipbetweenmigrationandtechnicalefficiencyof
farmersimpliesthatexcesslabourfromothersectorscannotchangetechnical
efficiency. The efficiency of allocation of inputs in maize production can be
improvedbyusingremittancestomakemoretimelypurchasesofinputsand
hired labour, and by improving the farm management knowledge of the
householdhead.
The findings about the effects of migration, remittances and migrant
characteristics on maize production support those by Rozelle and Taylor
(1999),whofoundthattherearebothpositiveandnegativeeffectsoflabour
migrationonproductivity.Thesefindingssuggestthatincreasingthequality

15

andquantityofeducationintheruralareacanhelpmigrantsobtainhigher
remittances. However, migration can also have a negative effect on maize
productionbycausingshortagesoflabourintheagriculturalsector.Inorder
tosolvethisproblem,aneffectiveruraldevelopmentprogrammecanreduce
thenumberofpeopleinfarmhouseholdswhomigratetoearnincomeinthe
other places. Finally, the duration of migration implies that permanent
migrantshavehigherremittancesthantemporarymigrants.

References
Battese, G. E. 1997. A Note on the Estimation of CobbDouglas Production Functions
When Some Explanatory Variables Have Zero Values. Journal of Agricultural
Economics.Vol.48,No.2,Pp.250252.
Battese, G. E. and T. J. Coelli. 1992. Frontier Production Functions, Technical Efficiency
andPanelData:WithApplicationtoPaddyFarmersinIndia.JournalofProductivity
Analysis,Vol.3,Pp.153169.
Battese, G. E. and T. J. Coelli. 1995. A Model for Technical Inefficiency Effects in a
StochasticFrontierProductionFunctionLiterature.EmpiricalEconomics,Vol.20,Pp.
325332.
Coxhead, I. and J. Plangpraphan. 1999. Thailands Economic Boom and Agricultural Bust:
Some Economic Questions and Policy Puzzles. Staff Paper, University of Wisconsin
Madison,DepartmentOfAgriculturalandAppliedEconomics.
De Jong, G. F., K. Richter, and P. Isarabhakdi. 1996. Gender, Values, and Intentions to
MovetoRuralThailand.InternationalMigrationReview,Vol.30,No.3,Pp.748770.
Ekasingh, B. 2004. MaizeinThailand:ProductionSystemConstraintsandResearchPriorities.
Mexico:InternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCenter.
Isvilanonda, A.A. and Somporn. 2003. Rural Poverty and Agricultural Diversification in
Thailand. Paper read at the Second Annual Swedish School of Advanced Asia and
PacificStudies(SSAAP),2426October2003.
Lockheed,M.E.,T.Jamieson,andJ.Laurence.1980.FarmerEducationandFarmEfficiency:
ASurvey.EconomicDevelopmentandCulturalChange,Vol.29,No.1,Pp.3776.
Mochebelele, M. T. 2000. Migrant Labour and Farm Technical Efficiency in Lesotho,
WorldDevelopment,Vol.28,No.1,Pp.143153.
Office of Agricultural Economics, T. 2006. Yearbook 47. Downloaded from
http://www.oae.go.th/statistic/yearbook47/.
Phillips,J.M.1994.FarmerEducationandFarmerEfficiency:AMetaAnalysis.Economic
DevelopmentandCulturalChange,Vol.43,No.1,Pp.149165.
Rozelle,S.,E.Taylor,andA.DeBrauw.1999.Migration,Remittances,andProductivityin
China.AmericanEconomicReview,Vol.89No.2,Pp.287291.
Tauer,L.1995.AgeandFarmerProductivity.ReviewofAgriculturalEconomics,Vol.17,No.
1,Pp.6369.

16

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

EmpoweringtheMembersofWomenSHGsin
LivestockFarmingthroughNeedBasedTrainings
M.Jothilakshmi*,R.Krishnaraj**andN.K.Sudeepkumar***

Abstract
Thisstudyaimedatdeterminingthetrainingneedsinlivestockfarmingandthe
relationship between the characteristics of members of women selfhelp groups
and their training needs in livestock farming. Finance and marketing, disease
control,managementandfeedingwerethemostpreferredareasfortrainingin
dairying,sheepandgoatfarming. Thevariables,extensionagencycontactand
incomeexhibitedsignificantandpositiveandnegativecorrelationsrespectively
withtrainingneedsindairying.Thevariables,herdsizeandextensionagency
contact had highly significant and significant positive correlation respectively
withtrainingneedsinsheepandgoatfarming.

1.0Introduction
Indian constitution in its fundamental rights has provisions for equality,
social justice and protection of women. Since independence, a number of
innovativeschemeshavebeenlaunchedfortheupliftmentofwomeninour
country. There has been a perceptible shift from viewing women as critical
agents for socioeconomic development to empowerment of women that is
gaining wider acceptance today. It is expected that these SHGs (selfhelp
groups)willbenefitnotonlytheindividualwomenbutalsothefamilies,the
community and the nation as a whole through collective action for
development.
SHG isa small, economically homogenousandaffinity group of rural poor
(1220 members), voluntarily formed to save money and mutually agree to
contributetoacommonfundasdeposittobelenttoitsmembersasperthe

VeterinaryAssistantSurgeon,DepartmentofAnimalHusbandry,TamilNadu.
Email:drjothi80@gmail.com
**
Professor and Head (Rtd), Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry
ExtensionandEntrepreneurship,MadrasVeterinaryCollege,Chennai600007.
*** Associate Professor, Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension
andEntrepreneurship,MadrasVeterinaryCollege,Chennai600007.
*

17

group decision for their socioeconomic development. It was also a viable

institutional setup to disburse microcredit to the rural women and
encouraged them to enter into entrepreneurial activities (Sarangi 2003). In
this line, various developmental agencies such as State and Central
Governments, banking organisations, nongovernmental organisations,
donor agencies and foundations are actively engaged in mobilisation of
womenintoSHGs.
These SHGs were mostly from rural background. According to
VenkatachalamandJeyaprakash(2004)morethan81percentofSHGswere
fromrural.Fortheseruralwomen,livestockfarmingactedasamajorsource
of occupation. This is evident from various past studies. According to
Vishwanathan(1989),85percentofruralwomenwereengagedinlivestock
activities. In 90 per cent of the families, the indoor jobs such as milking,
cleaning and feeding etc.,in livestock farming are handled by women (Das
andPankaj2004).Womenaccountedfor93percentoftotalemploymentin
dairy production (World Bank Report 1991). According to Sheokand et al.
(1999)womencarriedout42.9percentactivitieswhilemen45.2percentand
bothgendertogetheraround11.9percentoflivestockfarming.Eventhough
there are differences in quantifying the role of women, there is a clear
indication of significant contribution of women in livestock farming. In
addition in the context of globalisation due to intensive migrations of male
fromruraltourban,thereisincreasingtrendoffeminisationinagriculture.It
also holds good for livestock farming. The above trend is also reflected
amongmembersofruralSHGs.
AmajorityofSHGwomenwereinvolvedinlivestockfarmingasithasbeen
a part of their environment (Gariyali and Vettivel 2003). More than 63 per
cent of the selfhelp groups have opted for dairy and have favourable
attitude towards dairy enterprise (Hema Tripathi and Sharma 2006). The
probable cause may be that dairying is a traditional occupation for the
marginal and landless farmers who happen to bethe memberof SHG (Das
and Malik 2005). The microenterprises in animal husbandry sector have
considerablepotentialforprovidingsustainableincomefortheruralwomen
in SHGs under failing monsoon conditions that made agriculture as an
unreliableone.
But the past studies indicated that the farm women lack knowledge and
skills on many latest technologies in farmrelated operations. Rupasi et al.

18

(1998)foundthat63percentoffarmwomenhadonlymediumlevelofskill,
while20percenthadlowlevelofskillandveryfewhadhighlevelofskillin
selectedanimalhusbandrypractices.WhileGhumanetal.(2002)foundthat
maximum percentage of farm women had low level of knowledge in cattle
management. Therefore, the dissemination of scientific and technical
informationonfarmrelatedactivitiesneedtobeexaminedandprovidedfor
thefarmwomen(whoformsthemajorpartoftheSHGs),toenablethemto
make significant productive contributions. The efforts made by the
government and the voluntary agencies in empowering women have not
beensuccessfulduetolackofpropertraining.
Hence,traininghasbeenrecognisedasanimportantinputinimprovingthe
competence of farming community which would aid in the adoption of
advanced technologies. Training programmes on farm technologies for
whichfarmwomenlackknowledgeandskillneedtobeorganised(Ghuman
etal.2002).
The problem facing the developing world today is not the lack of
technologies or scientific discoveries, but that of converting them into
production accomplishment and then using them as an instrument for
economicgrowthandsocialchange.Thiswoulddependtoagreaterextent,
on the accuracy and speed with which the technology is being transferred
fromitssourcetotheusers.Undersuchcircumstances,theroleofdiffusion
of technology through training has become a critical input in view of the
growingsophisticationintechnologyononehandanditscosteffectiveness
ontheother(Rani2004).
Trainingisexpectedtocommencewiththeidentificationoftrainingneeds.It
isbelievedthatiftheareasoftrainingneedsidentifiedareusedinthedesign
of training content and evaluation of training strategies, then the training
willbemuchmoreeffective.
Earlier research attempts seem to concentrate on farmers need and
preference; however specific research on farm womens training
needs especially in livestock sector and their preferences have not been
explored much. Training women in animal husbandry was found to be a
totally neglected area and in fact a considerable percentage of women
(43.9%) expressed the desire for training related to animal care (Kaur and
Sharma1991).

19

Therefore,itbecomesimperativethatadetailedstudyshouldbetakenupto
identifythetrainingneedsoffarmwomenintheareasoflivestockfarming.
Keeping this in view, the present study was formulated with the following
objectives to study the socioeconomic profiles of women selfhelp group
members and to identify the areas under livestock farming in which
membersofwomenselfhelpgroupsneedtraining.

2.0StudyMethodology
2.1SelectionofStudyArea
InIndiathepenetrationofmicrofinanceinstitutions(MFIs)andSHGsvary
dramatically. The highest penetration and growth of these MFIs and SHGs
was seen in Southern Indian States (Andra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu). Over all, Tamil Nadu State stands fourth in SHGs and MFIs
penetration.TamilNaduwasselectedbasedontheabovesaidreasonandin
addition the investigators working knowledge to interact in local dialect
Tamilandfamiliaritywiththearea.

2.2SelectionofDistrict
Amongthe30districtsofTamilNadu,Dharmapuriwaspurposivelyselected
asthelocaleforthestudyduetothefollowingreasons:

ItwasthefirstdistrictinwhichtheTamilNaduWomensDevelopment
Projectwasimplementedonapilotbasiswiththefinancialassistanceof
InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment(IFAD).

MostoftheSHGsinthedistrictwereinvolvedinlivestockoriented
activities(ReportoftheDRDA,Dharmapuri,20052006)

2.3SelectionofNGOs
Tamil Nadu Womens Development Project, more popularly known as
Mahalir Thittam, was being implemented with the support of non
governmentalorganisations(NGOs)andbanksandwasfunctioningthrough
anetworkofwomensSHGs,establishedandmonitoredwiththeassistance
ofNGOs.AccordinglyatotalofeightNGOswereregisteredunderMahalir
Thittam (MaThi) in Dharmapuri District. Out of which three NGOs viz,
PeopleOrganisationforWomenEmpowermentandReform(POWER),Rural
Development Society (RDS) and Association for Women Agriculture and

20

RuralDevelopment(AWARD)wereselectedonthebasisofmorenumberof
newlyformedwomenSHGswiththem.
2.4SelectionofSHGs
ForselectionofSHGsthoseSHGswhichwereformedonorafter1stJanuary
2006 and interested in starting a livestock enterprise were only considered.
ThenumberofSHGsundereachoftheNGOsfallinginthiscategoryisgiven
in Table 1. From these 12 selfhelp groups (SHGs) were selected by using
proportionate sampling method. Accordingly, seven from POWER, four
fromRDSandonefromAWARDwereselected(Table1).
Table1:SelectionofSHGs
Sl.no

NameoftheNGO

1
2
3
4

Power
RDS
Award
Total

No.ofnewlyformedSHGs
(onorafter1stJanuary2006)
28
16
4
48

No.ofSHG
selected
7
4
1
12

2.5SelectionofRespondentsandDataCollection
Astructuredinterviewschedulewasdevelopedtakingintoconsiderationof
the various objectives of the study and pretested with members of women
selfhelpgroupsinanonsamplingarea,andnecessarychangesweremade
before it was finalised. The data were collected by personally interviewing
120SHGmembersfrom12differentSHGsintheirrespectivevillagesbythe
researcher. The respondents include group leaders and members of SHGs.
Groupmembersweretoldthattheinformationcollectedwouldbeusedfor
research purposes only. This was done to ensure that members had no
incentive to underdeclare certain types of information. In addition to the
data collected through individual interviews, focussed group discussions
werealsocarriedoutwithvariousstakeholders.
The questions in the schedule were presented to them in regionallanguage
(Tamil)ensuringthattheyunderstoodthestatementscorrectlysoastoavoid
anyinterpretationalvariationofthequestionsbytherespondents.Therefore,
necessaryprecautionsweretakentoensurethatthequestionsintheschedule
wereclear,unambiguous,flawless,concise,completeandcomprehensive.

21

Thecollecteddataweretabulated,analysedandinterpretedwiththehelpof
the various statistical tools frequency distribution, percentage analysis,
arithmeticmean,standarderrorandcorrelationanalysis.

2.6 SelectionandOperationalisationofVariablesandTheir
MeasurementsforStudy
A total of 17 independent variables and one dependent variable were
selected based on review of literature and in consultation with experts to
knowtheprofileoftherespondents(Table2).
Table2:ListofVariablesTakenfortheStudy
Sl.no
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13
14
15
16
17

Independentvariables
Age
Education
Maritalstatus
Familytype
Familysize
Occupation
Annualincome
Landholding
Herdsize
Extensionagencycontact
Massmediaexposure
Socialparticipation
Materialpossession
Economicmotivation
RiskOrientation
Attitudetowardsdevelopmentprogramme
Attitudetowardsgroupactivity

Inthisstudy,thetrainingneedwasoperationalisedastheexpressedlevelof
training needed by farm women in each of the training areas pertaining to
variousaspects of livestock and poultry farming.To determine the training
needs in each major area of livestock and poultry farming, the respondents
wereaskedtoindicatetheirpreferencesonathreepointcontinuumofmost
needed,somewhatneededandnoneededwithascoreoftwo,oneand

22

zero respectively. The preferences for each major area as perceived by the
respondentsweresummeduptoarriveatthetotalscorevalue.
The major areas with training need score over and above the mean score
wereconsideredasmostimportantneededareafortrainingandareaswith
trainingneedscorebelowmeansscoreweretakenaslessimportantareasfor
training.Thenthetrainingneedquotientscoreforeachareasoftrainingwas
calculatedasbelow:
Trainingneedquotient
It was calculated in order to find out the relationship between the training
needs of the respondents, and their selected socioeconomic characteristics.
Theformulausedwas

Trainingneedquotient=

Sumscoreofallitemsratedbythe
individual
Maximumscoreattributabletotheitems
ratedbytheindividual

3.0ResultsandDiscussion
3.1DairyFarming
ItcouldbeobservedfromTable3thatamongthenineareasunderdairying,
finance and marketing (0.98246) was the most preferred area for training
followed by disease control (0.97368), management (0.96930), feeding
(0.96491)andpreparationofmilkproducts(0.79386)inthatorder.Theareas
such as breeding, housing, planning of dairy farm and selection of animals
were considered to be less important, since their training need scores were
lessthanthemeanscore(0.7470).
The above findings are in line with various past studies. Raju et al. (1999),
Gupta and Tripati (2002) and Das and Mishra (2002) reported that finance,
credit,healthcareandvalueadditionindairywerethemostpreferredarea
of training in dairy farming by the farm women. While Chandran and
Perumal(1995)foundthatfeedingfollowedbycareofanimalwasthemost
importantareaneededfortraining.InadditionDasetal.(2001)reportedthat
women dairy cooperative members preferred breeding, management and
diseasecontrolasthemostessentialareasfortraining.Assimilartoabove

23

resultsPrakashetal.(1995)indicatedthathealthcarepractices,breedingand
feedingweremostperceivedareasoftrainingforlandlessfarmwomen.
Table 3: Major Areas under Dairy Farming Preferred by Members of Women
Self -Help Groups for Training
Sl.no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
MeanScore

Areasunderdairyfarming
Financeandmarketing
Diseasecontrol
Management
Feeding
Preparationofmilkproducts
Housing
Breeding
Planningofdairyfarms
Selectionofanimals

Trainingneedscore
0.98246
0.97368
0.96930
0.96491
0.79386
0.56140
0.50439
0.49123
0.48246
0.7470

Inthesameline,AlShadiadeh(2007)statedthatwomenfarmersneedmore
training in feeding, cleaning of the shelter, precaution for infection and
construction of shed as the needed areas of training in cattle farming in
additiontothesetraininginmilkproductslikecheeseprocessingactivities
morethanotheractivitiessuchaspickling,Jam,etc.
Capitalisanimportantprerequisiteforstartingadairyfarm.Limitedornon
availability of capital among the respondents might be the reason for their
highestpreferencefortraininginfinance.Moreover,learningthenuancesof
the marketing of milk and milk products would go a long way to the
profitablerunningofthedairyenterprise.Henceitwaspreferredthemost.
In the background of increasing crossbred population in dairying,
knowledgeinscientificmanagement,diseasecontrol,feedingandconversion
of milk into milk products becomes a crucial component for running the
dairyenterprisesuccessfully.Thisinturnwasreflectedintrainingneedsof
SHGsmembers.
Fulzele and Meena (1995) and Rani (2004) contradicted these findings and
they reported that housing and selection of breeds were considered as
importantareasoftrainingbyfarmwomen.

24

The less importance was assigned to housing, planning of dairy farm,

selectionofanimalsandbreedingwhichmightbeduetothefactthatthese
involvemoremasculineworkandoutsidecontacts.
3.1.1 Relationship between characteristics of members of women SHGs
andtrainingneedsindairyfarming
It could be observed from Table 4 that out of 17 variables studied, the
variables, extension agency contact (X11) exhibited a significant positive
correlationwhile income (X8) exhibited significant but negative correlation.
All other variables had no significant correlation with training needs in
dairying.
Table4:CorrelationCoefficientofIndependentVariableswith
TrainingNeedsinDairyFarming
Independentvariables

Dairying

X1Age
X2Education
X3Maritalstatus
X4Familytype
X5Familysize
X6Occupationofrespondent
X7Occupationofthefatherorhusband
X8Income
X9Landholdings
X10Herdsize
X11Extensionagencycontact
X12Massmediaexposure
X13Socialparticipation
X14Materialpossession
X15Economicmotivation
X16Riskorientation
X17Attitudetowardsdevelopmentalprogramme
X18Attitudetowardsgroupactivity

0.0086
0.0882
0.0798
0.0574
0.0846
0.0372
0.0794
0.1864*
0.0008
0.1109
0.2289*
0.0103
0.0252
0.0068
0.0872
0.03552
0.1498
0.0491

Note:*Significantat5percentlevel;**Highlysignificantat1percentlevel

Umarani (2002) observed a significant negative correlation of income and

caste with training needs of farm women in dairying. Ajay et al. (2003)
reportedasignificantandpositivecorrelationofthetrainingneedwithage,

25

years of farming, income from other sources, cosmopoliteness, group

participation,numberofextensionagencycontactandnumberofsourcesof
information.
Itmightbeinferredthatastheincomeincreases,thetrainingneeddecreases.
When they earned enough money to meet out all their expenses naturally
they did not exhibit need to undergo training. As the extension agency
contactincreased,trainingneedalsoincreased.Morecontactwithextension
agencymadethemawareofrecentdevelopmentsindairying,whicharoused
theirinterestandresultedinincreasedintrainingneedsindairying.

3.2Sheepandgoatfarming
The Table 5 showed that out of nine major areas under sheep and goat
farming, finance and marketing (0.9860), disease control (0.9800), feeding
(0.9533) and management (0.9267) were the most important areas preferred
fortraining.Theotherareasviz.,planningofsheep/goatfarming,breeding,
housing and preparation of meat products were considered to be the least
preferred areas for training since their mean scores were below the mean
score(0.6584).
Table5:MajorAreasunderSheepandGoatFarmingPreferredby
MembersofWomenSelfHelpGroupsforTraining
Sl.no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
MeanScore

Areasundersheepandgoatfarming
Financeandmarketing
Diseasecontrol
Feeding
Management
Planningofsheep/goatfarm
Selectionofanimals
Breeding
Housing
Preparationofmeatproducts

Trainingneedscore
0.9860
0.9800
0.9533
0.9267
0.5533
0.4800
0.4200
0.4133
0.2133
0.6584

Sharma and Riyazuddin (1995) reported that health care and management
were the two most preferred areas for training. Nutrition, breeding, better
wool utilisation in that order were the next preferred areas for training
among sheep farmers of Rajasthan, while Sumathi and Alagesan (2001)
stated that about threefourths of the farm women needed training in

26

protection and marketing of goatsand aboutonehalf of them felt the need

fortraininginpurchaseofgoatfollowedbyfeedingofgoats(32%).
MohanBrajetal.2006indicatedthatthegoatfarmerspreferencefortraining
onathreepointcontinuum,inthishealthmanagement,wasthefirstareaof
training followed by housing management, other management, nutritional
managementandproductsmanagement.Breedingmanagementappearedto
be the last. The specific subareas viz. control of external and internal
parasites, appropriate ventilation requirement, knowledge of different
markets, and importance of mineral mixture in feeds, sanitary milk
production and care of a new born kid had top priority for training to the
goatfarmers.
AlShadiadeh2007statedthatwomenfarmersneedmoretraininginhealth
andprotection,feeding,managementandconstructionofshedastheneeded
areasoftraininginsheepandgoatfarming.
The reason stated under dairying holds good here also. Better marketing
facilities available for live animals, the complex process of slaughtering,
difficultyinmarketingtherawmeatandthemeatproductslocallymightbe
the reasons for less importance assigned to training in meat products
preparation.
The variables, herd size (X10) and extension agency contact (X11) had
significantpositivecorrelationat1and5percentlevelrespectivelywiththe
training need. All other variables showed nonsignificant correlation with
trainingneedsinsheepandgoatfarming(Table6).
Sharma and Riyazuddin, (1995) reported a negative relationship between
extensionagencycontactandtrainingneedperceptioninsheepmanagement
and positive correlation with high social participation and occupation with
trainingneedsinsheepmanagement.
As herd size increased one has to give more attention towards better
management to overcome risks for which training is absolutely essential.
Contact with extension agency helps farm women to bring about the latest
development in sheep and goat farming leading to increased interest in
training.

27

Table6:CorrelationCoefficientofIndependentVariableswithTraining
NeedsinSheepandGoatFarming
Independentvariables

Sheep&goatfarming

X1Age
X2Education
X3Maritalstatus
X4Familytype
X5Familysize
X6Occupationofrespondent
X7Occupationofthefatherorhusband
X8Income
X9Landholdings
X10Herdsize
X11Extensionagencycontact
X12MassmediaExposure
X13Socialparticipation
X14Materialpossession
X15Economicmotivation
X16Riskorientation
X17Attitudetowardsdevelopmental
programme
X18Attitudetowardsgroupactivity

0.0277
0.0545
0.0987
0.0331
0.1317
0.1702
0.0405
0.0526
0.0624
0.2733**
0.1934*
0.0823
0.0694
0.0485
0.0079
0.1606
0.0468
0.0373

Note:*Significantat5percentlevel;**Highlysignificantat1percentlevel

4.0Conclusion
ThetransferofscientificandtechnicalinformationtothemembersofSHGs
involved in dairy farming was on finance and marketing, disease control,
management, feeding and breeding, while in the case of sheep and goat
farming the areas include finance and marketing, disease control, feeding
and management. These areas enable them to make significant productive
contributions.Extensionagencycontactwillhelptobridgethetrainingneed
gap among the members of SHGs, since it had exhibited a positive and
significantcorrelationwiththetrainingneedofbothdairyandgoatfarming.
Herdsizealsowouldcontributetowardstrainingneedssincetheincreasein
herd size will necessitate the farm women to use scientific methods to
enhance their production and productivity and income. The training
institutes should consider herd size of the farmers as criteria, while

28

incorporating training. The training would proportionally be higher among

thoseincreasedherdsize.HencetargetingtherightfarmwomeninSHGsto
offertrainingisessentialinordertoeffectivelydevelopthehumanresource
capabilities and also income of the poor. Any efforts made by the
governmentandthevoluntaryagenciesinempoweringSHGswomenhave
to take account into on the above said aspects before initiating capacity
building of programmes for strengthening livestock related livelihood
options. The process would strengthen human resources capabilities which
wouldbeusefulinthelongrunintermsofknowledgeandskillutilisation
towardsincreasedproductivityandincome.
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correlates for effective extension programme and poverty reduction in Oyo state,
Nigeria.J.Extn.System.,19:90102
AlShadiadehA.N.H.2007.DescriptiveStudyoftheTrainingNeedsforMenandWomen
FarmersinSemiDesertAreasaCaseStudyofSouthJordan.WorldAppliedSciences
Journal2(1):1221.
Chandran, R. and G. Perumal. 1995. Training needs of farm women on indigenous
resourcemanagement.J.Extn.Edn.,6(1):10861088.
Das J. K., T. K. Mandal, A. Biswas, and S. Basak. 2001. Constraints in adoption of
improvedfarmingpracticesandperceivedtrainingneedofWDCSmembers.Journal
ofInteracademicia,2001,Vol.5,No.4.Pp.560567.
Das, L. and S.K. Mishra. 2002. Training needs of tribal women in farm and home
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Das,B.C.andB.S.Malik.2005.Selfhelpgroupsanddairyfarming.IndianDairyman,
57(2):5354.
Durgga Rani, V. 2004. Training needs of farm women of thrissur taluk in dairy and
poultryfarming.Unpub.M.V.Sc.,thesis,Thrissur:KeralaAgriculturalUniversity.
Fulzele,R.M.andB.L.Meena.1995.Trainingneedsofdairytribalwomen.IndianJ.Dairy
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Gariyali, C.K. and S.K. Vettivel. 2003. Womens own. The selfhelp movement of
Tamilnadu.P.93.
Ghuman,P.K.,B.S.HansraandA.K.Metha.2002.Levelofknowledgeandskillsoffarm
womeninfarmactivities.JournalofExt.Education,13(3).33593363.
Gupta,M.andH.Tripathi.2002.Assessmentoftrainingneedsofruralwomenindairy
enterprise.IndianJ.DairySci.55(3):178182.

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Researchanddevelopment.NewDelhi,India,Printedin2008.Pp.250251.
Malkit Kaur and M.L. Sharma. 1991. Role of women in rural development. J. Rural
Studies.,7(1/2):1116.
MohanBraj,SagarR.L.,SinghKhushyal.2006.Studyonevaluationoftrainingneedsof
goatfarmerstheIndianJournalofSmallRuminants12[1].
PrakashO.,Mahipal,R.L.Kherde.1995.Astudyofperceptionoftrainingneedsof
landlessfarmwomeninscientificdairyfarmingpractices.AdvancesinAgricultural
researchinIndia,Vol.4,Pp.196209.
Raju, L.D., M.S. Nataraju and M. Niranjan. 1999. Women in animal production an ex
postfactoanalysis.AgriculturalExtn.Rev.,11(3):38.
Rupasi Rath., H.P.S. Arya and Rahul Tiwari. 1998. Skills of women in selected animal
husbandrypractices.JournalofDairying,FoodsandHomeScience,Vol.17,No.34,Pp.
181186.
Sarangi,P.2003.SelfhelpgroupsanexperimentinOrissa.Kurukshetra.51:3032.
SharmaandRiyazuddin.1995.Trainingneedsofsheepfarmers.Indian.J.Extn.Edn.,31(1
to4),1995,9497.
Sheokand.,R.S.,Narindersingh.,O.P.Sheoran.,andR.S.Pannu.,1999.Farmwomenand
Animal husbandry practices in paddy belt of Haryana. Journal of Dairying, Foods
andHomescience.Vol.18,No.2,Pp.8591.
Das, Someswar and Prabhat Kr. Pankaj. 2004. Role of women in Livestock Farming.
Kurukshetra,Vol.52,No9,Pp.2529.
Sumathi, P. and V.Alagesan. 2001. Training need of farm women in integrated farming
system.J.Extn.Edn.,11(4):29722973.
Umarani, K. 2002. Technological needs of women in dairying. Manage. Extn. Research.
Review.,3(1):117122.
Venkatachalam,A.,andA.Jeyapragash,2004.SelfHelpGroupinDindugalDistrict.
KishanWorld.,Vol.31,No.10,2004.Pp.2932.
Vishwanathan.1989.WomeninlivestockinIndia.AdeskstudyofFAOregionalofficefor
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D.C.:WorldBank.

30

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

SocioeconomicAnalysisofFishermenatCoastal
FisheryManagementinMaharashtra,India
B.R.Chavan*,A.Yakupitiyage**andS.Kumar***

Abstract
Socioeconomic study was conducted in the target fishermen community in
Maharashtra,India.Thesurveyrevealedthatlackofproperdryingtechnology
was reflected by weighted mean index. Fishermen strongly felt the need for
improvementinthecurrentdryingpracticeasthereishighdemandforthedried
fish products. It was found that the dried Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger
kanagurta) from local market showedhighestmoisture,salt andwater activity
in the samples. The variation of biochemical contents and bacterial counts
increased significantly (P<0.05) after 43 days of storage period. The fishermen
are keen to introduce solarbiomass hybrid dryer, which will improve dry fish
quality.

1.0Introduction
Due to increase in world population, there is tremendous demand for food
including fish; fish plays an important role in human nutrition in Asian
countries, supplying 3040 per cent of animal protein intake. To meet this
greatdemandrecentlytheworldfishproductionhaspeakedataround130
million tons. However, only 60 per cent of total fish production is used for
human consumption and a significant amount of fish are not fit for human
consumption due to the loss of quality during handling and processing
(Chandrapal2005).Theaverageconsumptionoffishstandsaroundthreeto
fivekgoffishinurbanareaandlessthanonekginruralarea(Upasanietal.
2002). Therefore, in order to prevent potential future shortages in the fish
andfishproductsupply,themaximumutilisationoftheexistingcatchhasto
beassuredbyadoptinganefficientprocessingandpreservationtechniques.

Associate Research Officer, College of Fisheries (Dr. BSKKV), Ratnagiri, (MS), India.
Corresponding Email: brc15672@yahoo.co.in
**
Associate Professor and Coordinator, AARM, School of Environment, Resources and
Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Pathumthani-12120, Thailand.
*** Professor and Dean, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian
InstituteofTechnology,KlongLuang,Pathumthani12120,Thailand.

31

Dryingoffishismainlycarriedoutbytraditionalmethodofopensundrying
in India. The drying process is not hygienic, and the fish is vulnerable to
infestationwithinsectlarvaandcontaminationandresult,in1040percent
postharvestwetweightarefound(Walletal2001).Thelossesofdriedfish
occurredbecauseofinadequatedryinginopensun(Gopakumar1998).The
fish is dried on a wooden horizontal racks, and it is found that the drying
processisveryslowwhichmakesdriedfishunhygienic,bycontributingto
the partial destruction of the proteins content of the fish through oxidation
andbacterialorenzymedegradation(Braguy2007).Nonetheless,inadequate
infrastructure and flow of information technology have been cited as the
major barriers for better market integration in the existing marine fish
marketsofIndia(BehuraandPradhan1998).
Recognising the importance of fishery in the national economy, this paper
attempts to evaluate the status of smallscale fisher in Maharashtra coast,
India.Italsoidentifiestheproblemareasandextendsafewsuggestionsthat
could be considered as instrumental in formulating policies to give a real
thrust to the fisheries sector of Maharashtra. The aim of the study was to
investigate the fish drying method to minimise the postharvest losses in
terms of quality and quantity losses. The study provided the information
about the existing status of fish drying, dried fish production, trends of
utilisation, and environmental impact and priority base steps according to
thesmallscalefisherswhoareengagedinfishdrying.

2.0MaterialsandMethods
The study was carried out in five district of Maharashtra coast of India
namely,Thane,GreaterMumbai,Raigad,RatnagiriandSindhudurgDistrict.
Primarydatawerecollectedbysemistructuredandstructuredquestionnaire
along with observation and checklist were provided to each respondent to
collect the information. Secondary data include scientific literature, project
reports and official documents were collected from fisheries research
institutes,departmentoffisheries,deptofmeteorologyofstategovernments.
In addition to these some other related information were collected by
conducting interview with administrative and sectoral official with open
questionnaire.

32

2.1SurveyonHandling,TransportationProcessingofFishand
DryingYards
A survey was conducted on the source of raw material, handling,
transportation, processing of fish and various fish drying yards using
questionnaires through interviews among the cross section of people
including smallscale fishermen, middlemen, wholesalers, retailers and
processors. Information was collected from 25 households from each major
fishlanding centre. Pie diagrams and other participatory research methods
wereusedforfinalanalysisofdata.

2.2SurveyonMarketingSystemofDriedFisheryProducts
Asurveywasalsoconductedonthemarketingsystemincludingcostbenefit
ofdriedfisheryproductsinthewholesaleandretailmarketinthestate.The
data were also collected from dry fish producer in the same area. Twenty
fiverespondentswereinterviewed.

2.3MeasurementofAttitude
Inordertoquantifypeoplesattitudeasquantitativedata,afivepointLikert
scale was used (Velleman and Wilkinson 1993). The scales helped to rank
peoples attitude and/or opinion into five levels, where each level was
associatedtoprogressivenumber.Dependingonattitudemeasured,5point
Likertscalemeasures,opinionandvaluesareasfollows:
Opinion
Opinion

Veryhigh
Totallyagree

Value

High Medium
Agree Notsure
4

Low
Disagree

Verylow
Totallydisagree

To measure the overall perception of respondents to every given question,

weightedmeanindexofattitude(WI)wascomputedbyusingthefollowing
equation:

WI = (xi*ni )/ ni
Where,
WI =Weighted meanindex of attitude
xi = Rank of perception
ni = Number of respondents that have perceptionranked as xi respectively

33

2.4DataAnalysis
The collected data were analysed by the SPSS (Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences). The analysis is composed of two parts using descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics. Mean, standard deviation and
minimum/maximum scores were obtained for descriptive statistics. The
inferential statistics which were used for the study of the attitude of
respondents with the perception of information were computed using
Weightedmeanindexequation.

3.0ResultsandDiscussion
3.1SocioeconomicConditionsofFisheryHouseholds
Data and information were collected from a sample of 250 fishers in the
Maharashtra state, of which 50 responded in each district. The outcome of
thestudyisasfollows:
Figure1:MarineFishermenPopulationandHouseholds
No. of households

120000

Population

100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
Thane

Gr. Mumbai

Raigad

Ratnagiri

Sindhudurg

3.2MarineFishermenPopulationandHouseholds
There were 406 marine fishing village in state out of which 159 were in
Raigad District, 88 in Ratnagiri, 71 in Sindhudurg, 61 in Thane and the
remaining 27 in Greater Mumbai District. The total number of fishermen
householdswas65,313,ofwhich36percentwereinRaigadDistrict,27per
cent in Thane, 14 per cent in Ratnagiri, 8 per cent in Sindhudurg, and the

34

remaining 15 per cent in Greater Mumbai District. Marine fishermen

population in Maharashtra was 319,397 (Figure 1). Average population per
villagewas787andtheaveragefamilysizewas4.89.Inthestate,nearly92
per cent of the houses, where marine fisher families live were found to be
pucca houses and in Sindhudurg District almost all the houses are pucca
houses.About92percentofthemarinefishingvillageswereelectrifiedand
82percentwereconnectedbyroad.Therewereonly54icefactorieslocated
inthemarinefishingvillages,ofwhich22wereinRatnagiriDistrict.
Fourteen per cent of the fisher families were having membership in co
operativesocietiesoutofwhich84percenthavingmembershipinfisheries
cooperatives. Cooperative membership is more in Raigad District.
Trawlers,gillnettersanddollnetterswerethemaincraftsofthemechanised
sectors.Therewere23,508craftsinthefisheryemployersinmarinefishing,
of which 13,053 were mechanised, 3,382 were motorised and the rest non
motorised.Gillnettersanddollnettersaccountfor53percentandtrawlers32
percentofthemechanisedcrafts.Therewere4,219mechanisedtrawlers,of
which2,258wereinGreaterMumbaiDistrict.
Maharashtramarinefisherfolkowned19,249craftsoutofwhich46percent
weremechanised,18percentweremotorisedandtheremainingwerenon
motorisedcrafts.Thenumberoffamilieshavingsharesinfishingcraftswas
more in Thane District followed by Greater Mumbai District. Important
gearsofthestateweregillnets,fixedbagnetsandseines.Sharingpartneris
more visible in shore seines, traps and bag nets. Nearly 39 per cent of the
fisherfolkfamiliesinvolvedinfishingpossessneithercraftsnorgears.Only
four per cent of the fisher families were found to own some electronic
gadgets/lifesavingequipments.

