Classical Cadenza

Form and Function of the Classical Cadenza
Author(s): Joseph P. Swain

Source: The Journal of Musicology, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Winter, 1988), pp. 27-59
Published by: University of California Press
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Form and Function of

the Classical Cadenza
JOSEPH
P. SWAIN
ow many of us have ever enjoyed hearing a

H
concerto of Mozart or Beethoven stunningly and sensitively played,
only to have the experience ruined at the end of a movement by the
cadenza? Regrettably, this happens all too often. A show of empty
virtuosity, perhaps, or wrong for the style of the concerto as a whole,
or-the most common problem-a cadenza that is simply too long.
Joachim Quantz, writing over two centuries ago, seems to address the
current situation:
If none are made it is considered a great defect, even though many
performers would conclude their pieces with more credit without
them. Meanwhile,all those who occupy themselves with singing or
with playing solos want to, or must, make cadenzas.And since their
natureand properwayto perform them are not well known,the fashion generallybecomesa burden.
In his last comment, Quantz goes to the heart of the problem. We have
very little knowledge or understanding of the structure or purpose of
the cadenza in the classical concerto beyond its elementary definition as
an improvisation on themes from the movement. Amazingly enough,
there is no provision for it in modern theories or descriptions of concerto form. Even though concert artists may well undertake to compose
cadenzas for Mozart and Beethoven concertos, or at the very least,
choose among those already composed, conservatory training does not
normally include study of the cadenza problem. Yet it seems obvious
that to write satisfactory cadenzas, the performer should understand
what relationship one should have with the concerto movement. In view
of both new theories and conceptions of the classical sonata style, to
Volume 6 * Number 1 * Winter 1988
The Journal of Musicology ? 1988 by the Regents of the University of California
1
Johann Joachim Quantz, On Playing theFlute, trans. and ed. Edward R. Reilly (London, 1966), p. 181.
THE
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which the classical concerto is an essential contributor, and the undiminished popularity of the classical concerto repertoire, it is time for a new
appraisal of the cadenza.
There are at least three approaches to the issue. The first is to investigate the origin of the cadenza and the opinions of eighteenth-century
theorists and critics about it. In this way we may learn, not infallible rules
for cadenza composition, but something about the original purpose of
cadenzas, what they were supposed to do for the movements that contained them.
The second approach is to analyze the numerous authentic cadenzas that Mozart and Beethoven have left for their own concertos. There
could hardly be a better source for learning about the general structure
and function of cadenzas, and also about the specific relationships between certain cadenzas and their parent concerto movements. Recent
scholarship, including large studies by Paul Badura-Skoda2 and Paul
Mies3, has emphasized this approach.
The third approach is to apply modern theories of concerto form
and the classical sonata style to the cadenza problem. Is there anything
we can say about the form and function of the cadenza given what we
know about the workings of concertos and the classical style of Mozart
and Beethoven? The theoretical approach is risky, as always, because its
assumptions are more easily challenged, but how else can conclusions
from the other two approaches be assimilated and confirmed? Critics
and theorists of the eighteenth century are just as fallible in their opinions about music of their own time as we are about music in ours; there is
no reason to adopt their "rules" without further consideration of the
music itself. The solutions of Mozart and Beethoven may be perfect, of
course, but they left no explicit instructions on how to make more. The
elements that they left in their cadenzas only make sense when connected with a conception of the concerto as a whole.
Origin and Development
of the Concerto Cadenza
The word itself would indicate a link with the notion
of "cadence." Indeed, of English, German, French, and Italian, only in
the English language is there any verbal distinction between the two
ideas, and that is made by borrowing the Italian word for "cadence" as a
special term. The German theorist Daniel Gottlieb Turk, writing
around 1789, also points to the cadence as the source of the cadenza:
(Vienna, Stuttgart, 1957).

Mozart-Interpretation
Die KrisederKonzertkadenzbeiBeethoven(Bonn, 1970).
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
In former times, one added small embellishments before cadences

(Tonschliissen), which did not require the suspension of meter ...
These so-called figured cadenzas (Kadenzen) were evidently pleasing, so the passages were expanded, and were no longer tied so strictly
to the meter. Those accompanying were pleased to yield and to wait,
until finally, little by little, our embellished cadenzas (Kadenzen) came
about. Their origin can be placed between the years 1710 to 1716.
Their native land is probably Italy.
In a note, Turk cites the Musica Moderna Prattica ofJ. V. Serbst (1658),
who describes the cadenza as a vocal embellishment coming from Italy,
although usage in instrumental music is also mentioned. The dates may
be from Johann Friedrich Agricola.4
In more modern times, Heinrich Knodt traced in great detail the
ancestry of the cadenza, in both instrumental and vocal music, back to
the sixteenth century. In both types, the occasion for the cadenza is the
embellishment and delay of a final cadence.5
By the latter half of the eighteenth century, theorists were careful to
distinguish between "cadence" and "cadenza." The close relationship of
the cadenza with the harmonic cadence is reinforced. In his description, C. P. E. Bach cites the familiar signal of the six-four chord under
a fermata:
On the entrance of an elaborated cadence, the accompanist, regardless of whether a fermata appears over the bass, holds the six-four
chord for a while and then pauses until the principal part, at the end
of its cadenza, plays a trill or some other figure which requires resolution of the chord. At this point the triad is struck at the keyboard, the
seventh being taken as a fifth part.6
Similar distinctions occur in Quantz and Tiirk.7
4 Daniel GottlobTurk, Clavierschule

(1789), p. 309. Englishtranslationsof citations
from thistext are my own. "Ehedembrachtemanvor den Tonschliissenblos solch kleine
Verzierungenan, welchkein Aufhaltendes Taktesu. erforderte.... Diese sogenannten
figurirtenKadenzengefielenvermutlich,man vergrossertedaher die Zusage,und band
sich daher nicht mehr so streng an den Takt. Die Begleiterwarenso gefallig, ein wenig
nachzugeben (zu verweilen), bis endlich nach und nach unsre verzierten Kadenzen daraus entstanden sind. Ihren Ursprung setzt man in die Jahre 1710 bis 1716.* Das Vaterland derselben isst wahrscheinlich Italien."
Johann Friedrich Agricola's work is Anleitungzur Singekunst(Berlin, 1757), a translation
of Pier Francesco Tosi's Opinionide' cantoriantichie moderni(1723) with some additions of
his own.
5 Heinrich Knodt, "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Kadenzen im Instrumentalkonzert, Sammelbdndeder internationalenMusik-GesellschaftXV (1913/14), 392.
6 Carl
Phillip Emmanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing KeyboardInstruments,
(1753) trans. and ed. WilliamJ. Mitchell (New York, 1949), p. 380.
7 See Quantz,
p. 179 and Turk, p. 308.
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By the time of Turk's writing Mozart was making a distinction between "cadenzas" and other improvisatory passages called "Eingdnge"
(see letter of February 15, 1783). In contrast to cadenzas, which appear
at the end of a movement and are associated with a final cadence, these
Eingdnge may appear in any part of the movement, most often just before the beginning of a new section, as in the return of a rondo theme,
and have the function of "leading in" to the next section. They contain
no references to thematic material, and are usually constructed of
passagework based on dominant harmony which the onset of the next
section resolves. Because the resolution is elided with a new beginning,
the character and function of the Eingang can be clearly distinguished
from those of the true cadenza, which, according to the eighteenthcentury theorists cited above, has a function of conclusion on a high
structural level.
The elements of improvisation and thematic reference, associated
intimately with the classical cadenza today, seem to have come together
slowly during the second and third quarters of the eighteenth century.
Knodt shows that cadenzas in Vivaldi concertos have virtuoso technique
and a certain motivic relationship with the movement proper, but little
improvisatory character. These cadenzas are written directly into the
movement without any suspension of meter.8 On the other hand, the
Capricciof Pietro Locatelli, which are supposed to be used in his concertos of 1733, L'Artedel violino, are composed entirely of virtuosic scales
and arpeggios, typical devices of improvisation, but ones which do not
refer thematically to the parent movement.9 C. P. E. Bach's image of the
cadenza seems to be that of a "fantasia-like interlude," which seldom
uses any melodic fragments from the concerto.10 Even Mozart's early
keyboard cadenzas did not use thematic references.' Quantz, however,
while recognizing the possibility of fresh invention in a cadenza, offers
the alternative of thematic reference when the player's imagination
fails:
Cadenzasmust stem from the principalsentimentof the piece, and
include a short repetition or imitationof the most pleasing phrases
containedin it. At times, if your thoughts are distracted,it is not immediately possible to invent something new. The best expedient is
then to choose one of the most pleasingof the preceding phrasesand
fashionthe cadenzafrom it. In this manneryou not only can makeup
for any lack of inventiveness,but can alwaysconfirm the prevailing
8
Knodt, pp. 397-98.

