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CHEMISTRY

RELATIONS

ITS

AND

OF

TO

TEXTBOOK

AND

ECONOMICS

HOME

SECONDARY

IN

LIFE

STUDENTS

FOR

AGRICULTURE

DAILY

SCHOOLS

BY

KAHLENBERG

LOUIS
PROFESSOR

OF

CHEMISTRY
IN

AND

DIRECTOR

OF

UNIVERSITY

THE

OF

THE

COURSE

IN

CHEMISTRY

WISCONSIN

AND

EDWIN
PROFESSOR

OF

AGRICULTURAL

EXPERIMENT

HART

B.
CHEMISTRY

STATION

IN

AND

CHEMIST

UNIVERSITY

THE

TO
OF

gorfe
THE

MACMILLAN

COMPANY
1913

All

rights

reserved

THE

WISCONSIN

AGRICULTURAL

1913,

COPYRIGHT,

THE

BY

Set

and

up

COMPANY.

MACMILLAN

June,

Published

electrotyped.

1913.

Noroiooti
J.

S.

Gushing
Norwood,

Co.

Berwick

"

"

-Mass.,

U.S.A.

Smith

Co.

PREFACE

THIS

book

students

of

schools.

The

is intended

to

home

agricultureand
aim

has

represent

been

At

it.

the

simple

make

to

work
in

placed

the

no

While

extent, but

some

the

theories

have

aid

to

book

is not

doubtless

have

training which
the pursuit of

have

will compare

of

each

by the student

are

be needed.

in

given lists
Addresses

Atomic

troduced
in-

and
not

are

advancement.
for

course

sound

scientific

in preparatory
in

teacher

At

of apparatus
a

few

the

and

well-known

265529

with

the

should

of

chemicals
firms

are

study
vise
super-

keep neat,

to

end

in

schools.

Chapter XXI

in connection

notebook.

of

been

successfullywill

carefullyand requirethe student

records

accurate

been

favorably with that received

of the precedingchapters. The

this work

of

it

and

laboratory experiments detailed

be performed

tinuous
con-

expressing

preparatory

completed

usually taken

courses

have

form.

stage

information

gained

to

XXII

who

as

on

naturally been

presented,for they
this

intended

made

aid in

an

convenient

at

grasp

theory has

as

an

accomplish

to

formulas

merely

been

not

students

colleges,yet those

The

and

may

been

have

more

Chemical

necessary.

simple,compact,

calculated

student

matter

it in

present

part of the student

foreground, and

secondary

subject

has

for

require patient and

facts

to

molecular

the

intelligently.Useful

presented than
facts in

it will

the

applicationon
the

to

time, the delineation

same

scientific lines, and

sound

the

and

that

so

way

in

economics

thoroughly practicalin character


interestingand

year's work

Chapter
that

from

will

whom

vi

PREFACE

supplies

such

of

convenience

the

questions

The

of

will,

While
be

used

there

teacher,

helpful
and

as

study.
in

is
in

pupils

by

of

are

that

schools

especially

teacher

which

upon

in

help

questions,

Any

corrections
future

many

in

special

or

others

who
for

that

suggestions
will

be

WISCONSIN,
1913.

textbook

to

of

supervision

information

general

editions

as

the

under

doubtless
of

20,

will
The

gratefully

THE

February

for

chapter.

intended

primarily

volume

preparing

MADISON,

furnished

chapter

exercises,

laboratory

book

this

been

laid.

be

should

each

of

additional

many

the

with

end

points

raise

connection
stress

the

salient

course,

also

teacher.

the

at

the

reviewing

have

obtained

be

may

will

home

find

it

reading

may

be

received.

AUTHORS.

ful
use-

CONTENTS
CHAPTER

PAGE

I.
II.
III.

CONSIDERATIONS

FUNDAMENTAL

GENERAL

COMPOSITION

THE

USES

AND

WATER

OF

HYDROGEN

OXYGEN,

HYDROGEN,

PEROXIDE,

AND

OZONE
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

22

AIR,

THE

NITROGEN,

SALTS,

ACIDS,

NITRIC

BASES,

ACID,
CHEMICAL

AND

AMMONIA

AND

30

FORMULAS

41
.