3.3AgeandEducation
Theheadofthehouseholdswasthetargetforinterview,andinthecasethat
the household head is not available, the housewife was interviewed on
behalf of her husband. In some cases, the head is female because she is
single,widowed,divorcedorseparated.Fromthetotalinterviewsamplesit
wasfoundthatadultmaleconstituted78percentandtheremaining22per
centwereadultfemaleofthepopulation.
Regarding the age of the smallscale fisher in the study area, it was
determined that the majority (50.8%) was in the age range 2838 years

35

followedby30.4percentintheagerange1828,13.2percentwasin3848
agegroupand5.6percentwasintheagerange4858years(Figure2A).
Maharastrianfishersaresimilartootherfarmersofthestateinthattheyhave
lessopportunityforformaleducationduetothelowincomeoftheirfamilies.
Although, they have much experience in the fishing since they have been
trained by their relatives and ancestors. But they lack sufficient knowledge
forbreakingtheviciouscircle.
Figure2:Age(A)andEducational(B)StatusoftheFisherfolk(N=250)

The study showed that 30 per cent of the fisher possessed primary level of
education, 31 per cent secondary level and seven percent possessed above
secondary level of education while 32 per cent fishers are not educated
(Figure2B)inthefisheriesdominatingstate.Whereastheoverallliteracyrate
oftheMaharashtrastateis77.27percent(Nandeesha2006).Nearly99per
centofthemarinefisherfolkinGreaterMumbaiDistricthavelevelofformal
education followed by Sindhudurg (79%), Thane (66%), Raigad (56%) and
Ratnagiri District (54%). About 86 per cent of the fisherfolk families were
Hindus and more than 50 per cent of the fisher families belonged to either
scheduled caste or scheduled tribe. There were nearly 1927 education
institutions in all with as average of 2.3 institutions per village mainly
dominatedbytheprimaryschools.Themaximumnumberwasinthedistrict
ofRaigad.Thesmallscalefishershaveverylowjobopportunitiesowingto
theirlackofeducationandexperience.Thustheyhavetorelyonthefishery
sectorfortheirsurvival.

36

3.4FisheryActivities
Nearly 50 per cent of the fisherfolk earned their livelihood from allied
activities like marketing, making/repairing nets, curing/drying, peeling,
labour and other fishery related activities (Figure 3A). Most of the males
wereengagedinoccupationsuchaslabour(7%),making/repairingnets(6%)
whilefemaleinvolvementishigherinmarketingandcuring/drying.
Figure3:A:DistributionofFishingAlliedActivities
B:ActiveFishermeninMaharashtra(N=250)

Activefishermenconstitutes43percentofthemarinefisherfolkpopulation
outofwhich59percentwereinvolvedinfulltimefishing,30percentwere
parttimefisherandremaining11percentwereoccasional(Figure3B).Most
oftheRaigad,ThaneandRatnagiriDistrictfisherwerefulltimers,whilepart
timeandoccasionalfishermenwereinRatnagiriDistrict.

3.5ReasonforStartingFishDryingPracticeandIncomefrom
FishDryingActivities
Thesurveyresultshowedthatthereasonsforthecurrentdryingpracticeare
classified into four categories. Because of the lack of modern drying
technology, 63 per cent fishermen are doing the current drying practice.
While 15 per cent fisherfolk opinion was that the investment is low in
existingpractice,and13percentfisherfolkrevealedthatthecurrentpractice
offishdryingiseasytomanage.Theninepercentopinionwasneutraltothe
answer(Figure4A).

37

The income of smallscale fishermen involved in fish drying activities were

varies from season to season. The mansoon season provides low income
becausetheirfishingdaysarelimited,anddryingisalsonotproperlycarried
out. The source of income was mainly from fishing, drying and selling of
fish.Thetotalaverageincomefromfishdryingactivitiesisabout20percent.
Figure 4B shows the annual income range from Rs.13000 to 23000. This
income is not sufficient to fulfil their daily requirements. The total average
incomewas18000rupees/year.Theaverageannualincomeofthefishermen
revealedthattheylivebelowpovertyline(Alexzander2007).
Figure4:A:ReasonofExistingFishDryingPractice
B:IncomefromFishDryingActivities(N=250)

The fresh mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) price is @ 15 INR/kg and the

sellingofdriedfish@80INR/kg. Thesameprizerate wasfoundintheother
state in India, Orissa, the fresh fish buy at 10 INR to 25 INR/kg, but export
themasdryfishat50INRto100INR/kg(Majhi2007).

3.6Diseases
In the study area, four major diseases were reported. Interview of the
respondentsshowedthat about 21,19,7and5percentweresufferingfrom
dysentery,diarrhoea,skindiseasesandasthmarespectively.

38

Figure5:DiseaseStatusduetotheDryingPractice(N=250)

Diarrhea
19%

None
48%

Dysentery
21%

Asthma
5%

Skin
Disease
7%

But 48 per cent of fishermen have not been found any vital disease during
fishdryingpractice(Figure5).Thedysenteryanddiarrhoeaarewaterborne
disease. Therefore it is clear that the drying practice is carried near by the
polluted area. Study found that poor people living in areas without any
sanitation or hygiene education spent six times more on medical care than
people who lived in areas with access to sanitation and who had a basic
knowledgeofhouseholdhygiene(Nwachcuku1andGerba2004).

3.7WeightedMeanIndexofAttitude
According to the fishermen, they used to prepare dry fish from at least 20
typesofmarinefishes.Afterthecatch,theyusedtodrythefishonsand.But
now due to pollution on the beaches, fish has to be dried on bamboo
platforms.Thishasalsoenhancedthecostofproduction(Jena2007).Results
weightedmeanindexofattitudeshowedlackofdryingtechnology,weather,
lack of support, lack of authorised place, lack of storage facilities for raw
materials, political effluence, lack of coordination were considered as the
constraintsbytheinterviewedfisherfolk(Figure6).
Analysis of variance (Table 1) and weighted mean index (Figure 6) result
showed that Fishers strongly agreed with the lack of drying technology,
weather conditions, lack of support from government agencies, lack of

39

authoriseddryingplaces,storagefacilities,politicaleffluencetoallocatethe
available infrastructure facilities to the known fishermen and the lack of
coordinationamongthefishermen,itaffectthedryfishmarket.Accordingto
the fisherfolk, there is no any developed fish drying technology. Shukla
(2001) reported that the requirement of commercial dryers in fishery and
marinesectorinIndiaisabout20000numberswith510t/day,thisindicates
thatthereishighdemandofdriedfishinIndia.Weathermeansduringthe
rainy season drying cannot be carried out; there is no any infrastructure
facilities such as water for cleaning raw materials, electricity etc are not
available at landing centre. Need to provide space for the work related to
variouslivelihoodoptionsofthecommunities(fishdrying,netmaking,etc.).
Thesimilarobservationswerefoundthattherearenogovernmentschemes
toprovidefinancialaidtodryfishproducers.Asaresulttheyturntoprivate
moneylendersforloansathighinterestrates(Majhi2007).

40

High demand

Lack of coordination

Political effluence

Lack of storage facilities

Lack of drying place

Lack of support

Weather

5
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.2
Lack of technology

Weighted mean index (WI)

Figure6:WeightedMeanIndexofAttitude(N=250)

Fisher folk claimed that to promote the fishing business and the fishermen
community,theStateGovernmentshouldhaveFishMarketingCommittees
(FMC).Thefisherisalsoexpectedtoprovideadequatemodeoftransportat
the fishlanding centres, which is lacking in state and thus affects
transportationoffreshfishtodryingindustries.Traditionalfishdryingisold
practice in the Maharashtra State, and there is no any new fish drying
technology has been developed. Therefore, the traditional fish drying has
somecrucialproblems;toaddresstheproblem,thesolarfishdryingsystem
couldbeintroduced.
Table1:AnalysisofVarianceforPerceptionofSmallscaleFishermen

Stronglyagree

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly
disagree

Sumof
Squares

df

Mean
Square

Sig.

Betweengroups
Withingroups
Total
Betweengroups
Withingroups
Total
Betweengroups
Withingroups
Total
Betweengroups
Withingroups
Total

130.690
822.900
953.590
1204.860
446.464
1651.324
354.294
61.236
415.530
38.462
.000
38.462

7
1768
1775
7
406
413
6
293
299
4
255
259

18.670
.465

172.123
1.100

59.049
.209

9.615
.000

40.112

156.523

282.536

.000

.000

.000

Therearefewerthantwogroupsfordependentvariablesstronglydisagree.
Nostatisticswascomputed

3.8ConsumersPreference
High demand of saltdried (59%) fish product was agreed by the fisherfolk
followed by dried fish (23%), salted (10%) and brine dried (8%) (Figure 7).
Therefore, if they could use suitable new solar fish drying, (solarbiomass
hybrid driers), then the product quality would be improved than the
traditional fish drying method, and they would fetch higher prices to the

41

saltdriedfish.Peter(1998)foundthattheconsumersdonotpaytoppricefor
fishthathasbeenchewedbybeetles.
Figure7:ConsumersPreference(N=250)

Dried
23%

Salted
10%

Brine
dried
8%

Salt-dried
59%

3.9 QualityofdriedIndianmackerel(Rastrelligerkanagurta)from
dryfishmarketinMaharashtra
InMaharashtracoast,largequantitiesoffisharesundriedwithorwithout
curing.Forsundryingthefishisspreadouteithersimplyonthesandoron
old bamboo or coir mats (Drewes 1982). The tropical temperature range of
2040oC cancauseconsiderable influence to reduce the quality of dried fish
byincreasingthebiochemicalcontentsandmicrobialloadinfishmusclein
preprocessingandprocessingstepsofcuringanddrying.
Figure8: VariationofPhysicochemical(A)andBiochemical(B)Content
inDriedMackerelfromLocalFishMarket

42

Dried mackerel samples were collected from different local fish market at
random.Moisture,wateractivityandsodiumchlorideweredetermined.The
biochemical, microbial and organoleptic evaluation was carried out. Three
driedmackerelsamplesfromdifferentmarketswereanalysedinFigure8.It
was found that physicochemical content of dried fish showed highest
moisture,saltandwateractivityinallthesamples.Thehighestsaltcontent
enhances the halophilic bacterial growth. The variation of biochemical
contents showed that the Free fatty acid (FFA), Peroxide value (PV),
Thiobarbituric acid (TBA), Total volatile bases nitrogen (TVBN),
Trimethylamine nitrogen (TMAN) and histamine content increased
significantly (P<0.05) in 60 days of storage period (Figure 8B), indicating
deteriorationinthequalityofthedriedfishtissuelipidandproteins.

FFA, PV, TBA, TVB-N,

TMA-N, Histamine

Figure9: ChangesofBiochemicalContentinDriedMackerelfromLocal
FishMarketduringStorageatAmbientTemperature
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0

30

60

90

120

Storage period (days)

FFA (g oleic/100g fat)

PV (meq. peroxide/kg fat)

TVB-N (mg N/100g)

TBA (mg malonaldehyde/kg)

TMA-N (mg N/100g )

Histamine (mg/100g fish)

The bacterial counts increased significantly (P<0.05) in 60 days of storage

periodindriedmackerel.Thiscouldbeduetothewateractivityofthedried
fish were more suitable for the growth and multiplication. The growth of
halophilic bacteria might have been further favoured by the high salt
concentrationinthedriedmackerelrequiredfortheirgrowth.Accordingto
Hashim et al. (1986) the minimum AW at which growth of mould has been
observed is 0.610.62, and this has been observed by the development of
mould colonies on the surface of the fish. The biochemical and microbial

43

changes were not determined after 60 days of storage period as the dried
mackerelwasspoiled.
Thesensoryscoresofoverallacceptabilityandtheshelflifeoftheproducts
are shown in Figure 10 which showed the overall acceptability score
decreased with increase in storage period. On correlating the mean panel
scoresforoverallacceptabilitywithstorageperiodhadashelflifeof43days
atambienttemperature.Y=5.21670.0513x,(R20.9998),Shelflife=43days.
Figure10:

OverallAcceptabilityofDriedMackerelofLocalFishMarket
duringStorageatAmbientTemperature

4.0Conclusion
The weighted mean index result showed that fishermen were strongly
agreedwiththelackofdryingtechnology,andthereishighdemandofsalt
dried(59%)fishproduct.Theshelflifeofdriedmackerelfromlocaldryfish
marketwasonly43daysduringstorageinambienttemperature.Thereforeit
is necessary to introduce new, economical viable drying technology for
improvement of dry fish quality. This could help to minimise the post
harvest fish losses. Evidently, the traditional fish drying has become a
problem as it is critical for improvement of quality of dried fish, and
therefore,toeffectivelyaddresstheproblemsuitablefishdryingsystemmust
beintroduced.Thereisneedtoeducatefishermenwithrespecttoadoption
ofmoderneconomicviablefishdryingtechnologywhichisdevelopedbythe
AsianInstituteofTechnology,Thailand.

44

References
Alexzander.2007.Indianeconomyreport,Govt.ofIndia.Pp.548.
Behura,D.,andC.P.Durga.1998.CointegrationandMarketIntegration:AnApplication
totheMarineFishMarketsinOrissa,IndianJournalofAgriculturalEconomics,Vol.
53, No.3,Pp.344350.
Braguy, S. 2007. Fish drying: an adaptable technology, Sustainable fisheries livelihoods
programme(SFLP).Bulletin13.
Chandrapal, G. D. 2005. Status of trash fish utilization and fish feed requirements in
aquaculture in India. Paper presented at the Regional workshop on low value and
trashfishintheAsiapacificregion.Hanoi,Vietnam.79June.
Drewes Edeltraud. 1982. A socioeconomic study with special reference to the role and
statusofwomen.DevelopmentofSmallScaleFisheriesintheBayofBengal.Madras,
India.BOBP/WP/14,Pp16.
Gopakumar, K. 1998. Dried and smoked fish products, Fish drying and smoking
productionandquality.Technomicpublication.Pp4787.
Hashim,D.M.,J.Bakar,andA.Rahman.1986.Saltpenetrationinchubmackerel.Karossi,
A.T., Surawidjaja, T.N. and Udin, L.Z., (eds.) Proceeding of the first ASEAN
Workshop on fish and fish waste processing and utilization. Jakarta, 2224 October.
Pp.150156.
Jena,S.2007.DryfishinIndia.http://www.nerve.in/news:25350091733.
Majhi,S.2007.DryfishinIndia.http://www.nerve.in/news:25350091733.
Nwachcuku,N.,andC.P.Gerba.2004.Emergingwaterbornepathogens:canwekillthem
allEnvironmentalbiotechnology.CurrentOpinioninBiotechnology.15:175180.
Nandeesha, M. C. 2006. Gender status in Indian fisheries education, research and
development organizations, WorldFish Center/Global Symposium on Gender and
Fisheries.121137.
Peter, E. D. 1998. Basic principles of drying, Fish drying and smoking production and
quality.Technomicpublication.Pp13219.
Shukla,B.D.2001.DryingtechnologyandequipmentinIndia.DryingTechnology.19(8):
18071824.
Upasani,S. P., R. P. Chitale, and R. Narain. 2002. Report of Maharashtra Fisheries
DevelopmentCorporation,Maharashtra.
Velleman,P.F.,andL.Wilkinson.1993.Nominal,ordinal,interval,andratiotypologiesare
misleading.Am.Stat.47,6572.
Wall, R., J.J. Howard, and J. Bindu. 2001. The seasonal abundance of blowflies infesting
dryingfishinsouthwestIndia.JournalofAppliedEcology.38:339348.

45

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

EconomicContributionofWomentoGroundnut
ProductioninRuralAreaofBornoState,Nigeria
A.O.Ani*,S.A.Rahman**andP.V.Kwaghe***

Abstract
This study analysed the economic contribution of women to groundnut
production in Askira/Uba Local Government Area (LGA) of Borno State,
Nigeria. Primary data were mainly used and were obtained through interview
schedules from 250 women randomly sampled across the study area. Data
analysiswasdoneusingdescriptivestatistics,multiplelinearregressionmodel
andProbitregressionmodel.Thestudyrevealedthatabout67percentand15
per cent of the total labour and financial resources respectively, required for
groundnut production were contributed by women. Cooperative membership,
farmingexperience,andlevelofincomewereidentifiedasthesignificantfactors
that positively influenced women contribution to the groundnut production
while resources accessibility and benefit from groundnut determined women
satisfaction in groundnut production. Based to these findings, the study
suggested that agricultural credit policy should be reformed to make credit
facilitiesaccessibletowomen;developmentoflaboursavingdevicesforwomen
to improve the efficiency and women should be mobilised to form and utilise
cooperativesocietiessoastoenhancetheirsocioeconomicstatus.

1.0Introduction
Predominantroleofwomeninfarmproduction,especiallyinthedeveloping
countries, has been noted for a long time and also reported by researchers
(Kwaghe1999andRahmanetal.2008).Inasurveyofover200ethnicgroups
inSubSaharanAfrica,Kumar(1985)reportedthatwomenhadasignificant
responsibility for farming in 90 per cent of the surveyed communities and
DepartmentofAgriculturalEconomicsandExtension,UniversityofMaiduguri,
BornoState,Nigeria.Email:okorieagosi@yahoo.co.uk
**
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Nasarawa State University,
Keffi,Nigeria.Email:shehurahmandr@yahoo.com
*** Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Maiduguri,
BornoState,Nigeria.Email:pkwaghe@yahoo.commandpkwaghe@gmail.com

did all the works except clearing the land in which 38 per cent of them
participated. According to WIA (2004), women farmers took part in farm
operations such as land clearing, land preparation, planting, weeding,
harvesting,storage,processing,livestockraisingandmarketing.
Women,therefore,playimportantroleinensuringhouseholdfoodsecurity,
increasehouseholdincomeandwelfare.Theyalsopossessgreatpotentialfor
increasing agricultural production considering the nature and level of their
involvementinfarming.Ani(2004)explainedthatwomenarethebackbone
of agricultural labour force producing 40 per cent of the gross domestic
product(GDP)andover50percentoffoodindevelopingnations.
In spite of this substantial contribution to agricultural development,
womens role continues to be systematically marginalised and not given
adequaterecognitionineconomicpolicies(RahmanandAlamu2003).While
mens role remains the central and most often, the sole focus of attention.
There has been a great disparity between women and men in size of land
holdings, as well as overall trends of increased landlessness (Quisumbing
1994).Therearealsoconstraintsonwomenlabourtime,astheycannotcall
on the labour of other household members in the way men can (Malena
1994).Theseconstraintscouldhavealotofimplicationsonwomeninterest,
involvementandsatisfactioninfarming.Genuineandbalanceddevelopment
in agricultural sector will be achieved only when gender inequalities have
beenredressed.
GroundnutisoneofthemajorcashcropsgrownmostlyinnorthernNigeria.
Thecropusedtobethemainforeignexchangeearnerbeforethediscoveryof
crudeoilintheNigerDeltaAreaofthecountry.Askira/UbaLGAofBorno
State, the study area, belongs to major groundnut producing areas of the
state.AccordingtoWIA(2004)womenhavebeencontributingabout75per
centofgroundnutproductioninAskira/UbaLGA.
Themainaimofthisstudy,therefore,istoanalysetheeconomiccontribution
ofwomentogroundnutproductioninthestudyarea.Thespecificobjectives
wereto:determinetherateofeconomiccontributionofwomentogroundnut
production in farm households; identify socioeconomic factors influencing
women contribution to groundnut production and identify factors
determiningwomensatisfactioningroundnutproduction.

48

2.0Methodology
The study area is made up of two chiefdoms, namely Askira and Uba
Askira/UbaLocalGovernmentArea(LGA)ofBornoState,Nigeria.Itisone
oftwentysevenLGAsofthestate.Ithassevendistrictsasfollows:Wamdeo,
Mussa, Uba, Lassa, Ngohi, Askira and Ngulde. The LGA has area of about
2,404km2(MinistryofFinancialPlanningandStatisticsDivision,2003).The
people of this area are predominantly farmers, but are equally engaged in
different types of economic activities such as local crafts, hunting, fishing,
tailoringetc.
The climate of the study area is mainly raining and dry seasons. Rainfall
eachyearintheareaontheaveragebeginsbetweenAprilandMay.Thearea
has an annual rainfall range of 750 mm1000 mm. The dry season usually
beginsfromOctobertoAprilandisunpleasantlyhot.Thenaturalvegetation
is the sudan Savannah characterised by woody tress (forest). However, the
forest over the years is fast disappearing due to interference of human
activities such as overgrazing, deforestation for domestic firewood and
agricultural activities. Farmers in this area practise all types of farming
activitiesrangingfromsoletomixedcroppingandmixedfarming,thoughin
mostcasesatsubsistencelevels.
Primary data were obtained through a survey of farm households using
interview schedules administered to women by well trained female
enumerators. Ten villages were randomly selected from the study area and
fromeachvillage25farmhouseholdswererandomlysampled.Onewoman
was interviewed per farm household; giving a total of 250 women used as
sample for the study. The information obtained from the women includes
socioeconomic characteristics of the women, women labour, financial
contributionstogroundnutproduction,farmsizeandincome.
Data were analysed using descriptive statistics such as percentage, mean,
standard deviation and coefficient of variation to satisfy the first objective.
The second objective was achieved using multiple liner regression model
(Mirer 1990) while Probit analysis (Kennedy 1998) was done to satisfy the
thirdobjective.Themultiplelinearregressionmodelswereexpressedas:
Y=a+b1x1+b2x2+b3x3+b4x4+b5x5+b6x6+e(1)

49

Where:
Y

Rateofwomencontributiontogroundnutproduction(%)

x1

Age(years)

x2

Educationalstatus(years)

x3

Numberofchildren

x4

Cooperativemembership(years)

x5

Farmingexperience(years)

x5

Incomelevel(Naira)

Errorterm

b1,b2,b3,b4,b5,b6=regressioncoefficients
The Probit model is one of the dichotomous dependent variable models
whichisassociatedwithcumulativenormalprobability.Thismodelassumes
thatprobabilityis:
Pi=F(Zi)..(2)
WhereZi=Cumulativenormaldistribution.
The functional form of Probit model as adopted from Kennedy (1998) and
usedforthisstudyisexpressedas:
Pi=Prob.(yi=1)=prob.(iPij+i>0)(3)
Pi=Prob.(yi=1)=prob.(i>0iPij).........(4)
Thustheprobabilitythatawomanwillbesatisfiedwithherinvolvementin
groundnutproductionisafunctionofthevectorofexplanatoryvariablesxij
andanunobservederrortermi.Theexplanatoryvariablesinclude:
x1 = Farmingexperience(years)
x2 = Cooperativemembership(years)
x3 = Rate of women accessibility to farm resources in a farm
household(%)
x4 = Benefitderivedbywomenfromgroundnutproduction(Naira/ha)
j = RegressioncoefficientoftheexplanatoryvariablesXij
i = Error term which is normally distributed with zero mean and
varianceone.

50

3.0ResultsandDiscussion
The socioeconomic characteristics considered in this study include age,
educationallevel,numberofchildren,membershipofcooperatives,farming
experience and income level of the respondents. Table 1 presents data on
these and shows that about 71.2 per cent of the respondents were in the
activeagecategoryof3150years.Peopleinthis agecategorycouldbevery
productive in agricultural production activities. Information on the
educationallevelshowsthat80percentof therespondentshadoneformof
educationalattainmentortheotherrangingfromadulteducationtotertiary
education. Education could be very good instrument that equips farmers
withthenecessaryknowledgeinagriculturalproduction.
Data in Table show the number of children the respondents had. A most
significantinformationhereisthatallwomenstudiedhadsomenumberof
children ranging from one to above ten. These children could be source of
farmlabourtogroundnutproduction.Onthemembershipofcooperatives,
thetableshowsthatabout60percentoftherespondentsweremembersof
agricultural cooperative organisations. Agricultural cooperatives could be
of immense assistance to their members in increasing and improving
agriculturalproduction.Thisassistancecouldbeinformofloansandofferof
farmlaboursoastoachievegreaterfarmproductivity.
Information on farming experience as contained in the table indicates that
therespondentsthathadbeinginfarmingbusinessfor110yearswere65.33
percent,1115yearswere26.66percentandabove15yearswere5percent.
This means that generally, the respondents had being in groundnut
productionforareasonablenumberofyearsthatwillhelpthemknowallthe
technicalities involved in the production of the crop. Income level of the
respondentswasequallyonofthesocioeconomiccharacteristicsconsidered.
The income level as shown in the table indicates that about 86.21 per cent
were subsistent groundnut producers as they realised between N1,000.00
N20,000.00 from groundnut production. Only about 13.33 per cent of the
respondentsrealisedaboveN20,000.00fromgroundnutproduction.

51

Table1:SocioeconomicCharacteristicsoftheRespondents
Socioeconomicvariables
Age(years)
2030
3140
4150
>50
EducationalLevel
Adulteducation
Primaryschool
Postprimary
Tertiary
Nonformaleducation
Numberofchildren
13
46
710
Above10
Membershipof
cooperatives
Yes
No
Farmingexperience
15
610
1115
Above15
Incomelevel(Naira)
LessthanN10,000.00
N10,000.00N15,000.00
N15,000.00N20,000.00
AboveN20,000.00
Total

Numberofwomen

20
60
26
14

10

46
24
20

10
80
15
15

Percentage

16.66
50.00
21.66
11.66

08.33
16.66
38.33
20.00
16.66

08.33
66.66
12.50
12.50

72
48

40
42
32
06

30
52
21
16
120

60.00
40.00

33.33
35.00
26.66
05.00

25.00
42.33
18.88
13.33
100.00

AspresentedinTable2,womencontributedontheaverageabout67percent
ofthetotallabourrequiredforgroundnutproductioninthefarmhouseholds

52

of the study area. This is in agreement with Ingawa (1999) and Mgbada
(2000) that women provide some 60 per cent to 80 per cent of agricultural
labour. The minimum rate of labour contribution to groundnut production
amongthe womenwas21.5percent andthemaximumwas 89.73 percent.
The rate of women labour for the groundnut production was fairly stable
among them with coefficient of variation of 30.42 per cent. Only 14.62 per
cent of the financial resource used for groundnut production was
contributed by the women. This is attributable to the usual poor financial
statusofthewomenandtheirlowaccessibilitytocreditfacilities.Thisresult
confirms the claim by Bahta and Groeneward (2008), that improvement in
ruralcreditisoneofthewaystoincreasetheparticipationandproductivity
ofruralpopulace,especiallywomenineconomicactivities.
Table2: Proportion of Labour and Finance Resources Contributed by
WomenforGroundnutProductioninFarmHouseholds
Estimate

Rateofcontribution*(%)
Labour
Finance
21.15
01.42
89.73
33.74
67.45
14.62
20.52
06.46
30.42
44.18

Minimum
Maximum
Average
Standarddeviation
Coefficientofvariation

Note:*Computedaspercentageoftotallabourandfinanceforgroundnutproductionina
farmhousehold.

In Table 3, the variables included in the multiple linear regression model

explained63percentofthevariationintherateofwomens contributionto
groundnut production in the study area. All the regression coefficients are
positive, implying direct relationship with womens economic contribution
togroundnutproduction.Cooperativemembership,farmingexperienceand
level of income were identified as the significant factors that positively
influencedrateofwomenscontributiontothegroundnutproductioninthe
study area. Cooperative membership which correlates positively with
womens contribution to the groundnut production is in consonant with
Murray(2006)findings.
The log likelihood test in the Probit model for the factors determining
women satisfaction in groundnut production was significant. The study

53

identified resource accessibility and benefit derived from groundnut

production as the significant factors determining women satisfaction in
groundnut production. The two factors have positive coefficients that are
significantat1percentlevel(Table4).
Table3: Results of Regression Analysis of Factors Determining Women
ContributiontoGroundnutProduction
Variable

Constant
Age
Educationalstatus
Numberofchildren
Cooperativemembership
Farmingexperience
Levelofincome

Coefficient

Standard

Tvalue

112.346
24.138
1.752
3.421
15.746
11.197
33.519

error
112.346
23.367
1.526
3.520
4.569
3.751
8.136

4.642*
1.033
1.148
0.972
3.446*
2.985*
4.120*

Note:R2=0.63;*=Significantat1percentlevel.

Table4: Results of Probit Regression Analysis of Factors Determining

WomenSatisfactioninGroundnutProduction
Variable

Constant
Farmingexperience
Cooperativemembership
Resourceaccessibility
Benefitderived

Coefficient

Standard

Tvalue

7.022
0.034
0.145
0.805
1.073

error
2.058
0.053
0.262
0.229
0.308

3.412*
0.641
0.553
3.515*
3.484*

Note:Loglikelihood=71.324*;*=Significantat1percentlevel.

4.0ConclusionandSuggestions
It is evident from the study that women contributed more labour and
less financial resource to groundnut production in the study area. Co
operativemembership,farmingexperienceandlevelofincomesignificantly
influencedwomeneconomiccontributiontogroundnutproduction.Women

54

accessibilitytofarmresourcesand thebenefittheyderivedfrom groundnut

determined their satisfaction in the groundnut production. Based on these
results, it is, therefore, recommended that agricultural credit policy should
bereformedtomakecreditfacilitiesaccessibletowomen.Womenshouldbe
mobilised to form and utilise cooperative societies so as to enhance their
socioeconomicstatus.

References
Ani, A.O. 2004. Women in Agriculture and Rural Development. Priscaquilla Publishers,
Maiduguri,Nigeria.
Bahta, Y.T. and J.A. Groenewald. 2006. Rural Credit for ResourcePoor Entrepreneurs.
Lessons from Eritrean experience. Hand Book of the 26th Conference of the
International Association of Agricultural Economists. Queensland Australia, 1218
August.
Ingawa, S.A. 1999. Welcome Address at the National Workshop for Woman in
Agriculture.HeldinFACUHeadquarters,Shada,Nigeria,31August02September.
Kennedy, P. 1998. A guide to Econometrics. Fourth Edition. Blackwell publishers Ltd;
Malden,Massachusetts,USA.
Kumar, A. 1985. Principles and Practice of Adult Education and Community Development.
Abprintpublishingcompany.Ibadan,Nigeria.
Hand Book of the 26th Conference of the International Association of Agricultural
Economists.QueenslandAustralia,1218August,2006.
Kwaghe, P.V. 1999. Women Feed the World: Prospects, Problems and Solutions for
Sustainable Agriculture. In: Sustainable Agricultural Development: Principles and case
StudiesinNigeria.EditedbyU.C.Undiandeye,Y.BilaandS.Kushwaha.Pp.8698.
Malena, C. 1994. Gender Issues in Integrated Pest Management in African Agriculture. NRI
SocioeconomicSeries.NationalResourceInstitute.Chatham.
Mgbada, J.K. 2000. Production of Staple Crops by Rural Women in Enugu and Ebonyi
States: Lesson for Enhancing Poverty Alleviation Programmes. In Olowu, T.A. (ed)
AgriculturalExtensionandPovertyAlleviationinNigeria.Proceedingsofthe6thAnnual
NationalConferenceoftheAgriculturalExtensionSocietyofNigeria.Pp.1012.
Ministry of Financial Planning and Statistics Division, Maiduguri, Borno State Annual
Report(2003).
Mirer, T.W. 1990. Economic Statistics and Econometrics. Second Edition, Macmillan
publishingcompany.NewYork,USA.

55

Murray,C.2006.SocialCapitalandCooperationinCentralandEasternEurope:Toward
an Analytical Framework. Hand Book of the 26th Conference of the International
AssociationofAgriculturalEconomists.QueenslandAustralia,1218August,2006.
Quisumbing, A. 1994. Gender Differences in Agricultural Productivity: A Survey of
Empirical Evidences. Discussion paper series No. 36. Education and Social Policy
Department,WorldBank,WashingtonDC.
Rahman,M.W.,R.N.Ali,andHossain,M.M.2008.WomenInvolvementinLivestockand
Poultry Raising in some Selected Areas of Mymensigh District, Bangladesh. Asia
PacificJournalofRuralDevelopmentVol.XVIII,No.2:119132.
Rahman, S.A. and J. F. Alamu. 2003. Estimating the level of Women Interest in
Agriculture: An Application of Logit Regression Model. The Nigeria Journal of
ScientificResearch.4(1):4549.
WIA. 2004. A Handbook on Women in Agriculture. Borno State Agricultural Development
Programme,Nigeria.

56

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

NonconventionalFisheryByproductsofFish
MarketsinDhakaMetropolis,Bangladesh
BhaktaSupratimSarker*,MahmudHasan**,Mohammad
ShamsurRahman**andA.F.M.ArifurRahman***

Abstract
The nonconventional fishery byproducts in the fish markets of Dhaka
metropolis were identified and quantified by structured survey while the
marketingchannelswereexaminedthroughobservation.Nearly22,049mtby
productswereestimatedinthesemarketsinwhichonly15percentwasfoundto
beusedcommercially.Whilecutterswerefoundtocollectmostdryscales,maws
weredrawnbythecuttercumsellers.Estimatedtotalyieldofdryscalesfound
was390mtwhichcouldbeincreasedby9folds.Theexpectedpotentialharvest
ofmawscouldbeincreasedby2foldswhilePGby28foldsofthepresent.Total
valueofthecurrentharvestofdryscales,mawsandPGfoundwasUS$604,615
whichwouldbeincreasedby3.5foldsiftheentireyieldcanbeharvested.This
study has clearly shown the potential economic importance of the non
conventional fishery byproducts of Dhaka City that may improve the
livelihoodsofthepoorcuttersandcuttersellers.

1.0Introduction
1.1Background
Bangladeshhas earned the ever highest foreign currency US$410 million in
20042005 from fishery subsector in which the contribution of fishery by
productswas0.02percent.However,theearningsfromsharkfinsandfish
maws1(majorpartsofnonconventionalbyproducts)havebeensurprisingly
decreasing.Theexportofsharkfinsandfishmawsdroppedfrom172.48mt
(20022003) and 37.82 mt (20032004) to 0.48 mt (20042005) over last three
years period (EPB 2005). This strong decline may shift opportunities or
reduceincomeandincreasevulnerabilitiesofthepoorcollectors.
*

**

***

DepartmentofFisheries,GovernmentofBangladesh,MatshyaBhaban,Ramna,
Dhaka,Bangladesh.
DepartmentofFisheries,UniversityofDhaka,Dhaka1000,Bangladesh.
Correspondingemail:mhasan@univdhaka.edu
DepartmentofFisheriesandMarineScience,NoakhaliScienceandTechnology
University,Noakhali3802,Bangladesh.

57

1.2Rationale
The collectors collect scales2, swim bladder (SB), pituitary gland (PG3) and
viscerafromfishmarketswhichareusedtoproducefishmanure,fishmeal,
fishoilandfishglueetc(Ahmad1955).Thescales,maws(driedSB)andPG
has been exported to Thailand, China (Hong Kong), Singapore (EPB 2005;
personal communication with Anil Chandra Rajbangshi, Daria Lal Traders,
50/1/A South Sayedabad Dhaka1204, 2006). Therefore, identification and
quantificationofthesefisherybyproductsinthefishmarketswouldprovide
the baseline information for further development initiatives and their
economicpotentials.

1.3Problem
Although scales, maws and PG are being used in and exported from
Bangladesh,informationisnotavailableontheyieldandharvestoftheseby
products.Asaresult,thereisaneedtodeterminethetotalyieldandharvest
of these fishery byproducts and identify their marketing channels and
potentials for further development to improve the livelihoods of the poor
peopleengagedintradingthesebyproducts.