9 Dimitri Themelis, Etude ou Caprice(Munich, 1967), p. 57.
10
Pippa Drummond, The German Concerto:Five Eighteenth-CenturyStudies (Oxford,
1980), p. 318.
Eva Badura-Skoda, "Cadenza," TheNew GroveIII, p. 591.
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
passion of the piece as well. This is an advantage that is not too well
known which I would like to recommend to everyone.12
Evidently, aside from the basic conception of the cadenza as an elaborated cadence, there was no consensus about what form that elaboration
should take until late in the eighteenth century, when the cadenza had
gained the status of a performance tradition. Even then, the practice
maintained considerable variety, evident in the cadenzas of Mozart and
Beethoven alone. Unfortunately,
the various cadenza styles among
other eighteenth-century
composers cannot be discussed in detail here.
Quantz's point about thematic reference having an advantage because it will "always confirm the prevailing passion of the piece" reflects
one ideal about cadenzas that theorists agree on. Another is surprise.
The cadenza, while remaining faithful to the spirit of the work, should
strive for improvised variety and the unexpected. In the words of Daniel
Tiirk:
Although unity demands a well-ordered whole, just as necessary
is variety, so that the listener will be kept attentive. That is why in cadenzas one does as many unexpected and surprising things as is
possible.'3
Central to this ideal of surprise is the suspension of meter. Quantz
and Turk, writing about forty years apart, are in remarkably close
agreement on this point:
Regular meter is seldom observed, and indeed should not be observed, in cadenzas. They should consist of detached ideas rather
than a sustained melody, as long as they conform to the preceding expression of the passions.'4
Steady motion and meter (Taktart) should not be maintained
throughout the cadenza; in addition, broken-off measures (not completely played through) must be adapted to go with one another. For
the whole should seem more like a fantasy originating from overflowing sentiment than a strictly worked-out piece.15
12
Quantz, p. 182.
Turk, pp. 311-12. "So wie die Einheit zu einem wohlgeordneten Ganzen erfordert
wird, eben so notig ist auch die Mannigfaltigkeit, wenn der Zuhorer aufmerksam
erhalten werden soil. Daher bringe man in Kadenzen so viel Unerwartetes und Ueberraschendes an, als nur immer m6glich ist."
14 Quantz, p. 185.
15 Turk, p. 312. "Einerlei
Bewegung und Taktart darf man in der Kadenz nicht durchgangig beibehalten; auch miissen bios einzelne abgebrachene (nicht vollig ausgefuihrte)
Takte geschickt mit einander verbunden werden. Denn das Ganze soil mehr einer nur
eben aus der Fulle der Empfindung entstehenden Fantasie, als einem regelmassig ausgearbeiteten Tonstiicke gleichen."
13
31
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The writers' opinion that the absence of meter adds to the improvised,
surprising effects of cadenzas conforms to modern theoretical views
about meter. Meter supplies low-level continuity to musical structure by
virtue of its regular grouping of beats, allowing the human mind to organize easily the incoming rhythmic fragments and to proceed to
higher-level perceptions. When that continuity is missing, the rhythmic
patterns presented to the listener seem disjointed, unexpected, and surprising.
Turk is careful to balance his desire for spontaneity and surprise
with the necessity of maintaining some relationship with the parent
movement. What is more surprising, in view of the cadenza's reputation
as a performer's improvisation, is his recommendation to some players
to prepare the cadenza ahead in order to insure this relationship:
It follows from the above that a cadenzathat has been learned by
heart with some effort perhaps, or one that has been writtendown,
must be played, ratherthan havingrandom and unexceptionalideas
thrownout, whateverthe playerhappens to think of first. 6
32
Perhaps Turk's recommendation is a response to abuses of the cadenza practice already present in his own time. Evidently, the tendency
of singers and players to get carried away by their skills of improvisation
goes well back into the first half of the century. Tosi's complaint about
cadenzas in operatic arias is quite famous,'7 but the use of aria cadenzas
reported by Quantz is even more preposterous:
The object of the cadenza is simply to surprisethe listener unexpectedlyonce more at the end of the piece, and to leave behind a special impression in his heart. To conform to this object, a single cadenza would be sufficient in a piece. If, then, a singer makes two
cadenzas in the first part of an aria, and yet another in the second
part,it must certainlybe consideredan abuse;for in this fashion,because of the da capo, five cadenzasappearin one aria.'8
These complaints are by no means limited to singers. Players of concerto
cadenzas also earn the ire of the critics:
The abuseof cadenzasis apparentnot only if they are of littlevalue
in themselves,as is usuallythe case, but also if in instrumentalmusic
'l Turk, p. 313. "Ausdem Vorigen folgt, dass eine vielleichtmit noch so vieler Muhe
auswendiggelernte oder vorher aufgeschriebeneKadenzdoch so ausgefuhrtewerden
muss, als waren es bloss zufallig und ohne Auswahlhingeworfene Gedanken,welche
dem Spielereben erst einfielen."
17
Tosi, as translated into English by J. E. Galliard as Observationson the Florid Song
(London, 1743), pp. 128-29.

18
Quantz, pp. 180-81.
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
they are introduced in pieces in which they are not at all suitable; for
example, in gay and quick pieces in two-four, three-four, three-eight,
twelve-eight, and six-eight time. They are permissible only in pathetic
and slow pieces, or in serious quick ones.19
I would say nothing new, but only repeat often heard complaints,
if I spoke against the very great abuse of the embellished cadenzas
(verzierten Kadenzen). For it is not seldom that a concerto seems to be
played solely for the sake of the cadenzas. The performer struggles
not only to achieve pointless length, but also introduces all sorts of
ideas that have not the slightest relation with the preceding composition, so that the good impression which the piece has perhaps made
upon the listener for the most part has been cadenza-ed away
("wegkadenziert"-emphasis Ttirk's).20
Polemic was not the only response to these abuses. The eighteenthcentury theorists were not short on advice on how to correct them. Some
advice focuses on length, particularly excessive length, and for good
reason. Arnold Schering, in a 1906 study of the eighteenth-century
cadenza, writes that most of the written cadenzas he had been able
to collect were of great length, comparable to modern ones, thus corroborating the complaints cited above.2 Knodt traces a controversy
between Agricola and Tosi over singer's cadenzas, whence comes Agricola's rule that a singer's cadenza should be "no longer than a breath."22
Turk's advice begins with that rule (without citation) and then goes on
to elaborate:
With songs or wind instruments, a cadenza should last only as long as
the breath of the singer. With string instruments, perhaps this rule
need not be followed too strictly; however, monstrously long cadenzas, which often last many minutes, are in no way to be excused.23
'9 Quantz,p. 180. Tosi, p. 137, makesa similarremark.