HALOGENS

THE

52

PHOSPHORUS,

SULPHUR,

ARSENIC,

ANTIMONY,

AND

BISMUTH
VIII.
IX.
X.

59

BORON
CARBON
THE

SILICON

AND

74
.

COMPOUNDS

ITS

AND

METALS

OF

81

ALKALIES

THE

AND

THE

ALKALINE

EARTHS
XI.

118

ALUMINUM,

HEAVY

THE

METALS,

AND

THEIR

ALLOYS
XII.

OILS,

PAINTS,

XIII.

LEATHER,

XIV.

THE

XV.
XVI.
XVII.

XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.

COTTON,

AND

RUBBER

FERTILIZERS

214
229

AND

PRACTICAL

IT

PRODUCES

238

FEED

255

FOODS

269
.....

ITS

FOR

ITS

ANIMAL

AND

AND

WHAT

AND

ANIMAL

POISONS

179
191

LIFE

HUMAN
MILK

WOOL,

171

.....

MANURE

PLANT
THE

VARNISHES

SOIL

COMMERCIAL
FARM

140

AND

SILK,

PORTANT
IM-

291

PRODUCTS
FARM

ORCHARD

AND

EXPERIMENTS

LABORATORY

INDEX

PESTS

307
321

381

vii

ITS

AND

CHEMISTRY

LIFE

DAILY

TO

RELATIONS

CHAPTER

make

that

been

have

rocks, soil, and

plants, water,

ANIMALS,

things

CONSIDERATIONS

FUNDAMENTAL

GENERAL

the

considerable

earth

the

up

subject

of

study

earth's

of

means

experience
the

the air, and

water,

All of this

crust.

by
and

to

has

of

results

of

recorded

collected, corrected, and


Such

carefully gathered and


is called

Science.

in view.

as

result

of

are

commonly

that these

words,

part

recorded

opinions

may

opinions that

of science, and

with

if not

to

with

indeed

warrant

or

drawing

and

such

tions,
observa-

such

opinions

observations

enough

formed

have

men

it is clear

sometimes

made

made

made

differ somewhat,

care,

edge
knowl-

systematized

Now

the

been

is

over

been

manuscripts.

in scientific books.

quite widely, especiallyif

have

and

observation

differ

insufficient

turies
cen-

many

gradually

science

reflection,that is,thinking

also form

taste, touch,

For

have

in books

careful
The

of observation

result

systematicallyarranged

In other

knowledge resultingfrom
definitepurpose

is the

observations

such

been

solid portions of the

of temperature.

changes

animals, and

sight,hearing, smell,

senses,

our

These

consequently

the

knowledge

the

are

atmosphere.

gathered concerning living beings, plants, and


their relations

air

earliest times, and

since

knowledge

of

amount

its

and

the

have

they
been

observations

fairly safe conclusion.

CHEMISTRY

AND

from

opinionsthen change

The

and

of them

more

accumulate.

be sure, the observations

water, air,earth,and

fire are

thingsare composed,and
centuries.

be

may

improved and

Even

in

now

"

the elements of which

indeed this view


in
literature,

and
conflagrations,

storms,

the

we
like,

battle of the elements."


of speech,for
only figures

now

Greeks

of science,though, to
plied,
multi-

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)taughtthat


philosopher

Greek

of the

theoretical views,are

alreadystated.

as

The

too

better observations

as

Consequently the

or

changeable,the ephemeral part

the

LIFE

time to time

say, the theories

opinions,that is to

are

DAILY

Such

all other

held for many

was

the

of
descriptions
sometimes stillspeak
to be sure,
allusions,

the elements of the ancient

all the

elementaryconstituents of which
thingsare composed. In fact a careful study of all of the
available materials on the earth,includingthe atmosphere
has shown
that there are about eightysubstances that cannot
be made from other substances and cannot
themselves be resolved
into anything else. For example,iron is one
of these eighty
not

are

substances.
other

at

No

one

substances

has

ever

that do

not

been

able to make

iron from

it; neither

already contain

has it been

possibleto produce other substances from iron


alone. Iron is consequentlyspoken of as an element
or
an
elementary substance. Similarly carbon is an element.