1.4ResearchNeed
The potentials for the production of shark liver oil, fish meal and manure,
fish glue and soap in the laboratory have been reported (Ahmad 1965).
However, in India instead, the traditional fishery byproducts are: fish
protein concentrate, fish albumin, gelatine, pearl essence, peptones, amino
acids,andprotaminesthatarebeingisolatedfromfishwastes.Thechitinand
chitosan have been extracted from shrimp and crabs. The biochemical
derivativesofnonconventionalfisherybyproductsarebecomingpopularin
thepharmaceuticalindustries(Balachandran2001).However,quantification
of scales, maws, PGs and their potential economic importance have never
been reported in Bangladesh. This study, therefore, would focus to identify
and quantify the nonconventional fishery byproducts of fish markets in
Dhakametropolisandrediscovertheeconomicimportance.

1.5Objectives
The purposes of this study are to identify and quantify the total yield and
harvestofnonconventionalfisherybyproducts;todeterminetheirpotential

58

economic importance; and to identify the marketing channels in Dhaka

metropolis.

2.0MaterialsandMethods
2.1ResearchApproachandTechnique
The quantitative data were collected by structured survey while qualitative
information was explored by case studies and observations as the primary
toolsfollowingBlaxteretal.(1996).

2.2Sampling
The survey was conducted in the fish markets, traders houses and in the
feed manufacturing factories of Dhaka metropolis. Purposive random
samplingtechniquewasappliedincollectingthedata.

2.3CriteriaforMarketSelection
ThetotalnumberoffishmarketsinDhakametropolisis395whichhavebeen
classified according to the Dhaka Mahanagar Machh O Kancha Bazar Kshudra
Baybasayi Samiti (Dhaka Metropolitan Fish and Vegetable Market Small
Traders Association). Of the total markets where fish are cut in Dhaka
metropolis, 10 per cent were covered in this survey (Table 1). Thus the
samplesizewas40.
Table1:NumberofMarketsunderDifferentAuthority
Ownership
DCC(DhakaCityCorporation)
PWD(PublicWorksDepartment)
BangladeshRailway
MasjidandMadrasaCommittee
Private
Total

Number
138
16
9
32
200
395

2.4MarketCategorisation
Sampled 40 fish markets were classified into three categories based on the
number of fish retailers (Table 2). The market size classified depending
on the number of the fish retailers indicates the yield of byproducts and
theirtypes.

59

2.4.1Basisofmarketcategorisation
Numberoffishretailer=Seller4+Cuttercumseller5
Marketcategory1=130fishretailers
Marketcategory2=3160fishretailers
Marketcategory3=above60fishretailers
Table2:DistributionoftheFishMarkets,AccordingtotheCategories
Category
Marketcategory1
Marketcategory2
Marketcategory3
Total

Numberofthemarket
19
15
6
40

Percentageofthetotal
47.5
37.5
15.0
100.0

2.5SelectionofSampleSizeoftheCutters6
Nearly onefifth (19%) of the total cutters found in the markets were
surveyedinthisstudy.

2.6CuttersClassification
Surveyed86individualswereclassifiedintotwogroupsascutterandseller
dependinguponwhethertheycutand/orsellfish(Table3andTable4).
2.6.1Basisofclassifyingthecutters
C=Cutter(peoplewhocutfishessoldbytheseller)
CCS=Cuttercumseller(peoplewhosellandcutfishes)
Thecuttersandthecuttercumsellersweredifferentineconomicstatusand
thecollectingpotential.
Table3: DistributionoftheCuttersandCuttercumSellersinthe40Fish
MarketsofDhakaMetropolis
Group
Cutter
Cuttercumseller
Total

Individual
surveyed

Percentageof
surveyedtotal

20
66
86

23.3
76.7
100.0

60

Total
individualin
themarket
81
371
452

Percentageof
total
individual
17.9
82.1
100.0

2.7QuantificationandValueEstimation
The fish byproducts were assessed for a period of one year. Values of the
byproducts were estimated in local currency Bangladeshi taka (BDT) and
wasconvertedintoUSdollar(US$).
Table4: Distribution (Frequency) of the Cutters and CuttercumSellers
inthe40FishMarkets,AccordingtoCategorisation
Category

Individualsurveyed

Totalindividualinthemarket

Cutter

CCS

Total

Cutter

CCS

Total

Marketcategory1

29

34

17

127

144

Marketcategory2

26

33

14

159

173

Marketcategory3

11

19

50

85

135

Total

20

66

86

81

371

452

2.8DataEntry,EditingandAnalysis
Thequestionswerepostcodedwhenneeded,enteredonthecomputerusing
Microsoft Excel, checked after entry and analysed using statistical software
SPSS version 10.0. Descriptive statistics was used in analysing and
presentingthedata.

3.0FindingsofSurvey
3.1QuantificationofFisheryByproducts
3.1.1Averageandestimatedtotalyieldoffisherybyproducts
Of the cutters (C) and cuttercumsellers (CCS), 86 were surveyed in 40
markets in which each individual yielded nearly 4878 kg byproducts each
year (Table 5). The estimated total yield of byproducts by 452 cutters and
cuttercumsellerswerenearly2204.9mtand22049mtinall395marketsin
Dhaka metropolis. However, the quantity of byproducts yielded by the
cutters was higher than that of the cuttercumsellers. Surprisingly in the
marketofcategory1,theaverageyieldofbyproductswashighercompared
to the category 2 and 3. The yield of fishery byproducts in the market of
category1expectedtobelowerthaninthecategory2.Thisloweryieldof
byproductsinthemarket ofcategory1perhapsbecause ofhigher landings
ofmarinefishes;whichproducednearlythreefoldshigherbyproductsthan
didthesamequantityoffreshwaterfishes(Table5).

61

Table5: QuantityofByproductsProduction(kg/CCCS/y)in
40FishMarkets
Group

Categoryofthemarkets
2

Total

Cutter

7236

4146

6553

5881

Cuttercumseller

6056

3340

3583

4574

Total

6230

3511

4833

4878

3.1.2Useoftherawproduces
Most byproducts (85%) were found to be used in filling land while 9 per
centwasfoundtobeusedinpoultry/fish feedindustriesand6percent(dry
scale7, maw, PG and other parts8) was found to be exported or to be used
domestically (Table 6; Figure 13). This six per cent was harvested by the
cuttersandcuttercumsellersorprimarycollectors.
Table6: DestinationoftheCollectedByproductsand
theModeofCollection
Destination
Commercialuse
Useaslandfill
Total

1
0.0
61.1
61.1

Modeofcollection
2
3
4
0.0
9.3
0.0
20.4
0.0
3.7
20.4
9.3
3.7

5
5.5
0.0
5.5

Total
14.8
85.2
100.0

Note: Legend: 1=Daily labour of the market committee; 2=DCC; 3=Poultry/fish feed
manufacturer;4=RemovalbytheC/CCS;5=CollectionbytheC/CCS.

Among fishes which are cut in the markets, scaly fishes were found
predominant(61.3%)comparedtononscalyones.Thisindicatesthattrading
of fish scales would be increased by taking proper initiatives (Table 7). On
the other hand, among the nonscaly fishes, the contribution of marine
catfishesandfreshwatershark(boalinBengali)Wallagoattuwas(5.2+2.6=
7.8%)8percentthathasbeenusedinproducingmawswhichisahighvalue
fisherybyproduct(Table7).

62

Table 7: Distribution (%) of Cut Fish among 86 Fish Cutters and Cutter
cumSellersinSurveyedFishMarkets
Group/
species
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Total

Scaly
24.1
14.0
19.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.3
1.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
61.3

Typeoffish
Nonscaly
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.0
0.0
5.2
0.0
0.0
2.6
0.0
0.9
2.0
0.0
24.7

Other
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.5
0.0
1.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
0.0
0.0
5.5
14.0

Total
24.1
14.0
19.2
5.5
14.0
1.5
5.2
2.3
1.7
2.6
1.5
0.9
2.0
5.5
100.0

Note: Legend: 1=Major carp (Labeo sp.); 2=Catla catla; 3=Indian shad (Tenualosa ilisha;
4=Oreochromis sp; 5=Pangasius sp; 6=Hypophthalmichthys molitrix; 7=Marine
catfish/Rita sp; 8=Cirrhina sp; 9=Ctenopharyngodon idellus/Cyprinus carpio/H. nobilis;
10 = Boal; 11=Snake head; 12=Eels; 13=Fresh water catfish (Mystus sp); 14 = Other
freshwatercatfish/minorcarps/prawn/Jewfishes/seaperches/flathead.

3.2DryScale
3.2.1Distributionofthedryscalecollectorssurveyedin40fishmarkets
Of the sample surveyed, 12 per cent of the collectors were found to collect
dry scale while in excess of 88 per cent did not (Table 8). By taking proper
initiatives, the noncollectors may be encouraged to collect the scales that
couldincreasetheirincome(Figure1).
Table8:Distribution(%)oftheDryScaleCollectors
CategoryoftheC/CCS

Numberofcollectors

Percentageofcollectors

Collect
Donotcollect

10
76

11.6
88.4

Total

86

100.0

63

3.2.2Averagecollectionofdryscaleandestimatedtotalyield(kg)
Amongthosewhohavebeencollectingdryscaleinthesurveyedmarkets,in
the market of category 3, the cutters were found collecting the highest
quantitywhilethecuttercumsellersdidnot(Table9).Theunwillingnessof
the cuttercumsellersincollectingdryscalescould beduetotheperception
ofriskinreducingtheirsocialstatuscomparedtothecutters.Anotherreason
for not collecting the dry scales by the cuttercumsellers could be labour
intensiveness. The yield of dry scales per collector per annum was 750 kg.
However,52(12%)collectors(C/CCS)werefoundcollectingdryscales.Thus
thetotalyieldinthesampled40marketswouldbe39mt/y.
Table9:QuantityofDryScaleProduction(kg/CCCS/y)in40FishMarkets
Group
Cutter
Cuttercumseller
Total

1
300
330
315

Categoryofthemarkets
2
360
1040
870

3
1380
0
1380

Total
744
756
750

3.3Maw
3.3.1Distributionofthemawcollectorsurveyedin40fishmarkets
Ofthesamplesurveyed,nearlyhalfthecuttersandcuttercumsellerswere
found to collect maw (Table 10). Maw is a high value export item and less
labourintensivetocollect.Thusthiscouldeasilyincreasetheearningofthe
CandCCSiftheyareencouragedtocollectthisvaluableitem(Figure2).
Table10:Distribution(%)oftheMawCollectors
CategoryoftheC/CCS
Collect
Donotcollect
Total

Numberofcollectors
41
45
86

Percentageofcollectors
47.7
52.3
100.0

3.3.2Averagecollectionofdrymawandestimatedyield(kg)
In all markets surveyed the cuttercumsellers were found collecting higher
quantity maw than did the cutters (Table 11). While in the markets of
category 1 and 2, only the cutters were found cutting fishes yielding
relatively smaller quantity of maw, in the market of third category, both

64

cuttercumsellers and cutters cut marine catfishes, yielded higher quantity

of maw. The overall average yield of maw per individual was 17 kg per
annum. However, total 216 (48%) collectors (C/CCS) were found to harvest
maw.Thusthetotalyieldinthesurveyed40marketswouldbe3.67mt/y.
Table11:QuantityofDryMawYield(kg/CCCS/y)in40FishMarkets
Categoryofthemarkets

Group

Total

Cutter

6.96

6.00

24.00

10.52

Cuttercumseller

11.96

22.48

26.70

20.00

Total

10.17

17.91

25.80

17.00

3.3.3Seasonalabundanceofmaw
Seasonal changes in the collection of maws were observed. During mid
October tomidFebruary, the quantity of maws collected found was higher
thaninothermonthsoftheyear(Table12).But,insomecasesbetweenthese
periodsbecauseofinclementweather,thesupplyofmarinecatfishdropped,
sometimesevenitbecomenilinthecity,resultinginasignificantfallinmaw
yield.
Table12:SeasonalAvailabilityofMaw
Availabilit
y

Months
Se
p

Oc
t

No
v

De
c

Moderate

Peak
Off

Ja
n

Fe
b

Ma
r

Ap
r

Ma
y

Ju
n

Ju
l

Au
g

3.4PituitaryGland(PG)
3.4.1Distribution(%)ofthePGcollectorsurveyedin40fishmarkets
Ofthesamplesurveyed,veryfewpeoplewerefoundtoharvestPGwhilein
excessof96percentdidnot(Table13).ThecollectorsofPGwereveryfew
whichmaybeduetothedeclinedpricesanddifficultiesinharvest(required
alcohol/acetoneetc)(Figure3).

65

Table13:Distribution(%)ofPGCollectors
CategoryofC/CCS

Numberofcollectors

Percentageofcollectors

Collect

3.5

Donotcollect

83

96.5

Total

86

100.0

3.4.2AveragecollectionofPGandestimatedtotal
Fewcuttersinthe marketsofcategory3andcuttercumsellersincategory2
werefoundtoharvestPGwhileremainingdidnotbecauseofdroppedprice
(US$0.046/piece)andinadequateskillinremovingPGfromfishbrain(Table
14).EstimatedoverallyieldofPG wasfound360pcs/collector/yinwhich16
(4%)collectors(C/CCS)werefoundharvestingPG.Thusthetotalharvestof
PGinall40marketssurveyedwouldbe5760pcs/y(Table17)
Table14:QuantityofPG(pcs/CCCS/y)Yieldedin40FishMarkets
Group
Cutter
Cuttercumseller
Total

1
0
0
0

Categoryofthemarkets
2
3
0
300
480
0
480
300

Total
300
480
360

3.5OtherParts(head,jaw,skin,gill,roe,intestineetc.)
3.5.1Distribution ofcollectors andsellerscollectingotherpartsin40fish
marketssurveyed
Of the sample surveyed, while only onequarter was found to harvest and
sell the other partsof fish body, in excess of 74 per cent didnot (Table15).
The reason for not harvesting other parts of fish body by most could be
themselvesbecauseoftakingthoseawaybythecustomersofthefishcut.
Table15:Distribution(%)ofOtherNonconventionalPartsCollectors
CategoryofC/CCS
Collect
Donotcollect
Total

Numberofcollectors
22
64
86

66

Percentageofcollectors
25.6
74.4
100

3.5.2Pricesofdifferenttypesofbyproducts
As responded it was observed that the prices were fluctuating significantly
among items(head,jaw,gill,skin,roe,oil,intestine,clippedfinetc)andthe
quantitysold percutterandcuttercumseller.Infewmarkets (category1)it
wasfoundthatasfewas250gwassold byacutterandcuttercumsellera
day while in others (category 2 and 3) the quantity was 810 kg. However,
thepricesofgut,gill,jaw,clippedfinetcandroewerefoundUS$0.31/kgand
US$3.1/kgrespectively.

3.6DistributionofCollectorsamongDifferentMarketCategories
Markets of category 3 have higher potential in yielding PG and other parts
compared to other categories (Table 16). In the markets of category 3,
traditionallylargesizedfishesarecutwhicharesuitabletoharvestPGand
other parts. No cutter/cuttercumseller was found to harvest PG in the
marketsofcategory1.Peoplecollectdryscalesandmawswerefoundevenly
distributedinthemarketsofcategory1and2,whileinthecategory 3they
were fewer that could be due to the harvest of maws by the primary
collectorsasobserved(Figure1and2).
Table16:Distribution(%)ofIndividualsCollectingDifferentFisheryBy
products(among86C/CCS)inDifferentofFishMarkets
Item
Dryscale
Maw(dry)
PG
Otherparts

1
40
34
0
23

Categoriesofmarkets
2
40
44
33
32

3
20
22
67
45

Total
100
100
100
100

3.7ExpectedPotentialTotalYield(kg)andRevenue(tk)
Thecurrentestimatedyieldofdryscaleswasnearly39mtfoundin40fish
markets.However,totalmarketsfoundwere395.Thusthetotalyieldof dry
scales estimated would be 390 mt in Dhaka metropolis (Table 17). If all
cuttersandcuttercumsellerswouldharvest,thetotalharvestcouldbe3390
mtwhichis869percentand9foldshigherthanthecurrentlevel.Similarly,
if all cutters and CCSs would harvest PG, the total yield could be 2825 per
centand28timeshigherthanthepresents.

67

Table 17: Current and Expected Potential Yield of Different Fishery By

productsofSurveyedFishMarkets
Currentyield
Item
Dryscale
Maw(dry)
PG

Expectedpotentialyield

Collector

Quantity

Collector

Quantity

52
216
16

39mt
3.67mt
5760pcs

452
452
452

339mt
7.68mt
162720pcs

Incrementof
thecurrent
yield(%)
869
209
2825

Itisimportanttonotethatin2006,theaveragemarketpriceofdryscaleswas
US$0.29/kg, maw US$13.3/kg and PG (stored in alcohol) US$0.05/pc. The
valueoftheestimatedpotentialyieldofdryscaleinDhakametropolisthus
would be US$1 million which is 869 per cent increment of the current
US$0.11 million per annum (Table 18). Similarly, the value of the potential
yieldofmawwouldbeUS$1.02millionthatis209percenthigherthanthe
currentvalueandPGUS$0.08millionthatis2825percentincrementofthe
presentvalue(onlyUS$0.003million).Thusthegrandtotalvaluewouldbe
US$2.09 million at the present market price at primary levels of marketing
channels which is 346 per cent increase of current trading (US$0.6 million)
excluding the contribution from other parts,and quantity wasfound to be
usedinpoultryandfishfeed.
Table 18: Current and Expected Potential Value of Different Fishery By
productsofSurveyedFishMarkets
Item
Dryscale
Maw(dry)
PG
Total

Currentvalue(US$)
11340
48818
295
60453

Expectedpotentialvalue
(US$)
98571
102159
8336
209066

Incrementof
currentvalue(%)
869
209
2825
346

3.8Marketingchannels
MarketingchannelsoffisherybyproductsaregiveninFigures13:

68

Figure1:MarketingChannelsofScale(withfishoffal)inandOutsideof
DhakaMetropolitanCity
FARM
(Fishorpoultry)

Fish/poultry feed

FACTORY
(Fishorpoultryfeedmanufacturing)

Fish/poultryfeed,protein
concentrate,fishmeal

FISHOFFALCOLLECTOR
(fromdifferentmarkets)

Inferior scale with fin, slime,

blood, gut, jaw, gill, trash fish etc

FISHOFFALGATHERER
(fromindividualmarket)

Inferiorscalewithfin,slime,
blood,gut,jaw,gill,trashfishetc

FISHMARKET
CandCCS

PRIMARY
COLLECTOR

Removingscaleandsorting

CUTTER

CCS

SECONDARY
COLLECTOR

Quality scales
wash and dry

Dry scale

TERTIARY
COLLECTOR/
SCALE TRADER

Grading dried scale

SUPPLIER

Packaging graded scale

EXPORTER

Graded and packaged scale

INTERNATIONAL
MARKET

Branded scale

Note:Dashedlineindicatessecondarytradingchannel.

69

Increasing profit margin

Increasingprofitmargin

LOCAL
CUSTOMER

Bhagamaw(mixed
withotherbyproducts)

CANDCCS

Wetorrawmaw(mixedwith
jaw,gill,head,gut,roeetc)

FISHMARKET
CANDCCS

Removing themaw

CUTTER

CCS

SECONDARY
COLLECTOR

Driedmaw

Grading maw

TERTIARY
COLLECTOR/
MAWTRADER

SUPPLIER

EXPORTER

Splitting,
washing
anddrying
maw

Packaging gradedmaw

Gradedandpackagedmaw

Brandedmaw

INTERNATIONAL
MARKET

Note:Dashedlineindicatessecondarytradingchannel.

70

Increasing profit margin

PRIMARY

COLLECTOR

Increasing profit margin

Figure2:LinksbetweenChannelsofMarketingforMawinand

OutsideofDhakaMetropolis

LOCALHATCHERIES

PGCOLLECTOR

FISHMARKET
CANDCCS

PGTRADER/
SUPPLIER

EXPORTER

INTERNATIONAL
MARKET

Acetonepreserved
ordried

Alcoholwashes,stored
inacetoneand/ordry

Removing PG(brain)and
preservinginalcohol

Alcoholwashes,stored
inacetoneand/ordry

Increasingprofitmargin

Increasingprofitmargin

Figure3: MarketingChannelsforTradingPGinandoutside
DhakaMetropolitanCity

Acetonepreserved
ordried

Drycondition
(ampoule)

4.0ConclusionandRecommendations
4.1Conclusion
Currentyieldofdryscalesis390mt,maw(dry)36.7mtandPG57600pcsas
observed in this study in the fish markets of the Dhaka metropolitan.
However,thepotentialyieldwouldbe3390mtofdryscales,76.8mtofmaw
(dry) and 1627200 pcs of PG which is 869, 209 and nearly 3000 per cent
increaseofthepresentifallpeopleinvolvedinthissectorharvestthesenon
conventionalfisherybyproducts.Thusthetotalyieldwouldbemanyfolds
thanthepresentsinallmarketsacrossthecountry.

71

Basedonthecurrentmarketpricesofthoseproducts,theestimatedvalueis
US$0.6millionthatcouldberosetoUS$2.09millionayearwhichis346per
cent increase of the present value only from Dhaka metropolitan city.
However,theexportershavebeenpurchasingthoseitemsacrossthecountry.
Therefore, the prospect of improving the livelihoods through increased
harvestandincomebysellingthefisherybyproductsisvivid.

4.2Recommendations
1. Detailed study is necessary to identify and quantify the total yield
and harvest of nonconventional fishery byproducts and their
potentialtrading;
2. EPB can identify the causes responsible for declining in export of
fisherybyproductsduringlastfewyearsfromBangladesh;
3. DCC, PWD,MasjidandMadrasacommitteesandtheprivateowners
ofthefishmarketscanalso takeinitiativesinthemarketsownedby
themtoimprove thecurrentharvestingsystemoffishoffalandthus
canincreasesupplyforcommercialusages;and
4. Thereisaneedtochangeourtraditionofbuyingwholefishfromthe
markets instead dressed fish leaving the unwanted parts (scales,
maws,PG,fins,gills,gutetc.).
Endnotes
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Driedswimbladder(airbladderactashydrostaticorgan)offish
Anyofthethinplatesorhardmaterialthatcovertheskinofmanyfish
Pituitarygland(masterglandofhormonalsecretion)
Sellfishesinthefishmarketsbutnevercutthose,generallyknownfishretailer
Cutfisheswhicharesoldbythemselvesaspromotionalandincomegeneratingactivity
Cutfisheswhicharesoldbythesellersasanincomegeneratingactivity
Fishscaleswhicharedriedundersun/sundriedfishscale
Head,jaw,skin,gill,fishroe,intestine,oiletc.whichareproducedwhilechopping
largefishes

References
Ahmad,N.1955.FishwealthofEastPakistan(thethen).GovernmentPrinting,EastBengal,
GovernmentPress,Dacca(thethen).P.25.
Ahmad,N.1965.EastPakistan(thethen)Information.P12.
Balachandran, K. K. 2001. Postharvest Technology of Fish and Fish Products. Delhi: Daya
PublishingHouse.P.440.
Blaxter,L.,C.Hughes,andM.Tight.1996.Howtoresearch.Buckingham:OpenUniversity
Press.P.263
EPB(ExportPromotionBureau).2005.Monthlyexportstatistics.

72

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

AgriculturalTechnologyAdoptionandLand
Productivity:EvidencefromtheRicePrawnGher
FarminginSomeSelectedAreasofBangladesh
BasantaKumarBarmon*,TakumiKondo**andFumioOsanami*

Abstract
The riceprawngher(RPG)farmingisanindigenousagriculturaltechnologysolely

developed by the farmers since mid1980s. The cropping pattern has changed
from the yearround modern variety (YRMV) paddy farming to RPG farming
after the introduction of gher farming. The present study aims to estimate the
land productivity of MV paddy production under RPG and YRMV paddy
farminginsouthwestBangladesh.NinetyRPGfarmersand100YRMVpaddy
farmers from two different villages of two different districts were randomly
interviewedregardingmaininputsusedandoutputsinMVpaddyproduction.
The RPG farming has significant impacts on inputs used in MV boro paddy
production.Thefindingsofthestudyindicatethatmorechemicalfertiliserssuch
asurea(72%),TSP(61%),MP(94%)andgypsum(88%)wereneededinper
ha MV boro paddy production under YRMV paddy farming in comparison to
RPGfarming.Similarly,perhacostofirrigation(61%),pesticides(26%)and
land preparation (17%) were also higher in MV boro paddy production under
YRMV paddy farming compared to RPG farming. The inputs usage for MV
boro paddy production under two farming showed statistically significant
differencewitheachothers.AlthoughfewerinputswerebeingusedinMVboro
paddyproductionunderRPGfarming,perhayieldwasstatisticallyhigherthan
YRMVpaddyfarming.Allthevaluesofthetstatisticssupportthehypothesisof
thestudy.Therefore,itcouldbeconcludedthatlandproductivityofMVpaddy
production under RPG farming is significantly higher than that of MV boro
paddyproductionunderYRMVpaddyfarminginBangladesh.Inotherwords,
inputs can be used more efficiently in MV boro paddy production under RPG
farmingthaninMVboroandamanpaddyproductionundertheYRMVpaddy
production.Thetotalfactorproductivity(TFP)forMVboropaddyproduction
washigherinRPGfarmingcomparedtoYRMVpaddyfarming.Moreover,the
TFPvariedwidelywithinthefarmsbetweenthetwofarming.

AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofEconomics,EastWestUniversity,Dhaka
1212,Bangladesh.Email:bkbarmon@yahoo.com
** DepartmentofAgriculturalEconomics,HokkaidoUniversity,Japan.

73

1.0Introduction
Riceprawn gher (RGP) farming is an indigenous adopted technology
combined form of aquaculture and agriculture. The term riceprawn gher
referstoamodificationofpaddyfieldthathasbeenusedforprawnandMV
paddy cultivation. The mid field (locally known as chatal) of gher is
surrounded by high wide dikes and canals that lies the periphery of the
dikes. The whole land of gher is filled up with rainwater from June to
Decemberandisresembledtoapondandduringthistime,farmerscultivate
prawn (Macrobrachiumrosenbergii) and fish (Catlacatla; Labeorohita; Cirrhina
mrigala; Cyprinus carpio; Puntius sarana; Pungasias pangasias, etc). The entire
landbecomesdrynaturallyfromJanuarytoAprilexceptcanals.Thecanals
retain sufficient water for MV boro paddy during this time. The riceprawn
farmingarealsobeingpracticedinmanyformsandmodesinsomecountries
of Asia such as India, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, China (Akand and
Hasan1992;Ito2004;SinghandVijiarungam1992;New1995;Nguyen1993;
WeiminandXianping2002;LinandLee1992;Tuyen1993;andKurupet al.
2002).
Prior to the RPG farming, the southwest region experienced a period of
severe environmental change during 1960s and 1980s because of the
construction of embankments and polders that caused permanent waterlog
andincreasedsalineintrusion,andthefarmerswerenotabletoproduceany
agricultural crops (Kendrick 1994). After the introduction of RPG farming,
the croppingpatternshavechanged.Nowthefarmersareproducingprawn
and modern varieties (MV) of paddy in the RPG farming throughout the
year.
Under the RPG farming, farmers apply various combinations of feed (for
exampleseggs,semai(madefromfineflourofwheat),sugi(madefromfine
flour of wheat), meat of mud snail, fishmeal, soya bean oilcake, mustard
oilcake,coconutoilcake,brokenmaizeandrice,huskofwheat,polishofrice,

74

chira(madefromrice)andpulse)togherplotsduringtheprawnproduction.
These various feeds supplied changes the availability of soil nutrients. The
main reason is that the prawn and carp fishes do not eat the entire feed
supplied and the leftover feed makes the paddy field fertile and the paddy
croptakesnecessarynutrientsfromthefertilefield.Inaddition,someaquatic
habitatsaregrownduringtheprawnproductionandtheseaquatichabitats
areusedascomposedmanuretopaddyproductionunderRPGfarming.As
a result, comparatively lower inputs used per unit MV boro paddy
productionunderRPGfarmingcomparedtootherpartsofBangladesh.
ThereareafewstudiesthatfocusontheimpactsofRPGfarmingonlabour
demand (Barmon et al. 2004) and household income (Barmon et al. 2004a;
2004b), and the impact of shrimp gher farming on the environment
(Asaduzamman et al. 1998; Nijera Kori 1996; and Bhattacharya et al. 1999)
andecology(Datta2001)inthecoastal region in Bangladesh.However, the
totalfactorproductivity(TFP)forMVpaddyproductionbetweenRPGand
YRMV paddy farming has not been analysed explicitly. Therefore, the
presentstudyanalysesinputusedinMVboropaddyproductionunderRPG
and YRMV paddy farming. Moreover, the present study estimates TFP for
MVpaddyproductionbetweentwofarminginBangladesh.

2.0MethodologyoftheStudy
2.1FarmSurveyandDataCollection
ToassesstheimpactsofthetechnologicallyadvancedRPGfarmingonland
productivity for modern varieties (MV) of paddy, two contrasting villages
RPG farming for Bilpabla in Khulna District and YRMV paddy farming for
Chanchra Village in Jessore District were selected (Figure 1). The Bilpabla
Village was selected purposely because the people have vast experience of
RPG farming like other parts of Khulna District, and they directly or
indirectlydependontheirdailylivelihoodonvariousgherfarmingactivities.

75

On the other hand, Chanchra Village located in Jessore District was also
purposelyselectedbecausethefarmerscultivateMVpaddythroughoutthe
year.Moreover,JessoreisneighbourofKhulnaDistrict.NinetyRPGfarmers
and100YRMVpaddyfarmerswererandomlyselected.Thefarmsurveywas
carriedoutduringNovember2007basedontheagriculturalcroppingyear
2007.

Figure1:StudyAreas

India

India

Rajshahi

Sylhet

India

Dhaka
Chanchra village

Jessore

India

Bilpabla village

Farm survey areas:

g
on
ag
itt
Ch

Khulna Bagerhat

Bay of Bengal

Bilpabla village Rice-prawn gher (RPG) farming

Chanchra village- MV boro and aman paddy farming

Figure 1. Study areas

76

ar
anm
My

First introduction place of rice-prawn gher farming

2.2VariableMeasurement

2.2.1Farmland
Farmland is the main input for any agricultural crop production. The
farmland input was measured in terms of hectare. As usual, about 60 per
centlandoftotalgherfarmingisusedforMVpaddyproductionunderRPG
farming.

2.2.2Humanlabour
Human labour includes both male and female labour used in MV paddy
productioninacropcalendaryear.Twotypesofhumanlabourareusedin
MV paddy production hired and family labour. The labour input was
calculated in terms of work hours of male and female labour employed for
different farm operations. In this study, labour was measured in terms of
adultmandaysofeighthours.Themeasurementsofhiredandfamilylabour
areasfollows:

2.2.3Hiredlabour
The existing wage rate of hired labour both for male and female was
consideredinMVpaddyproductioninRPGfarmingofBilpablaVillageand
YRMVpaddyfarmingofChanchraVillage.Astwofarmingwasdifferentin
termsofmanagementaswellaslocatedindifferentplaces,thewageratewas
different. The wage rate both for hired male and female was higher in MV
paddyproductionunderRPGfarmingthanYRMVpaddyfarming(detailed
inTable4).

2.2.4Familylabour
Both the family supplied male and female labour to be engaged in various
activities of paddy production. However, the familysupplied labours were
not engaged in full time like hired labours. Moreover, the familysupplied

77

laboursworkintheirpaddyfieldsasparttimebasis.Sometimes,theywork
only 23 hours for farm operation in a day. In addition, sometimes, the
efficiency of family supplied labours work is equal like hired labour, even
though,somefarmersworkefficiencyisnotthesametothehiredlabours.
The difference in the efficiency of labour has been taken into account by
convertingfamilylabourintohiredadultmandays.Theopportunitycostof
familysupplied labour is converted into male labour based on the market
priceofdailywageofmaleandfemalelabourin2007.Theopportunitycost
offamilymaleandfemalewasvariedfromTk.80110,5080,6080,4060and
Tk.6090, 4060, respectively, for MV boro paddy production under RGP
farming,MVboroandamanforYRMVpaddyfarming.
Otherinputs
The other main inputs such as chemical fertiliser, irrigation, pesticides and
seedlingcostwereconsideredintheexistingmarketpricein200607bothfor
RPGandYRMVpaddyfarming.
Outputvariable
ThemainoutputofMVpaddyfarmingwaspaddygrainconsideredinterms
ofvolume(kg)bothforRPGandYRMVpaddyfarming.

2.3AnalyticalMethod
Analysis of total factor productivity (TFP) measures the increase in total
outputwhichisnotaccountedforbyincreasesintotalinputs.TFPistheratio
ofaggregateoutputtotheaggregateinput.TheTFPcanbemeasuredusing
thefollowingformula:

TFPi =

Yi

Xi

Where, i indicate boro, and aman paddy under RPG and YRMV paddy
farming,respectively.

78

Yindicatestheaggregatedoutputindexperfarmintermsofvalue
andXindicatestheaggregatedinputindexperfarmintermsofvalue.The
idealFisherquantityindexeswereusedtoaggregateinputsandoutput.As
most agricultural enterprises have wide range of inputs and outputs, the
different types of inputs and outputs cannot be simply added. To calculate
TFP, it requires the means of wide range of inputs and output quantities
adding together into measures of total inputs and outputs. The index
numbertheoryisusedtoovercometheseproblems.Thepresentstudyused
crosssectionalfarmsurveydatabothMVpaddyproductionunderRPGand
YRMVpaddyfarming.BaselineorbaseyearisneededtocalculateTFP.As
the present study used crosssectional farm data to calculate TFP of MV
paddyproductionbetweentwofarming,thearithmeticmeanofboropaddy
productionunderRPGfarmingwasusedasbaseline.

2.4RegressionAnalysisofTotalFactorProductivity(TFP)
2.4.1MVboropaddyproductionunderRPGfarming
Toestimatetheeffectsofvariousquantitativeandqualitativefactorsonthe
TFP of MV paddy under RPG and YRMV paddy farming, a multiple
regression model was used for the combined data. The empirical model of
the effect of a set of explanatory variables on the TFP of MV boro paddy
production under RPG farming is specified using the following linear
relationship:
TFPi=+1X1i+2X2i+3X3i+4X4i+5X5i+6X6i+Di+i
Here, TFP is the total factor productivity index of MV boro paddy
productionunderRPGfarming.Thefarmerandfarmspecificvariablessuch
as the scale of farm size (X1: ha), age of the farmer (X2: year), education of
headofthefarmhousehold(X3:year),familysize(X4:number),weeding(X5:
numberofweedingduringtheproductionperiod),ploughing(X6:number),

79

and dummy variable D7 (dummy, 1 if the farmer change position of canals

afterfewyears,0otherwise)areusedasexplanatoryvariables.Farmsize(X1)
is an indicator of wealth of farmers that positively affects the crop yield as
wellasTFP(PolseonandSpencer1991;Ransometal.2003).Therefore,itis
hypothesisedthatthesignonthisvariableintheempiricalmodelispositive.
A farmers age (X2) can either generate or erode confidence in crop
production. In other words, with more experience, a farmer can become
more or less riskaverse when taking decision regarding input use in MV
paddy production. Some studies found that younger farmers are more
informative about farm production, and they easily bear production risk
(Kedebe et al. 1990; Polseon and Spencer 1991). The contradictory results
werealsofound(Adesinaetal.1995;Ransometal.2003).Thus,theexpected
sign on farmers age may be positive or negative in the empirical model.
Education increases farmers abilityand knowledge to crop production. An
educatedfarmerismoreinformativeandbearsalltypesofproductionrisk.
Therefore, the expected sign on education (X3) in the empirical model
ispositive.
Largefamilysize(X4)orhouseholdssupplysufficientlabourtimelyforland
preparation, weeding, and harvesting of MV paddy production. These
familysupplied labours are mainly involved in spraying insecticide,
topdressing of fertiliser and irrigation activities that affect the paddy yield.
Thus it is hypothesised that family size (X4) has positive impact on TFP.
Weeding(X5)isalsoimportantforhigherpaddyyield.InRPGfarming,some
farmers do not weed the paddy field at all or sometimes weed 12 times
during the whole MV boro paddy production cycle. To see the impact of
numberofweeding(X5)onyieldaswellasTFP,weeding(X5)isincludedin
the empirical model and the expected sign on weeding (X5) is positive.
Ploughing (X6) is an important factor that affects the MV boro paddy yield
widely in RPG farming. In RPG farming, some farmers do not plough the

80

midfieldofgherduringtransplanting.Ifthefarmersploughthemidpaddy
fieldofgherbeforetransplanting,thenallalgaeandweedsgodownunder
soil that is finally used as decomposed manure. Therefore, the number of
ploughing (X6) is included in the empirical model, and the expected sign is
positive.
A dummy variable (X7) is included in the empirical model to evaluate the
changeinthepositionofcanalsonpaddyyieldaswellasTFP.Asmentioned
earlier, under the physical construction of RPG farming, the mid paddy
fields are surrounded by canals. Recently some farmers are changing the
positionofcanalforsoilfertilityforgoodprawnproductionaswellaspaddy
production. As usual, prawn likes hard soils in water rather than clay soils
because clay soils create many unhygienic materials as well as gases. The
farmersbelievethattheseunhygienicmaterialsandgaseshinderthe growth
ofprawnorsometimescreatediseasesforprawn.Eventhoughthefarmers
clean and wash the canals ever year as routinely, the old canals are not
suitableforgoodprawnproduction.Dependingonthisbelievesomefarmers
are changing canals after years of prawn production cycle. Therefore it
hypothesisedthatthechangeinthepositionofcanalshassignificantpositive
effect on TFP of MV boro paddy production in RPG farming. i and are
regressioncoefficientsintheempiricalmodel.
2.4.2MVpaddyproductionunderYRMVfarming
Like the empirical model of TFP in RPG farming, a multiple regression
equationwasusedinordertofindoutthefactorsthataffecttheTFPofMV
boroandamanpaddyproductionunderYRMVpaddyfarming.Theempirical
model of the effect of a set of explanatory variables on the TFP of MV boro
andamanpaddyproductionunderYRMVpaddyfarmingisspecifiedusing
thefollowinglinearrelationship:
TFPi=+1X1i+2X2i+3X3i+4X4i+i

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Here TFP indicates total factor productivity index. The empirical model
includesfarmsize(X1:ha),ageofthefarmer(X2:year),educationofthehead
of the farm household (X3: year), and family size or household size (X4:
number) as explanatory variables. The explanation and definition of the
variables in this model are similar to the explanatory variables in the
empirical model for the TFP of MV boro paddy production under RPG
farming. In YRMV paddy farming in Bangladesh, the farmers weed
intensively like other countries. As a result, number of weeding excluded
fromthisempiricalmodel.AsthesamefarmerproducesMVboroandaman
paddyonceayear,thesamefactorsareconsideredfortheTFPboroandaman
paddy production in RMV paddy farming. i and are regression
coefficientsintheempiricalmodel.