Turk, p. 309. "Ichwirde nichts Neues sagen, sondern schon oft gefuhrte klagen
wiederholen,wenn ich mich wider den sehr grossen Missbrauchder verziertenKadenzen erklarte.Denn nicht selten scheintes, ein Konzertwerde blossder Kadenzenwegen
gespielt.Der Ausfuhrerschweistdaher nichtnur in Absichtauf die zweckmassigeLange
aus, sondern bringt noch uberdies allerlei Gedanken darin an, die auf das vohergegangene Tonstucknicht die geringsteBeziehung haben, so dass dadurchder gute Eindruck,welchen das Tonstiick vielleichtauf den Zuhorergemacht hatte, grosstentheils
20
wieder wegkadenziertwird."
21
"Die Freie Kadenz im Instrumentalkonzert des 18. Jahrhunderts," InternationalMusicologicalSocietyCongressReport(1906), p. 204.
22
Knodt, p. 394.
23
Turk, p. 311. "In Gesangeoder auf Blasinstrumentensoil eine Kadenzeigentlich
nur so lange dauern, als der Athem des Sangerszureicht.Auf besaitetenInstrumenten
mochtezwardieserGrundsatznichtso strengezu befolgen sein; aberdessen ungeachtet
sind doch die ungeheuer langen Kadenzen, welche nicht selten mehrere Minuten
dauern,keinesWegeszu entschuldigen."
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A second guideline is that the cadenza should preserve the overall

sense of the prevailing key of the concerto. This idea is put into very
practical language by C. P. E. Bach:
Moreover, the principal key must not be left too quickly at the beginning, nor regained too late at the end. At the start the principal key
must prevail for some time so that the listener will be unmistakably
oriented. And again before the close it must be well prolonged as a
means of preparing the listener for the end of the fantasia and impressing the tonality upon his memory.24
A third rule is that cadenzas should not modulate into distant keys.
This is obviously a corollary to the second; if the sense of the home tonic
is to be maintained, keys which would weaken that sense should be
avoided, especially in view of the cadenza's traditional position at the
end of the movement:
You must not roam into keys that are too remote, or touch upon
keys which have no relationship with the principal one. A short cadenza must not modulate out of its key at all. A somewhat longer one
modulates most naturally to the subdominant, and a still longer one to
the dominant of the dominant.25
34
Modulations into other keys, especially very distant ones, should

not occur for example, in short cadenzas, or they must be brought
about with great insight and likewise only in passing. In no case
should one modulate to a key that the composer himself has not modulated to in the composition. This rule is founded, I think, in the laws
of unity, which must be consciously followed in all works of the fine
arts.26
Finally, these writers emphasize time and again that the cadenza
must match the character of the particular concerto. These comments
are most often rather vague generalities about being faithful to the spirit
of the work, but occasionally technical matters can affect this question.
Turk warns against making too many difficult passages if they subvert
the impression (Eindruck) of the piece, citing the use of fancy passages
in slow movements
as a special offense.27
Bach, p. 431.
Quantz,p. 184.
26
Turk, p. 311. "Ausweichungen in andere, besonders sehr entfernte, Tone finden
entweder gar nicht statt z.B. in kiirzen Kadenzen, oder sie missen mit vieler Einsicht,
und gleichsam nur im Vorbergehen angebracht werden. Auf einen Fall sollte man in
Tone ausweichen, worein der Komponist in dem Tonstucke selbst nicht ausgewichen ist.
Diese Regel griindet sich, wie mich dunkt, auf die Gefess der Einheit, welche bekanntermassen in alien Werken der schonen Kunste befolgt werden milssen."
24
25
27
Turk, pp. 31o-11.
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
The guidelines as proposed by the theorists above attempt to return

the performance of cadenzas to their original purpose, that is, to embellish a final cadence in a concerto or aria. Although the reports of abuses
by performers may be exaggerated and certainly cannot indicate the
frequency of such abuse, they do tell us that late eighteenth-century performers had perhaps lost sight of the original intention behind the cadenza. The cadenza had attained the status of a performance tradition,
or at least a requirement, but not before great expansions of its improvisatory elements had made its original function impossible. By limiting
the use of foreign keys, the technical display, and above all, the length of
a cadenza, Bach, Quantz, and Turk hoped to restore this function.
The Cadenzas of Mozart
Mozart composed at least sixty-four cadenzas and
for
his
concertos.
Why he, the master improviser, composed
Eingdnge
them at all is unclear. Gobels speculates that he wrote them for friends
and students who could not improvise so well,28 while Badura-Skoda
thinks that in the case of the mature cadenzas Mozart did not improvise
in performance, but used these written cadenzas himself.29Also unclear
is the chronology of the cadenzas and their parent concertos; evidently,
many cadenzas were written at a later time, except perhaps the cadenza
to the Piano Concerto K.488, which is written into the autograph score
of the work.
What is clear, however, is that Mozart had a definite idea of what a
cadenza should be from the completion of the "Jeunehomme" Piano
Concerto, K.271 (1775) to the end of his life. The similarity of form and
procedure among all the mature cadenzas is striking. He never reached
the final, desperate solution of Beethoven, however, that there should
be one ideal cadenza for a concerto. For both the Piano Concertos K.453
and K.456 Mozart wrote a pair of cadenzas for the opening movements,
and these are not mere reworkings, but entirely different cadenzas.
Even as his own conception of the cadenza's form and function crystallized, he did not give up the performer's option to improvise.
The first observation we can make about Mozart's cadenzas is that
they follow the guidelines of our theorists quite strictly. That they always
retain the spirit of the parent work is difficult to demonstrate, of course,
but perhaps in Mozart's case that can go without saying. They never
seem too long, and indeed, by today's standards they are quite short.
They are full of thematic references but these are never organized into a
continuous fantasy, but rather move from one to another quite
28
Franzpeter Gobels, "Neue Kadenzen zu alten Konzerten," Musica XXXV (1981),
369.
29
P. Badura-Skoda, p. 215.
THE
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abruptly. Both Eduard Melkus and Paul Mies use the word "quotes" (Zitate)to describe this effect.30 Most of all, Mozart strictly observes the prohibition against distant modulation. Indeed, as Paul Badura-Skoda
points out, he never modulates at all, but remains firmly rooted in the
tonic key, and this characteristic is not usually written into modern cadenzas for Mozart concertos.31 The harmonic effect of this is by no
means stable or tranquil, but one of significant tension on the low level,
as described by Denis Matthews:
They appeared to be suspended between the six-four chord and its
resolution:they may have tacked on other keys but rarelyif ever establishedthem in the Beethoven way.32
36
Indeed, the most concise way to describe a Mozart cadenza would be

to say that it is an improvisation on a prolonged dominant chord. This is
just the sensation that Matthews describes: the listener keeps waiting for
the resolution at the orchestral entrance, which is the beginning of the
final phrase of the movement. This suggests that Mozart's cadenzas conform to the original purpose of the cadenza, which is to embellish a final
cadence. If the orchestra introduces the cadenza with a I 6-4, and
the soloist moves from that to a dominant trill which is resolved by
the orchestra with I in root position, what is that but an extended cadence formula?
What does it mean, in practical or technical terms, to prolong a single chord for so long and retain its function? Mozart employs several
techniques to accomplish this. The first is a liberal use of 1 6-4 harmony,
especially at the beginning, which accords with the advice of C. P. E.
Bach that "the six-four chord should be kept as much in mind as possible
at the beginning of elaborations."33 This only makes sense. Theorists
have long conceived of the cadential I 6-4 as a dominant chord with a
double appoggiatura, which immediately resolves to V. While the triads
may change in Mozart's alternation of I 6-4 and V, the constant presence of the fifth degree in the bass gives a higher-level impression of V.
Using the I 6-4 at the beginning creates a smooth transition from the
through-composed orchestral section into the improvisatory cadenza.
Then, as Badura-Skoda points out, the I 6-4 disappears in the middle
of the cadenza, when its transitional function is no longer necessary:
30
Mies, p. 65. Eduard Melkus, "Die Kadenzen in Mozart-Violinkonzerten," Musica
XXXVI
(1982), 26.
P. Badura-Skoda,pp. 219-20.
32
Denis Matthews, "Adrian Boult Lecture: Cadenzas in Piano Concertos," Recorded
Sound LXVIII (1978), 724.
33 Bach,
p. 381.
31
CLASSICAL
EXAMPLE
CADENZA
1. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453, /1-7
t~-r
I#^rf
2Fr
^TILv
?
ipn
It is remarkablethat in Mozart'scadenzas,quoted themes always