This

substance

and
graphite,
In

Table

chemical

we

have

the better
1

given on

elements

and

in almost pure

form

gradesof charcoal.
the oppositepage
the

abbreviations

in the diamond,

is

list of the

symbols by
of which they are
often designated.
means
very
In the list there are many
commonly known substances.
These
have
been designatedby means
of heavy type.
These more
elements
number
common
only about twentyfive,and indeed the most important elements are scarcely
or

GENERAL

FUNDAMENTAL

TABLE
THE

CHEMICAL

ELEMENTS

CONSIDERATIONS

1
AND

THEIR

SYMBOLS

AND

CHEMISTRY

than

more

whether

"

All known

dozen.

they exist

indeed

one

or

LIFE

substances,natural

in the

earth's crust, in natural waters,


or

DAILY

as

"

of the

more

ficial,
arti-

atmosphere,as part of the


parts of plantsor animals,

parts of the heavenlybodies,

as

or

are

chemical elements mentioned

composed of

in Table 1.

It

stances,
is the task of the chemist to study the compositionof sub-

build up

to

substances

new

from

given

ones,

and

againto tear down complex substances,thus resolvingthem


Whenever
into simplerbodies.
a change takes placein which
substances are formed, the change is called a chemical
new
change. So, for example, when a pieceof paper is burned,
substances

new
entirely

formed

are

again,when

substance,the rust, is produced. These

new

chemist,however, studies

chemical change. The

productsthat

new

produced from

are

he also takes into consideration the

with

whether

all

or

only part
The

transformed.
with which

other

examples of
not

only the

substances,but

employed to cause
change to take place. Then again he studies
also
which the change proceeds,ascertaining

the chemical
the rate

are

iron rusts,a

the

of the

various

change

takes

means

has

substance

conditions

that

place,and

the

finallybeen

affect the

rate

accompaniments

change such as alterations of temperature, volume,


studied.
evolution of light,
electricity,
etc.,are also carefully
total of all these observations,
The sum
arranged,
systematically
of the

of chemistry. It touches every walk of


there is anything material,that is to say,

constitutes the science

life,for wherever
wherever
or

there is anything that


have

smell,we

In fact

about

us.

The

by

oxygen

oxidized into

can

touch,hear,see, taste,

cerned.
objectwith which chemistry is conchemical
changes are continuallygoing on
an

food

the various tissues of


upon

we

is

chemicallytransformed

we

eat

our

bodies,and these in

derived from

simplersubstances

turn

are

into

acted

the air

we

breathe, and thus

which

are

in turn

eliminated

FUNDAMENTAL

GENERAL

by

of the breath, the

means

Thus

skin.

our

lives

very

bowels, the kidneys,and the

depend upon

series

of chemical
plantsdepend

changes. Similarlythe lives of all animals and


upon

chemical transformations

their bodies, the

the

as

changesare continuallyin
Thus
water

the soil and

from

rocks

and the gases


which

are

these

of the material

products of such

finallyeliminated

or

solutions

being acted

are

by

and used in

changes being

upon

atmosphere, new

taken

are

by

up
as

of the

Materials

the rootlets of trees

natural waters

are

are

drunk

absorbed

digestivetracts of the organisms

new

industrial processes
household
and on the farm

Many

chemical

ing,
products result-

less soluble in the water.

buildingup

and it is the purpose

But

also.
things,
continually
by

of these soluble substances

the membranes

they take into

in inanimate

progress

and other plants. Furthermore

by animals,some

chemical

organism lives.