3.0MVPaddyProductionSysteminBangladesh
CurrentlythreetypesofpaddyareproducinginBangladeshinthreedistinct
seasons: aus (April to August), transplanting aman (T. aman) (August to
December),andboro(JanuarytoApril).Amongthem,ausandT.amanpaddy
areproducedinrainfedwater,andMVboropaddyisproducedinirrigated
water (ground water or rivers and canals). Paddy of modern varieties was
introduced in Bangladesh for the boro and aus season in 1967 and aman
season in 1970 (Hossain et al. 1994). In 2002, only 32 per cent area was
irrigated under MV paddy production in Bangladesh (BBS 2002). Irrigation
and chemical fertilisers are not used for local aus and T. aman paddy
productionbecausethepaddyfieldsgounderwater.FarmerstransplantMV
boropaddyfrommidJanuarytomidFebruary,andharvestfrommidApril
to midMay. Farmers usually use chemical fertilisers, pesticides, and
irrigationforboropaddyproduction.Alongwithpaddycrops,farmersalso
cultivate oil seeds, potato, and vegetables in the comparatively high land
duringthewinterseason.

82

4.0CroppingPatternsofStudyVillages
ThecroppingpatternsofthestudyvillagesarepresentedinFigure2.Before
the advent of RPG farming in Bilpabla Village, the farmers cultivated only
local aus and broadcasting aus and aman paddy in swampland and
transplanting aman (T. aman) paddy in the upper lands. The familiar
broadcastingausandamanpaddyhasalmostdisappearedmainlybecauseof
mainly siltation of inland rivers and canals, embankments of rivers, and
environmental changes. Oil seed crops such as rape, mustard and sesame
were produced also in the comparatively high altitude land located in the
riverside. The life cycle of broadcasting aman was longer than the
broadcastingauspaddythoughthesowingtimewassameforthebothtypes
of paddy. The sowing time of aus and aman paddy is in April/May and
harvesting time is in August for broadcasting aus and December for
broadcasting aman. The farmer sowed aus and aman seeds together in
April/MaybecauseafterJune/Julythewholeareawasgounderwaterdueto
heavyrainandatthattimesitwasnotpossibletotransplantaman(T.Aman).
This production system of local aus and floating aman paddy together was
locallyknownasDomuti.
RPG farming has changed the cropping patterns dramatically in the study
area(Figure2).TheconstructionofRPGfarminghascreatedopportunityfor
crop diversification. Along with prawn and fish, farmers can now cultivate
MV boro paddy on the midfield, and vegetables on the dikes of the gher
mainly for home consumption. Prior to the RPG farming, farmers cultivate
oil seeds such as rape, mustard and sesame after the harvest of local
broadcastingamanpaddywheretheRPGfarmersarenotabletocultivateoil
seeds due to physical construction of RPG farming. The RPG farming has
increasedvegetablesproductioncomparedtothepast.Thefarmershavealso
plantedfruittrees(coconut,mango,guava,jackfruit,banana,papayaetc.)on
thedikes.TheproductionperiodofprawnandfishstartsfromMay/Juneto

83

December/January,MVboropaddyfromtheendofJanuarytoendofApril
andvegetablethroughouttheyear.

Figure2:CroppingPatternsoftheStudyVillages
Crops

Jan

Feb

Mar

Months
April May June July

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Bilpabla village
Before Gher Farming:
Swampland:
Broadcasting aus paddy
Broadcasting aman paddy
Rainfed upland:
Aus paddy
T. aman paddy
Rape/Mustard/Sesame
After Gher Farming:
Prawn
Fish
MV boro paddy
Vegetables
Chanchra village area (Year round MV paddy farming)
Before green revolution
Local aus paddy
T. aman paddy
After green revolution
MV aman paddy
MV boro paddy

Notes:

indicates the period up until the sowing paddy, and releasing of prawn and fish is
carried out.
indicates harvesting time starts.
T aman indicates transplanting aman paddy
Source : Field Survey, 2006

84

As mentioned earlier, farmers in Chanchra Village usually practice YRMV

paddyfarmingbecausethefarmsarelocatedinrelativelyhighaltitudelevel
that are not possible to convert into RPG farming like Bilpabla Village of
Khulna District. MV boro paddy is produced during January to April
followed by local variety T. aman paddy during July to December. The
croppingpatternsofChanchraVillagearealsopresentedinFigure2.

5.0RiskandUncertaintyofRiceprawnGherFarming
Riskanduncertaintyarepervasivecharacteristicsofagriculturalproduction
and play a significant role in the production choice, output, and its future
marketprice(Sandol1971;Ligon2003;AdesinaandOuattara2000;Hayami
and Otsuka 1993). Risks and uncertainties are always associated with rice
prawngherfarming.Themainproductofriceprawngherfarmingisprawn,
and the optimal production of prawn depends on several uncontrollable
environmental conditions or factors such as poor weather conditions
(seasonal flooding, high temperature and draught), viral diseases and
controllable factors such as feeding system, feeding types, and proper
managements.Butthenaturalriskssuchasoptimalrain,highertemperature,
floodandunknownviraldiseasearebeyondthecontroloffarmersandthese
factors especially viral diseases and higher temperature and draught (the
leasing time of prawn fingerlings) seriously affect mortality rate of
fingerlingsaswellastheyieldofprawn.
Inaddition,thefeedingtypesandsystemalsoaffecttheprawnproduction.
Usually meat of mud snail is the main feed for excellent growth of prawn.
Alongwithmudsnail,thefarmersalsousethedifferenttypesofhomemade
feeds.Asaresult,theyieldofprawnwidelyvarieswithinthegherfarming.
In general if the natural risks such as viral disease and weather conditions
are not severe and the farmers use meat of mud snails for prawn feed and
takecareproperly,thefarmersgetexcellentproductionofprawn.Theprofit
andlossarefluctuatedwidelyfromyeartoyearaswellasdifferenttypesof
gherfarmers(formoredetails,seeBarmon2004).

85

6.0ResultsandDiscussions
6.1PhysicalandChemicalPropertiesofSoils
Theclimateofthestudyareasistropicalmonsoontypewithwideseasonal
variations in rainfall, moderately warm temperatures, and high humidity.
ThesoilofRPGandYRMV(bothLebubuniaandChanchravillages)farming
were clayloam and sandyloam, respectively. In order to assess the impact
ofRPGfarmingsystemonsoilqualityofMVpaddyfields,the soilsamples
were taken from RPG (Bilpabla Village) and YRMV paddy farming
(Lebubunia Village) and examined in the laboratory (for more details, see
Barmon 2007). Soil samples of Chanchra Village were not tested due to the
lackoftimeconstraint.Themainchemicalandphysicalpropertiesofsoilsin
RPG (Bilpabla Village) and YRMV (Lebubunia Village) paddy farming are
presentedinTable1.

Table1:SomeChemicalandPhysicalPropertiesofSoilsin
BilpablaandLebubuniaVillages
Propertiesofsoil

RPGfariming
BilpablaVillage

YRMV farming
Lebubunia
Village

pH(H2 O)
EC
TotalC
TotalN
C/Nratio
Exchangeable
Cation

CEC

Ca++

(mS/m)
(g/kg)
(g/kg)

(cmolc/kg

6.6
71
6.1
6.1
13
43

6.5
159
2.0
2.0
10
25

Mg++
K+
Na+

(cmolc/kg

12
0.9
3.08
50

10
0.8
3.4
31

Note:EC:Electroconductivity
CEC:Cationexchangecapacity
Source: Adoption from author's post-doctoral research work (2008)

86

SoilpH
Soil pH and base saturation are the important chemical properties that
influencesoilnutrientavailabilityandplantgrowthandtheactivitiesofsoil
microorganisms and organic matter decomposition. On an average, the
meansoilpHinricefieldinRPGandYRMVfarmingsystemwas6.6and6.5,
respectively.
ElectricalConductivity
Electricalconductivity(EC)isanimportantsoilpropertyrelatedtosalinity,
andisoftenusedfordelineatingothersoilproperties.ThemeanvalueofEC
was low (71 sm/m) in MV paddy production under RPG farming system,
whereas, this value was more than twice (159 sm/m) in YRMV paddy
productioninLebubuniaVillage.
CationExchangeCapacity
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) refers to the amount of positively charged
ionsasoil,and itisausefulindicatorofsoilfertilitybecause itshowsability
ofsoilimportantplantnutrientssuchascalcium(Ca++),magnesium(Mg++),
potassium(K+),sodium(Na+)aluminium(Al+++),andammonium(NH4+).
In general, a soil contains more clay and organic matter (OM), which
indicates its higher CEC. The CEC of soil in RPG farming was higher
comparedtoYRMVpaddyfarming,indicatingthatthesoilinRPGfarming
system contains more clay and higher OM. In other words, the soil in RPG
farmingsystemismorefertilethanthatofthesoilofYRMVpaddyfarming.
TotalCarbon
Soilorganiccarbonisthebiggestpartofthesoilorganicmatter(SOM),andit
considers perhaps the most important indicator of soil quality and
productivity.SOMaffectssoilstructure,waterstoragecapacityandnutrient

87

supply.Onanaverage,thetotalorganiccarbon(C)inthesoilofpaddyfield
inRPGfarmingsystemwasalmost fourtimeshigherthantheYRMVpaddy
farming system, which also indicates that the soil in RPG farming system
wasmorefertilethanYRMVpaddyfarmingsystem.
TotalNitrogen(N)
Theavailabilityofoptimalnitrogenforcropproductioninfluencesthecrop
yieldsanddeficienciesreduceyields.Thenitrogencontentofsoilswasalso
higher (more than three times) in the soils of paddy fields of RPG farming
compared to YRMV paddy fields, which indicates that the soils in RPG
farming system accumulate more nitrogen that enhance the land
productivitycomparedtoYRMVpaddyfarming.
CarbonNitrogenRatio
CarbonNitrogen(C/N)ratiodependsonthetotalCandNinthesoils.The
C:NratiowascomparativelyhigherinthesoilsinRPGfarmingsystemthan
in the soils of YRMV paddy farming system. This indicates that the RPG
farming system has significant impacts on the soil fertility for MV paddy
production.

6.2InputUsageforMVPaddyProductionundertwoFarming
Chemical fertilisers, irrigation, land preparation equipments and seeds are
the main inputs of MV paddy production after the introduction of green
revolution. The main inputs used in MV paddy production under RPG and
YRMVpaddyfarmingarediscussedinthissection.
Farmersusevarioustypesofchemicalfertiliserstoenhancethesoilfertility
for maximum rice yield. Chemical fertilisers such as urea, triple super
phosphate (TSP), muriate of potash (MP), gypsum, and zinc sulfate
arecommonlyusedinYRMVpaddyproductioninBangladesh.Similarly,the

88

Table2:PerHectareInputsUse(kg)andInputCosts(Tk)inMV
PaddyProductionunderTwoFarming

Typesof
fertilisers

Typesoffarming
RPG
YRMVpaddy
farming
farming
(Bilpabla
(Chanchra
village)
Village)
Boro
Boro
Boro
Paddy
Paddy Padd
(A)
(B)
y(C)

Ratio

Ratioandtstatistics

Ratio
tstatistics

tstatistics

(B/A)

(C/A)

Urea(kg)

82.5

300.9

112.8

3.7

19.86*

1.4

4.19*

TSP(kg)

58.6

153.2

59.0

2.6

12.45*

1.0

0.08

MP(kg)

4.4

78.4

19.9

18.0

22.25*

4.6

7.97*

Gypsum(kg)

2.4

20.8

7.0

8.7

3.27*

2.9

1.96**

Fertilisers(Tk)

1,587

5,795

2.050

3.65

19.89*

1.29

3.55*

Irrigation(Tk)

1,724

5,439

207

3.15

12.35*

0.12

17.79*

Pasticides(Tk)

1,615

2,040

1,575

1.26

1.91***

0.98

0.18

Land
preparation
cost(Tk)

1,204

2,204

2,069

1.89

19.08*

1.72

15.65*

Notes:(1)SamplesizeswereRPGandYRMVpaddyfarmingfor90and100,respectively.
(2)TSPandMPindicateTriplesuperphosphateandMuriateofpotash,respectively.
(3)*and**indicatestatisticallysignificantat1%and5%level,respectively.
Source:FieldSurvey2007

RPG farmers mainly apply urea, TSP,MP,and gypsum for MV boro paddy
production. Usually the farmers do not use any chemical fertilisers except
homestead manure and cow dung for local aus and T. aman paddy
production. However, the farmers apply chemical fertilisers for MV aman
paddyproduction.Applicationofchemicalfertilisersforper hectarepaddy
productionundertwofarmingispresentedinTable2.Thetableshows,on
an average, more chemical fertiliser used in per ha MV production under
YRMVfarminginChanchraVillagecomparedtoMVboropaddyproduction
under RPG farming in Bilpabla Village. All the values of the tstatistics

89

between MV boro production under RPG farming and MV aman paddy

production under YRMV paddy production are statistically significant at 1
per cent level. The amount of fertilisers used in per ha aman paddy
production were also higher than MV boro paddy production under RPG
farming,andthesewerealsostatisticallysignificantexceptTSP.

6.3InputCostofMVPaddyProductionbetweenTwoFarming
As comparatively higher inputs used in per ha MV paddy production in
YRMVpaddyfarming than RPGfarming,onanaverage,perhainputcosts
were also higher for YRMV paddy farming. Average costs of chemical
fertilisers, irrigation and pesticides for per ha MV boro paddy production
under RPG farming in Bilpabla Village and YRMV paddy production in
Chanchra Village, their ratios and tstatistics are also presented in Table 2.
Thetableshowsthatonanaverage,perhachemicalfertilisers,irrigationand
pesticides costs were higher in YRMV paddy farming in Chanchra Village
comparedtoMV boropaddyproductionunderRPGinBilpablaVillage.Per
ha cost of chemical fertilisers for MV boro paddy production under YRMV
paddy farming was around three times higher than MV boro paddy
production under RPG farming. Similarly, per ha irrigation and pesticides
costs were higher for MV boro paddy production in YRMV paddy farming
than RPG farming. Table 2 also shows that within the YRMV paddy
production,perhacostsofchemicalfertilisers,irrigationandpesticideswere
higherforMVboropaddyproductioncomparedtoitscounterpartsMVaman
paddy production. The main reason is that the MV aman is rainfed crop in
Bangladesh, and all the paddy field goes under water during the growth
periodofthecrop.Thevalueoftstatisticsindicatedthatalltheinputcosts
were significantly different (1% level of significance) with each other
betweenthetwofarming.

90

Table3: Per Hectare Labour Used in MV Paddy Production under

TwoFarming

Fypesoffarming

Hiredlabour:
Male(manday)
Female(manday)
Familylabour:
Male(manday)
Female(manday)

RPGfaring
(Bilpabla
Village)
MVboropaddy

45
9

39
16

YRMVpaddyfarming
(ChanchraVillage)
MVboro
paddy

106
18

12
5

MVaman
paddy

80
16

13
5

tstatistics

T1

T2

24.36*
5.47*

7.75*
5.90*

14.43*
4.18*

7.38*
6.41*

Notes:(1) Onemandayisequalto8hoursperday.

(2) T1indicatesthetstatisticforpaddyproductionbetweentwofarming.

(3) T2indicatesthetstatisticforboroandamanpaddyproductionbetweentwo
farming.

(4)*indicatesstatisticallysignificantat1%level.
Source:FieldSurvey2007

6.4LabourInputusedinMVPaddyProductionunderTwoFarming
As mentioned earlier that RPG and YRMV paddy farming are completely
different from the consideration of management and production process.
Therefore, per unit labour use is also different in two types of farming.
Barmonetal.[3]conductedaresearchonlabourdemandbetweenRPGand
YRMV boro and local aman paddy farming in the neighbouring two study
villages.Inthissection,onlythecomparisonoflabourusesinperhaMVboro
paddyproductionwasmade.Perhalabouruseandtstatisticsareshownin
Table 3. The table shows that more hired male and female labours
(statistically significant at 1% level) were used in per ha MV boroandaman
paddy under YRMV paddy farming compared with MV boro paddy
production under RPG farming. However, more family male labours were
usedinMVboropaddyproductionunderRPGfarmingcomparedtoYRMV
paddyfarming(statisticallysignificantat1%level).

6.5LandProductivitybetweenTwoFarming
Land productivity mainly depends on irrigation facility, application of
chemical fertilisers, varieties of seed and production environments. When

91

MVpaddyisproducedunderdifferentfarming,thenproductiontechnique
plays a significant role on land productivity. The farmers produced same
variety of MV boro paddy under RPG and YRMV paddy farming, although
production technique as well as cropping patterns was different. As per ha
yield is the main indicator of land productivity, per ha yield paddy grain
was used as land productivity. Per ha yield of MV boro and aman paddy
undertwofarmingarepresentedinTable4whichshowsthatperhayieldof
MVboropaddy grainwashigher(statisticallysignificantat 1%level)under
RPG farming than YRMV paddy farming. Per ha yield of MV boro paddy
grain was also higher (statistically significant at 1% level) than that of MV
amanpaddy grain within the same YRMV paddy farming. In other words,
land productivity was higher in MV boro paddy production under RPG
farming in comparison with MV boro and aman paddy production under
YRMVpaddyfarming.

Table4:PerHectareGrainYieldofMVPaddyunderTwoFarming
Particulars

Boropaddygrain
yield(kg)
Amanpaddygrain
yield(kg)

Typesoffarming
YRMVpaddyfarming
RPGfarming
(ChanchraVillage)
(Bilpabla
Village)
5,237
4,791
Na

4,029

Ratio tstatistics

1.09

9.37*

Na

Na

Note:(1)*indicatestatisticallysignificantat1%level.
Source:FieldSurvey2007

7.0 InputsandOutputsIndexforTotalFactorProductivity
Measurement
Calculating total factor productivity (TFP) requires inputs included in the
input index that are cultivated land, irrigation, pesticides, human labour,
landpreparation,seedlingandchemicalfertiliser.Paddygrainwasthemain
outputofpaddyfarming.Inputsandoutputwereaggregatedusingexisting
market prices. The quantities and prices of inputs and outputs used in MV
paddy production under RPG and YRMV paddy farming are presented in
Table5.

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Table5:Description,MeasurementandSummaryStatisticsofthe
Variables(perfarmbasis)
Variables

Farmersage
Farmerseducation
Familysize
Workablemale
Workablefemale
Farmlandarea
Seedlingcost
Landpreparationcost
Irrigationcost
Pesticidescost
Chemicalfertilisers
Urea
Price(Urea)
TSP
Price(TSP)
MP
Price(MP)
Gypsum
Price(gypsum)
Hiredlabour
Malelabour
Wagerate
Femalelabour
Wagerate
Familylabour
Malelabour
Wagerate
Femalelabour
Wagerate
Output
Paddygrain
Price

Measure
Boro(gher
ment
farming)

Mean
SD
year
41.2
14.1
year
6.3
3.7
No.
4.4
1.2
No.
1.4
0.7
No.
1.0
0.2
ha
0.51
0.43
taka
847.6 753.5
taka
677.6 863.3
taka
1051.0 1233.0
taka
918.0 1379.0

kg
40.4
41.8
taka/kg
7.0
0.0
kg
31.4
43.1
taka/kg
16.0
0.0
kg
4.3
15.9
taka/kg
2.0
5.1
kg
1.5
6.9
taka/kg
0.3
0.9

mandays 24.9
28.5
takaday 120.0
0.0
mandays
5.4
7.5
takaday
90.0
0.0

mandays 12.3
4.9
takaday
92.7
8.2
mandays
4.9
3.2
takaday
65.7
7.1

kg
2,685 2,383
kg/taka
10.5
0.9

Note:(1)1US$isequalto69.78taka(May2007).

93

Boro(Year
round)
Mean SD
46.0
9.4
4.8
4.7
4.3
1.0
1.2
0.4
1.0
0.1
0.63 0.53
897.2 763.7
1392.0 1205.0
3344.0 3221.0
1375.0 1295.0

188.6 162.3
7.0
0.0
94.5 78.9
16.0
0.0
48.0 39.9
15.0
0.0
10.5 33.3
0.5
1.1

66.1 55.3
90.0
0.0
10.0
8.6
60.0
0.0

5.1
2.1
73.6
6.6
1.9
1.1
48.3
6.3

3,051 2,599
12.1
0.4

Aman(Year
round)
Mean SD
46.0
9.4
4.8
4.7
4.3
1.0
1.2
0.4
1.0
0.1
0.63
0.53
685.9 630.7
1321.0 1179.0
116.0 194.7
1033.7 946.2

69.0
61.6
7.0
0.0
34.7
28.7
16.0
0.0
11.6
10.4
15.0
0.0
2.4
6.4
0.4
1.0

51.6
43.6
90.0
0.0
9.3
8.5
70.0
0.0

5.8
2.3
77.3
5.6
1.7
0.8
49.2
7.2

2,534 2,080
11.0
0.6

7.1AnalysisofTFPforPaddyProduction
TheanalysisofTFPforMVboroandamanpaddyproductionunderRPGand
YRMV paddy farming is presented in Table 6. The table shows that on an
average,themeanTFPforMVboro paddywas 0.88, widely varies from0.33
to 1.71 and 0.73 ranges from 0.19 to 1.22, respectively, for RPG and YRMV
paddy farming. The mean TFP for MV aman paddy was 0.78 that lies from
0.32 to 1.23 under YRMV paddy farming. On an average, the TFP for MV
boro paddy production under RPG farming was higher than that of YRMV
paddyfarming. Thevaluesofcoefficient of variation(CV)indicatedthatthe
TFPofMVpaddyproductionwidelyvariedwithinthefarmsbetween RPG
and YRMV paddy farming. The main reasons were that prawn is the main
product for RPG farming which is produced for export to earn foreign
currency, and MV boro paddy produce for own family consumption
throughout the year. Moreover, MV boro paddy is not profitable enterprise
likeprawn.Asaresult,farmersinRPGfarmingarenotengagedseriouslyin
paddy production like prawn production. Similar experiences were also
found in YRMV paddy farming village. As paddy is not profitable
enterprises,thefarmersinYRMVpaddyfarmingvillagehave beenengaged
in other farm activities like fish culture throughout the year and produce
paddy only for family home consumption. Some rich farmers in terms of
largefarmsizemaintainthepaddyenterprisewithhiredlabours.Asaresult,
theTFPwaspositivelyrelatedwithfarmsize.

Table6:DescriptiveStatisticsofTotalFactorProductivity
Paddyproduction

MeanTFP

SD

Min

Max

CV

Boro(RPGfarming)

0.880

0.334

0.315

1.711

0.380

Boro(YRMVpaddyfarming)

0.730

0.185

0.344

1.215

0.254

Aman(YRMVpaddyfarming)

0.776

0.222

0.320

1.233

0.286

Note:SDandCVindicatestandarddeviationandcoefficientofvariation,respectively.

94

7.2FactorAffectingTFP
The coefficients of factors that affect the TFP of MV boro paddy production
underRPGfarming,MVboroandamanpaddyproductioninYRMVpaddy
farmingarepresentedinTable7.
Thecoefficientsoffarmarea,ploughinganddummyvariableforchangein
canal are positive and statistically significant at 1 per cent level. This
indicatesthatfarmland,ploughingandchangeincanalwerethemainfactors
that affect significantly the TFP for MV boro paddy production under RPG
farming. However, the coefficients of other factors were not statistically
significant,butmadepositivesignthatindicatesthatfarmersage,education,
family size and number of weeding do not have significant contribution
ofTFP.
Thecoefficientofploughing(0.080)ispositiveandstatisticallysignificantat
1percentlevelwhichindicatesthattheploughinghassignificantimpacton
TFP for MV boro paddy production under RPG farming. Although, the
paddy fields of YRMV paddy farming are ploughed 23 times using
powertiller or bullock or tractor before transplanting, the paddy fields of
RPG farming are not ploughed frequently before paddy transplanting. The
mainreasonsarethatafterprawnharvestingthepaddyfields(midfieldof
RPGfarming)isnotdryenoughforploughingorsometimesthepaddyfield
retainssmallamountofwaterwhichisalsosuitableforplantation.Moreover,
soils of the midfields become clay for transplanting because during prawn
harvesting these soils are wellmixed. Recently, a large number of paddy
fieldsarecultivatedbeforetransplanting,because,someaquatichabitatsand
various varieties of algae are grown on the bottom of gher farms during
prawnproductionandtheseaquatichabitatsandalgae gounderclaybythe
harvestingmechanismofprawn.Theseaquatichabitatsandalgaearerotten
smoothlyduetoploughingbeforetransplantingandmakethelandfertilefor
MV paddy production. Therefore, if the farmers plough the paddy field
beforetransplanting,theTFPforMVboropaddywillincreasesignificantlyin
RPGfarming.

95

Table7:EstimatesofRegressionofTFP
Variable

Boropaddy(RPG)

Boropaddy
(YRMV)

Amanpaddy
(YRMV)

0.31

0.50

0.45

Farmarea(ha)

0.57445
(11.82)*

0.264
(10.61)*

0.314
(10.94)*

Age(year)

0.0018
(1.28)

0.0007
(0.48)

0.0005
(0.32)

Education(year)

0.001572
(0.29)

0.0042
(1.52)

0.0017
(0.53)

Familysize(no.)

0.00536
(0.34)

0.012
(0.85)

0.026
(1.59)

Weeding(no.)

0.03645
(1.40)

Ploughing(no.)

0.08073
(1.82)*

Changecanal

0.12466
(2.90)*

0.77

0.57

0.60

Constant

R2

Notes: (1)Thefiguresinparenthesesindicatetvalue.

(2)*indicatessignificantat1%level.

The coefficient of dummy variable (0.125) is positive and statistically

significant at 1 per cent percent level, indicating that if the RPG farmer
changes the canals after few years, the TFP for MV boro paddy production
willsignificantlyincrease.Thereasonisthatthechangesincanalsmakethe
soilsupsidedownsmoothly.Inotherwords,thetopsyturvyofsoilsowing
tocanalschangehassignificantimpactsonlandproductivitythatinfluence
the MV boro paddy production under RPG farming. At the early stage, the
midpaddyfieldofgherfarmingissurroundedbycanals.Now,thefarmers
arechangingthepositionofcanalsinmidpaddyfieldasthechangesincanal
position move the soils from one place to another in the paddy field. This
movement and topsyturvy of soils also make the land fertile that
has significant influence on TFP for MV boro paddy production under
RPGfarming.

96

The coefficients of the farmers age and education, family size are not
statistically significant except farmland area for MV boro and aman paddy
productionunderYRMVpaddyfarming.

Figure3:RelationshipbetweenLabourUse(manday/ha)andFarm
Size(ha)ofMVBoroPaddyProductionunderRPGFarming
350
Labour (man-day/ha)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Farm size (ha)

The coefficients of farmland area are statistically significant of TFP for MV

boroin RPGfarming.Thisindicatesthatthesizeoffarmlandhassignificant
impact on TFP for RPG farming. The comparatively large farm size has
significant impacts on TFP. The main reason was that the farmers of large
farmlandhaveusedcomparativelylesslabour(manday/ha)forMVpaddy
production under RPG farming (Figure 3) because the farmers in RPG
produce prawn for export and cultivate MV boro paddy for own family
consumption.Theyarealwayscarefulforprawnproduction.Itwasobserved
from field survey that the farmers who hold comparatively large farmland
use more hired labour than family labours. The farmers of small farmland
usually use more family labour than hired labour. As the farmers in large
farmland use comparatively less labour (manday/ha), the TFP index was
positively correlated with farm size. In other words, the TFP of MV boro
paddyproductionwashigherforcomparativelyhigherforlargefarmsizes.

97

Figure4: RelationshipbwteenTFPIndexofMVPaddyProduction
andArea(ha)betweenTwoFarming
TFP boro -RPG farming

TFP boro -YRMV farming

TFP aman-YRMV farming

1 . 80
1 . 60
1 . 40

TFP index

1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0 . 40
0 . 20
0.00

A
0 . 00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3 . 50

Area (ha)

Ontheotherhands,thefarmsizehasalsostatisticallysignificantimpactson
TFP index both for MV boro and aman paddy production under YRMV
paddy farming. Even though the farm size has significant impact on TFP
index, the farmers in large farmland under YRMV paddy farming did not
use comparatively less labour (manday/ha) like the large farm of RPG
farming. However, some TFP indexes were found with positive correlation
withfarmsize.TherelationshipofTFPforpaddyproductionandfarmsizes
underRPGandYRMVpaddyfarmingaredelineatedinFigure4.Thefigures
showthatthelandproductivityispositivelyrelatedwithfarmsizearea.
Therefore, it may be concluded from the above analysis that agricultural
farmlandsizeplaysanimportantroleforTFPbothRPGandYRMVpaddy
farming in the study villages. Moreover, ploughing and changes in canal

98

positionalsohavesignificantimpactsonTFPforMVboropaddyproduction
underRPGfarming.

8.0Conclusion
RPG farming system is an indigenous agricultural technology solely
developed by the farmers since mid1980s. The cropping pattern has
changedfromYRMVpaddyfarmingtoRPGfarmingaftertheintroduction
ofgherfarming.TheRPGfarminghassignificantimpactonsoilqualityon
MVpaddyproductionthanYRMVfarming.TheRPGfarminghassignificant
impactsonlandproductivityforMVpaddyproductionthanYRMVpaddy
farming. The findings of the study indicate that more chemical fertilisers
suchasurea(72%),TSP(61%)MP(94%)andgypsum(88%)usedinperha
MV boro paddy production under YRMV paddy farming compared with
RPG farming. Similarly, per ha irrigation (61%), pesticides (26%) and land
preparation(17%)costwerealsohigherinMVboropaddyproductionunder
YRMV paddy farming compared with RPG farming. Along with main
inputs,morehiredmalelabourswerealsoengagedinperhaMVboropaddy
productionunderYRMVpaddyfarmingcomparedwithRPGfarming.
The total factor productivity for paddy production was higher in RPG
farming compared with YRMV paddy farming. The TFP varied widely
withinthefarmsbetweenthetwofarming.
Therefore, it could be concluded that RPG farming has increased the land
productivity for MV paddy production and reduced input usage as wellas
costs for per ha MV boro paddy production compared with YRMV paddy
productioninBangladesh.

99

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102

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

MaritalCharacteristicsofHouseholdsin
EcotourismCentres:TheCaseofRuralTourism
DevelopmentinPlateauState,Nigeria
H.M.Ijeomah*andA.A.Alarape**

Abstract
Inadequateinformationonmaritalcultureofcommunitiesadjoiningecotourism
destinationshasledtoworrisomesexualexploitationandindirectintroduction
of sex tours in many communities. The study surveyed the marital culture of
communities near ecotourism centres in Plateau State with the view of
predicting its implication on ecotourism development. The study consisted of
410 sampled households distributed over ten communities in five functional
tourism centres. Respondents indicated that female household members in
Aningo (83.34%), Naraguta (70.0%) and Pandam (62.22%) communities
mostlymarrywhentheyarebetween15and18yearsold.Manyrespondentsin
Naraguta community (57.50%) expect male household members to marry as
earlyasfrom19to22yearsunlikeinDong,GwutandKabonwhereexpected
ageofmarriageformostmalesrangesbetween23to29yearsasinfluencedby
theirclosenesstoJosCity.Mostmalesareinconstantsearchforhardworking
uneducated wives to sustain their farms while females continuously search for
better economic condition. This results in high rate of polygamy, divorce and
poverty.Testsofrelationshipbetweenmaritalcultureandrateofdivorce;female
economic status and rate of divorce; and marital culture and educational
attainment among women using Chi square were all significant (P<0.05).
HouseholdsfromcommunitiesborderingPandamWildlifeParkarelikelytobe
vulnerable to sexual exploitation during tourism boom; unless the educational
levelofthewomenisgenerallyimproved.

1.0Introduction
Tourism is an instrument of socioeconomic empowerment, yet a tool for
cultural destruction and acculturisation of contra culture. Tourism is
sometimesathreattoculturalnorms,especiallywhencultureitselfistreated
*

Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Port Harcourt,

P.M.B.5323PortHarcourt,Nigeria.

**

DepartmentofWildlifeandFisheriesManagement,UniversityofIbadan,OyoState,
Nigeria.

103

as a commodity. In Vietnam, the love market of Sa Pa is one of the major

tourist attractions. The market is the social event of the week for theethnic
minorities, where they sell, buy, socialise, meet friends and look over
potential partners during an evening of song. The local community now
plays music only for a fee and the original style and function of the love
market have disappeared after only five years tourism was introduced
(Koeman1998).
Tourism could negatively impact many cultures depending on type of
culture, management of tourism impacts, and the response of the local
people.Thereareculturalchangesthatcouldbetoleratedbycommunitiesas
part of the general changes that take place as communities adapt to new
economic realities, similar to those taking place as societies shift to more
intense agriculture and animal husbandry (Shah and Gupta 2000).
Introductionofelectricityinsomeruralcommunitieswasinitiallyrejectedby
the people just because their gods liked operating in the dark. Later
acceptance of the technology rendered the gods powerless. Recently many
sacredforestshavebeendestroyedinthecourseofroadconstruction,tothe
extentthateventhechiefpriestoftheUrashideityclearedtheAkpamsacred
forestinDikenafaiforfarming(Ijeomahetal.2007).
However, issues of marriage and sexual intercourse are not treated with
levity in many parts of Africa. For instance, illegal sexual intercourse by a
marriedwomaninNsukka,Nigeriaisataboothatrequirespublicconfession
andpublicspiritualcleansingtoappeasethegodsbeforetheculpritreturns
to the husbands house. If otherwise, the woman is struck with perpetual
madness by the gods. Some mad married women in Nsukka presently are
victims of this ageold tradition which its origin has been forgotten by the
presentgeneration.Sexisthereforeseenasathingthatshouldbehonoured
by the people and not commoditised. With exception of Benin in Nigeria;
where flirtation has been forced into their culture; the Tivs, where many
married women constantly enjoy having sex with unmarried younger men;
and Calabar in Cross River State, whose women are particularly hospitable
to men, commercialisation of sex especially among married women, is
againstthemaritalcultureofmostcommunitiesinNigeria.
Sometimesthescaleandimpactoftourismissopowerfulthatsectionsofthe
host communities begin to succumb to negative cultural influences (Shah
and Gupta, 2000). A subculture dominated by unrestrained pursuit of

104

money,drugandsexwillbedeveloped(McCarthy1994).InSauraha,Nepal
and the tourist triangle of Bali, Indonesia, there are descriptions of how
young men from host countries have been lured by the sexual mores of
visiting western tourists. Though this seems to be limited to a fringe of the
society, but it forms a highly visible part of tourism industry in Nepal
(Towell et al. 1991; McCarthy 1994). Incidences of prostitution have been
reportedinmanytouristsareas,withtourismprovidingareadymarketfor
prostitutes.InPangandaran,prostitutesfromneighbouringregionsjoinlocal
prostitutes during peak of tourists season (Wikinson and Pratiwi 1995). It
was also documented by Nicholson (1997) that a large number of women
andevenchildrenmovetothecityforthesexindustryorarepushedintoit
voluntarily. Sexual exploitation of the underaged was so pronounced that
Nicholson (1997) proposed the integration of sex tourism into the
mainstream tourism market (with registered and legally protected
prostitutes) may be a greater concern than the operation of specific sex
tours, but some tour operators considered it unnecessary as sex is readily
available,andboysandgirlsasyoungas13yearswereexploitedbygeneral
prostituteusers.
Nonetheless, some communities are able to resist the pressures for cultural
change. Cultural identity of the Tenggerese in Indonesia remains strong
despitethehightouristflowthroughtheircommunities(bothdomesticand
foreign)(Cochrane1997).AlsotheculturalidentityofBaliandMarinduque
arenotseverelyweakenedbythetouristindustry(MaurerandZiegler1988;
Nicholson1997).Theresilienceofthepeopletowithstandthesubcultureof
prostitution could be seriously affected by their socioeconomic
characteristics but more dependent on the prevailing marital characteristics
and subculture of households. The study therefore surveys the marital
characteristics of households adjoining ecotourism destinations in Plateau
Stateanditsimplicationonruraltourismdevelopment.