appearin the home key, and then, if the cadenzabegins witha theme,
mostlyover the I six-fourchord. But when the theme appearsfirstin
the middle sectionof the cadenza,it is in its originalarrangement.34
For instance, consider a cadenza for the Piano Concerto in G, K.453
as seen in Example i. Here Mozart introduces the main motive, unaccompanied, as in the beginning of the movement. When the left hand
enters, the chord is not I, but I 6-4. This alternates with V7 until the
harmony changes. The effect is one of instability and tension.
A second strategy is that Mozart never leaves the home key, which of
course would instantly banish any tension associated with the dominant
chord, and yet he never has a strong cadence within that key, which
would have the same result. The harmony can imply other keys, certainly, but the high-level sense of the home tonic is always present. The
cadenza quoted above continues as shown in Example 2. It appears that
the key might be moving to D major in measures 8 to 1 , but this turns
out to be a secondary dominant. Then, after a long run which lands on a
low F-sharp (implied V 6-5), Mozart begins a series of progressions
which imply G, E minor, A minor, D minor, and C minor. But a traditional chord analysis would certainly describe this as a series of secondary dominants: I, VII 6/VI, VI, V 6-5/VI, VI, V 6-5/VI, VI, V 2/II, V
6-5/V, V 2, V 6-5/IV, V 2/VIIb, V 09, IV 6-4, V 6-5. A Schenkerian
analysis of the passage, as seen in Example 3, reveals the clear descending scale that moves chromatically downward from G and lands on that
34 P. Badura-Skoda, p. 215.
37
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EXAMPLE 2. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453, 1/8-25
rC.
Jr
" f
'f '
i I
38
yiiF
---
- 7rfr ..if
o
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t#
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^4^j
.~F~,
fe
CADENZA
CLASSICAL
3. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453,1/18-25,

Schenkerian analysis
EXAMPLE
'-'
v^J-
'
';
'l
r?-: *
#;
'?,-'
very same low F-sharp which introduced the passage. Thus Mozart
presents the listener with a brief development of an important motive of
the concerto in the right hand, supported by quick harmonic changes
which allow him to avoid the tonic cadence and maintain the dominant
tension throughout. The chromatic changes simply prolong the dominant chord, so that it can last twelve measures instead of three or four.
Sometimes the chromatic harmony supports the dominant more directly as a series of secondary dominants or diminished chords circumscribing the fifth degree of the home tonic. This is the case at the end of
the very brief first cadenza to the first movement of K.456, as shown in
Example 4. The descending minor scale leads right through the dominant F to a diminished seventh on E natural, which acts like a large leading tone or appoggiatura to the dominant, which arrives presently after
a flourish.
EXAMPLE
4. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 456, 1/14-18
rit,La b; v
e)
il
iI
?I'T7LC?I
l
l-
-ir-
9w
-.
L~
h t
Pw
a,
39
THE
40
JOURNAL
OF MUSICOLOGY
The effects of all of these harmonic devices are amplified by Mozart's careful exploitation of the piano register, principally the bass. This
is reserved for the principal tones of the prevailing dominant harmony,
so that they seem like a pedal for the entire cadenza. Note that in Example 2 from K.453 above, the two F-sharps which frame the chromatic
passage are in the same octave, and they are the lowest notes in the cadenza to that point. Because the listener accords a stronger harmonic
function to low notes, the effect of the dominant harmony is more credible than the variety of implied keys that follow, especially when the same
note returns after the passage.35
While the bass register strengthens the dominant prolongation in
Mozart's cadenzas, the high register weakens any authentic cadences
that have to be made for purposes of low-level articulation, or because
they are intrinsic to the original material (see Example 5). The series of
V-I progressions in measures 22 to 27 is included because Mozart is
quoting exactly the original setting of the motive (although in the concerto it immediately precedes rather than follows the half-note idea).
But even the rather firm gesture in measure 27 does nothing to resolve
the tension of the high-level dominant in the cadenza because it is so
high in the piano register. The very next passage resumes the dominant
with octaves on F, deep in the bass.
In the commentary on Mozart's cadenzas, two writers, Matthews
and Paul Badura-Skoda, have noticed a consistent three-part form:
In almostallof Mozart'sgreatcadenzascan one ascertaina definite
three part form: a cadenzabeginning (I) which startsa) either with a
theme from the concerto movementor b) withvirtuosoruns, at times
alreadyknown,at times newlyinvented, and flowsinto a middle part
(II), which almostcontinuallydevelops with sequencesan important
theme or motive from the concerto movement, mostly over a sustained bass note or chord. This leads into a number of virtuosoruns,
passagesin thirds,etc., until the close of the cadenza(III), whichusuallyends with a trill.36
The details of Badura-Skoda's description support the idea of the
cadenza as a prolonged dominant. The rarity of the principal theme at
the beginning of the cadenza is due to its close association with tonic stability. After all, its firstjob is to establish the key clearly at the beginning
of the concerto. When it is used, it must be transformed or harmonized
anew to match the dominant function of the cadenza. We have already
35 The importance of the bass register with respect to harmonic function is discussed in
Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, A GenerativeTheoryof Tonal Music (Cambridge, Mass.,
1983), pp. 88, 162-63.
36 P. Badura-Skoda,
p. 216.
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
5. Second cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 456, 1/23-31
EXAMPLE
A r-O-
"',_A
- -
rfO
r i j -.
I,bL-
If
ir-,IJ
I-L
-0 Cg-t
I
E bIr=Irt6?_
LJ
L IJ
41
eLJ,~h< .
.T
~1,
v
30
_7L-L:~~n
~~d
-3
H
1
-4
seen an example of this in the first cadenza for K.453, where the theme
is harmonized with the I 6-4. A different sort of case is found in the
cadenza for the Piano Concerto K.459, as seen in Example 6. After a
series of virtuoso triplets over the dominant C, Mozart transfers the triplet figure to the bass and introduces the main theme, a martial tune
which originally was harmonized with I and V on the first two measures
of it. Now, in order to blend with the preceding harmony and to sustain
the dominant function, Mozart uses a slightly different version of the
tune which can be harmonized V-I. Mozart's transformation emphasizes the V, because it is heard first in a metrically stronger position than
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JOURNAL
6. Cadenza for Piano Concerto K. 459, I/7-12
EXAMPLE
OF MUSICOLOGY
dr, ^IrF
rI F
I
:'~
42
;'
I I
Lj
.r;
L'"wI
LI1
iL
'f-r_-ir
I
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W
I I I
6-.,
the I. This corresponds with an especially beautiful moment from the

concerto itself, when the piano enters and uses the theme, for the first
time, in a series of secondary dominant sequences (see Example 7). Here
is an instance of the composer relating events in the cadenza to the concerto movement proper in a more substantial way, an idea that will be
applied expansively by Beethoven.
Badura-Skoda also points out that in the second part of the cadenza,
rather
the setting of a concerto theme is characterized by "Fortspinnung"
than the well-rounded original version.37 Again, this is only logical in
view of the cadenza's dominant function. If a single harmony, a single
tendency is to be prolonged, the last thing that is wanted is any kind of
strong articulation, such as would be created by a closed, well-rounded
theme.
Indeed, the three-part form itself indicates Mozart's plan. If the intent is to sustain a single chord on the high level, three sections is about
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
EXAMPLE 7. Piano Concerto K. 459,1/111-114