2.0MaterialsandMethods
2.1StudyArea
PlateauStateislocatedinthemiddlebeltregionofNigeria andliesbetween
latitude 8o301 and 10o301 North, longitude 8o301 and 100 451 East of the
equatorwithalandmasscovering53,585squarekilometres.Fiveecotourism
centres were selected for the study based on their closeness to rural

105

communities. They are: Assopfalls, Naraguta Tourist Village, Rayfield

Resort,PandamandJosWildlifeParksandlocatedasshowninFigure1.Ten
communitiesborderingtheseecotourismdestinationswereselectedbasedon
ownership and impact on tourism site. Listing of households was done in
Sop, Namu, Pandam, Kayarda, Kwang, Kabon, Dong, Aningo, Gwut and
Naraguta communities, and ten per cent of households in each selected
community were sampled as it was done by Omonona (2002). In all, 410
householdsweresampled.

2.2DataCollection
Data for the study were collected through structured questionnaire
administeredtohouseholdheads,andaugmentedwithfieldobservationand
interviews conducted with people knowledgeable about the communities.
ResultsobtainedwereanalysedusingdescriptivestatisticsandChisquare.
Figure1:MapofPlateauStateShowingSomeEcotourismDestinations

106

3.0ResultsandDiscussion
3.1MaritalCultureofRespondents
Table1showsthatrespondentsinAningo(83.34%),Naraguta(70.00%)and
Pandam(62.22%)mostlymarrybetween1518years,whichisrelativelyearly
whencomparedwithwhatobtainsamongtheIbosandYorubasofNigeria.
It was indicated by some respondents (27.50%) that girls are culturally
expected to marry below the age of 15 years in Naraguta Tourist Village.
Naraguta, as a Hausa community, culturally supports early marriage.
Surprisingly,malesareexpectedtomarrybetweentheageof1518yearsin
Naraguta (12.50%) (Table 1). However, most respondents in Naraguta
(57.50%)expect males thatare household members to marrybetween1922
years, which is still early. This shows that many household members in
NaragutaandcommunitiesinruralareassuchasPandam,Namu,Kayarda
andAningomarryunderage.
Respondentsfromcommunitiesthatareclosetocitiesarebetteroff,though
stillearly,asmostmalesareexpectedtomarrybetweentheagerangeof23
29 years in Gwut (72.50%; 22.50%), Kabon (56.36%; 38.10%) and Dong
(32.00%; 20.00%). This shows that they have been partly influenced by city
lifestyle. The culture of most communities in Plateau State supports early
marriage and early child bearing, especially in rural areas which is also
where ecotourism sites are mostly located. Once boys and girls get to
puberty (whether employed or unemployed), they start bearing children.
The females always give birth through assisted delivery (Ceasera section)
due to their tender age. A youth corp member, who served with the
government secondary school, Namu reported in Ijeomah (2007) of an
incidence where a fifteenyear old girl was assisted to give birth. These
underaged girls can even give birth for their parents to take care of the
children,similartowhatpartlyobtainsamongtheYorubaspeakingareaof
Nigeria.Mostoftheyoungmenareunwillingtosustainhouseholdsandcan
hardlysustainanyastheydomainlymenialjobs(likeridingofmotorbike)
without expectation of better jobs in the city. This leads to high rate of
promiscuityandabortioninNamu,Pandam,KayardaandAningo.Jackson
(1986) gave a similar report that Hausa girls by ten years of age would be
flirtingandatelevenorthirteengetmarried.

107

Table1:MaritalStatusofHouseholdRespondentsinSelectedCommunities
Marital
statistics
Married
Single
Widow
Divorce

Pandam
(n=45)
42(93.53)
2(4.44)
0(0.00)
1(2.23)

Aningo
(n=30)
28(93.34)
1(3.33)
1(3.33
0(0.00)

Below15
1518
1922
2326
2729
30and
above

0(0.00)
28(62.22)
10(22.22)
5(11.11)
2(4.45)
0(0.00)

1(3.33)
25(83.34)
4(13.33)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)

Communities
Kayarda
Namu
Kabon
Dong
Sop
(n=20)
(n=70)
(n=55)
(n=50)
(n=37)
54(98.18) 50(100.00) 37(100.00)
66(94.29)
20(100.00)
0(0.00)
1(1.82)
3(4.29)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
1(1.42)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
Expectedageofmarriageforfemalesinhouseholds(years)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
8(21.62)
11(22.00)
13(65.00)
1(1.82)
22(31.43)
21(56.76)
13(26.00)
6(30.00)
2(3.64)
31(44.28)
7(18.92)
16(32.00)
1(5.00)
31(56.36)
14(20.00)
1(2.70)
10(20.00)
0(0.00)
21(38.18)
3(4.29)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)

Below15
1518
1922
2326
2729
30and
bove

0(0.00)
0(0.00)
22(48.90)
21(46.66)
2(4.44)
0(0.00)

0(0.00)
1(3.33)
27(90.00)
2(6.67)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)

33(73.33)

21(70.00)

11(55.00)

Gwut
(n=40)
38(95.00)
1(2.50)
1(2.50)
0(0.00)

Kwang
(n=23)
23(100.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)

Naraguta
(n=40)
39(97.50)
1(2.50)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)

0(0.00)
0(0.00)
2(5.00)
29(72.50)
9(22.50)
0(0.00)

0(0.00)
3(13.04)
12(52.17)
7(30.44)
1(4.35
0(0.00)

11(27.50)
28(70.00)
1(2.50)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)

Expectedageofmarriageformalesinhouseholds(years)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
7(18.90)
2(4.00)
4(20.00)
7(12.73)
9(12.86)
22(59.46)
27(54.00)
13(65.00)
12(21.82)
31(44.28)
5(13.51)
18(36.00)
3(15.00)
34(61.82)
21(30.00)
3(8.11)
3(6.00)
2(3.63)
9(12.86)
0(0.00)

0(0.00)
0(0.00)
1(12.50)
26(65.00)
11(27.50)
2(5.00)

0(0.00)
0(0.00)
0(0.00)
4(17.39)
7(30.44)
12(52.17)

0(0.00)
5(12.50)
23(57.50)
9(22.50)
3(7.50)
0(0.00)

Respondentsfrompolygamousfamilies
27(67.14)
13(23.64)
0(18.00)

4(10.00)

7(30.43)

22(52.50

Note:nNumberofhouseholdincommunities.
Numbersinparenthesesarepercentagevalues.

108

6(16.22)

Table2: AssessmentofCommunalRateofDivorcebySelected
MembersofCommunities
Variables

Communities
Aningo Kayarda Pandam Namu

Kabon

Dong

Sop

Gwut

Kwang

Naraguta

(n=30)

(n=55)

(n=50)

(n=37)

(n=40)

(n=23)

(n=40)

(n=20)

(n=45)

(n=70)

High

28(93.33) 16(80.00) 31(68.88) 59(84.29) 16(29.09) 9(18.00) 21(56.76) 8(20.00) 3(13.04)

27(67.50)

Low

0(0.00)

10(25.00)

1(5.00)

0(0.00)

2(2.86) 7(12.73) 13(26.00) 10(27.03) 14(35.00) 16(69.56)

Moderate 2(6.67)

3(15.00) 11(24.44) 9(12.85) 28(50.91) 21(42.00) 5(5.40)

Noreply 0(0.00)

0(0.00)

3(16.68) 0(0.00) 4(7.27)

7(14.00) 4(10.81)

17(42.50) 2(8.70)
1(2.50) 2(8.70)

1(2.50)
11(27.50)

Note:nNumberofhouseholdincommunities.
Numbersinparenthesesarepercentagevalues

The high rate of poverty, caused by unemployment, early and unplanned

child bearing, and polygamy culminate in high rate of divorce (Table 2) as
womenareconstantlylookingforbetterlivingconditions.
Tables3and4revealedthatChisquaretestsofrelationshipbetweenmarital
cultureandrateofdivorce,andfemaleeconomicstatus andrateofdivorce
(P<0.05)wererespectivelysignificant(X2=231.580;820.00).Inasimilarstudy
inPeru,GlewweandHall(1998)emphasisedthattherewasnoadvantageof
onesparentbeingaliveasboththosewith andwithoutparents werehighly
vulnerabletopovertyandsexualexploitationduetonotraining.
Table3: ChisquareTestofRelationshipbetweenMaritalCultureand
RateofDivorce
Maritalculture

Polygamy
Monogamy

Rateofdivorce
Low
High
182
5
0
10
193
8

Earlymarriage
Note:Significantrelationshipexists(P<0.05):X2=231.580

109

Total
Undecided
1
9
2

188
19
203

Table4: ChisquareTestofRelationshipbetweenFemaleEconomic
StatusandRateofDivorce
Femaleeconomicstatus
Loweconomicstatus
Mediumecon.status
Higheconomicstatus

High
278
3
0

Rateofdivorce
Low
Undecided
2
30
23
29
24
21

Total
310
55
45

Note:Significantrelationshipexists(P<0.05):X2=820.00

3.2DivorceandDefenceofTerritoriesbyHeadofHouseholds
Thehighrateofpolygamy anddivorceasshowninTable 2isworsened by
theagrariannatureofthesecommunities.MeninNamuandPandammarry
between 3 and 4 wives (Table 1) as labourers, who work to expand their
farms and sustain their households while these men work for selves, and
moveaboutdrinkinginbeerparlours.ThisagreeswithOgwu(1992)thatin
some parts of Africa girls are used as farm labourers. Similarly, Boserup
(1970) noted in East Africa, in a female farming communities, a man with
morethanonewifecancultivatemorelandthanamanwithonewife.
Itthereforebecomesathingofprideandgreatnessforafarmertohavemany
wives including the ones snatched from other men. It is also a normal
occurrenceinthesecommunitiesparticularlyPandam,Kayarda,Aningoand
Namu that a wealthy farmer with many wives could become jealous of
anothermanswifebecauseofhowhardthewifeworksinthefarm.Withthe
feeling that the wife does not befit the poor farmer the wealthy farmer
continuously sends people to entice the woman with gifts, which will
eventually lead to initiation of divorce by the women. This is one of the
major causes of divorce in these communities as there were no communal
lawsregulatingtherateofdivorce.Afterthedivorce,therichfarmermarries
the divorcee to be farming for him. The Hausas in Angwa Hausawa are
religiouslyexpectedtomarrymaximumoffourwivesasMuslims.Theyalso
observe a cultural marriage function called Sadaka, which entails teenage
girls (from the age of 12 years) being forcefully and freely given out to
unknown visitors for marriage. Republic of Gambia (2000) reported similar
case, that use of child labour is widespread in Gambia, especially among
extremely poor households, with a higher proportion of girls than boys
engagedinsomeformofeconomicactivity.

110

FightingoverhardworkingwivesisamajorwayfarmersinPandam,Namu,
Kayarda andAningodisplaytheirwealthandstrengthinsteadofusingitto
train their children. The poor farmer on acquiring much wealth tries to
snatch other poorer farmers wives to placate himself. Through this means
most men get involved into occult for competition of hardworking
(uneducated) wives who can farm for them while they enjoy leisure,
particularlydrinking oflocalgins(Burukutu)inbarsandbeerparlours.This
supportstheassertionofPatelandAnthonio(1973)thattheeconomicroleof
additionalwifeenablesthehusbandtoenjoymoreleisure,sinceitisnormal
in African traditional marriage for women to support themselves and their
children,cookfortheirhusbandandoftenusefoodtheyproduced.
Similar case of high rate of divorce initiated by women exists among the
KalabarisandIkwerresofRiversandBayelsaStates.However,theirdivorce
is not only caused by economic problems. A Kalabari woman may become
tired of her marriage and just initiate divorce. And divorcees can easily
remarry in their own community as divorce is not seen as a kind of social
stigma (unlike in Ibo communities). Besides, thechildren born through this
means (or outside wedlock in Kalabari and Ikwerre communities) still get
their full inheritance from the parents. Among the Ikwerres, a woman can
get to puberty and start bearing children without being married. This is
justified with a common saying Nwere karima nda aluru meaning if a
womanistoobeautiful,thefathermarriesher.
Theabilitytofarmistheyardstickforthebridepricetobepaidonawoman
(because of womens low economic status in the study area) unlike in Imo
Statewhereeducationalattainmentandproductivityinbusinessdetermines
brideprice.Consequently,femalesabstainfromschoolsandareunwillingto
become educated in order to attract high bride price which accords respect
andregard.Table5revealsthatatestofrelationshipbetweenmaritalculture
andeducationalattainmentamongwomeninthestudysitewassignificant
(P<0.05; X== 383.642). This agrees with Ijeomah (2007) that the bride price
paid on a woman is inversely proportional to the level of educational
attainmentinQuaanPanLocalGovernmentAreaofPlateauState.

111

Table5: ChisquareTestofRelationshipbetweenMaritalCultureand
EducationalAttainment
Maritalculture
Polygamy
Monogamy

High
2
30
0

Educationalattainment
Low
Undecided
112
2
0
39
225
0

Total
116
69
225

Earlymarriage
Note:Significantrelationshipexists(P<0.05):X2=383.642

3.3ImplicationofMaritalCultureonSustainableTourismDevelopment
The culturally supported early marriage and early child bearing among
unemployed and nonformally educated teenagers, and the consequential
traditional search for better economic condition by females make the entire
community highly vulnerable to sexually transmitted diseases if boom in
tourism is experienced. Awareness creation by the Plateau State Tourism
CorporationwillleadtoboomintourismdevelopmentinPandamWildlife
Park (PWLP). And a tourismdriven economy will create employment
opportunities and promote sales of local produce which will empower the
local people. One of the major ways tourism could benefit households in
Quaanpan Local Government is through accommodation of tourists. But
with prevailing marital culture of Namu, Pandam, Kayarda and Aningo,
married women will continue to divorce their husbands in search of
wealthier international tourists. The rate of prostitution may increase. The
few girls in schools would drop. Since traces of conflict for ladies have
already been in existence, there would be high rate of occultism (to protect
wives),prostitutionandtransmissionofveneraldiseases.
This impact will be most experienced among the communities bordering
Pandam Wildlife Park Aningo, Pandam, Namu and Kayarda. This is
because PWLP is located in ruralarea (where this culture isprevalent) and
havealandmassof224squarekilometres;whichisrelativelylargerthanthe
Jos Wildlife Park (8 square kilometres) and other developed tourist sites in
the state. It has many unique ecotourism products and can accommodate
largernumberoftourists(Ijeomah2007).

112

4.0Conclusion
Respondentsmarryearly,startearlychildbearingwithouttakingcareofthe
children, and divorce early, thus having a higher likelihood to marry more
wives. This is more pronounced in communities adjoining ecotourism
destinations located in rural areas. These communities are Pandam, Namu,
Aningo and Kayarda bordering PWLP, and Naraguta with resilient Hausa
culture.JosWildlifeParkandRayfieldResortarelocatedinthecitythough
respectivelysurroundedbyDongandKabon,andGwutandKwangthatare
rural communities. Assop fall is Sop, a periurban community.
Accommodation of large number of tourists by households in Pandam,
Namu,AningoandKayardacommunities(withoutcheck)willincreaserate
of divorce, polygamy, sexual exploitation of the underaged and disease
transmission among households. The Plateau State Government should
embark on educational development programmes that will benefit these
rural households before intensifying awareness creation for tourism in
PWLP.Educationofruralhouseholdswillempowerthemtogetgoodjobs,
safe money to compete favourably with foreign investors. Promiscuity and
female child labour could best be checked through female education,
creation of employment and poverty reduction. This will make the people,
particularlyfemales,lessvulnerable.
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Maurer,J.L.andA.Zeigler.1988.TourismandIndonesianCulturalMinorities,In:Rossel,
P. (ed) Tourism: ManufacturingtheExotic.I.W.G.I.A. Document 61. Copenhagen. Pp.
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McCarthy, J. 1994. Are sweet Dreams Made of This? Tourism in Bali and Eastern Indonesia.
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Ogwu,U.1992.TheGenevaDeclarationinperspectiveconferenceforimplementationof
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Omonona,B.T.2002.PovertyanditscorrelatesamongruralfarminghouseholdsinKogi
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114

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

SocioeconomicImpactofPulseResearchin
SomeSelectedAreasofBangladesh
M.A.MonayemMiah*,Q.M.Alam**,A.Sarker***andM.S.Aktar****

Abstract
Theadoptionofimprovedpulsestechnologiesincreasedyieldby40.5percent,
increased per capita consumption by 15.4 per cent and livestock feed
productionbyTk.19.6million,andgrossincomeby4749percent.Atotalof
27.6 million mandays of additional employment were generated due to
improved pulse technology adoption. It also improved soil health through
incorporation of nitrogenous fertilisers. The estimated IRR (63.1%), ERR
(3021%)andNPV(Tk.3.3billion)weremuchhighercomparedtootherrates
ofreturnsestimatedforothercropsinBangladesh.Theincreasedproduction
of pulses attributed to research and development, saved foreign exchange
Tk.30.66billion.

1.0Introduction
Pulses are important legume crops in Bangladesh because of their
importance in food, feed and cropping systems. Pulses are grown in 0.45
millionhectaresoflandwhichis3.15percentofthetotalcroppedareaofthe
country (BBS 2004). Pulses have played an important role in sustaining the
productivity of soils in Bangladesh for centuries. They are generally grown
without fertiliser since they can meet their nitrogen requirement by
symbiotic fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the soil (Islam 1991;
Senanayake et al., 1987; Zapata et al., 1987; Fried and Middleboe 1977).
Nevertheless, pulses supply a substantial amount of nitrogen to the
succeeding nonlegume crops grown in rotation (Rachie and Roberts 1974;
Ahlawatetal.1981;Kurtzetal.1978;SharmaandPrasad1999).Pulsesalso
Senior Scientific Officer, Agricultural Economics Division, Bangladesh Agricultural
ResearchInstitute(BARI),Joydebpur,Gazipur1701,Bangladesh.

Email:monayem09@yahoo.com
** ChiefScientificOfficer,AgriculturalEconomicsDivision,BARI,Joydebpur,Gazipur
1701,Bangladesh.Email:quziecon@yahoo.com
*** PulseBreeder,ICARDA,Syria.Email:a.sarker@cgiar.org
****SeniorScientificOfficer,PulseResearchCentre,BARI,Joydebpur,Gazipur1701,
Bangladesh.Email:lbmdpp@bdcom.com
*

115

provide a significant amount of fodder and feed for farm animals and fuel
forhouseholds.
Intherecent past,pulseswerecalledpoormensmeat,asitwas thecheapest
source of protein in the daily diet of the majority of the people of
Bangladesh. Recently the prices of pulses have gone increased beyond the
reach of many lowincome people. The per capita consumption of pulse in
Bangladesh is only 12 gm/day, which is much lower than WHO
recommendation of 80 gm/day (BBS 1998). The traditional pulse varieties
cultivatedinthecountryarelowyieldingandaresusceptibletodiseasesand
insect pests. Realising this situation, Bangladesh Agricultural Research
Institute (BARI), Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA) and
BSMR Agricultural University have started genetic enhancement for yield
and stress resistance. The national institutions have so far released 47
improved varieties of various pulses along with their management
technologies.TheDirectorateofAgriculturalExtension(DAE)hasalsobeen
involvedindevelopmentalprogrammesforthetechnologytransferofpulse
cropsthroughitscountrywidenetworks.
ImprovedpulsevarietiesandmanagementtechnologiesdevelopedbyBARI
have been disseminating to farmers since 1990 through different agencies
like DAE, NGOs and BARI. These technologies have been found to be
profitable to the farmers. The farm level adoptions of improved pulse
technologieshavecreatedawiderangeofsocioeconomicimpactsthatneed
to be evaluated properly to understand the output of research and
development. This information could be useful for both government and
donor agencies in investing more on pulses improvement programmes in
Bangladesh.

2.0Objectives
Thespecificobjectivesofthestudyareto(i)estimatetheeconomicreturnsto
investmentinpulseresearchanddevelopment;(ii)identifyandquantifythe
socioeconomic impacts of improved pulse technology adoption at farm
situationinBangladesh.

3.0TheoreticalFramework
The expost economic evaluation of pulse research and development in
Bangladeshcanbeestimatedthrougheconomicsurplusmodel.Theconcept

116

of economic surplus has been used to measure the economic welfare and
changes in this sector through policy and other interventions (Alston et al.,
1995;Currieetal.,1971).Theanalysiswasdonebothunderopenandsmall
open economy situations. The components of economic surplus are
consumersurplusandproducersurplus.Giventheinitialcondition(i.e.,pre
research supply curve S1 and demand curve D1), consumer surplus is
depicted as Area PnbaPo in Figure 1. This is the surplus or benefit to the
consumers because they are paying a lower price due to availability of the
commodityinthemarket.Consumersurplusistheareabeneaththedemand
curvelessthanthecostofconsumption.Thecostofconsumptionisthearea
below the price line Pn. Producer surplus is defined by the Area PnbO in
Figure1.AreaPnbOisthesurpluslefttothefarmersaftertheyhavepaidfor
thetotalcostsofproduction.
Theadoptionofanimprovedvarietyoranyinterventionbyfarmersusually
means one or two things: (i). a farmer can supply more of the commodity
using the same level of resources (i.e, same land area and other inputs), or
(ii). a farmer can supply the same level of commodity output but with less
resources.Ineithercase,thischangeisdepictedbyashifttotherightofthe
supplycurveasshowninFigure1(theshiftisfromS1toS2).Thisshiftisthe
supply curve from the adoption of an intervention changes in the initial
equilibrium price and quantity of the commodity. This new price quantity
equilibrium increases economic surplus. The change in economic surplus
(economic benefits) is measured by comparing the differences in economic
surplusbetweenthepreadoptionperiodandthepostadoptionperiod.
GivenashiftinthesupplycurveS1toS2,thechangeinconsumersurplusis
depictedasAreaabc+AreaPnbaPo.Theshiftinthesupplycurve(duetothe
adoption of an intervention) has decreased the price of consumers have to
pay now for the commodity. The consumers as a group will now purchase
moreofthecommoditybecauseofthedecreaseintheprice.Thedecreasein
the price of the commodity has made consumers better off. The change in
consumersurplus(benefits)canbemeasuredasamonetaryvalue.
GivenashiftinthesupplycurveS1toS2,thechangeinproducersurplusis
depicted in Figure 1 as Area OacArea PnbaPo. Area Oac represents the
decrease in the cost of producing the same unit of the commodity that
farmers now enjoy because they are now using the intervention. This new
area represents the benefits to the farmers from adopting the intervention

117

can be measured and quantified in monetary terms. The adoption of the

intervention, however, has increased the quantity produced, thereby
decreasingthepriceofthecommodity(PntoPoinFigure1).Thedecreasein
priceisalosstofarmersincome.Farmerscanmakeupsomeofthislossnow
by selling a higher quantity (Qn to Qo in Figure 1) of the commodity.
However,inthefinalanalysis,thelowerpricemeansthatfarmershavelost
anamountequaltothatdepictedbyAreaPnbaPo.
Figure1:EconomicSurplusModelunderOpenEconomyMarketSituation

S1SupplyCurve

(Preresearch)
Price(P)

S2SupplyCurve
(Postresearch)

P0

b
c
a

Pn

D1 (Demandcurve)

Q0

Qn

Quantity(Q)

DistributionofEconomicBenefits:
ChangeinConsumerSurplus

Areaabc+AreaPobaPn

ChangeinProducerSurplus

AreaOacAreaPobaPn

ChangeinTotalEconomicSurplus

Areaabc+AreaOac

Farmers,asagroup,gainfromtheadoptionofaninterventionifAreaOacis
largerthanAreaPnbaPo.Insomecases,AreaPnbaPomaybelarger.Thesize
of the two areas depends on the elasticity (percentage change in quantity
relative to a percentage change in price) of the supply and demand curves

118

andthesizeofthesupplycurveshift.Thetotalsocialbenefitstothesociety
from the adoption of an intervention are the summation of the change in
consumersurplusplusthechangeinproducersurplus(Areaabc+AreaOac)
minustheinputcostchangefromadoptingthenewinterventions.Forsome
interventions,adoptersmayhavetoincreasetheirinputcostsperhectareto
obtain the advantage of the new variety (i.e. higher seed price, more
fertiliser, or a change in farming systems methods). These costs must be
subtracted from the estimate of total social benefits (Alston et al. 1995).
However, the commodity market produces commodity domestically, and it
isproducedinaclosedeconomy7market.
ThisstudyusestheAkinoandHayami(1975)approximationformula,which
isarelativelystraightforwardmethod(Alstonetal.1995)forcalculatingthe
change in economic surplus for a closedeconomy analysis. The formulae
(Equations1to3)aregivenbelow:
AreaA(abc)=0.5PoQo((k(1+))2/+)) (1)
AreaB(Oac)=kPoQo(2)
AreaC(PobaPn)=(PoQok(1+))/(+))x(1((0.5k(1+))/(+))0.5k(1+)(3)
Where,
Po=Commodityprice(existingmarketprice)
Qo=Quantityofthecommodity(existingproduction)
Pn=Quantitypricethatwouldexistinabsenceofresearch
Qo=Quantityofthecommodityproducedthatwouldexistin
absenceofresearch
k=Horizontalsupplyshifter
=Priceelasticityofcommoditysupply
=Absolutepriceelasticityofthedemandforthecommodity.

The closedeconomy commodity market is defined as a commodity that is totally

producedandconsumeddomesticallyandneitherimportednorexported.

119

4.0DataSourceandAnalyticalTechniques
4.1SecondaryData
Secondarydataonareaandproductionoftheselectedthreeimprovedpulses
and percentage adoption of the improved varieties were collected from 64
regionalofficesoftheDirectorateofAgriculturalExtension(DAE).Dataon
areaandproductionforpreadoptionperiod(19801990)andconsumerprice
index(CPI)werecollectedfromvariousissuesoftheBangladeshBureauof
Statistics(BBS).Inaddition,thedemandandsupplyelasticityestimatesused
byNorton(1993)forpulseswereconsideredinthisstudy.Thecostincurred
for pulse research was collected from the Finance and Accounts section of
BARI, BINA, Lentil Blackgram Mungbean Development Pilot Project
(LBMDPP),anddonoragency(CropDiversificationProgramme).Extension
and promotional activities were conducted by DAE and the related costs
were obtained from this organisation. The administrative costs were
gathered from the apex body of agricultural research, the Bangladesh
AgriculturalResearchCouncil(BARC).

4.2PrimaryData
Primary data on input and output of three pulse crops, namely blackgram,
lentilandmungbeanwerecollectedfromsixmajorpulsegrowingdistrictsof
BangladeshduringNovember2003toApril2004.Basedonareainformation,
the pulsegrowing districts were grouped into three areas: high, moderate
and low concentrated areas. For each pulse crops, one district from each
high,moderateandlowconcentratedareawasselectedforthestudy.From
eachdistrict,twoUpazilas8wereselectedonthebasisofconcentrationofarea
coverage by a particular pulse crop. From each Upazila, two villages were
selectedrandomlytocollectfarmleveldata.Foreachtypeofpulse,atotalof
120 improved and 30 local pulsegrowing farmers were randomly selected
forinterview.Thus,thetotalnumbersofimprovedandlocalpulsegrowing
farmers were 360 and 90 for the present study respectively. Researchers
along with trained enumerators collected primary data using a pretested
interviewschedule.

Upazilaisanadministrativeunitthatconsistsofseveralunions.Aunioncomprises
severalvillages.

120

4.3EstimationofSupplyShifter(k)
The overall yield advantage of improved varieties over the local varieties,
weighted by the area sown to the improved varieties is called the supply
shifter (k). In Akino and Hayami (1975) approximation formulae, k is the
horizontal shift from the equilibrium price Pn given S1 to the equilibrium
pricePogivenS2,whichcorrespondstoadistanceequaltoQnQoinFigure1
(Gardineretal.,1986;Nagyetal.1978).Thesupplyshifterkiscalculatedas
follows(Equation4):

kt =

Yt
)] A it
Y it

[1
i =1

(4)

Where,
Yit=Yieldoftheimprovedvarietyinyeart
Yt= Average yield of local varieties that has been grown in the past and
thatwouldstillbegrownifnonewvarietieshadbeendeveloped
Ait=Proportionofthetotalareasowntoimprovedvarietyinyeart

n=Numberofimprovedvarieties
4.4CalculationofInputCostChange
Additional input cost incurred for producing improved pulses were
calculatedfromprimarydataandweremultipliedbyrespectiveannualarea
underimprovedpulsestocalculatethetotaladditionalcostsforcultivating
improvedpulses.Thiscostwassubtractedfromtotaleconomicsurplus.The
average additional input cost was calculated at Taka 3158 (US$47.13) per
hectare.

4.5EstimationofRatesofReturn
Theinternalrateofreturn(IRR)iscalculatedbytakingthetotalsocialbenefit
(TSB) minus an input cost change to the research expenditure (C) in each
year. The IRR is the discount rate that results in a zero net present value
(NPV)ofthebenefits.TheIRRiscalculatedas(Equation5):

n
O = ( TSB
t =1

t
C t )( 1 + IRR )

121

(5)

Theformalmathematicalstatementsofbenefitcostratio(BCR)andNPVare
asfollows:
n

BCR =

Bt

(1 + i)
t =1
n

(6);

NPV =
t =1

Ct

(1 + i)
t =1

( Bt Ct )
(7)
(1 + i ) t

Where,
Bt=Benefitintimet
Ct=Expenditureintimet
i=Interest(discount)rate;

n=Numberofyears;andt=1,2,3,n.

4.6EstimationofGrowthRate
Two periods were considered for estimating the growth rates of area,
productionandproductivityoftheselectedthreepulsessothattheimpactof
variety improvement could be found. The periods 19801990 and 19912005
were considered as preadoption period and postadoption period
respectively. Growth rates were worked out by fitting an exponential
functionofthefollowingtype(Equation8):

y = e a +bt or log Y = a + bt (8)

Where,y=Areaorproductionorproductivity;

andt=Timeperiod

4.7EstimationofEmploymentGeneration
The amount of additional employment generated due to the adoption of
improved and productive pulse varieties and production packages were
estimatedusingthefollowingformula(Equation9).
16

TEG = ( LABI ti LABTti )( AREAti ADOPti ) (9)

t =1

Where,
TEG=Totaladditionalemploymentgeneration(manday)duetoimproved
pulseadoption

122

LABI= No.oflabour(manday/ha)requiredforimprovedithpulse
cultivationinthetthyear
LABT= No.oflabour(manday/ha)requiredfortraditionalithpulse
cultivationinthetthyear
AREA= Totalarea(ha)cultivatedtoithpulseinthetthyear
ADOP=Adoptionrateofimprovedithpulseinthetthyear
i=1,2,3(1=Lentil,2=Blackgram,3=Mungbean)

4.8EstimationofLivestockFeedandFuelProduction
Theamountofadditionallivestockfeedandhouseholdfuelproduceddueto
the adoption improved pulse technologies was estimated by using the
followingformula(Equation10).
16

TSTOV = ( STOVI ti STOVTti )( AREAti ADOPti ) (10)

t =1

Where,
TSTOV=Totaladditionalproductionofstover(ton)duetoimprovedpulse
adoption
STOVI=Amountofstover(t/ha)productionforimprovedithpulse
cultivationinthetthyear
STOVT=Amountofstover(t/ha)productionfortraditionalithpulse
cultivationinthetthyear
AREA=Totalarea(ha)cultivatedtoithpulseinthetthyear
ADOP=Adoptionrateofimprovedithpulseinthetthyear
i=1,2,3(1=Lentil,2=Blackgram,3=Mungbean)

5.0SocioeconomicImpactsofPulsesResearchon
SelectedFarmersunderStudySample
The pulse research and extension programme has created a wide range of
socioeconomic impacts throughout the country. The impacts are briefly
discussedbelow:

5.1AwarenessDevelopmenttowardsPulseProduction
Thepulseresearchanddevelopmentprogrammeplayedanimportantrolein
creatingawarenesstowardsimprovedvarietiesandproductiontechnologies

123

of pulses through field demonstrations and through other motivational

means.Atotalof41,584numberoffielddemonstrationsofthreepulsecrops
involving 20,792 farmers were conducted in Bangladesh during 19972004.
Demonstration on mungbean technology was given more emphasis
compared to other pulses. One hundred six Field Days involving 10,615
farmerswerealsoconductedtocreateawarenessamongfarmersduringthis
period(Table1).
Table1: ImprovedPulseTechnologyDemonstrationsActivity
Conductedduring1997to2004
Technologydisseminationactivity
1.Pulsetechnologydemonstrations
2.Areaundertechnologydemonstration(ha)
3.Farmersinvolvements
4.Conductingfielddays
5.Makingdocumentaryfilm
6.Productionofbooklets&leaflets
5.Productionofposter
7.Qualityseedproductionanddistribution(m.ton)

Amount(no.)
41584
5553
20792
106
1
213500
30000
166

Source:CalculatefromLBMDP2004

Different organisations produced and distributed a large number of

improved pulse seeds during 19972004. The Bangladesh Agricultural
Development Corporation (BADC) produced the highest amount of seeds
(48.4%) followed by BARI and BINA. A huge number of booklets, leaflets
and handbills on the three pulses were published and distributed to the
extensionpersonnel,NGOstaffandfarmers.Morethan90percentleaflets,
72percentbookletsand67percentposterweredistributedintimetotheir
endusers(Table1).

5.2 AdoptionofImprovedPulseVarieties
Thefirstvarietiesofmungbean(localnameMug),lentil(localnameMasur)
andblackgram(localnameMashkalai)werereleasedin1987,1991and1990
respectively.ThroughjointeffortsofLBMDPprojectandDAE,BARImung4,
BARImung 5, BARImasur 4, BARImash 1, BARImash 2, and BARImash 3
were the most adopted varieties by farmers (Miah et al. 2004). The areas
under improved mungbean, lentil and blackgram were increased at higher
growthratesof23.3percent,9.5percentand23.5percentrespectively.The

124

percentage adoption of improved mungbean varieties was much higher

compared to lentil and blackgram. The reasons for higher adoption of
mungbean are discussed in section4.3. In 2005, improved mungbean, lentil
and blackgram varieties occupied 55.6 per cent, 32.2 per cent and 17.0 per
centofthetotalpulsesareainBangladesh(Figure2).
Figure2:PercentageAdoptionofImprovedPulsesovertheYear

60

Lentil

Blackgram

Mungbean

% adoption

50
40
30
20
10
0
05
20
04
20
03
20
02
20
01
20
00
20
99
19
98
19
97
19
96
19
95
19
94
19
93
19
92
19
91
19
90
19

5.3IncreaseinArea,ProductionandProductivityofPulses
Theareaandproductionofmungbeanregisteredhighergrowthratesduring
preadoption period (19801990) compared to postadoption period (1991
2005). But the mean area, production and yield of mungbean were
significantly higher during postadoption period.The reasonsfor its higher
adoptionwere:i)shortdurationcrop;ii)anumberofHYVwereavailableto
thefarmers;iii)highlyresponsivetoirrigationandfertiliseruse;iv)possible
to cultivate three seasons due to its photoinsensitive nature; and iv)
profitablereplacementofAusriceanduplandjutebymungbean.Although
thecultivableareasoflentilandblackgramwerenotincreasedsignificantly
duringpreadoptionperiod,theproductionandproductivityofthesecrops
weresignificantlyincreasedduringpostadoptionperiod(Table2).