fr
-rr
v^j
^ff^
ef9
'" -,y
______?~~O
fi
ft
r~T
^^r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
43
1t,;-r
the maximum that can be accommodated in a cadenza.38The only alternative is to change the key or to change the fundamental harmony, either of which would undermine the original intent. The consistency of
the three-part structure in Mozart's mature cadenzas reveals the constraint under which he is working.
This constraint on the length of the cadenza can be easily noticed in
a brief survey of the proportions of some of these cadenzas compared to
their parent movements, as seen in Table 1. With two exceptions-the
first cadenza to the slow movement of K.453, and the first cadenza to
K.456-the proportion of the cadenza to the rest of the parent movement is quite consistent. This consistency indicates both the limits of the
dominant function of the cadenza and the structural level to which the
cadenza would belong. If it occupies one tenth of the movement, it be38 This assertion is based on recent evidence concerning human musical perception.
See Joseph P. Swain, "The Need for Limits in Hierarchical Theories of Music," Music
PerceptionIV (Fall, 1986), 121-47.
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TABLE
Work
Measuresin
Concerto
1
Measuresin
Cadenza
%Lengthof
Cadenza
K.453, II
372
374
141
37
39
19
10.1
10.4
13.5
136
14
10.3
K. 456, I
382
18
4.7
399
35
8.8
357
433
559
33
34
53
9.2
7.9
9.5
(incl.cad.)
K.453,
K. 456, III
K. 459, I
K. 459, III
comes an important structural event, as well it should be, but by no

means a dominating one, comparable to an exposition or recapitulation.
Indeed, Mozart clearly intends that the cadenza elaborate and amplify
the next-to-last tonal statement of the recapitulation, one in which the
soloist confirms the tonic key and participates thereby in the process of
harmonic resolution. All that is left is for the orchestra to concur with
the very last cadential event.
The Cadenzas of Beethoven
Our survey of the authentic classical cadenzas encounters serious difficulties in the contributions of Beethoven, difficulties which did not come up in the discussion of the Mozart corpus. First
of all there is the bewildering variety of the Beethoven cadenzas. While
those of Mozart seem both to confirm and refine the vision of his contemporary theorists and present a consistent, functional, and musically
logical solution to the cadenza problem, Beethoven's cadenzas seem to
be a series of experiments, at times wildly contradicting most of the
aforementioned theoretical guidelines, and at other times adhering to
them with puritan restraint. Some are, by eighteenth-century standards, of gargantuan length; others are fewer than twenty measures
long. Some seem to be models of Mozart's conception, with a clear dominant function; others are so highly chromatic that at points no harmonic
tendency is discernible. What can Beethoven's idea of the form and
function of the cadenza possibly be in the face of such diversity?
Another problem is the matter of chronology. It is not known with
any certainty the order of composition of the cadenzas, nor the time of
composition for any one of them. The Kinsky catalogue suggests that
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
Beethoven had composed them all by 1809, for various students and acquaintances, but there is no hard evidence for this; 1809 is chosen because it is the year of completion for the last concerto, the "Emperor."
Willy Hess points out that the three cadenzas composed for Op. 15 must
date from 1804 at the earliest, since they make use of notes above f3, a
range not used previously.39 This observation would not apply to the
cadenza for Op. 19, which does not go beyond the f3.
What Hess makes clear, however, is that at least in the case of Op.
and
15,
perhaps likely in all the piano concertos except Op. 73, the cadenzas were composed well after the composition of the parent concerto. With Mozart, whose style changes during the period of his mature
piano concertos are quite subtle, this issue of a time lapse is not so serious. With Beethoven, whose change in style between Op. 19 (1794) and
Op. 73 (1809) is far-reaching and continuous, difficult questions arise
about the composer's opinions of his earlier work, compositional process, whether he could really compose in a personal style from which he
had since evolved, and whether he would even want to.
One aspect of this chronological tangle is sure. When Beethoven
wrote his "Emperor" Concerto in 1809, he no longer wished to allow the
soloist the option of playing his own cadenza. Instead, at the point of the
I 6-4, Beethoven writes directly in the score: "Do not make a cadenza
here, but play immediately the following."40 There follows a brief cadenza of nineteen measures with a single thematic reference and clear
dominant function. Evidently, Beethoven had had a change of heart
about the cadenza and its role in a concerto movement.
A story told by Ferdinand Ries about his performance of Op. 37 in
July 1804, with Beethoven conducting, might reveal some interesting
aspects of Beethoven's earlier attitude toward the concerto cadenza:
I had asked Beethoven to writea cadenzafor me, but he refused and
told me to write one myself and he would correct it. Beethoven was
satisfiedwith my compositionand made few changes; but there was
an extremelybrilliantand very difficult passage in it, which, though
he liked it, seemed to him too venturesome,wherefore he told me to
write another in its place. A week before the concert he wanted to
hear the cadenzaagain. I playedit and floundered in the passage;he
again, this time a little ill-naturedly,told me to change it. I did so, but
the new passagedid not satisfyme; I therefore studied the other, and
zealously,but was not quite sure of it. When the cadenzawas reached
in the public concert Beethoven quietly sat down. I could not persuade myself to choose the easierone. When I boldlybegan the more
39 WillyHess, "DieOriginalkadenzenzu BeethovensKlavierkonzerten,"
Schweizerische
MusikzeitungCXII (1972), 271.

40
"Nonsi fa una Cadenza,ma s' attaccasubitoil seguente."
45
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OF MUSICOLOGY
difficult one, Beethoven violentlyjerked his chair; but the cadenza

went through all right and Beethoven was so delighted that he
shouted "Bravo"loudly.41
46
Even if this story exaggerates some details, it can tell us something

about cadenzas in Beethoven concertos.42 First, they were not always improvised, even when the soloist was an excellent pianist. This would accord with the advice of Turk and the opinion of some scholars that only
gifted and experienced composers would have improvised cadenzas at
the moment of performance. Second, the suggestion that, if a cadenza
were to be composed, Beethoven would not only agree to one not written by himself, but insist that it be composed by the soloist, is quite astonishing in view of what we know about the composer's meticulousness
with regard to his own works. Evidently, he believed, in 1804, in the performer's right and responsibility to create this improvisatory comment
on the master's piece. Finally, the cadenza in this story was of considerable length. Beethoven did not care to stand through it.
Evidently, Beethoven, unlike Mozart, did not have a firm conception of what the cadenza should be like, and his changing views about its
place and purpose in the concerto would naturally affect the structure
and function of each one he composed. So we must regard his collected
cadenzas as a series of experiments, whose course cannot really be evaluated until their chronology is established. However, if we regard
Beethoven's work in the concerto genre as similarly developmental, the
wide variety in the cadenzas parallels his experimental treatment of the
concerto form itself. Indeed, one characteristic that all his cadenzas
share is that their structures respond to the demands and special features of the movements for which they are composed.
The cadenzas fall into three groups: the long cadenzas for first
movements, the short cadenzas for first movements, and the cadenzas
for third movements.
The Piano Concerto in B-flat Op. 19, originally composed in 1794has
a long cadenza that is like no other that Beethoven wrote. It be95,
a fugue, whose subject is a variant of the principal triadic theme
like
gins
of the first movement. The working out of the fugue is characterized by
that unique brand of chromaticism that characterizes Beethoven's later
works, especially his large-scale attempts at fugal writing. The purpose
41 From Ferdinand Ries and Dr. Franz

Wegeler, BiographischeNotizen uberLudwig van
Beethoven.This translation appears in Thayer's Life ofBeethoven,ed. Elliot Forbes (Princeton, N.J., 1967), p. 355.
42
The general reliability of Ries has recently been confirmed. See Alan Tyson, "Ferdinand Ries (1784-1838): The history of his contribution to Beethoven biography,"
gth-CenturyMusic VII (1984), 209- 21.
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
of such chromaticism is to sustain the tonic key as long as possible on the