125

Table 2: Rate of Change of Pulses Area, Production and Productivity in

Bangladeshduring19912005
Particulars

A.Lentil
Area(ha)
Production(t)
Yield(t/ha)
B.Blackgram
Area(ha)
Production(t)
Yield(t/ha)
C.Mungbean
Area(ha)
Production(t)
Yield(t/ha)

Preadoption
period(1980
1990)
Mean Growth
rate(%)

136964 13.84
96523 16.32
0.683
2.47

52363 6.73
37140 7.46
0.704
0.73

34844 18.49
19129 18.48
0.551 0.01

Increase Mean P(T<=t)

Postadoption
overpre
period
difference
adoption
(19912005)

period(%)
Mean Growth
rate(%)

145627 1.14
5.95 8663
0.7031
135647 1.88
28.84 39124* 0.0467
.929
0.75
26.48 0.246** 0.0000

53198
2.69
1.57 835 0.8749
51454
2.59
27.82 14314** 0.0037
0.968
0.10
27.27 0.264** 0.0000

74711
5.04
53.36 39867** 0.0003
57832
5.73
66.92 38703** 0.0000
0.775
0.68
28.90 0.224** 0.0000

Note:**&*indicatesignificantat1percent&5percentlevelrespectively.
CalculatedfromAppendixTable1.

On the other hand, the growth rates of area, production and productivity
bothinlentilandblackgramwerenegativeduringpostadoptionperiodwith
slightexceptioninyieldofblackgram.Thereasonsforlowadoptionwere: i)
mostlentilandblackgramareaswerereplacedbybororice,wheat,tobacco,
mustard and cotton due to their high yield potential and better economic
returns (Miah et al. 1991); ii) these crops are highly susceptible to
environmental stresses; iii) the economic returns of these crops were not
satisfactory to the farmers compared with other competing crops; iv) low
responsetoirrigationandfertiliseruse;andv)thenumberofHYVsofthese
cropswereveryfew.

5.4YieldAdvantagesofImprovedVarietiesoverTraditionalTypes
Theyieldsoftheimprovedvarietiesoflentil,blackgramandmungbeanwere
much higher compared to their corresponding local cultivars. The adopters
ofimprovedpulsevarietiesreceivedonanaverage40.5percenthigheryield
thanthatofnonadopters(Table3).

126

Table3:YieldAdvantagesofImprovedVarietiesoverTraditionalOnes
Yield(t/ha)ofpulses
Pulsecrops
Lentil
Blackgram
Mungbean
Allpulses

Improved

Local

1.004
0.985
1.018
1.002

0.595
0.588
0.607
0.597

Mean
difference
(t/ha)
0.409***
0.397***
0.411***
0.405***

Higheryield
overlocal
variety(%)
40.7
40.3
40.4
40.5

P(T<=t)

0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000

Note:***indicatessignificantat1percentlevel.

5.5IncreaseinPulseConsumption
The level of pulses consumption of improved pulse adopters households
wassignificantlyhigherthanthatofnonadopterhouseholds.Frequencyand
quantity of pulse for family consumption were also increased significantly
due to higher production. Table 4 shows that the per capita daily
consumptionofpulsesforadoptershouseholdwas27gm,whereasitwas23
gm for nonadopters households. The pulse consumption of adopters
household is much higher than the national average of 14 gm/capita/day
(BBS2006).
Many factors might be responsible for higher consumption of pulses in the
study areas. Table 5 shows the reasons explained by the adopters were
higherproductionofpulses(62.2%)andasatraditionalcomponentofdaily
dietofthepeopleofBangladesh(52.7%).
Table4:IncreaseinHouseholdPulseConsumptioninStudyAreas
Consumptionpattern

Adopter

Non
adopter
No.ofrespondents
n=360 n=60
Familysize(No./family)
5.9
5.3
Consumptionfrequency(perweek)
3.5
2.9
Quantityconsumedperfrequency
308.5
257.5
(g/day)

Consumptionperhousehold(g/day) 155.4
115.8
Consumptionpercapita(g/day)
27.3
23.1

Mean Increas P(T<=t)

difference e(%)

0.58** 9.8 0.0058

0.64**
18.0 0.0000
50.97** 16.5 0.0001

39.63** 25.5 0.0004

4.22* 15.4 0.0857

Note:**and*represent1percentand10percentlevelofsignificancerespectively.

127

Table5:CausesofIncreasingPulseConsumptioninAdoptersHousehold
Typeofcauses

No.of
respondent
n=241

Numberofrespondents
1.Increaseinpulseproduction
2.Pulsesarenutritiousandtesty
3.Highpriceofvegetables
4.Scarcityandhigherpriceofmeatandfish
5.Pulsesareavailablewithlowerprice
6.Others*

Responses(%)

150
127
55
44
23
12

62.2
52.7
22.8
18.3
9.5
5.0

Note:Easytocook;duetodiabeticpatients,etc.

5.6SoilHealthImprovement
Pulses have played an important role in sustaining productivity of soils
through centuries. Studies relating to this issue revealed that about 30 kg
nitrogenisaddedtosoilduetomungbeancultivation(Sharmaetal.1995),40
kg for lentil cultivation (Masood 2003) and 38 kg for blackgram cultivation
(Singhetal.1981).Atotalof26,089tonofnitrogenousfertiliserwasaddedto
soil valued at Taka 169.58 million (US$2.53 million) within the period from
1990 to 2005 (Table 6). This achievement is attributed tohigher adoption of
improvedpulsevarietiesinBangladesh.
Table6:AmountofNitrogenousFertiliserAddedtoSoiland
ItsValueatCurrentPrice
Item
Amountofnitrogenous
fertiliseraddedtosoil(kg/ha)
Totalamountofnitrogenous
fertiliser(m.ton)addedto
soilduring19902005
Totalvalueoffertiliser
nitrogenous(milliontaka)

Lentil

Blackgram

Mungbean

Allpulses

40

38

30

36

14,733

1,493

9,862

26,089

95.77

9.71

64.10

169.58

Notes:PriceofureaisassumedtobeTaka6.5/kg.

5.7ProfitGainedbyFarmers
Pulsesarefoundtobeprofitablecropsinthestudyareas.Thecultivationof
improvedpulsesismuchremunerativethanthatoftraditionalvarieties.The

128

grossmargin,netreturn,andrateofreturn(BCR)forimprovedpulseswere
much higher compared with traditional variety of pulses (Table 7). The
adopters of improved lentil, blackgram and mungbean received 77.3 per
cent, 80.8 per cent and 73.5 per cent higher net return over their
correspondinglocalcultivarsrespectively.
Table7:ComparativeProfitabilityofImprovedandLocalPulses
Production
Variety

Crops

Local

7930
1837
2.24
1.15

7571
2213
3.02
1.24

7963
1783
2.23
1.14

1.Lentil
Grossmargin(Taka/ha)
Netreturn(Taka/ha)
BCRonvariablecost
BCRonfullcost
2.Blackgram
Grossmargin(Taka/ha)
Netreturn(Taka/ha)
BCRonvariablecost
BCRonfullcost
3.Mungbean
Grossmargin(Taka/ha)
Netreturn(Taka/ha)
BCRonvariablecost
BCRonfullcost

Improved

15407
8108
2.77
1.51

14241
8445
4.08
1.81

15093
6719
2.70
1.39

Higherover
local(%)

48.5
77.3
19.1
23.8

46.8
73.8
26.0
31.5

47.2
73.5
17.4
18.0

Source:AppendixTable2;US$1.00=Taka67.00

5.8 EmploymentGeneration
The adoption of improved pulses technologies at farm level has created
employmentopportunitiesthroughoutthecountry.Ithasbeenfoundthatan
additional 30 mandays of human labour is required per hectare for
cultivating improved pulses. The additional labour is mainly required for
harvesting and threshing the increased production of pulses. Mungbean
cultivation employed much higher labour because of 23 hand pickings of
pods are needed. During 19902005, a total of 27.6 million mandays of
additional farm labour valued at Taka 2070 million were generated due to
cultivation of improved pulse varieties, of which 60 per cent was family
labourandtherestwashiredlabour(Table8).

129

Table8: AdditionalEmploymentGenerationDuetoAdoptionof
ImprovedVarieties
Typeoflabour

Lentil

Blackgram

Mungbean

Allpulses

A.Labourrequired
(No./ha)
Familylabour

16.1

6.7

31.3

18.1

Hiredlabour

9.1

4.1

23.1

12.1

25.2
10.8
B.Employmentgenerated(No.)during19902005

54.4

30.2

Totallabour

Familylabour

5922859(64)

264462(62)

10302492(58) 16489813(60)

Hiredlabour

3366600(36)

159542(38)

7583870(42) 11110012(40)

Totallabour

9289459(100)

424004(100) 17886363(100) 27599826(100)

Valueoflabour
(MillionTk)

696.7

31.8

1341.5

2070.0

Note:(i)Figuresintheparenthesesindicatepercentageoftotallabour.
(ii)1malelabour=1.5femalelabour=2childlabour;Priceoflabour=Taka
75.00/day.

5.9 IncreasedSupplyofLivestockFeedandHouseholdFuel
Pulsebranandstoveraregenerallyusedasnutritiousandvaluablelivestock
feedandhouseholdfuel.Itwasreported thatfarmersreceivedanadditional
377 kg, 403 kg and 126 kg of stover per hectare by cultivating improved
lentil, blackgram and mungbean respectively (Table 9). Based on the above
estimates,atotalof1,95,995tonoflivestockfeedorhouseholdfuelvaluedat
Taka19.6millionwasproducedduring19902005.
Table9:AdditionalStoverProductionDuetoIntroductionofImproved
VarietyofPulses
Item
Increasedyield(kg/ha)
Additionalproduction(ton)
during19902005
Valueofstover(MillionTk)

Lentil
376.73

Blackgram
402.69

Mungbean
125.96

Allpulses
301.79

1,38,764

15,824

41,407

195995

13.88

1.58

4.14

19.60

Note:PriceofstoverisassumedtobeTaka100/ton.

130

5.10 ReturnstoInvestment
Theefficiencyofresourceallocationtoresearchanddevelopmentforpulses
Improvements were assessed through estimating IRR, External Rate of
Return (ERR), BCR, and NPV under open economy condition. Under open
economy, the producers benefits were found much higher compared to
consumersbenefitssince theelasticityofdemandfor pulseswashigh.The
opposite scenario was found in the case of closed or small open economy
situationsincetheelasticityofdemandforpulseswaslow(0.20).
Using the baseparameters, the IRR of the pulse research and development
was estimated to be 63.13 per cent, implying one Taka invested in research
and development gave returns on an average Taka 1.63 annually from the
date of investment until 2005. The ERR was calculated to be 3021 per cent
indicating each Taka invested in research and development of pulses will
generateonanaverageTaka31.21annuallyfromthedateofinvestmentuntil
2015. It was assumed in calculating ERR that the total benefit received/
realised in 2005 will remain the same until 2015 against a corresponding
constant increase of onethird research and development costs as
maintenancecost.TheNPVoftheprojectinvestmentswasestimatedatTaka
3.27billion.Theratesofreturnwerefoundmuchhigherundersmallopenor
closed economy market situation compared to open economy condition
(Table10).
Table10:Economic Returns to Investment in Pulse Research and
DevelopmentinBangladesh
Rateofreturns
InternalRateofReturn(%)
ExternalRateofReturn(%)
NetPresentValue(Tk)
Present Value Research Costs
(Tk)

Openeconomymodel
63.13
3021
3.266billion
0.205billion

Smallopeneconomymodel
66.77
5035
4.7336billion
0.2050billion

Source:AppendixTables3&4

A sensitivity analysis was undertaken under various assumptions on the

benefits and the research and extension expenditures (Table 11). The
estimatedIRR,ERRandNPVofthepulsedevelopmentprogrammeranged
from50.4to64.5percent;1803to3021percent;andTaka2.17toTaka4.27
billion respectively. These estimated rates of return for pulses (i.e. lentil,

131

blackgram and mungbean) were much higher than the rates of return
estimated for cereal, potato, jute and sugarcane (Nagy and Alam 2000),
brinjal (Miah and Hossain 2003), maize (Hossain et al. 2002), rapeseed &
mustard(HasanandMiah2003)andtomato(Miahetal.2005).
Table11:SensitivityAnalysisonRateofReturnsunderOpenandClosed
MarketEconomySituation

Differentassumptions

Baseparameters
1.Supplyshifter(k)decreased
by25%&expenditure
remainunchanged
2.Supplyshifter(k)remain
unchanged&expenditures
increasedby25%
3.Bothsupplyshifter(k)&
expendituredecreasedby
25%
4.Bothsupplyshifter(k)and
expenditureincreasedby
25%
5.Supplyshifter(k)decreased
by25%&expenditure
increasedby25%

Openeconomymodel

IRR
ERR
NPV
(%)
(%) (Billion

Tk)
63.13 3021
3.266

Closed/smalleconomy
model
IRR
ERR
NPV
(%)
(%) (Billion

Tk)
66.77 5035 4.7336

54.77

2260

2.2196

57.81

3394

3.0450

58.26

2412

3.2150

61.89

4024

4.6823

60.79

3021

2.2708

63.84

4532

3.0962

64.47

3021

4.2617

68.73

5539

6.5544

50.36

1803

2.1683

53.40

2710

2.9937

Note:US$1.00=Taka67.00.

5.11 ForeignExchangeSavings
A considerable amount of pulses are imported in Bangladesh every year to
meettheinternaldemandofitsincreasingpopulation.In200304,thevalue
of total pulse import was US$159 million (Bangladesh Bank Annual Report
2006).Inreality,theamountimportedishigherduetoillegalbordertradeof
pulsefromneighbouringcountries.Thus,theincreasedproductionattributed
to pulses improvement saved foreign exchange amounting to Taka 30.66
billion(US$457.56million)duringtheperiodfrom1990to2005(Figure3).

132

120

4000

100
80

3000

60

2000

40

1000

20

Foreign Exchange Save

20
04

20
02

20
00

19
98

19
96

19
94

0
19
92

Increased productio n ('0 00 '

ton)

5000

19
90

Fo reign excha nge sav e

(Million Taka)

Figure3:ForeignExchangeSavingsduetoPulseResearchand
DevelopmentoverTime

Yea r
Increased production ('000' ton)

6.0ConclusionandPolicyRecommendations
The study provided an indepth account of the socioeconomic impacts of
pulse research and development in Bangladesh. This study is the first
analysis of this kind in this area. It has been observed that improved
technologieshavecreatedavarietyofsocioeconomicimpactsinthecountry.
Ithascreatedawarenessamongfarmers,scientists,extension personneland
consumers towards improved varieties and production technologies. Since
its inception period of 1990 to 2005, a great deal of additional employment
hasbeencreateddueto adoptionofimproved technologies.Theadoptionof
improvedpulsestechnologieshaveensuredhigherproduction,increasedper
capita consumption and greater production of livestock feed for farmers.
Additionalpulsesproductionhasalsocontributedtonutritionalsecurityand
improved health benefits to pulse consumers in the country. Moreover, the
increasedproductionofpulseshassavedahugeamountofforeignexchange
andthuscontributedtothefragilenationaleconomyofBangladesh.
Investmentinthepulsesresearchanddevelopmentprogrammeisfoundto
be very efficient in terms of the higher IRR, ERR and NPV. The estimated
IRR (63.13%) and NPV (Taka 3.266 billion) for the pulse research and
developmentprogrammearemuchhigherthanthatofotherIRRsandNPVs
estimated for cereal, fibre crops, vegetables and other crops in Bangladesh.

133

Thus, it indicates that the investments by the Bangladesh government and

donoragenciesonpulsesresearchanddevelopmentprogrammeareeffective
andjustified.
Additionally, the study indicates that the research and development of
pulsesrepresentsalucrativepublicinvestmentopportunity.Therefore,both
government and donors should continue their investments on pulses
improvement programmes so that more improved pulses varieties and
technologies are developed to help marginal and resourcepoor farmers of
Bangladesh.

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135

Appendix Tables
Table1:AreaandProductionofDifferentPulsesinBangladesh
Year
1980

Areaunderpulses(ha)
Mungbean Lentil Blackgram
14949
83654
47040

Productionofpulses(ton)
Mungbean
Lentil Blackgram
7450
48675
32895

1981

15300

74706

42759

8185

47755

29038

1982

14978

73312

39970

8400

43750

28439

1983

15298

72907

37854

8808

47883

25912

1984

15338

70789

33656

9052

48442

23640

1985

15134

67470

31075

8593

47096

20620

1986

57434

212595

65475

34563

148988

43471

1987

57934

216429

70521

33116

158719

52099

1988

58887

215393

69214

29408

158040

48968

1989

60126

209178

69848

31290

155120

51750

1990

57907

210172

68583

31550

157280

51710

1991

71033

148134

67029

54023

140312

65048

1992

63370

150623

62159

46037

145809

60395

1993

58081

152039

58558

41814

148034

57166

1994

54586

150840

56059

39080

139723

55109

1995

52485

150143

54536

38415

145807

54113

1996

51511

149949

53888

39554

145943

52024

1997

51503

150267

54046

40669

144523

51791

1998

78163

149644

55758

60121

135876

49025

1999

69184

158117

55333

46230

152925

53011

2000

67941

155428

51784

62841

133986

48796

2001

74775

152317

49028

64883

143291

47984

2002

79672

133514

47702

74081

120116

45903

2003

102322

126134

46392

80007

116373

44842

2004

114965

127614

42372

86408

112747

43805

2005

131068

129647

43327

93321

109234

42792

Source:BBS(19801990);DAE(19912002);Calculated(20032005)

136

Table2:EconomicPerformanceofLocalandHYVPulse
ProductioninStudyAreas
FiguresinTk/ha
Items
A.Totalvariablecosts
Hiredlabour
Seed
Urea
TSP
MP
FYM
Ploughingcost
Pesticides
Irrigationcost
Int.onoper.capital
B.Totalfixedcosts
Familylabour
Rentalvalueofland
C.Totalcosts(A+B)
D.Grainyield(t/ha)
E.TotalReturns
Returnfromgrain
Returnfromstover
F.Grossmargin
G.Netreturns(EC)
H.Rateofreturn(BCR)
Returnonfullcost
Returnonvari.cost

Lentil
Local
HYV
6381.67 8692
1846.28 2532
1185.21 1343
87.38
195
688.58
982
137.75
314
13.09
31
2257.62 2854

112

103
165.76
226
6092.65 7299
2592.65 3799
3500.00 3500
12474.32 15991
0.588
0.985
14311.25 24099
13680.98 23092
630.27
1007
7929.58 15407
1836.93 8108

1.15
1.51
2.24
2.77

Blackgram
Local
HYV
3746.56 4625
1266.20 1530
819.05
912
26.91
126
65.74
383
19.71
134
44.35
2
1431.14 1410

37

73.46
91
5358.35 5796
1858.35 2296
3500.00 3500
9104.91 10421
0.595
1.004
11317.49 18866
10584.18 17730
733.31
1136
7570.93 14241
2212.58
8445

1.24
1.81
3.02
4.08

Mungbean
Local
HYV
6443.79 8890
1914.38 3530
1039.23 929
213.32
246
634.48
756
273.48
274
82.04
103
2160.51 2102

309

467
126.35
174
6180.13 8374
2680.13 4874
3500.00 3500
12623.92 17264
0.607
1.018
14407.04 23983
13964.00 23414
443.04
569
7963.25 15093
1783.12 6719

1.14
1.39
2.23
2.70

Note: (a) Interest on operating capital has been calculated@ 8% for 3 month period for
blackgramandmungbeanand4monthperiodforlentil.
(b)Commoninputprices:UreaTaka6.5/kg,TSPTaka14.5/kg,MPTaka10/kgand
FYMTaka 0.50/kg, For Blackgram: SeedTaka 30/kg, Human labourTaka
65/mandayandGrainTaka18/kg;forLentil:SeedTaka36/kg,Humanlabour
Taka 75/manday and GrainTaka 23/kg; for Mungbean: SeedTaka 38/kg,
Human labourTaka 70/manday and GrainTaka 23/kg; all kinds of stover
Taka1.0/kg.
Source:Miahetal.2005a

137

Table3:CalculationofSupplyShifterk
Year

%areaofimprovedpulses
replacingintroductions
Lentil Blackgram Mungbean

Area(ha)ofimprovedpulses
Supply
replacingintroductions
shifterk*
Lentil Blackgram Mungbean

1990

0%

0.37%

2.85%

0.00

777.64

1954.62

0.013

1991

5.36%

0.49%

3.98%

3807.37

725.86

2667.75

0.040

1992

8.82%

0.64%

5.40%

5589.23

963.99

3356.59

0.060

1993

11.24%

0.82%

7.15%

6528.30

1246.72

4186.90

0.078

1994

11.83%

1.05%

9.25%

6457.52

1583.82

5185.46

0.090

1995

12.42%

1.32%

11.71%

6518.64

1981.89

6386.17

0.103

1996

13.04%

1.64%

14.56%

6717.03

2459.16

7846.09

0.119

1997

13.60%

2.02%

17.81%

7004.41

3035.39

9625.59

0.135

1998

14.66%

4.11%

18.28%

11458.70

6150.37

10192.56

0.150

1999

14.51%

4.33%

21.71%

10038.60

6846.47

12012.79

0.164

2000

17.29%

5.02%

22.20%

11747.00

7802.49

11496.05

0.180

2001

21.16%

8.13%

40.81%

15822.39 12383.37 20008.33

0.284

2002

24.20%

9.31%

45.85%

19280.62 12430.15 21871.37

0.321

2003

28.97%

11.32%

44.94%

29642.68 14278.37 20848.56

0.345

2004

30.57%

14.67%

50.34%

35144.80 18720.97 21330.06

0.387

2005

32.21%

16.97%

55.57%

42217.00 22001.10 24076.81

0.424

Note:*k=(Yieldadv.lentilxpercent areaoflentilreplacing introduction)+(Yieldadv.

B.gramxpercent areaofB.gram replacing introduction) + (Yield adv. Mug x per cent
area of Mug replacing introduction).

138

Table4: EconomicReturnstoInvestmentinResearchandDevelopmentofPulsesinBangladeshunder
OpenEconomySituation
Year

Supply
elasticit
y

A
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1994
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

Demand
elasticity

0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70

Yield
change
(k)
D

1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000
1000000

0.013
0.040
0.060
0.078
0.090
0.103
0.119
0.135
0.150
0.164
0.180
0.284
0.321
0.345
0.387

Pulse
prices(Tk/t)
(Basedon
2004/05prices)
E

28047
30,189
28,706
25,519
25,210
27,549
30,047
30,739
27,367
29,739
26,548
26,876
26,467
25,834
25,139

Totalpulse
production
(Ton)
F

240540
259,383
252,241
247,014
233,912
238,335
237,521
236,983
245,022
252,166
245,623
256,158
240,100
241,222
242,960

Changein
consumer
surplus
(Tk)
G

0
513
704
780
831
1,051
1,293
1,484
1,493
1,801
1,692
2,520
2,523
2,583
2,696

139

Changein
producers
surplus(Tk)
H

0
312,266,660
436,695,540
491,429,031
529,360,210
677,541,216
845,802,433
986,692,434
1,006,429,052
1,231,444,406
1,175,690,142
1,953,378,131
2,041,261,708
2,150,455,984
2,363,083,998

Changein
totalsurplus
(Tk)

Totalresearch&
developmentcost
(Basedon2004/05
Tk)
I=(G+H)K
J

20,297,395

23,317,827

15,033,816

14,100,549

16,139,035

14,430,607
0
18,085,191
312,267,172
20,389,685
436,696,244
16,177,495
491,429,812
20,467,242
529,361,042
12,622,832
677,542,267
18,072,562
845,803,726
23,647,163
986,693,919
34,896,740
39,432,239
1,006,430,545
1,231,446,207
47,360,451
1,175,691,834
61,216,565
1,953,380,651
55,537,357
2,041,264,231
51,937,695
69,244,750
2,150,458,567
2,363,086,694
57,675,093

Table4:Continued..
Year

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1994
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

Totalinputcost
Change(Basedon
2004/05Tk)
K
0
0
0
0
0
16915914
66305907
97368018
122651526
128572148
132674204
138940506
150242089
180418355
180089763
189309202
268396329
278041852
314178744
348140070
388495980

Net
Benefit(Tk)
L=(IJk)
20,297,395
23,317,827
15,033,816
14,100,549
16,139,035
31,346,520
227,876,075
318,938,541
352,600,790
380,321,651
532,245,231
688,790,657
812,804,666
791,115,449
1,011,924,205
939,022,182
1,623,767,756
1,707,685,022
1,784,342,129
1,945,701,874
2,108,824,757

Changeinpricein Priceinabsence
Areaabc
AreaOac
absenceofnew
ofnewvarieties
varieties(PnPo)
(Pn)
M
N
O
P

0
30,189
18
312,267,154
0
28,706
38
436,696,206
0
25,519
55
491,429,756
0
25,210
69
529,360,973
27,549
101
677,542,166
0
0
30,047
145
845,803,581
0
30,739
193
986,693,726
0
27,367
218
1,006,430,327
0
29,739
292
1,231,445,915
0
26,548
306
1,175,691,528
1,953,379,850
0
26,877
801
0
26,467
947
2,041,263,283
0
25,834
1,072
2,150,457,495
0
25,139
1,321
2,363,085,373
0
24,563
1,565
2,554,994,265

Results:
InternalRateofReturn(IRR)
NetPresentValue(NPV)
ExternalRateofReturn(ERR)
PresentValueResearchCosts(PVRC)

=
=
=
=

63.13%
Taka3,266.25million
3020.92%
Taka205.01million

140

AreaPobaPn
Q

495
666
725
763
950
1,148
1,291
1,274
1,509
1,386
1,719
1,575
1,511
1,375
1,213

Table5:ForeignExchangeSavingsfromInvestmentinPulses
ImprovementResearch
Year

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

Import
(c&f)price
(Tk/ton)
(200405
Taka)
1
29,653
30,470
34,415
40,017
43,153
46,123
46,526
46,093
46,331
46,324
45,760
44,926
43,959
43,014
42,088
41,183

Supply
shifterk
(%)

Totalpulse
production
(ton)

Increasein
production
from
research
(ton)
3
4=23
240540
3,126
259,383
10,344
252,241
15,213
247,014
19,257
233,912
20,998
238,335
24,594
237,521
28,150
236,983
32,099
245,022
36,775
252,166
41,409
245,623
44,285
256,158
72,680
240,100
77,125
241,222
83,240
242,960
94,001
245,347
1,04,019
Total 7,07,314

2
0.013
0.040
0.060
0.078
0.090
0.103
0.119
0.135
0.150
0.164
0.180
0.284
0.321
0.345
0.387
0.424

141

Foreign
exchange
savings
(200405Taka)
5=14
92,708,276
315,173,561
523,545,898
770,610,011
906,135,059
1,134,367,810
1,309,688,461
1,479,547,154
1,703,818,458
1,918,228,815
2,026,459,286
3,265,180,055
3,390,335,768
3,580,469,342
3,956,356,889
4,283,814,192
30,656,439,035

142

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

CriticalChallengestoSmallscaleRuralBusiness
Firms:ACaseStudyofPoultryFarmEnterprise
inIdoLGA,OyoState
M.E.Onu*andD.I.Ekine**

Abstract
This studyexaminedcriticalchallengesofsmallscalepoultryenterpriseinIdo
localgovernmentareaofOyoState.Theprimarydatausedfortheanalysiswas
generated through the use of personal interview, structured questionnaire and
farm enterprises records. A random sampling technique was used to select 60
respondents. Descriptive statistics and frontier model were used to determine
thegrossmarginaswellastheefficiencylevel;thedatawerefurthersubjectedto
double log OLS analysis which was adopted for the study. The study revealed
that raw materials, capital and basic infrastructure such as electricity, water
androadaremajorrequirementforeffectivepoultrybusinessinthestudyarea
and it ranked first position having 19.1 per cent. The result also revealed that
thedominantagelimitoftherespondentsinthestudyareaofthebroilersand
layers enterprises were between 3140 with 50 per cent and 43.3 per cent
respectively. The analysis on the frontier gross margin function model for
broiler and layers enterprise was not significant; therefore result from OLS
doubleloganalysiswasadoptedforthestudy.Theanalysisinlayersenterprise
revealedthatcostoftransportation,costofpointoflay,costofmedicationand
cost of energy for brooding were positively related to the gross margin of the
farmers, only medication and amount of money spent on energy were
statistically significant at 5 per cent while cost feeding and money spent on
labourhadnegativerelationshipandcostfeedingwassignificantat5percent.
Smallscalepoultryfarmersshouldincreasequantityandqualityoffeedforthe
birds. Government should assist small scale poultry farmers by giving
subsidisingcostoffeeding,medicationaswellasdevelopmentoffarmroadsin
thestudyarea.
*

**

Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Agriculture,

University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Rivers State, Nigeria. Email: ebimec2k4
@yahoo.com
DepartmentofAgriculturalEconomicsandExtension,FacultyofAgriculture,Rivers
State University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt, Rivers State,
Nigeria.Emaildataekine@yahoo.co.uk

143

1.0Introduction
Smallscale businesses are the main stay of the Nigerian economy, and it
provides about 70 per cent of employment to able men and women in the
country (Hamidu et al. 2007). Small and medium scale enterprises have
contributed greatly to the growth and development of many of the
developed nations in terms of employment, contribution to GDP as well as
export.Hamiduetal.2007notedthatthepotentialsofsmallscaleindustries
can result to the realisation of macroeconomic objectives of full
employment, industrial dispensation, stemming ruralurban migration,
promotionofindigenoustechnologyandeconomicselfreliance.
PoultryindustryhadmadegreatcontributionstotheeconomyofNigeriain
terms of job creation, contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) and
wealth creation in both urban and rural areas of the country. Poultry
industry is one of the major sources of animal protein in Nigeria. Poultry
products (meat and eggs) are among the most nutritional foods known to
man (Mohammed et al. 2007). It contributes about 10 per cent of total
nationalmeatproductioninNigeria.Poultryproductionisoneofthefastest
meansofaddressingproteindeficiency.Duetohighprolificiencyandquick
returns,theindustryhasbecomeadiverseonewithavarietyofinterestsuch
as egg production as well as meat (Musa and Mohammend 2005). More
recently, in response to public concern over dietary fat, poultry has again
becomeapopularsubstituteforbeefandpork.(Adepojuetal.2007).
InNigeria,governmenthadnotmadeexplicitpolicyforsmallandmedium
scale enterprise development in Nigeria. Although industrial policy as
contained in the second,third and fourth national development plans were
government efforts to encourage smallscale industries (Ahmed 1987 in
Hamiduetal.2007;Oji2006).AccordingtoOji(2006)SMEpolicyinthemain
oneistreatedaspartofthecountryindustrialpolicy.

1.1ProblemStatement
Small scale business enterprise in Nigeria dominates economic activities in
the industrial sector. The advantage of size of operation enabled many
entrepreneurstoembarkonthebusinessactivities.Itiscommontoseesmall
scale agrobusinesses in the rural communities of Nigeria. According to
Hamiduetal.2007,despitetheimportanceandpeculiarityofthesmallscale
businesses in Nigeria, lots of factors have attributed to their failures.

144

Ogunleye (2004) also reported that despite the numerous advantages of

SMEs,thecontributionofthissectortotheoveralleconomicdevelopmentof
Nigeria has over the years remained low. According to him, the main
reasons for the low contribution of the sector could be attributed to the
variousproblemsbeingfacedbytheSMEsinthesystemwhichinclude:poor
accesstocreditandotherfinancialsupportorincentives,poorpublicsector
and support policy inconsistency, poor account keeping habits, weak
financialplanning,poorinfrastructurewhichsignificantlyincreasesthecost
of doing business, inability to hire highly skilled personnel, inadequate or
lackofresearch,poorlinkagesamongvibrantSMEs,largescaleenterprises,
and the rest of the domestic sector of the economy generally and policy
incentives are tilted in favour of largescale industries, etc. He emphasised
thattheseproblemshadobviouslyhinderedthegrowthanddevelopmentof
thesectorinNigeria.Oneofthestrongestvariablesinthehighcostofdoing
business in the country is the high cost of capital. According to him,
accessing funds from banks for SMEs is like passing through the eyes of a
needle adding, Even the socalled SMEEIS is just an idle fancy
(Dekker2006).
Poultry enterprise is one of the most common small scale business
enterprises in the rural economy of Oyo State. In poultry farming, several
challenges are faced by farm owners, these include funding, management
methods,highcostofrunningfarms,lowprofitmaking,amongothers.The
development of poultry sector has been slowed down due to a number of
constraints(Job2000)whichincludepoorbroodofbirds,improperfeeding,
lack of management skills, etc. Also the size and methods of operations
dependonthefundavailabletotheenterprise.
Ronald(1991)stressedthatalotoffailureinfarmbusinessesisduetolow
level technology, illiteracy, poor management, lack of fund, among others,
thataffectprofitabilityandgrowthofbusinessenterprises.
Theenterpriseoutputandprofitlevelsaremainlyinfluencedbythesizeof
thebusiness.Sizeofthebusinessesornumberofbirdshousedisdetermined
bythecapitalavailabletothefarmer,anditisrelatedtotheprofitaimedat
bytheoperation.Itiscommontonotethatmostoftheenterprisesdonotlast
foralongperiod,evenwhentheydo,thescaleofproductionseemstobethe
same for a long time. (Hamidu et al. 2007) noted that many people have
embarkedonsmallscalebusinessenterprisesthatwereabandonedhalfway

145

or died prematurely due to poor feasibility study, poor financing, poor

accounting,poormanagementandunstablegovernmentpolicesthatdonot
favoursuchbusinesses.
Poor performance of small scale poultry business enterprise in Nigeria
especially, can be assessed by the annual level of profit of the enterprise.
Sincesomeenterprisesdonotlastforalongtime,itispossiblethattheprofit
levelachievableisnotgoodenoughtoenabletheentrepreneurtoremainin
thebusinessforalongtime.Certainchallengesareresponsibleforthepoor
performanceofthebusinessesandeffectsontheenterpriseproductivity,and
profitisaneconomicproblemthatneedscriticalexamination.
Previous studies had focused on operational activities and their efficiencies
andexhaustivestudyisyettobeconductedonthecriticalchallengesofthese
enterprisesinthearea.Thisstudy,therefore,attemptstoexaminethecritical
challengesofsmallscalepoultrybusinessenterpriseinOyoState.

1.2Objectives
The general objective of the study is to examine the critical challenges of
smallscalepoultrybusinessenterpriseinruraleconomyofOyoState.
Thespecificobjectivesinclude:
1 toidentifythesocioeconomiccharacteristicsoftherespondents.
2 toidentifytherequirementsforeffectivepoultryenterpriseinthestudy
area.
3 toestimatetheprofitlevelofeachfarm.
4 to estimate the effects of the challenges on the profit level of the
enterprise.
5 toestimatethedeterminantsofinefficienciesinthefarmenterprise.