high level, with the chromatic progressions creating low-level events to
organize the structure.
Indeed, the use of this chromatic device reveals the purpose and
nature of this cadenza. It is no Mozart-like dominant prolongation but a
high-level tonic prolongation. There is no predominance of I 6-4 harmony, no special reservation of the bass register to sustain the dominant
function. Instead, the subject boldly announces the tonic triad, and thematic material is introduced, after a dominant pedal, in B-flat minor, so
that the prevailing harmonic sense is one of tonic stability, not dominant
tension. There is a brief foray into E-flat, then more dominant harmony
which resolves to a tonic pedal, which lasts eight measures. The cadenza
ends with a firm tonic cadence reiterated over two measures, then a
flourish on a B-flat scale to lead back to the orchestra's entrance.
That none of the theorists' guidelines are observed in this cadenza is
due to a fundamental change of purpose. The cadenza is not an embellished cadence, not a prolonged dominant, but a larger event with tonic
stability. None of the guidelines need be observed, even that one warning against changes of key, because there is no dominant function to be
sustained. The tonic pedal and strong cadence within the cadenza at the
end are perhaps the most surprising of all, but it must be noted that this
seventy-nine-measure cadenza is followed by only six measures of orchestral coda. Beethoven evidently felt that, in view of the proportions
involved, the cadenza should help the orchestra make the last cadential
gesture of the movement.
There are three long cadenzas for the first movement of the Piano
Concerto in C Major, Op. 15 (completed 1795). One has sixty-two measures but is incomplete. It begins by establishing the tonic with the main
motive but then moves away with diminished chords until E-flat major is
established with a large dominant preparation, complete with trills. The
second lyrical theme is heard in this key, which quickly dissipates into C
minor before the music cuts off.43
Another cadenza is only thirty-two measures, thus within proportions established by Mozart. This may be indeed one of the closest
models of Mozart's conception; it does reserve the lowest register for
pitches appropriate to dominant harmony. However, the key of E-flat
major is also established in this cadenza, although with much less emphasis, to set the fanfare theme. This quickly moves to dominant harmony in C which sets up the final trill.
This emphasis on the key of E-flat in both cadenzas is an attempt to
43 This cadenza has been
completed by Edward T. Cone. See "A Cadenza for Op. 15"
in BeethovenEssays:Studiesin Honor of Elliot Forbes,ed. Lewis Lockwood and Phyllis Benjamin (Cambridge, Mass., 1984).
47
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relate them to the movement proper in a more substantial way than by

thematic reference alone. E-flat major is an important structural key of
the movement; it sets the first appearance of the lyrical melody in the
exposition (m. 49) and is the only important tonal center in the development section (mm. 266-84).
A third cadenza to the first movement is perhaps the most problematic of all Beethoven's cadenzas, and also seems to be the one preferred
by pianists who play this concerto. It is by far the longest of all
Beethoven's cadenzas, 126 measures, a length which far outstrips the
development section of the movement (c. eighty measures) and nearly
equals the 132 measures of the recapitulation. Like the first one, it begins with the main motive in the key of C, which is followed by long arpeggiated passages of harmonically ambiguous material. The key of E
minor is briefly touched upon, followed by more diminished arpeggios.
Finally the key of D-flat major is attained, setting the lyrical theme. This
changes quickly to C-sharp minor. After more passage work there
seems to be dominant harmony tending to C, but which instead moves,
incredibly, to a presentation of the fanfare theme in the key of G. The
seventh is added to this, and an eighteen-measure dominant pedal ensues, finally making a cadence in advance of the orchestra.
The problems with this cadenza have not only to do with its extreme
length, but also with its function, a related issue. What is its structural
purpose in the movement? With dominant function out of the question,
we can consider the possibility of a prolonged tonic, but the keys established within it are so many and so distant that it is difficult to conceive of a big tonic with those structural features, let alone hear it that
way. The use of D-flat/C-sharp, which is lauded by Matthews44and others as an exotic or brazen gesture, has nothing to do with the parent
movement, as it does in the second cadenza for Op. 58, where it mirrors
the harmonic goal of the development section. Surely this cadenza is one
of Beethoven's less successful experiments.
The long cadenza for Op. 37 in C minor (composed 18oo?), by contrast, can be conceived of and heard as an expansion on the tonic key.
After beginning with fugal material based on the main theme, arpeggiated passagework leads to the dominant key of G for a presentation of
the second theme. This theme is never allowed to reach the cadence, but
the tonic chord is turned into a seventh and the harmony returns to C
minor. Significantly, the cadenza is followed by the first long coda that
Beethoven wrote for a concerto, a twenty-seven measure series of tonic
cadences. From the onset of the cadenza to the end, a single high-level
44 Denis Matthews, "Beethoven and the Cadenza," Musical TimesCI (1970), 1207. The
eminent critic Sir Donald Francis Tovey also thinks highly of this cadenza. See Concertos,
Vol. III of EssaysinMusicalAnalysis (London, 1936), p. 65
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
key reigns, the tonic that is appropriate to the cadenza's position in the
structure of the movement.
Beethoven tried a new approach to the problem of making the cadenza connect the recapitulation with the coda in his G Major Piano
Concerto, Op. 58 (composed 1805-06). When the orchestra enters after
the conclusion of the cadenza, it does so on a dominant seventh, rather
than a tonic chord, so that instead of the traditional cadential formula
we have the pattern: I 6-4 - cadenza - V7. In this way the end of the
concerto can no longer be thought of as a pair of structural cadences,
one embellished in the cadenza and finished by the orchestra and a second, through-composed one by the full ensemble, but rather as a single
structural cadence, whose dominant part is embellished by the soloist,
then continued and resolved by the orchestra.
The connection is more than a matter of harmonic function.
Beethoven introduces the cadenza with a lyrical theme whose phrases
always move to the dominant (see Example 8). Then, when the dominant trill of the cadenza arrives, the same theme is played in the clarinet
over a variant in the piano. To understand the special problem that this
structural arrangement creates for Beethoven, we must review the earlier occurrences of this theme. In the orchestral part of the exposition,
the theme is heard once (mm. 50-60), in a fortissimo orchestral tutti
which then leads into cadential material before the soloist's entrance. In
the second part of the exposition it is heard in the winds, accompanied
by virtuoso passagework in the piano (mm. 158-69), but then, rather
than leading to the exposition's cadence, the theme is reiterated in a
beautiful, much quieter version nearly identical to that quoted above
(mm. 170-74), then giving way to the vigorous orchestral statement
(mm. 175-80), so that the double announcement of the theme seems
like an expansion of the original. In the recapitulation, this reiteration is
done again, beforethe cadenza begins. This means that we hear it twice
immediately before the cadenza, and once again right after it.
Beethoven needs a cadenza which does not emphasize tonic stability,
since he is moving from dominant to dominant, yet presents something
substantial in order to break up the triple presentation of this lyrical
theme.
Beethoven's solution in one cadenza is a tonic prolongation, similar
to the others we have seen, but with certain features that weaken its
overall function of tonic stability. There is careful use of the bass register
for dominant implications. The movement to the key of B-flat major
close to the beginning is significant, but the theme heard is the one that
modulates to its relative minor; the overall sense of G is perhaps not lost,
but is not in the foreground either. Strong emphasis on E-flat and D-flat
corresponds to the structural roles these pitches play in the concerto, but
also supports the explicit dominant harmony on D that occupies the last
49
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seventeen measures. The idea behind this cadenza seems to be that since
a tonic prolongation is the only option for a cadenza of this length, one
that has significant lower-level dominant features can function on the
high level as a tonic, but yet not resolve the dominant tension which
must continue when the orchestra enters. This connection between the
function of the cadenza and the material that surrounds it is made explicit in the last twenty measures of the cadenza, which present the lyriEXAMPLE
8. Piano Concerto Op. 58, mm. 336-346
ifr
A U -0-
--9
'f:?
solo
*.
,,~-:J-:]-
:~-7
I
or h "-..
50
orch.
340
p#~o~~~~~P
A L:
f-
^Qg^t^fj
.!U
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
EXAMPLE 8. (continued)
.... ..
. .
..........
..-
b*;. ._ *--~/
cal theme quoted above in the minor mode, so that its resumption by the
orchestra in major is even more effective.
Because he cannot prolong the dominant explicitly for the length of
time required in these long cadenzas, Beethoven, in another solution to
Op. 58, tries to fashion an improvisation on the concept of unresolved
harmonic tension. It is titled "Cadenza, ma senza cadere." Not only is
there not the slightest hint of any cadence, not even any dominant preparation before the end, but no key is consistent for more than five measures or so. The cadenza is a succession of wild harmonic, rhythmic, and
tempo contrasts. A single thematic quotation and the main motive repeated at the end are this cadenza's only link with the parent movement.
The concluding trill, the audible signal of the cadenza on G-sharp, G
natural, and A. Evidently, the listener, faced with this jumble, is to conclude that this improvisation must be supporting the dominant. That is
the last clear harmony he has heard and the very next one he will hear.
The reason for the extremely unusual thematic context into which
the cadenza is placed becomes clear only after the last hearing of that
lyrical theme. Of five renditions, only the final one makes a strong cadence (m. 356), which leads directly into the last high-level cadence of
the movement. The function of the cadenza as an elaborated cadence
depends on such a transformation of the theme. In a sense, the cadenza
forces this once transitional material to close, simply because after the
cadenza nothing else would suffice.
How long are these long cadenzas? Table 2 presents the data. With
the exception of the little cadenza for Op. 15, they are significantly
51
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OF MUSICOLOGY
TABLE
Work
Measuresin
with
Concerto
Cadenzaincluded
Op. 19
Op. 15
479
540
510
604
507
437
421
Op. 37
Op. 58
2
Measuresin
Cadenza
79
62 (inc.)
32
126
64
6745
51
Cadenzaas %
ofMovement
16.5
11.5
6.3
20.9
12.6
15.3
12.1
longer than those of Mozart in comparison to their parent movements.

This, as well as the musical evidence, indicates a different structural role
for these cadenzas in the Beethoven concertos.
52
In contrast to these stand the two short cadenzas: one of twelve measures for Op. 58, and of course the nineteen-measure cadenza that is
mandated for the "Emperor." Beethoven possibly considered another
for the Op. 37 concerto. Willy Hess reports that alongside the long one
in the autograph, Mh 71 of the Bodmer Collection, is a page containing
twenty measures of music with "Cadenza"written at the top.46
The short cadenza for Op. 58 presents a delicate problem because
of the construction of the concerto. Will twelve measures be enough diversion to break up the triple presentation of that descending lyrical
theme harmonized by the dominant? That question, I think, can be answered only after repeated hearings of the cadenza in the context of the
entire movement (if any pianists can be persuaded to give up the virtuosic displays of the longer ones). Beethoven, however, has chosen a
unique construction to solve the problem. In a cadenza so short, shorter
even than the typical Mozart cadenza, it would be an easy matter for
Beethoven to fashion a prolonged dominant according to Mozart's conception. However, since the preceding orchestral theme was based on
the dominant, and will resume with that harmony at the cadenza's end, a
dominant prolongation would only emphasize the thematic repetition.
Indeed, this cadenza could not be described as a sustained dominant
(see Example 9).
45 This cadenza has i o actual measures, but some have a signature of 6, others 4, which
is the signature for the movement. By considering two 8 measures to be a number of beats
equal to one 4, the number 67 was calculated for purposes of comparison.
46 Hess, p. 272.
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
EXAMPLE
9. Shortcadenzato PianoConcertoOp. 58, I.
r
46
rI
r.
1rl*:#fL_-,*
~h
f:r
-- _
!,,I/
$!^
Iim
r
^^^B=-
-)
6
(continued)
53
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OF MUSICOLOGY
JOURNAL
EXAMPLE 9. (continued)
nu
I]'#f
_L
r
54
mrrTrrI
I I I I I I I1 1 I
None of the usual Mozartean devices appear. The rushing scales begin not from D, but from a G deep in the bass register. The tonic chord is
in root position (m. 2) with the attending dominants in weaker inversions. Then, in measure five the main motive is sounded on a root tonic
which encompasses more than four octaves of the piano. Only then does
the harmony change, moving through VI to diminished and finally
dominant harmony. Beethoven has created a low-level I-V progression
which can be subsumed in the higher-level dominant function of the
end of the movement, and yet which might be a sufficient articulation as
to make the third hearing of the lyrical theme acceptable.
The cadenza in the "Emperor" Concerto has caused considerable
comment, not because it is short, or because of the way it is written, but
because Beethoven seems to have cut off the accepted "tradition"of the
soloist's improvisation in a concerto. No longer is there any option. Paul
Mies attributes this to a disappearance of improvisational skill and a lack
of interest in improvisational genres such as the fantasy.47We have seen,
however, that cadenzas were not always improvised on the spot, and that
Beethoven himself approved previously composed and practiced "improvisations."
Matthews thinks that Beethoven obviated the need for a long cadenza late in the movement by beginning the "Emperor" with great improvisatory flourishes by the piano.48 Hess points out that Beethoven's
47 Mies, pp. 49-50.
48 Matthews, "Beethoven and the Cadenza," p. 1206.
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
aborted D major piano concerto of 1814/15 begins with a strong orchestral tutti followed by a short solo passage with the word "Cadenza"written over it.49This is indeed an interesting correspondence, but to speak
of a "need" for a cadenza or other improvisatory passage would presume that our theories of concerto form would explain and account for
such need. They do not. Indeed, they ignore the cadenza altogether.
Hess sees the "Emperor" Concerto as the last stage of a smooth development of the cadenza from an improvised virtuoso passage to something that is integrated tightly into the movement. If he is right, we
would then have a rationale for placing all the cadenzas in some provisional order, with the loosest, most fantastic ones such as the huge one
for Op. 15, at the beginning, and the short ones at the end, but clearly,
some external evidence supporting this chronology would be most welcome.
In substance, the cadenza of the "Emperor," like so many of
Beethoven's late works, can be viewed as a return to conservative classical principles, but one which distills the essence of those principles into
music of understated concision. The main motive is presented on the
dominant first, and rises sequentially, eventually generating a chromatic
scale that goes to the top range of the piano, falls precipitately, and lands
on the first real chord of the cadenza, a dominant seventh. The expected
trill is heard, and gives way to the martial theme in E-flat minor. As it
does in the movement proper, this theme moves briefly through G-flat
major, then returns to the dominant of E-flat to end the phrase. Now the
horn enters, and on the downbeat the strings play a pizzicato E-flat
chord in root position. Throughout the martial theme, Beethoven is
careful to make B-flat the lowest sounding pitch. The cadenza, then, is
built around the idea of the prolonged dominant as an embellished cadence, and yet it makes a reference to an important subsidiary key of the
piece and, by dispensing with the trill at the end, seems to achieve a
higher degree of integration with the end of the movement. In nineteen
measures Beethoven has combined Mozart's conception of the functional cadenza with aspects that have become important to his own conception of it.
Since a cadenza always means an interruption in the flow of the
movement-caused by its characteristic feature of suspension of meter,
steady tempo, broken phrases, all of the devices of improvisatory
music-including a cadenza of significant proportion means a looser,
less integrated movement.50 Evidently Beethoven felt that the third
49 Hess, p. 273.
50
For a more precise and technical discussion of "loose" and "tight" structures, see Joseph P. Swain, "Limits of Musical Structure," (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University,
1983), Chapter V.
55
THE
56
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movement rondo forms, which are not as tightly organized as the opening movements, would not benefit from such cadenzas. Only two of the
five piano concertos, Op. 15 and Op. 58, and the Violin Concerto Op. 61
provide spots for third-movement cadenzas. The cadenzas left for the
piano concertos are all exceedingly short. In the score for Op. 58,
Beethoven writes in the measure indicating the cadenza, "Lacadenza sia
corta," in case anyone doesn't get the point. They are all very brief
flourishes on the dominant, with the exception of the longer, well
known cadenza to Op. 58. This one makes a clear reference to the key of
C major, and since the cadenza as a whole prolongs the tonic chord of G,
it recalls the special relationship between these two chords that is so
characteristic of this movement.
While the short cadenzas, for both first and third movements, seem
closely allied to Mozart's conception of the cadenza, the long ones
present a different notion entirely. Because they approach the dimensions of the recapitulation itself in their length, they can hardly be considered as harmonic supports for that part of the sonata. They must instead be considered as a section added to the high-level sonata form, an
expansion which corresponds to that of the coda in Beethoven's symphonies and string quartets. If that is the case, how then do these cadenzas, in their great variety of compositional technique and form, fit into
our refined theory of concerto form?
Theoretical
Considerations
When trying to accommodate the classical cadenza