2.0LiteratureReview
2.1MeaningofSmallscaleEnterprise
SmallandmediumscaleenterprisesSMEsarevariouslydefinedorclassified
on the basis of the amount of investment in assets, total turnover and the
number of employees. Within this framework, the classification as Small
and Medium naturally differs from one economy to another and between
periods in the economy. In Nigeria, like other developing economies, the

146

classification, in addition to Small and Medium includes Micro scale

enterprises. Different institutions in Nigeria normally classify SMEs
differently(Akabueze2002).
The institutions are the National Councils of Industries (NCI), under the
Federal Ministry of industries, the Central bank of Nigeria (CBN), the
National Economic Reconstruction Fund (NERFUND), and the National
Association of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (NASME). The
classifications are revised periodically to suit the emerging economic
realities.
Table2.1: Classification of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises by
InstitutioninNigeria

Asset Annualturnover
value(Nm)
(Nm)

Institutions

MSESSEMIE
<200<50<1
<150<1NA
NA<10NA
NA<40<1
<50<50>1

NCI
CBN
NERFUND
NASSI
NASME

MSESSEMIE
NANANA
<150<1NA
<1NA<40
<1NA<40
<1<500<1000

Numberof
employees
MSESSEMIE
<300<100<10
<100<50NA
NANANA
NA335NA
<100<50<10

Source:AdaptedfromNIPC(2001)

Table2.2:ClassificationofSmallscaleEnterprise
Microenterprise

Small
enterprise

Mediumenterprise

<10

1050

50100

CentralBankof
Nigeria(CBN)

<50

<100

NationalAssociation
0fSmallScaleIndustries
(NASSI)

<40

InternationalFinance
Corporation(IFC)

Source:Akabueze(2002)

147

Table2.3:AssetBased(excludingRealEstate)Classification
Organisation

Smallenterprise

Mediumenterprise

IFC

<$2.5million

CBN

<N1million

<N150million

NASSI

<N40million

FederalMinistryof
Industry

<N50million

<N200million

NationalEconomic
ReconstructionFund
(NERFUND)

<N10million

Source:InternationalFinanceCorporation(IFC)(2001inAkabueze2002)

2.2SmallandMediumScaleEnterprisesinOtherCountries
Smallandmediumscaleenterprises(SMEs)areusuallyreferredtoasSmall
Businessesindevelopedeconomies,andtheyhavecontributedtothegrowth
and development of these economies, especially in terms of employment,
contributiontoGrossDomesticProduct(GDP),export,etcetera.Forinstance
intheUnitedStatesofAmerica(USA),smallbusinessisseenasameansfor
enhanced economic opportunity, innovation and growth. Also, it is
commonlyacceptedthatthereisaroleintheU.Seconomyforindependent
enterprisesthatstaysmall.

USA currently has a small business sector that has about 22 million
enterprises, generating more than a half of the countrys GDP, employing
about 53 per cent of the total private workforce, and is responsible for
creating majority of all new jobs. Of the 3.3 million jobs created in 1994,
smallscaleindustriesandbusinessenterprisesproducedanestimated62per
cent(Ogunleye2004).AlsoinChina,thenumberoftownshipenterprises(as
SMEs are called) increased from 1.52 million in 1978 to 19 million in 1991.
Duringthisperiodtheiremployeesincreasedfrom28millionto96million.
They equally employed 22.3 per cent of the total rural labour force. The
greatest value addition has even occurred in the developing economies
wheretheSMEshavebecomethebedrockofdevelopment.Thisisespecially
true in the Middle East and Asian regions. For instance, in Iran, the small
and medium enterprises sector contributed more than 62 per cent of
industrialoutputandmorethan75percentoftotalemploymentin1996.

148

Similarly in Israel, SMEs accounted for 97 per cent of Israels enterprises in

1996,employingsome50percentofthecountrysworkforce.Recently,4,500
new jobs were created in the sector through assistance given to new
immigrants. Over 50,000 people have been assisted in opening their
businesses,andthereisahighrecordoftakeoffsuccess(estimatedatmore
than70%)ofsmallbusinessesafteroneyearofoperation.Ofgreaterimpact
is the contribution of SMEs to growth and development of the Indian
economy.IndiatookadvantageofIndustrialPolicyResolutionsof1949and
paid more attention to the development of Small Scale Industries (SSIs).
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, they offered the sector subsidies,
reservations and direct support. Over the years, SSIs have growth all over
India. The Sector comprises tiny units, small scale industrial undertakings,
smallscale services and business enterprises, exportoriented units, and
womenentrepreneursenterprises(WEE),alltotalling3.1millionunits,asat
endof19981999.TheadvancementofJapanintheworldeconomyismostly
credited to the success and planned development of its small and medium
enterprisessector.InJapanspecialbenefitsandstrongsupportwasprovided
toSMEsinordertoenablethemtobeselfsufficientandprovidenecessary
backbonetotheeconomy.

2.3ProblemsofSmallscaleBusinessEnterpriseinNigeria
Smallscale producers (SRPs) confront serious constraints in profiting from
their resources due to lack of basic infrastructure,limited access to services
for production, finance and business development and limited ability to
influencefavourablepolicy(Lundyetal.2002).
Olayemi (2008) observed that private investment in agriculture in both
primary production and processing (value added) is currently low. Factors
contributing to the low level of investment include high risk of investment
caused by partly policy uncertainty, low investor confidence in the sector,
highproductioncost,insecurityoflandtenure,insufficientinstitutionaland
infrastructural support (roads, national railway network, electricity, and
storage facilities), poor access to business credit and a generally
unfavourablebusinessclimate. Lundyetal.(2002)suggestedthatstrategies
for improving rural economy through smallscale industry establishment
shouldincludethefollowing:

149

Microcreditloan

RemovingInstitutionalbottlenecks

Ruralinfrastructuraldevelopment

Astablemacroeconomicenvironment,providingbasicinfrastructure
(electricity, water, roads, telecommunications, etc), political and
socialstability.

2.4RuralEconomy
Ruralimpliesitscomplement,Urban.Togethertheyconstitutethecomplex
unityofsocietyviewfromaspatialangle(Gilbert1982).Geographically,the
rural population is situated in the country side, while the urban is in the
town or city. In Nigeria rural areas are characterised with the absence or
inadequate basic social amenities while urban areas are known to have
modernsocialamenities.
Economy is considered as an orderly use of a given resource to produce
goods and services. Therefore, rural agriculture, other rural offfarm
enterprisesandrurallifeareidentifiedasthemajorcomponentsoftherural
economy(Tyleretal.1993).

Table2.4: PopulationEstimateofRuralandUrbanSocieties,accordingto
MajorAreasoftheWorld,1994(Thousands)
Majorareas
Rural

Urban

Ruralpopulation
(%)

3,109,122

2520510

55.0

468,680

239604

66.2

2,244,111

1159325

65.9

Europe

194,042

532306

26.7

LatinAmerica&
Caribbean

124618

348923

27.0

NorthAmerica

69,324

220574

23.9

Oceania

8,347

19776

29.7

Worldtotal
Africa
Asia

Population

Source:UNO,1995inEbii2000

ThepercentageofruralpopulationoftheworldisthehighestinAfricawhile
comparedwiththefigureinothercontinentoftheworld.

150

3.0StudyAreaandResearchMethodology
3.1StudyArea
This study was carried out in Ido local government area of Oyo State. It is
one of the 774 local government created in May, 1989 from the former
Akinyele West Local Government Area. The local government area is
bounded in the West by Ibarapa LGA. In the East, by Ibadan North LGA,
SouthbyIbadanNorthWestLGA,SouthWestlocalgovernmentandOdeda
localgovernmentofOgunStateandNorthbyAkinyeleLGA.Theestimated
population of the local government area based on 2006 census was 86, 665
people (Ido LGA Handbook 2008). The main occupation of the people is
farming.
3.1.1Sourcesofdata
Dataforthestudywerecollectedfromtwomainsources:
PrimarySourceincludeddatageneratedfromobservation,personalinterview
andstructuredquestionnaires.
Secondary Source involved libraries, information from internet, previous
literature, such as journal publication, textbooks, previous studies of other
researches on closely related topics, seminar papers and other publication
relevanttothestudy.

3.2Methodology
Themethodadoptedforsamplingprocedurewaspurposiveselectionoftwo
locationsintheIdoLGAwheresmallscaleagrobusinessactivitiesexist.The
community includes Ideya community and Akufo farm settlement. Thirty
five small scale poultry farmers were selected from Ideya and Akufo farm
giving a total of seventy farmers. Only sixty questionnaires were retrieved
anddataanalysiswasbasedonthesixtyrespondents.
3.2.1Analyticaltechnique
Theanalyticaltechniquesadoptedinthestudyaredescriptivestatisticsand
stochastic profit frontier model. This tool was used in estimating the
contribution of production inputs to the firm profit and at the same time
measures the effects of profit inefficiencies on the enterprise. The frontier
production function differs from the OLS estimation in the error term. The

151

error term is divided into two parts, a symmetric random error associated
withmeasurementerror,randomnoiseandcontributionofomittedvariables
fromthemodel,andanonnegativerandomerrorassociatedwithtechnical
efficiencies of production. It was further used to determine that each
enterprise profit at frontier level and the determined profit at frontier were
subsequently subjected to further analysis which measured the inefficient
levelsandeffectsontheprofitlevel.Themodelwasused(Kolawole2006)to
estimatetheefficiencyfrontierandalsotocalculatethefirmstechnical,cost
andprofitefficiencyrelativetoit.
Theestimateforallparametersofthestochasticfrontierprofitfunctionand
the inefficiency model are simultaneously obtained using the programme
Frontierversion4.1C(Coelli1996).
The data generated were further subjected to OLS double log regression
analysistodeterminetherelationshipbetweenthefarmersgrossmarginand
the some relevant inputs used in the raising of the birds; the OLS analysis
was used to determine the level of significant of the determinants of
the gross margin analysis and to determine the goodness of fit of the
regressionline.
3.2.2Modelspecification
GM=Inbo+B1X1+B2InX2+B3InX3+B4InX4+B5InX5+B6InX6+ViUi.........(1)
Vij=assumesindependentandidenticallydistributedrandomerrorswhich
havedistributionwithmeanzeroandvariance.
Uij=nonnegativerandomvariancetomeasureprofitinefficiencyeffects.
WhereY=GrossMargininBroilerEnterprise
Where Gross Margin = Total Revenue minus Total Variable Cost of
production
Bo=Intercept
X1

= Costoffeedperkg(N)

X2

= Costoftransportpertripinnaira

X3

= AveragepriceofDOCinnaira

152

X4

= Costofmedication/VetServicesperyearinnaira

X5

= Costofbrooding(energy)/birdinnaira

X6

= Costoflabourperproductioncycleinnaira

Vij

= Error

Uij

= 0+1inZ1+2inZ2+3inZ3+4inZ4+5inZ5.....................(2)

WhereUijrepresentsthegrossmarginefficiencyoftheijthfarmer
Z1

= Ageinnumber

Z2

= Educationinyears

Z3

= Farmingexperienceinnumber

Z4

= Householdsizeinnumber

Z5

= Roadconditionindummy

LayersEnterprise:
WhereY=GrossMargininLayersEnterprise
Bo

= Intercept

X1

= Costoffeedperkg(N)

X2

= Costoftransportpertripinnaira

X3

= Averagepriceofbirdatpointoflay(POT)innaira

X4

= Costofmedication/VetServicesperyearinnaira

X5

= Costofbrooding(energy)/birdinnaira

X6

= Costoflabourperproductioncycleinnaira

Vij

= Error

Uij

= 0+1inZ1+2inZ2+3inZ3+4inZ4+5inZ5.......................(2)

WhereUijrepresentstheefficiencyoftheijthfarmer
Z1

= Ageinnumber

Z2

= Educationinyears

153

Z3

= Farmingexperienceinnumber

Z4

= Householdsizeinnumber

Z5

= RoadConditionindummy

Themaximumlikelihoodestimatesoftheandcoefficientsinequation
(1) and (2) respectively was estimated simultaneously using the computer
programmeFrontier4.1(CoelliandBattase1994).
Thevarianceofrandomerrors,O2andthatoftheprofitinefficiencyeffectsr2
and overall variance of the model are related this = Ov + u ,
2

measure the total variation of profit from the Frontier which can be
attributedtoprofitinefficiency.
3.2.3Analyticalframework
Oneoftheinstrumentsusedtomeasuretheperformanceofthefirmisthe
profit level of the enterprise. Since the firm objective is to maximise profit.
Therefore, inability of farms to make high profit could be seen as poor
performance.Thepoorperformanceorfirminefficiencyismainlyasaresult
of critical challenges of such enterprise. Profit inefficiency and how it is
measured is an important issue in developing countries agriculture. The
more recent development of profit function models has allowed the testing
ofdifferencesinaverageallocativeandaveragetechnicalefficiencybetween
groups of producers (Yotopoulos and lau 1979). However, these models do
notprovideanumericalmeasureoffarmefficiency(Aigneretal.1977).
Broadly, three quantitative approaches are developed for measuring
productive efficiency parametric (deterministic and stochastic),
nonparameter based on Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), and
productivityindicesbasedongrowthaccountingandindextheoryprinciples
(Coellietal.1998).
TheFrontiershowsthebestperformanceobservedamongthefirmsanditis
consideredastheefficientfrontier.AstrongpointofSFAisthatittakesinto
account measure errors and other noise in the data. This profit is very
importantforstudiesoffarmleveldataindevelopingeconomylikeNigeria
asdatagenerallyincludemeasurementerrors.

154

The SFA, which is also referred to as the econometric frontier approach,

specifies the relationship between output and input levels and decomposes
the error term into component: (a) a random error and (b) an inefficiency
component. The random error which is assumed to follow a symmetric
distribution is the traditional normal error term with zero mean and a
constant variance while the inefficiency term is assumed to follow an
asymmetric distribution and may be expressed as a halfnormal, truncated
normalexponentialortwoparametergammadistribution.
This study adopted the approach used by Ali and Flinn (1989) to estimate
farm profit inefficiency directly from a stochastic frontier profit function.
Withinprofitfunctioncontent,profitinefficiencyisdefinedastheinabilityof
a farm to achieve the highest possible profit with the prices and levels of
fixedinputsofthatfarm.Thisstudyadoptedthestochasticfrontierofprofit
model to estimate the level of profit at each firm level. The firm challenges
are the computed or measured as the profit inefficiency. Ohajianya et al.
(2006) used a profit frontier model to isolate the determinants of the
observed profit inefficiency. This was used to estimate farm profit
inefficiency directly from a stochastic frontier function. Within a profit
function content, profit inefficiency is defined as the inability of a farm to
achievethehighestpossibleprofitwiththepricesandlevelsoffixedinputs
ofthethatfarm.

4.0ResultsandDiscussions
The result on socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents in table 1
revealedthatthedominantagelimitoftherespondentsinthestudyareaof
thebroilersandlayersenterpriseswerebetween3140agelimitwith50per
centand43.3percentrespectively.Thestudyalsorevealedthatmajorityof
the respondents educational qualification (broilers and layers) were first
degreewith56.7percentand46.7percentrespectively.
The size of the household as showed in the study was dominated by
householdsizebetween46with80percentand66.7percentinbroilersand
layers enterprises respectively. This number excludes extended family
dependents.

155

Table4.1:SocioeconomicCharacteristicsoftheRespondents
Range

Age
2030
3140
4150
5160
Education
Primary
PostPrimary
N.C.E/Diploma
Firstdegree
Higherdegree
HouseholdSize
13
46
710
FarmingExp.
010
1120
2130
Total

Broilersenterprise
Freq.
RelativeFreq.

15
50
9
30
6
20

3
10
6
20
17
56.7
4
13.3

3
10
24
80
3
10

26
86.7
1
3.3
3
10
30
100

Layersenterprise
Freq.
RelativeFreq.

13
43.3
7
23.3
10
33.3

4
13.3
10
33.3
14
46.7
2
6.7

8
26.7
20
66.7
2
6.7

24
80
1
3.3
2
6.7
30
100

Source:FieldSurvey2008

The result on the farming experience of the respondents revealed that

percentage of those that spent 0 10 years in broiler and layers enterprises
was86.7percentand80percentrespectively.Itisimpliedthatmajorityof
therespondentshadspentatleast10yearsinpoultrybusiness.
AveragePricesRangeofProducts:
1crateofegg

= N450.00N550.00

DOCperone

= N90N150.00

Pointoflay

= N700.00N1200.00

Oldlayer

= N500.00N700.00

Lifeweightbroiler = N800.00N1200.00
Cockerel

= N800.00N1000.00

156

Feedingtrough

= N170.00N200.00

Drinkers

= N150.00N200.00

Trayfeeders

= N90.00N120.00

Hangingfeeder

= N170.00N200.00

Averagepriceper50kg=N1500N3000.00
Averageof1bagofcharcoal= N700.00N800.00

Table4.2:TheRequirementsforEffectiveOperationsoftheAgro
BusinessEnterpriseAccordingtoImportance
Type
Rawmaterial/feeds
Appropriateequipment/
Technology
Labour
Accesstocreditfacilities
Marketforproduct
BasicInfrastructure
Governmentpolicy
Informationandtraining
Total

Frequency
45
20

Percentage
19.1
8.5

Ranked
1st
4th

35
45
10
45
25
10
235

14.8
19.1
4.3
19.1
10.6
4.3
100

2nd
1st
5th
1st
3rd
5th

Note:*MultipleResponses.
Source:FieldSurvey2008

The study identified the above factors as the basic requirements for the
effectiveoperationsofsmallscalepoultryfarminthestudyarea.Thestudy
revealed that raw materials, capital and basic infrastructure such as
electricity,waterandroadaremajorrequirementforeffectiveoperationsof
the enterprises in the study area and ranked first position having 19.1 per
cent. Labour was also required for the effective operations of the business
enterprises and ranked second with 14.8 per cent. Government policy
ranked third asa necessary requirement foroperating poultry enterprisein
the study area having 10.6 per cent. Respondents were of the view that
appropriate equipment was necessary for the effective business operations,
anditrankedfourthwith8.5percent.Marketinformationandreadymarket
fortheproductarerequiredfortheeffectiveoperationsofthebusinessand
wasranked5thpositionhavingonly4.3percent.

157

The result from the study is an indication that basic infrastructure, capital,
rawmaterialsandfeedswereneededforeffectiveoperationsofthebusiness,
andtheyarefoundtobethechallengesinthepoultryenterprise.
Table4.3:OlsandMleEstimatesofProfitFunctionfor
PoultryFarmsinOyoState
OLSbroilers
Para
meter

MLSbroilers

Coefficient

Standard
error

tratio

Para Coefficient
meter

Standard
error

tratio

Bo

o.73749967

0.23871264 0.30894873 Bo

0.73575535 0.98349446

0.74810319

B1

0.54341595

0.28595434 0.23136277

B1

0.53553476 0.59021969

0.90734817

B2

0.35018384

0.15135704 0.23136277

B2

0.36338322

0.3122663

0.11638444

B3

0.324540021 0.145911101 0.22242312

B3

0.32427171

0.67986802 0.47696274

B4

0.13214131

0.14456174 0.91408221 B4

0.14803928 0.18401331

B5

0.48548939

0.59141678

0.69633252

B6

0.77747661

0.51343695 0.15142554 B6

Z0

Z0

Z1

Z1

0.22886293 0.21093546

Z2

Z2

0.18375214

Z3

Z3

0.57019387 0.66116282

Z4

Z4

0.1031657

0.11017500

Z5

Z5

0.270401

0.17392518 0.15552098

Sigma
sq

0.8208921

Note:*Significantat5percent.
Source:ComputedfromFieldSurvey2008

158

B5

0.80450313

0.97324548 0.71547470

0.98878325 0.83808309
048319039. 0.1252238

0.11798153
.0.38586121
0.10849903

0.21355826 0.86043097

0.12472034 0.31456590

0.86241067
0.910520

0.39648398

Table4.4: OlsandMleEstimatesofProfitFunctionforPoultry
FarmsinOyoState
OLSlayers
Parameter Coefficient

Standard
error

MLSlayers
tratio
Para Coefficient
meter

Standard
error

tratio

Bo

0.7552942 0.13103957 0.57638634

Bo

0.80074085 0.91937536 0.87096183

B1

0.13723762 0.22780422 0.60243669

B1

0.12595586 0.14596603 0.86291214

B2

0.29563902 0.26956026 0.10967455

B2

0.14116041 0.17816078 0.79232035

B3

0.18114051 0.10154252 0.17838883

B3

0.25145884 0.6812180

B4

0.54661246 0.17418158 0.3138176

B4

0.45514461 0.11854634 0.38393814

B5

0.46253769 0.17989330 0.25711780

B5

0.28827883 0.16256146 0.17733528

B6

0.10260315 0.18059868 0.56812791

B6

0.11559780 0.14476836 0.79850180

0.98490487

Sigma.sq

0.3676443

Z0

Z0

.040374573 0.12159335 0.33204589

Z1

Z1

0.41671636 0.26333258 0.15824717

Z2

Z2

0.12397520 0.89411457 0.13865695

Z3

Z3

0.55874914 0.36005435 0.15518467

Z4

Z4

0.44582079 0.1093295

Z5

Z5

Sigma.sq
Gamma

0.40779791

0.13172926 0.15505328 0.84957414

0.98490487

Note:*Significantat5percent.
Source:ComputedfromFieldSurvey2008

The analysis on the gross margin function model using frontier production
modelforbroilerenterpriserevealedthatthecoefficientsofquantityoffeed,
cost of medication/veterinary services and labour had positive relationship
with the amount of gross margin of the farmers but were not statistically
significant.ThisisinconformitywithAdepojuetal.(2007)whichfoundthat
there was a positive relationship on output of birds with feed and labour.
Thepositivesigninfeedconsumedbythebirdssuggeststhatincreaseinthe
quantityoffeedmayincreasethegrossmarginofthefarmers.Thepositive
sign of money spent on medication implied that adequate and improved
medicationwilllikelyincreaseyieldofthebirdsasfewmaydieasresultof
improvedmedicationwhilecostoftransportation,dayoldchickandcostof

159

broodingwerenegativerelatedtothegrossmarginofthefarmersandwere
not statistically significant. This is contrary to the finding of Adepoju et al.
(2007) that size of flock and brooding were positively related to the output
ofbirds.
In the layers enterprise, the result revealed that cost of point of lay,
medication, cost of energy and labour were positively related to the gross
margin level of the firm but were statistically insignificant. The negative
values of the coefficients of estimated parameters such as cost of feed and
transport on the gross margin was revealed in the study and were all
statistically insignificant. The implication of this is that an increase in these
variablesmaytendtoreducethegrossmarginlevelofthefirm.Thereforeif
theyarereducedfarbelowtheirpresentlevel,theywillsignificantlyreduce
grossmargininefficiencyinpoultryenterpriseinthestudyarea.
Theanalysisoftheinefficiencyusingthefrontiermodelwasallstatistically
insignificantinvariablesbothinthebroilersandlayersfarms.Thesignsand
coefficients in the inefficiency model and result are interpreted in the
opposite way such that a negative sign means the variable increases
efficiency and versa. Therefore, variables in the inefficiency model having
negative coefficient means that an increase of such variable in the firm
productionislikelyleadtoanincreaseinefficiencylevel.Thereforeincrease
in the (level of formal education, household size and road condition will
increase efficiency level of the broiler farmers. The positive sign of age and
years of experience of the respondents in the boiler farmers will likely
increases the enterprise inefficiency. The positive coefficient of age implied
thatincreaseintheyearoftherespondentsdecreasesefficiencyofthefarm
enterprise. This iscontrary to the work of Abdulailand Huffman (1988)on
thenegativecoefficientofeducationlevelinleveloffirminefficiencyandin
agreement with Kumbhakar and Bhattacharya (1992b). The positive
coefficient of age on the firm inefficiency was in agreement to the work of
Kolawole 2006) while household size and road condition were negatively
relatedtothefarmersgrossmargin.
The inefficiency coefficient in poultry layer farm enterprise that showed
positivesignswereage,farmingexperienceandhouseholdsize.Incontrast,
years of level of education and road condition were negatively to farmers
efficiency level. Increase in the variables with negative signs increases
efficiency or contributes to less inefficiency in the gross margin level of the

160

poultry farm. It is implied that as these value increases, gross margin

inefficiency will decrease. The positive sign in the years of experience in
farming, age of the farmers and household size means that these variables
decreaseefficiencyandthereforeincreaseinefficiency.
The challenges which have the great impact on the inefficiency level were
classifiedtobethecriticalones.Thesevariablesareimportantdeterminants
ofefficiencyduetothegreatimpacttheymakeongrossmarginlevel.
Table4.5:FrequencyDistributionofProfitEfficiency
Range(%)
0110
1120
2130
Mean
Minimum
Maximum

Broilers
Freq.Relativefreq.
27
90
3
10
0
0
10.2%
10%
11%

Layers
Freq.Relativefreq.
1
3.3
27
90
2
6.7

13.8%

10.4%

27.2%

Source:FieldSurvey2008

The result from the analysis shows that 90 per cent of the broiler farmers
wereabletoachieveaprofitefficiencybetween010percentandonly10per
centoftherespondentswereabletoachieveprofitefficiencybetween1121
per cent. The mean profit efficiency of broilers enterprise was 10.2 per cent
with a minimum of 10 per cent and maximum of 11 per cent while in the
layers enterprise, 3.3 per cent of the respondents were able to achieve
between 010 per cent ranges of profit, 90 per cent of the respondents
achievedlevelbetween1120percent.Onlyabout6.7percentofthelayers
enterprisewasabletooperateattheprofitefficiencylevelof2130percent.
The study also revealed a profit efficiency of mean of 13.8 per cent with
minimum of 10.4 per cent and maximum of 27.2 per cent. The efficiency
meanof10.2percentinbroilersfarmand13.8percentinlayersfarmdepicts
thatthepoultrylayersenterpriseismoreefficientinitsoperationalactivities.
Thelowmeanofprofitefficiencyinthebroilersfarmisanindicationofpoor
performance.Thisconfirmsthattherearechallengesfacingtheenterprisein
thestudyarea.

161

4.1ResultofDoubleLogRegressionAnalysis
Variables
Bo
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6
MultipleR
Rsquare
AdjustedR

Broilers
Coefficient Standard
error
683.28
7.63
0.19
2.63
0.11
0.78
0.88
0.75
0.56
0.44

tstat

Variables

2.28
2.65
3.91
1.58
1.66
1.78
0.80
2.27

Bo
X1
X2
X3

299.89
2.88
0.05
1.58
0.06
0.98
0.39

X4
X5
X6
MultipleR
Rsquare
AdjustedR

Layers
Co
Standard tstat
efficient
error
7.55
1.37
0.30
0.18

1.31
0.22
0.27
0.10

5.76
6.02
1.10
1.78

0.55
0.46
0.10
0.93
0.86
0.26

0.17
0.18
0.18

3.13
2.57
0.57

Source:DataAnalysis2009

Theresultofthedoubleloganalysisofthebroilerfarmersrevealedthatcost
of feed, cost of medication and veterinary service and cost of labour were
positively related to the gross margin of the farmers and were statistically
significantat5percent.Theimplicationisthatincreaseinthevariableswill
increasethegrossmarginofthefarmerswhereascostoftransportation,cost
ofdayoldchickandcostofenergywerenegativelycorrelatedtotheamount
ofgrossmarginofthefarmers.Itisimpliedthatincreasingtheamountofthe
variables will reduce the amount of gross margin of the farmers. Therefore
farmers gross margin will likely increase if the determinants; such as feed,
medication and labour are increased. The result also showed a multiple R
squareof74.7percentimplyingthatcoefficientexplainedabout74.7percent
ofwereexplainedbytheindependentvariableswhichmeansthatmodelhad
agoodnessoflinefitoftheregressionline.
4.1.1Theregressionanalysisofthelayersfarmersgrossmargin
The result of OLS analysis in layers enterprise revealed that cost of
transportation,pointoflay,medicationandcostofenergyforbroodingwere
positively related to the gross margin of the farmers, only medication and
amountofmoneyspentonenergywerestatisticallysignificantat5percent.
Whilecostfeedingandmoneyspentonlabourhadnegativerelationshipand
costfeedingwassignificantat5percent.

162

5.0ConclusionandRecommendations
5.1Conclusion
Thestudyrevealedthatrawmaterials,capitalandbasicinfrastructuresuch
aselectricity,waterandroadaremajorrequirementforeffectiveoperations
oftheenterprisesinthestudyareaandrankedfirstpositionhaving19.1per
cent among other basic requirement for operating poultry business in the
studyarea.
Thestudyalsorevealedthatmajorityoftherespondentswereofagelimit31
40 years with mainly holders of first degree and had family size of 46
householdsize.
Since the result from the production frontier model was virtual statistical
insignificant,theresultoftheOLSdoubleanalysisispreferredforthisstudy
because, it is statistically significant. The values of the coefficients of
estimatedparameterssuchasfeed,medication,amountspentonlabourwere
revealedtobepositivelyrelatedtogrossmarginofthefarmersinthebroiler
enterprise. Whereas determinants such as, cost of day old chick, cost of
labour, and amount on brooding were negatively positive related to the
grossmarginlevel.
In the layers enterprise, the result revealed that cost of point of lay,
medication, cost of energy and labour were positively related to the gross
marginlevelofthefarmersbutwerestatisticallyinsignificant.Thenegative
values of the coefficients of estimated parameters such as cost of feed and
transport on the gross margin was revealed in the study and were all
statistically insignificant. The implication of this is that an increase in these
variablesmaytendtoreducethegrossmarginlevelofthefirm.Thereforeif
theyarereducedfarbelowtheirpresentlevel,theywillsignificantlyreduce
grossmargininefficiencyinpoultryenterpriseinthestudyarea.
The result from the analysis shows that 63 per cent of the broiler farmers
wereabletoachieveprofitefficiencybetween1020percent.Themeanprofit
efficiencyofbroilersenterprisewas20percentwithaminimumof11.5per
centandmaximumof40percentwhileinthelayersenterprise,86.7percent
oftherespondentswereabletoachieveprofitrangebetween5160percent
ranges of profit. Only about 13.3 of the layers enterprises were able to
operate at the profit efficiency level of 6170 per cent while the mean

163

efficiency level was 56.1 per cent with a minimum of 51.9 per cent and
maximumefficiencyof61percent.
Thecoefficientoftheprofitinefficientidentifiedaschallengesofthepoultry
enterprise in the study area were level of education, age of respondents,
yearsofexperienceintheenterprise,accesstothevolumeofcredit.etc.The
challenges which have the great impact on the inefficiency level were
classified to be the critical. The ones the effect can increase the profit
efficiencyweresaidtobecritical.
5.2Recommendations
Sincetheefficiencylevelofthefirmisstillverylowduetotheeffectsof
the challenges of the enterprise profit level. The following suggestions
aremadetoimprovethepoultryfarmenterpriseprofitlevel:
1. Small scale poultry farmers should increase quantity and quality of
feed of the birds, since the cost of feeding shown positive
relationshiptothegrossmarginofthefarmers.
2. The use of proper and improve medication on the birds should be
adopted to increase the poultry output in order to increase revenue
fromthefarm.
3. Government should assist small scale poultry farmers by giving
subsidyinfeed,medicationaswellasimprovingtheroadcondition
inthestudyarea.
4. Smallscale enterprise owners should form functional cooperative
associationtoenablethemacquiresomeofthefacilitiesthatwillhelp
toreducecostofproduction.

164

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166

AsiaPacificJournalofRuralDevelopment
Vol.XIX,No.2,December2009

PractitionersPaper
LandReformsinBihar,India:
AnUnfinishedAgenda
MadhulikaSingh*

Abstract
EversinceIndiaattainedindependence,LandReformhasbeenadvocatedandeffort
wasmadetoimplementitasamajorinstrumentofstatemediatedandprogressive
socioeconomic change. The primary objective of land reform was to remove the
structuralanomaliesintheruraleconomyofthestate,whichhasbeengeneratedby
thepreindependenceagrarianrelation.Thepermanentsettlementintroducedbythe
colonial government in 1793 concentrated proprietary sights in the hands of
zamindars,andwipedoutpeasantsholdoverland.Thedistributionoflandrights
duringthecolonialperiodremainedthemainbasisofeconomicdifferentiationinthe
rural areas. The miserable plight of the peasants of Bihar were highlighted by
Gandhi at the national level during Champaran Movement in 1917. Later on
from 1929 Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha led by the powerful peasant leader
SahzanadaSaraswatiandothersocialistleadersmobilisedpeasantstofightfortheir
socioeconomic issues of rent reduction, land to the tillers and abolition of
landlordism. After independence the question of land reforms, as a fundamental
condition for economic development assumed high priority at policymaking level
bothatthecentreandinthestate.TheBiharLegislativeAssemblywasthe firstto
come out with legislation on land reforms. Bihar land reform act of 1950 called
zamindariabolitionactwastoeliminateintermediariesandforsecuringlandrights
forerstwhileriots.ItalsowentaheadwithTenancyReformAct,impositionofland
ceilingandconsolidationofholdings.Theabolitionofintermediarieswasundertaken
inphaseswhichcontinuedtill1956.Inthefirstphaseallintermediarieshavinggross
annual income exceeding Rs.50,000/ were abolished. In the 2nd and 3rd phase,
intermediariesuptoRs.50,000/indifferentdistrictswereabolished.Biharsdismal
performance in land reform measures is due to unsystematic upkeep and
management of record of rights of landholding and utilisation of institutions like
legislative assembly, law courts and bureaucracy by the socially, economically
dominant landholders to maintain there interests. For better productivity,
continuousplanningforlandandwatermanagementisrequired.Intheabsenceof
political will and commitment on the part of the bureaucracy, the people of Bihar
have to rise up for the demand of reforms which would usher in successful rural
development.
*

Lecturer,DepartmentofHistory,UniversityofJammu,India.

167

1.0 Introduction
LandReformisacriticalissuetothenationaleconomyanditsbenefitisnot
onlyrestrictedtopeasantsbutalsotothenationasawhole.Itsfocusisnot
only on land ownership pattern, agricultural production, rapid economic
development and social progress rather it is also connected with the
developmentofproductiveforcesforindustrialexpansion.
The primary objective of the land reform was to remove the structural
anomaliesintheruraleconomyofthestatewhichhadbeengeneratedfrom
thepreindependenceagrariansetup.So,abriefaccountofcolonialagrarian
systemanditsimpactonagrarianrelationsisnecessarytodiscusstohavea
properperspectiveontheissue.