into our ideas about style of the classical concerto, the most important
thing to remember is that the cadenza occurs at theend of the movement.
This single aspect imposes significant restrictions upon its harmonic design and its structural function, because of the sonata style upon which
the classical concerto is founded. Since the sonata depends upon highlevel harmonic contrast (or as Rosen would call it, high-level dissonance), the end of the movement is reserved for confirmation of the
tonic key above all else. Although other keys, especially subdominant
ones, may be touched upon early in the recapitulation, by the time the
cadenza arrives, there is little left to do for the structure of the movement but to make the final cadence. The guidelines of the eighteenthcentury theorists that we have reviewed and the examples of Mozart and
Beethoven have left us two consistent models of the classical cadenza.
Do these models insure this high-level confirmation of the tonic key, or
shall we have to revise our theory of classical concerto form?
The conception of the cadenza as a dominant prolongation, which is
the one adopted in all of Mozart's mature cadenzas and in most of
Beethoven's short ones, fits very comfortably into our present ideas
CADENZA
CLASSICAL
about concerto form and function. This type of cadenza is simply an embellished cadence:
Its function is to delay the strong closingand at the same time, to amplify its effect.51
In this sense the cadenza elaborates an essential, but lower-level event. It
would not appear in any high-level diagram of the entire sonata form
but might in a plan of the recapitulation:
RECAPITULATION
(Cadenza) (Coda)
Prevailing
key:
Subsidiary
functions:
I
I
IV
As Badura-Skoda points out, since the cadenza increases the cadential

effect of the tonic, it fits very well with current theories of concerto form.
The effect is quite different with the longer cadenzas of Beethoven.
These are not embellished cadences-they are too long to maintain the
function of a single chord-but prolongations of the tonic key. As such
they would have to be considered on the highest level of structure:
EXPO.
Prevailing
key:
DEVEL.
RECAP
CAD.
(none)
CODA
This conception of the cadenza's role still concurs with theories about
concerto form, but in the manner of an added section that emphasizes
the tonic key along with the recapitulation, rather than a harmonic gesture that supports the recapitulation.
The larger conception allows a different design for the cadenza. In
contrast to the Mozart-type, subsidiary keys can indeed be established in
this kind of cadenza, as long as the tonic governs overall. Beethoven has
chosen his subsidiary keys with great care for the most part. The closely
related keys of subdominant and dominant appear in the cadenzas for
Op. 19 and Op. 37 respectively, and the more unusual choices of E-flat
for the C major concerto cadenzas and B-flat for the G major concerto
are justified by particular structural relationships those keys have with
the parent movement, so that their subsidiary relationship with the tonic
THE
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has already been established. The one exception might be the longest
cadenza of all, the third one for Op. 15, which is problematic in several
respects. Here both the distance and treatment of the keys raise them to
more than subsidiary status, so that in effect, we hear significant harmonic development with only thirteen measures of orchestra to follow.
There is no question that these long cadenzas are full of thematic
development, centered, as Mies points out, on the main motive of the
movement.52 This contrasts with Mozart's practice, which usually makes
use of subsidiary thematic material or connective passagework borrowed from the movement as the principal material for the cadenza.
This may be due to the strong association the main theme will have with
the tonic key in any classical concerto. Mozart, whose aim is to have the
listener wait for the tonic chord, will avoid the main tune, while
Beethoven, whose long cadenza is a tonic prolongation, will use it as his
principal building block.
Both the emphasis on the principal motive and the use of subsidiary
keys will be among the most important components of a long cadenza
form. The main motive is heard invariably at the beginning and usually
at the end, and the appearance of the subsidiary key is a major articulation, accented by the use of a secondary theme which contrasts with the
first. Separating important events of the cadenza are generous amounts
of arpeggiated passagework, usually based on diminished chords with
the main motive being worked out. Such passages help to separate the
main thematic events of the cadenza, prolong the overall sense of the
tonic because they themselves are harmonically ambiguous, contribute
to the improvisatory effect of the music, and of course, display the virtuosity of the soloist. The structural organization of these basic elements,
however, differs from case to case. Beethoven's cadenzas, unlike Mozart's, are not consistent in their form.
There is good reason for this inconsistency. Even though they may
have been composed well after their parent concertos, the cadenzas are
designed to fit the particular structural requirements of each one. Why
does the fugal cadenza for Op. 19 make such a strong tonic cadence long
before the orchestra's entrance? Because that concerto concludes with
only six measures of coda after the cadenza. Why does the shorter
"senza cadere" cadenza for the first movement of Op. 58 seem almost
without tonal center? Because it must maintain the tension which will
continue when the orchestra picks up with a dominantchord, and yet create an articulation to separate yet a third hearing of a telling lyrical
theme. Indeed, if we can regard Beethoven's work in the concerto genre
as an evolution, we can certainly regard his cadenzas for those works as a
necessary parallel evolution.
52
pp 37-38.
CLASSICAL
CADENZA
In conclusion: today's soloists have before them two types of cadenza that can make musical sense in a classical concerto, that are sensitive to the cadenza's position at the end of the work, and that are sensitive to the requirements of a particular concerto. I cannot agree with
Ludwig Misch, who believes that soloists should restrict themselves to
the authentic cadenzas that Mozart and Beethoven have left, resorting
to simple trills for those works which have none.53 On the contrary, the
cadenza presents the concert artist with an unmatched opportunity for
creativity in his performance of a repertoire that is very well known.
This opportunity must be approached, however, with a sense of responsibility that is only appropriate to the masterworks that will be recreated
every time a new cadenza is composed for them. A deepening appreciation of the cadenza, not just as a flashy solo that uses the themes of the
concerto, but as a functioning part of the whole concerto form as well,
can only help performers choose and compose cadenzas that will increase, rather than spoil, the pleasure of hearing these works.
ColgateUniversity
53
Ludwig Misch, "Non si fa una Cadenza .. ." inBeethoven-Studien(1950), p. 142.
59

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Form and Function of the Classical Cadenza

Author(s): Joseph P. Swain

Form and Function of

ow many of us have ever enjoyed hearing a

(Vienna, Stuttgart, 1957).

In former times, one added small embellishments before cadences

4 Daniel GottlobTurk, Clavierschule

Knodt, pp. 397-98.

Tosi, as translated into English by J. E. Galliard as Observationson the Florid Song

(London, 1743), pp. 128-29.

Quantz, pp. 180-81.

'9 Quantz,p. 180. Tosi, p. 137, makesa similarremark.

A second guideline is that the cadenza should preserve the overall

Modulations into other keys, especially very distant ones, should

Turk, pp. 31o-11.

The guidelines as proposed by the theorists above attempt to return

Franzpeter Gobels, "Neue Kadenzen zu alten Konzerten," Musica XXXV (1981),

Indeed, the most concise way to describe a Mozart cadenza would be

Mies, p. 65. Eduard Melkus, "Die Kadenzen in Mozart-Violinkonzerten," Musica

1. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453, /1-7

It is remarkablethat in Mozart'scadenzas,quoted themes always

EXAMPLE 2. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453, 1/8-25

3. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453,1/18-25,

4. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 456, 1/14-18

5. Second cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 456, 1/23-31

6. Cadenza for Piano Concerto K. 459, I/7-12

the I. This corresponds with an especially beautiful moment from the

EXAMPLE 7. Piano Concerto K. 459,1/111-114

comes an important structural event, as well it should be, but by no

MusikzeitungCXII (1972), 271.

"Nonsi fa una Cadenza,ma s' attaccasubitoil seguente."

difficult one, Beethoven violentlyjerked his chair; but the cadenza

Even if this story exaggerates some details, it can tell us something

41 From Ferdinand Ries and Dr. Franz

of such chromaticism is to sustain the tonic key as long as possible on the

relate them to the movement proper in a more substantial way than by

8. Piano Concerto Op. 58, mm. 336-346

longer than those of Mozart in comparison to their parent movements.

When trying to accommodate the classical cadenza

As Badura-Skoda points out, since the cadenza increases the cadential

Ludwig Misch, "Non si fa una Cadenza .. ." inBeethoven-Studien(1950), p. 142.

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