2.0ColonialAgrarianSysteminIndia
During the colonial period, Indian agricultural land was administrated
under three systems zamindari, Mahalwari and Raiyatwari. Of which
zamindarisystemcoverednearly57percentextendingovertheprovincesof
Bihar,Bengal,Orissa,Nr.Madras,easternU.P.andpartsofAssam.Itcreated
unprotective tenants, subtenant, sharecroppers who did not have any
security over the land they cultivated.1 Between the zamiandars and the
tillers,therewasaparasiticallayerofintermediariesnumberingupto50in
some places. This parasitical layer used to collect 7.7 times the intended
revenue in Bihar 2. Zamindars had a fixed tax to pay to the colonial
government, which was permanently fixed in 1793.3 This permanent
settlement turned zamindars who were merely collectors of revenue for the
state in precolonial days, into proprietors of land and wiped out in one
strokethepeasantsindefeasiblerighttooccupylandaslongatheycultivate
it.Theybecametenantsatwillunderthelaw,after1793andweretotally
vulnerable.4
Theconditionofthepeasantsfurtherworsenedbytheordinancepassedby
thegovernmentin1799,whichgavethelandlordsincaseofnonpaymentof
rent, the right of distrain on their own authority, the belongings of their
tenants,andparticularlycrops,cattleandagriculturalimplementscouldbe
putforsale.Theirlandcouldbeconfiscatedandrightofoccupancysold.The
regulationplacedthepeasantsatthemercyofthelandlords.5

168

Besides insecurity of tenure, landlords arbitrariness in enhancing rents,

exactions and complete disregard of the rights of peasants made their
conditionpatheticinBihar.6
Moreover, their gravest handicap was the absence of authentic document
(rentreceiptsbythelandlords,recordofrights)withwhichtobuilduptheir
caseinthecourt.Patwariswhokeptthevillagelandrecordwereinfluenced
by zamindars and failed to work independently. Documents which they
produced were often fabricated.7 Moreover, the colonial authority was
reluctant to interfere in the affairs of the zamindarsas long as they paid the
revenueontime.8
Problems enhanced further withzamindars policy of farming their estate to
the intermediaries like thikedars to ease the task of rent collection. This
practice ultimately put immense pressure on the peasants. Their miserable
condition was highlighted when famine broke out in Bihar in 187475. The
IndianFaminecommissionblamedthelandlawsresponsibleforit.9
Further the colonial government, for the improvement in the agrarian
relationsandtoreformtenancysystem,passedBengalTenancyActof1885.
It authorised the provincial Government to conduct survey and settlement
operationsandrecordingofrightsinlandandalsoprohibitedarbitraryrent
enhancement. The Act conferred occupancy rights upon any peasant who
hadcultivatedanylandfortwelveyears. 10ItsSection4institutedthelegal
categories of tenants on the basis of nature of tenure by which they held
lands.Thesewereoccupancytenants(smallholderswhoweremainlyfrom
middle ranking Koeri & Kurmi castes), nonoccupancy tenants (who were
sharecroppersanddidnotenjoytheoccupancyrightsandwereentirelyon
the mercy of the landlords like Santhal bataidars of Purnea belonged to this
category) and landless labourers (belonged to lower caste and had low
socialstatus)11.
Further, British law eroded even the traditional common rights of the
peasants which provided valuable forest, pasture, grazing, hunting and
fishing rights. After 1895, these were recorded as special rights of the
landlords and bolstered landlords control even on the common land12.
Subsequently,landlordsstartedlevyinggrazingfees.By1911,DarbhangaRaj,
oneofthebiggestlandlordsofBihar,waschargingasumof28annasfrom
peasantsasgrazingfees.13

169

Moreover, even after the enactment of Bengal Tenancy Act, the illegal
enhancement of rent by landlords remained practically unchecked
throughout the province. This was testified by the settlement officers of
various districts like saran, champaran, Patna, Shahabad, Gaya, Munghyr,
Bhagalpur.14 A statistical enquiry by E.W. Collins in some select villages of
Mujaffarpur in 188687 indicated increase in rent by 137 per cent, while
cultivationincreasedprobablynotmorethan12percent.15
Similarly,settlementofficerofDarbhangaJ.H.Kerrnotedduring18961903a
100 per cent rise in rent against only 20 per cent increase in cultivation.
16Apart from the continuation of illegal enhancement of rent, levying of
illegalcess,abwabsordastooribyunscrupulouslandlordsandintermediaries
continued to proliferate despite its prohibition by the regulation VIII of
1793.17
Itwasfoundthatduringthefirstdecadeof20thcentury,RamnagarZamindar
inChamparanwaslevyingfeudalcessorabwabsrangingfrom50to60percent
oftherent.Lateritwentupto120percent.TheKisanenquirycommitteein
Gaya District listed 44 types of abwabs or feudal levies imposed on the
peasants,18whichmadetheirlifemiserable.AllmostallthedistrictsofBihar
witnessedsuchbarbarousacts.
Moreover,whenthesehelplesspeasantswerenotabletopaytheexorbitant
rent, they were evicted from the land they cultivated for generations.
Landlords to circumvent the raiyats occupancy rights on land deliberately
evicted them for nonpayment of rents and settled it with short term
tenants.19
Inthefirstquarterofthe20thcenturytheproblemofinsecurityoftenureor
tenancy rights became much more acute in many districts like Shahabad,
Roera in Gaya district, Barahiya tal in Munghyr. Landlords made deliberate
effort against the occupancy rights of the peasants by converting their
originalholdingsintoBakasht, 20,togainprofitfromtheriseinagricultural
prices for themselves. The suppression of tenancy rights by landlords was
reportedandrecordedinalmosteverythanaandthisactrenderedpeasants
joblessandlandless.21
Further, about 90 per cent of the cultivated area of Bihar was held on the
system of produce rent. Under this system, more than half of the produce
wastakenbythelandlordsasrent,whereastenantshadtoundertakeallthe

170

expenditure and labour connected with the cultivation. This system of

producerentwasdirectlyresponsibleforunmotivatedcultivation.22
These long standing miseries and struggle of the peasants of Bihar were
highlightedatanallIndialevelbyGandhiduringtheChamparanmovement
in 1917. Though the Champaran movement led by Gandhi, did not bring
about any revolutionary change in the agrarian set up of Bihar, but the
peasantsweremobilisedasapowerfulforceforassertingtheirrights23.
In 1929, Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (B.P. K. S) was organised by the
Congress to redress the specific grievances of the peasants. Later on under
the presidentship of Swami Sahjanand Saraswati, a powerful Kisan leader,
the B.P.K S started fighting for social economicissues like rent reduction,
landtothetillers&abolitionoflandlordism24.
Further, emergence of Socialist ideology in Bihar in 1931and in 1934onan
all India level and their association with the Kisan Sabha resulted in
adoption of radical programmes for reform in the agrarian sector. The
CongressSocialistparty(CSP)in1934recommendedtransferofallpowersto
theproducingmasses,abolitionofzamindariandallotherclassofexploiters,
redistributionoflandstothepeasants.ThesocialistledKisanSabhaleaders
mobilisedpeasantstoresisttheillegaldemandsoflandlords.25
Moreover, due to constant pressure of the socialist group in the Congress,
economic and agrarian issues were taken up by the congress in its Karachi
andFaizpursessionsin1931,1936,respectively.27
In1937,theCongresswontheelectionbycapturing68outof73seatsofthe
ruralareasduetoCSPKisanSabhasupport&assumedOfficeinBihar.It
gave new hope to the peasants for agrarian reform. In 193738, with the
supportoftheCSPKisanSabha,bakashtstrugglestartedbythepeasantsto
reclaim their land sold for payment of arrears of rent by the landlords.28
Though the Congress Government tried to deal with the situation through
tenancylegislationof193738,butfailedtokeepupthepromisemadeduring
the time of election. Moreover, the Government frequently revealed its tilt
towardsthelandlordclass.29
Hence the tenancy legislation of 193738 could not come up to the
expectations of the peasants. It gave less benefit to the peasants. Its
credibilitywasmuchmorereducedbytermingitastheCongressZamindar

171

pact.30.Againin1946,whentheCongressMinistrywasformedinBihar,the
most burning problem the agrarian issues were taken up as Bakasht
agitationwasagainrevivedin1946.Hencethezamindariabolitioncommittee
wassetuptodealwithit.31

3.0LandReformsinBiharafterIndependence
After independence, land reforms came to be recognised as a fundamental
conditionforeconomicdevelopment.Itassumedahighpriorityatthepolicy
making level both at the centre and in the states. The agrarian policy thus
conceivedwasbroadandcomprehensive.Thiswasreflectedfromthereports
of the Congress Agrarian Reform Committee1949 better known as
KumarappaCommittee.32Thispolicydocumentlaidthebasicframeworkon
which agrarian relations were to be remoulded. In 1948, a major policy
decision was made under the leadership of Vinoba Bhave to launch the
Sarvodaya movement which later assumed the form of BhoodanGramdan
movement. It was an attempt to solve the problem within the Indian
traditionsbyurgingthroughsocialpressurethelandedclassestovoluntarily
surrender a part of their land for the landless. Thus, a movement was
initiated for changing the agrarian structure. Bihar Legislative Assembly
wasthefirsttocomeoutwithlegislationonlandreforms.33

3.1PhasewiseLandReforms
Bihar Land Reform Act 1950 popularly called zamindari abolition Act,
was to eliminate intermediary tenures and for securing land rights for
erstwhileriots.
ItalsowentaheadwithTenancyReformAct,Impositionoflandceilingand
consolidation of holdings. During 195055, the land reform legislation
enactedbyvariousstatesincludingBihar,didnotaimatcomprehensiveland
reformbutattemptedonlytotacklethemostburningproblemexploitation
byzamindars.Thisphaseoflegislativeandadministrativeeffortsforreformis
identifiedasPhaseIofthelandreformmeasures.34
Though the state of Bihar passed several land reform Acts but failed to
implement it properly. The Bihar zamindari abolition Act of 1950 was
challenged by the landlords twice in the court in 195152, but the court
upheldthevalidityoftheActof1950.

172

This Act was to remove the rights of intermediaries in mines, forests,

fisheries,hats&Bazars,Melas&allotherinterest.
However, its section 5, 6, 7, provided for retaining certain interest like all
homesteads of proprietors or tenure holders were to be retained as
occupancy rights; lands in Khas possession were also to be retained as
occupancy rights. The intermediaries thus acquired the new status of
occupancy tenants on such land and they were also allowed to retain
buildings, factories, mills as a tenant under the state. Under this effect, the
zamindars started evicting erstwhile tenants at will from their Khas
possession.35
Inthisway,theysucceededinkeeping14percentoftheirestateintheform
ofKhaspossessionwhichnobodycouldtouch.TheRevenuedepartmentof
the Government of Bihar had estimated the Khas possession of the ex
zamindarsasaround1.5millionacres.36
Moreover, they also claimed high compensation from the state. The state
compensated them adequately. Till 196970, nearly 384 million rupees were
paidtothemascompensationforthelandacquiredbytheGovernment.37
The abolition of intermediaries was undertaken in phases which continued
till 1956. In the first phase all intermediaries having gross annual income
exceedingRs.50,000/wereabolished.Inthe2ndand3rdphase,intermediaries
uptoRs.50,000/indifferentdistrictswereabolished.38
However,thesharecroppers,thelandlesslabourerswhoconstitutethebulk
of the rural population derived hardly any benefit from the abolition of
intermediaries or zamindari interests. They were not in a position to fill the
voidcreatedbythedeclineoftheuppercastelandedgentry.
Onlysuchtenantswerebenefitedwithownershiprightswhohadpermanent
occupancy rights in land. These were dominant peasants who were
mobilisedbyKisanSabhainthirtiesandforties.Landandlateronpolitical
powerpassedfromexzamindarsintothehandsoftheseoccupancyraiyatsof
yesteryearswhoweremainlyKurmiyadavaKoeriKisans.39
One of the achievements of the abolition of intermediaries was that the
multiplicityoftenurewascompletelyreduced.Cultivatorscameintodirect
relationshipwiththegovernment.

173

However, the exzamindars managed to defeat the basic intent of the Act
through legal loopholes. A sufficient concentration of lands therefore
remainedwiththem.TheActsperformanceinaffectingthesizeofproperty
wasunsatisfactory.40
Land Reform in Bihar or elsewhere was meant to restructure the agrarian
relationsandalsotolimittheconcentrationoflandbeingheldinthehands
of a few. From this aspect, the second phase (195571) of the Land Reform
measures by the Government was significant. It imposed ceiling on
agriculturallandholdings.In1955,ceilingonAgriculturalLandholdingBill
was introduced in Bihar legislature and was enacted in 1961 as Fixation of
Ceiling and Acquisition of surplus land. The Act of 1961 imposed ceiling
takingindividual(andnotfamily)asaunitandrecommended20to60acres
of land on each individual.41 It allowed exemption for educational
institutions, health, trusts, and charitable institutions, public and private
plantation.ThissufficientlymildActallowedtheindividualtopossessupto
ten acres of homestead, 15 acres of orchard, in addition to liberally fixed
ceilingareas.Inthiswayafamilyconsistingof5landholderswasentitledto
hold225acresoflandunderthisAct.42
Landholders were also allowed to transfer above and excess of the ceiling
area to sons, daughters and other relatives within one year of the
commencement of the Act. This led to the starting of fictitious, benami,farzi
transfersoflandandothermanipulationtocircumventtheprovisionsofthe
Act. The situation became much more worse due to lack of pressure from
oppositionpoliticalparties.TheActof1961didnotenablethegovernmentto
acquiresurpluslandfordistribution.43
However,in1970slandgrabmovementwaslaunchedbytheleftpartiesto
focusattentiononthisseriousproblem.DuringthisperiodBiharwitnessed
series of peasant revolts led by peasant organisation belonging to the left
political parties. These movements had a significant impact which
pressurised the government to amend the ceiling legislation and to
implementitproperly.
The ceiling Act was amended in 1972 and in 1973, it was further amended
whichreducedtheceilinglimitsubstantially.Now,theapplicationofceiling
wastobeworkedoutonthebasisoffamilyinsteadofindividual,consisting
of husband, wife and minor children. Major sons were treated as separate

174

unit for ceiling purpose. Now, the landholders were not allowed to retain
homestead or orchard lands over and above the ceiling limits. Land was
classifiedtakingintoaccountitsfertilityandirrigationsources.44
The Act also laid down guidance for settlement of surplus land in which
prioritywastobegiventolandlessSCsandSTsofthesamevillageandthen
otherlandlesspersonsofthesamevillage.45
Soon after the amendment, the government launched a special drive for
implementation of land ceiling programme. The largest acreage of surplus
land was acquired from the districts of Purnea, Katihar, West Champaran,
Saharsa, Bhagalpur, East Champaran and Munghyr where few big landlords
were caught due to rigorous administrative drive. So the land grab
movement of the early seventies and peasant movement contributed to
generate an appropriate political and administrative climate for the
implementation of land ceiling Act. Agricultural census data indicated that
landholdingsofbiglandlordsdeclinedbetween1961and1981.46
However, abolition of intermediaries and land ceiling did not make much
dent in reducing the land inequality. It revealed the ineffectiveness of the
implementationoflandceilinglawsinthestateduetolegal,administrative
andpoliticalproblems.
Firstofall,theimplementationoftheActwashinderedbecauseofthefearof
disturbance in agrarian peace as the traditional landlord class and castes
wereinnomoodtosurrendertheirlandedproperty.Theydidnothandover
alltherecordsofrightsinlandtheyownedandthelandtransferredbythem
after 1959. Moreover, most of the record of rights of ownership and of
transferwasfalsewhichcreatedhindrancefortheadministrationtoproperly
implementtheceilingAct.Updatingoflandrecordswhichwasanessential
prerequisiteforanylandreformmeasures,couldnotbecomesystematicand
successfulevenafterthepassingofMaintenanceofLandRecordActin1973
inBihar.47
Even, the KosiKranti Project launched by KarpooriThakur in 197778 which
required updating of land records and rights of sharecroppers for further
ruraldevelopmentcouldnotbecomesuccessful.Itwasboggeddownoutof
thefearofdisturbancesintheagrariansector.48

175

Another troubled area which posed problem for application of ceiling Act
was classification of land in class I, II, III, IV etc. based on fertility &
irrigation facility. In this context different views was possible. Reports
regardingclassificationwereheldtobestatutoryreportsandwouldhaveto
beprovedifchallengedincourt.Moreover,thereweremanyotherloopholes
in the Act which was manipulated by the administration to favour the
dominant landlord class. 49 For instance lands falling under Kosi project
irrigation areas were classified by the state government as class III lands.
However,theselandsarelikeTalareaofMunghyrandofPatnadistrictone
of the most fertile tracts despite the fact they were submerged under the
waterforfourmonthsofayear.Thegovernmenthasclassifiedordeclaredit
asclassIVland.50
Moreover, big landlords also thwarted the law by frequent recourse to
courts, Board of Revenue to obtain stay orders which has delayed the
implementationofceilingactandfinalityoftask.

However,inthisconnection,thelegislativeassemblyofBiharpassedanAct
fortheestablishmentofspecialTribunalforquickdisposalofthecasesbutit
wasstruckdownbytheHighCourt.51Thecasesofsomebiglandlordswhose
landsrangefrom500acrestoover10,000acresarestilltobedecided.
Besideseffectiveutilisationofinstitutionslikelawcourts,landlordsescaped
the ceiling net due to their dominant influence over state politics and
administration. By and large they have succeeded in protecting their
interests. The Planning Commission document entitled Report of the Task
Force on Agrarian Relations, 1973, mentioned its frank and forthright
observationsonthepoliticalobstaclestotheimplementationoflandreforms.
Theexamplesarethereforeverybodytosee.TheexzamindarsofDarbhanga,
Hathwa,Dumraon,Ramgarhstillownlargetractsofland.52
Further, politicians and bureaucrats themselves violated the law and held
land in excess of the prescribed ceiling. The Act failed to take its course
especiallyinWestChamparanwherefinequalityriceproducinglandattracted
attentionofafewpoliticiansandpowerfulbureaucrats,whoacquired50to
100acresofland.53
UndertheBiharceilinglaws,sublethasbeenprohibitedexceptinfewcases.
Thishasresultedinonlypushingtenancyunderground.Aslongastheclass
oflandownerswereunableandunwillingtocultivatetheirlandandalarge

176

populationoflandlesspoorpeasantrycoexistthelegalbanonleasingout
land will remain a dead letter.54 In 1885, the Bengal Tenancy Act prevented
evictionoftenantsatwillbythelandlords.Afterindependencemanystate
incorporatedtenancyreformlawsintheirlandreformActs.Itistruethatfor
those peasants upon whom ownership could not be conferred, most of the
statehaveprovidedadequateprotectivemeasuresbyfixingreducedamount
of rent ranging from 25 per cent of the gross yield except in west Bengal
whereitwasfixedat33percentoftheproduce.55
In case of implementation of tenancy reform, Bihars performance is
unsatisfactory. Highly exploitative insecure tenancy in the form of crop
sharing persists in large parts of Bihar. Most of the existing tenancies are
largely oral, not recorded and informal. The share of the landholders was
muchmorethan25percentasstipulatedbythelaw.
Further,tocircumventtheoccupancyrightsofthetenants,landlordsletout
landstotheirtrustedclients,whowerenotlikelytoclaimoccupancyrights
inland.Moreover,verbalagreementshaveresultedincreatingamechanism
for keeping a firm grip on the share croppers for exploitation. Besides this,
big landowners, to retain land above ceiling, created tenancies & under
tenanciesthroughunregistereddocument.56
InmostpartsofBiharsharecroppersgot50percentoftheproduceandalso
bearthecostofcultivation.AstudyofMasauriblockhasshownthatleasing
land to the tenants was a common practice and about 2627 per cent of the
cultivable land was on share cropping basis which was unrecorded and
basedonverbalagreement.57
LackoftenancyreforminBiharhasledtoitsnegativeeffectonproductivity
a great obstacle in rural development. Majority of the land owners were
unwillingtoinvestorsharethecostofinputwheretherearesharecropping
arrangements.Highincidenceofconcealedtenanciestotheextentof50to60
percentisthereasonforlowproductivityandlackofinvestmentinlandin
Bihar.Tenancyreformsarethereforeofcrucialimportance.58
Fortheoptimumutilisationofeveryacreofland,tenancyreformmeasures
need to identify Bataidars (sharecroppers) and secure for them permanent
andinheritableoccupancyrightsinlandtheycultivate.

177

3.2BiharTenancyAct
TheBiharTenancyActof1986providesadefinitionofpersonalcultivation.
This has been defined as cultivationby ones labour or family labour orby
hiredlabouronwagebutnotbycropshare.Hence,personalcultivationisa
crucial issue in the land reform measures. The persistence of the absentee
characteroflandlordsisresponsibleforworstandmostexploitativekindof
share cropping so it demands a rigorous definition of the term personal
cultivationanditneedstoincorporateresidentialrequirementsonthelines
ofWestBengal.Thelandslocatedbeyondadistanceofeightkilometresfrom
the residential village of the landowners should be withdrawn from them
and vested in the state for distribution. Moreover, the landholders in Bihar
couldbegivenanopportunitytostartpersonalcultivation,failingwhichthe
land may be resumed and settled either with the under tenants or with
landless.59
However, there is a need to study the experience of West Bengal Tenancy
Reformsof1977bytheleftwingadministrationwhichyieldedverypositive
conclusion. Operation Bergadar (Berga) was launched to enforce agricultural
tenancy laws that regulated rent and security of tenures of share croppers.
Underthislaw,theregisteredsharecropperswouldbeentitledtopermanent
inheritabletenureonlandaslongastheypaidthelandlord33percentofthe
produceasrent.60
Within a decade following the implementation of operation Berga
thoroughly, there was a significant improvement in terms of tenants
contract,securityoftenureandagriculturalproductivity.Statesagriculture
growthevensurpassedPunjabandHaryana.TheWestBengalGovernment
gavetenancyrightstoabout16lakhBargadars(sharecroppers).61
This remarkable success has given rise to fresh thought as to whether
abolition of tenancy is a necessary precondition to reform or the purpose
wouldbeservedbyregulatingconditionsgoverningtenancy.
In Bihar most of the tenancy transactions are benami transaction without
writtendeedswhichcontributetoinsecurityoftenure.Thustenancyreform
on the lines of West Bengal is highly required for agricultural growth in
Bihar.62

178

4.0DismalPerformanceofLandReformMeasures
The last phase of the land reform measures started from 1792 when Chief
Ministersofthestatesdecidedtoprovideapositivethrusttothedistributive
aspect of it for social justice programme.63 The top priority from 1972
onwards was given to allot surplus land to agricultural landless labourers
particularly belonging to SCs and STs. The Bihar land ceiling and
Management Act enabled the Government to appropriate land in excess of
the ceiling and redistribute it among the landless. The outcome was
revealing. Until 198384, about 266,000 acres of surplus land was acquired
andabout167,000acresredistributed.Outofthetotal,only1.26percentwas
cultivated.64
However, Bihars dismal performance in land reform measures is due to
unsystematic upkeep and management of record of rights of land holding
and utilisation of institutions like legislative assembly, law courts and
bureaucracybythesocially,economicallydominantlandholderstomaintain
there interests.65 Without radical transformation of the objective situation,
there would be no marked improvement in land reform measures. Though
awakening among the disadvantaged is taking place in some parts of rural
Bihar in the wake of social mobilisation by diverse groups like by chatra
yuva sangharsh Vahini, the Indian Peoples Front, the Mazdoor Kisan
SangramSamitiandotherleftwingorganisations.InGayaDistrictincentral
Bihar,theystartedagitationforthedistributionofceilingsurplusland.
However,mostofthedistributedlandsareeitheruncultivatedorunderthe
controlofpowerfullandholderswhosucceededininvolving7,871.98acresof
land under dispute even after the allotment.66 Purnea and west Champaran
aretheleadingdistrictswhereconsiderableareasarenotunderthephysical
possession of the allottees. Getting the beneficiaries its actual possession is
also a part of the implementation of the act. Even in cases, where official
records show that allottees have been given physical possession; landlords
havepreventedthemfromoccupyingthelandincertainvillages.67
However,onthewhole,despitethefactthataverageareaallottedwaslow,
the beneficiaries perceived marked improvement in their socio economic
status.CasestudyofdifferentvillagesofSaharsa,Aurangabad,Nawada,Purnea
districts shows the effects of the land allotment on the life of poor landless
villagers. It was, found that after allotment of 33.67 acres of land to 77

179

beneficiariesofvillageBarhatoofSaharsawhowerelandlesslabourerstheir
socioeconomic status improved. Their dependence on wage labour was
partiallyreduced.Thoughthepossessionoflandwassmall,butitgavethem
asenseofidentityandsenseofacquisition.68
However,whereevertheallottedlandwasuncultivableornoteconomically
viable, lacked basic infrastructural facility, it did not improve the economic
condition of the allottees. So talking of land reforms without irrigation
planningandlandmanagementwouldbearahalfheartedapproach.
However, land reforms, to bring about desired growth process in the
agrarianstructureandtherebysocioeconomicimprovementofthebulkof
theruralpopulationrequireslanddevelopment.Itwouldhelpnotonlythe
tenants but landlords also. In most cases it was found that willingness for
land development is predominant where owners cultivated the land but
where there is share cropping arrangement the land development part is
kept in pending.69 The land development aspect of land reform has been
ignored in Bihar. The lack of progress on the consolidation of fragmented
holdings ensuring compact plots in Bihar is due to administrative,
institutional,technicalreasons.Thishasmadeitafooddeficitstate.
The need is to emulate the experiences of Punjab in the context of
consolidationoflandholding.Thoughthereisvariationintermsofagrarian
system here which has generated substantial number of owner cultivators?
However, the infrastructural development has led to its improved
productivityorremarkablehighgrowthofoutput,whereasBiharhasshown
negativegrowthrateinthesamedecade.70
Not only Punjab, but other nations of the world like Denmark, France,
Ireland, and Switzerland have realised the importance of consolidation of
holdingandachievedsuccessinthiscontext.
InPunjabthistaskwasinitiatedbyHerbertCalvert,ICS(18981933)forthe
welfare and benefit of the cultivators. It accrued great benefits in terms of
irrigation,horticulture,realisationofwastelandetc.71
Further, intense work in this direction in Punjab after independence was
initiatedbyKartarSingh,thethenrevenueministerandpopularruralleader.
Thegovernmentdirectedcompulsoryconsolidation,whichrequirednotonly

180

legal sanction but numerous physical, human problems like conflicting

interestswastobetackled.
Forthepurpose,mapofthevillageswereopenlydisplayed,recordsofrights
inlandwereupdatedandclassificationandvaluationoffieldswereworked
out by the revenue and consolidation department officials. The immediate
benefits of the consolidation, which was noted, was increase in private
investmentinlanddevelopmentmostlyintermsoftubewellsforirrigation
andbetterutilisationofcanalirrigation.Italsosavedcostoflabourandother
inputsandincreasedagricultureproductivity.72
In addition to this, planning of the country side in Punjab led to linking of
village roads to main roads, schemes of schools, hospitals and other
infrastructuralfacilitiesprovideddirectorindirecthelptothecultivators.73
Theremarkablesuccesscouldhavebeenpossibleduetopoliticalmissionary
zeal,honest,efficientadministrationandcooperationoftheruralpeoplewho
realised their benefit and worked for their bright future. This saved
unnecessarylitigationandensuredfinalityoftasks.74

5.0Conclusion
LandreformmeasuresinBiharhavebeenboggeddowninendlesslitigation.
For better productivity, continuous planning for land and water
management is required. Experience of Punjab could provide lessons to
Bihar where problem in much more difficult and of vast magnitude. The
mostimportantpreconditionforconsolidationisrecordingandupdatingof
property rights and tenancy rights which is wanting in Bihar where
thousands of tenants have been evicted illegally in want of updated record
ofrights.
In the absence of political will and commitment on the part of the
bureaucracy,thepeopleofBiharhavetoriseupforthedemandofreforms
whichwouldusherinsuccessfulruraldevelopment.
Moreover, it is necessary to dovetail poverty alleviation programmes with
land reforms. From 1980s, poverty alleviation programmes like Integrated
Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) etc.
havebeenasubstituteoflandreform.Whenin1978schemeslikeIRDPwas
started,itwashopedthatthepeasants,whocouldnotbegivenlandassets,
they could be provided with nonland assets like live stocks so that they

181

wouldbeabletotakeuppoultryfarming,dairy,sericultureetc.Butthisalso
required necessary infrastructural facility. However, in areas where
developedinfrastructurewaslacking,thepoorpeasantsdidnotgetadequate
benefitfromIRDP.
JRY is also based on the argument that rural works project like water
resource development etc. financed by the government would create
employment by using local labour in slack seasons. Creating employment
opportunities for rural poor by these schemes and underestimating the
importance of transfer of land to the lowest rung of the rural society is an
adhoc approach. The integral part of poverty alleviation and rural
developmentofthestaterequiresacquisition,distributionandconsolidation
oflandinadditiontotheexistingschemesofIRDPandJRY.75
Accessofruralpoortoagriculturallandandthendevelopinginfrastructural
facilities for growing commercial crops, pulses, oil seeds, vegetable
cultivation, fruit plantation, sericulture, aquaculture, dairy and poultry
farming would be the permanent solution. Bihars geographical condition
providesscopefordiversifiedagricultureandsidelineproduction.Ultimate
requirementistochoosesuchprogrammeswhichwoulduserurallabourfor
developinginfrastructurewithoutdisplacingthemfromland.
However, despite various legislations and distributive measures, land did
not pass in to the hands of landless poor, lower casteHarijans and landless
Adivasis.Administrationandthebiglandlordsfrustratedtheimplementation
of land reform Act which is responsible for unrest in the rural areas. A
massive migration of landless labourers out of Bihar is taking place every
year. According to National Sample and Survey (NSS), 52 lakh agriculture
labourers go out of Bihar in search of livelihood. Shortage of labour affects
agricultureproduction.
Most of the political parties and even the so called leaders of the down
trodden in Bihar have done noting to shake the social foundation of the
landlord dominated agrarian system. Unless landlords economic power,
based on unjust land system in broken country as a whole can not look
forwardforgrowthwithequityandsocialjustice.Dalitscanbeliberatedand
empoweredthroughlargescalecomprehensivelandreforms.
It is often stated that pressure from below and support of political parties
should be enlisted for this purpose. A class (landlord class) cannot be

182

destroyedwithoutclassstruggleandthiscanonlybedonebytheleftparties
andtheiralertpoliticalforce.
The Nexalite movement which emerged in the decades of 1970s and 1980s
marked the emergence of social action movement which was supported by
poor peasants particularly in the areas of AP, Bihar, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, and M.P. This movement needs to be seen as an antifeudal
struggle of the underprivileged who have established mass base over the
ruralareas.Itisgeneratingsomenotionofempowermentofdeprivedsection
ofthepopulationthroughviolence.
MasaurieblockofBiharremainedoneofthestrongholdofNexaliteactivities
during the 1970s. The Nexalites were able to draw support from peasants
because they succeeded in forcible occupation of land and its distribution
amongstthepoorestpeasants.
Now, the Nexalite movement has engulfed as many as 180 districts of the
countryandhasbecomeathreattointernalsecurityagreatchallengefaced
bythecountry.Theneedofanhouristoplacecomprehensivelandreformat
the centre stage of our planning and policies. Rural development
programmes are no replacement for it. The governments efforts should be
concentratedonpluggingtheloopholesintheexistinglawsandtoimprove
its implementation. It has now become essential in the national interest to
implementthelawswithoutfurtherlossoftime.

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1.

Sukumar, Das. A Critical Evaluation of Land Reforms in India (Article) in Sinha,

Pushpendra,B.K.2000.LandReformsinIndia,Vol.5,P30.SagePublications.

2.

Ibid.

3.

Desai,S.S.M.,andBhaleraoNirmal.1994.HimalayanPublishingHouse.Pp.3446.

4.

Shukla, P.K. 2001. The Raj, Zamindars and Peasants: Agrarian Issue in Central
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Jacques, Pouchapadass. 2000. Land, Power, and Market. New Delhi: Sage
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6.

Ibid.

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Poudapadass;opcit.Pp.32122;ReportoftheBiharRentCommitteeinReportof
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Palit,C.1975.TensionsinBengalRuralSociety,18301860.Calcutta.Pp.18687.

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Chaudhari, B.B. 1976. Agrarian Question in Bengal and the Government 1850
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BengalTenancyActof1885appliestoBiharalso.Rothermund,D.1967.TheBengal
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Volumes,Orient,Delhi.

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Buchanan, F. 1938. Eastern India, London. P. 239, Kulkarni, S; Forest Legislation

andTribalsinEconomicandPoliticalWeekly,Vol.XXII,1982,Pp.2143.

13.

Ibid.

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Girish, Mishra. 1978. Agrarian Problems of Permanent Settlement. New Delhi, P

271.

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Collins, E.W. 1887. Muzaffarpur Cadestral Survey Report. Paras, 6971 (Bihar State
Archives)nowonwards,B.S.A.Patna.

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Kerr, J.H. Final Report on the survey and settlement operations in Darbhanga
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O Malley, L.S.S., Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers, Patna, 1930, PIII, B.S.A.,
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SinhaAwadheshwarPrasad,1935,KissanSabhaAurKashtkariKanonSansodhan
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Hubback,J.A.,FinalReportonSurveyandSettlementOperationsintheDistrictof
Shahabad19061917,Patna,1923.

20.

Bakashtlandswerethosepeasantslandswhichweretakenoverbythelandlords
due to nonpayment of rent. The original owners were converted in to share
cropper on their own land. This was the chief dispute between landlords and
tenants.

21.

Hubback,J.A;Op.cit.P52.

22.

Grierson,G.A.,1985,BiharPeasantLife,Calcutta,Pp.192201.

23.

Chaudhari, Sukhbir. 1971. Peasant and Workers Movement in India, 19051929,

Delhi, Mittal, S.K., 1978, Peasant uprising and Mahatma Gandhi in North Bihar,
Meerut,Anuprakashan.

24.

Josh, Bhagwan. 1992. Struggle for Hegemony in India (192047). Vol. II, Sage, New
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25.

Choudhari, A.K. 1980. Socialist Movement in India. The Congress Socialist Party.
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Joshi Sashi, Nehru and the Emergence of Left Block in Chandra Bipan (ed.), The
IndianLeft,CriticalAppraisals.1984.Delhi.

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27.

Bipan,Chandra.1989.IndiasStruggleForIndependence.Penguine.Pp.33031.

28.

Ibid,

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Damodaran, Vinita. 1992. BrokenPromises,IndiasNationalismandCongressPartyin

Bihar,194546.Oxford.P.108.
Sharma,K.K.1989.AgrarianMovementandCongressPoliticsinBihar.Delhi.Pp.147
149.

30.

Sharma,K.K.Op.cit.

31.

Malviya,H.D.1955.LandReformsinIndia.NewDelhi.Pp.205206.

32.

Sinha,B.K.andPushpendra(ed.).2000.LandReformsinIndia.Vol.5.Sage,Delhi.P
17.

33.

Jannuzi, F.T. 1974. Agrarian Crisis in India, Case Study of Bihar. Orient Longman;
HiranmayDhar,InstitutionalConstraintsofLandReformsinBiharinSinhaB.K.&
Pushpendra (ed.) Land Reforms in India, Op.cit. P125., Joshi, P...C.1976, Land
ReformsInINDIA;AlliedPublishers,Delhi,P.44.

34.

Ibid.Pp.3233.

35.

Prasad, Shankar. 1993. Implementation of Land Reforms Legislation in Bihar, in

Yugandhar, B.N; K. Gopal, Iyer, Land Reforms in India, Vol. I, Sage, New Delhi.
Pp.39.

36.

Ibid;P.90.Sinha,B.K.,Pushpendra,Op.cit.P.125.

37.

SinhaB.K.andPushpendra,Op.cit.P.125.

38.

Yugandhar,B.N.K.GopalIyer.Op.citP.90.

39.

Ibid.P.25.

40.

Ibid.P.91.

41.

Ibid.Pp.9293.

42.

Sharma,A.N,andGuptaShaibal,(ed.).1987.BiharStagnationandGrowth.Spectrum
PublishingHouse.Pp.24243.

43.

Iyer, Gopal, K. Evaluation of Land Ceiling Measures in Bihar. In LandReformsin

India,Vol.I.Pp.87,alsoseeP.93.

44.

Prasad,Shanker.Op.cit.Pp.3740.

45.

Iyer,Gopal,K.Op.cit.Pp.9395.

46.

Ibid.P.115.

47.

PrasadShankar.Op.cit.Pp.4247.

48.

Ibid.

49.

Ibid.

50.

Ibid.P.50.

51.

Prasad,P.H.1986.LandReformsinBihar:ACaseStudy(Mimeo).A.N.SinhaInstitute
ofSocialSciences,Patna.

52.

Appu,P.S.AModestProgrammefortheNinetiesinIyer,Gopal,K.Op.Cit.P.51.

185

53.

Banerjee, Direndra Nath. Causes for the Failure of Land Reforms in West
ChamparaninIyer,Gopal,K;Yugandhar,B.N..Op.cit.P.182.

54.

Appu,P.S.Op.cit.P.53.

55.

Ibid.

56.

Iyer,Gopal,Yugandhar,B.N.Op.cit.Pp.247249.

57.

Appu,P.S.Op.cit.P.54.

58.

Iyer,Gopal,K.Op.cit.P.248.

59.

Prasad,Shankar.Op.cit.P.47.

60.

Ibid.P.60.Iyer,GopilK.EvaluationofLandCeilingMeasuresinBihar.Op.cit.P.
101.

61.

Banerjee,A.V.1999.ProspectsandStrategiesofLandReforminB.PleskovicandJ.
Stigliz (ed.). Annual World Bank. Pp. 25384. Raghupati N.K; Operation Berga In
WestBengal,inIyerGopal,Yugandhar,B.N.Op.cit.P.267.

62.

Ibid.

63.

Sinha,B.K.andPushpander.Op.cit.Pp.3435.

64.

Ibid.P.126.

65.

Ibid.P.125

66.

Iyear,GopalK.,andYuigandtar.Op.cit.P.182.

67.

Ibid.P.98

68.

Ibid.P.105.

69.

Ibid.

70.

Chand, Ramesh, Raju, S.S, Pandey, L.M. 2007. Growth Crises, in Agriculture,
EconomicandPoliticalweekly,30June.

71.

Singh, Brijpal. Consolidation of Land holdings in Punjab: Lessons for Bihar, in

Iyear,Gopal.K.,Op.cit.Pp.667.

72.

Ibid.

73.

Randhawa, M.S. 1955. National Extension Service and community Prospects in

Punjab, Chandigarh, Punjab Govt. Community Project Administration; Chadha,
G.K,1986;TheStateandRuralEconomicTransformation;ThecaseofPunjab(1950
85),Sage,NewDelhi,P.220.

74.

Parthasarthi, G.; The New Economic Policy, Rural Development and Land
Reforms;inIyerSinha,B.K,Pushependera,Op.cit.Pp.6569.

75.

Ibid.

186

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