of the

more

CONSIDERATIONS

tissues.
and

common

depend

of this book

to

upon

operationsin the
chemical

study some

changes,

of the

more

importantof these. It should be stated here,however, that


whenever a changetakes placewhich is not accompaniedby a
the changeis called a
formationof one or more new substances,
physical change. Thus when a pieceof gold is heated, it still
remains gold and there is no change except a change of temperature
and of volume.
Again,when a glassrod is electrified
by rubbing it with a silk rag, neither the substance of the rag
that of the glassis altered. These, then, are typical
nor
ingly
examples of physicalchange. Physicalchangesare exceedand they very frequently
without any
occur
numerous,
ical
accompanying chemical change. On the other hand, chemwithout accompanying physnever
occur
changespractically
ical
for the formation of new
substances is generally
changes,
'

accompanied by increase

or

decrease of volume, rise or fall of

temperature, and frequently


by evolution of light,
electricity,

CHEMISTRY

stillother forms

or

in the

is burned

AND

of energy.

LIFE

So when

air,a white

formed, and this is more

DAILY

pieceof magnesium

powder, magnesium

bulky

than

the

original
magnesium

furthermore, during the burning of the metal


heat
A

glanceat Table

divided into two

into these
exhibit

propertieswhich
as

phosphorus

for

also

of

some

nevertheless

nature

to

be easy

to

the
class

zinc,and

the metals

the

Thus

compound.

chemical

behavior
Such

non-metals.

the metals

They

in

are

also

elements

and non-metals

are

realitya transition

and the non-metals.

substance consists of two

it is formed

and

like arsenic

elements

their

of both

called metalloids.

that

of both

nature

it would

But

in

brittle and

partakeof the

When

elements

some

example, while possessingmetallic luster and


of typical metals, are
the chemical properties

closelyrelated

sometimes

roughly

the non-metals.

silver,iron,gold,mercury,

copper,

non-metals.

as

antimony,

otherwise

are

Thus

be

typicalmetals ; and again,it would be simple to


elements as sulphur,oxygen,
carbon, chlorine,and

as

placesuch

between

lightand

sharp division
perfectly

partake of the

the non-metal.

such elements

as

to make
possible

classes,for there

two

and

that the elements may

1 shows

great classes,the metals and

It is,however, not

sodium

both

evolved.

are

metal

oxide, is

oxide

by the union

of

or

more

magnesium

of oxygen

and

elements,it is called
is

compound,

magnesium.

for

Lime

compound, for it contains the metal calcium and oxygen.


Sugar is a compound, for it consists of oxygen, hydrogen, and
Water
is a compound, for it is composed of oyxgen
carbon.
and hydrogen. As water is the most
common
compound on

is a

the earth,and

as

the elements

that compose

it are

also of vast

the chemistry of water


importancein all plantand animal life,
'will be our firstobjectof study.

CONSIDERATIONS

FUNDAMENTAL

GENERAL

QUESTIONS
1.

What

is

science?

2.

What

is

fact?

3.

What

is

theory?

4.

Mention

5.

What

6.

About

7.

What

8.

What

element

chemical

how

the

regarded

as

chemical

many

Greeks

ancient

elements

called

at

are

elements.

present?

there,

and

how

may

is

is

Give

compound?
a

physical

examples.

three

Give

change?

three

of

illustrations

changes.

physical
9.

is

which

things

classified?

be

they

the

What

is

chemical

change

Give

chemical

of

examples

four

change.
10.

Do

physical
illustration.

chemical

changes?

changes
Explain

occur

your

with

answer

or

without

by

means

accompanying
of

specific

CHAPTER

THE

COMPOSITION

AND

OF

WATER

is

an

1,

oxygen

plate ;
the

and

are

as

is
That

the

that

is to

and

formed.

Now

weighs

very

much

as

equal

an

of

volume

of

By

ture

times

taking

much

as

of

drogen
hy-

volumes

two

and

ume
vol-

one

oxygen,

and

igniting the
a

in

water

of

with

ume
vol-

liberated.

are

hydrogen

them,
of water.

the

volumes

two

that

electrolysis

gen;
hydro-

electrolysis of

the

of

times

produced

weighs eight
as

gen
oxy-

sixteen

nearly

the

The

water

volume

volume

one

the

of hydrogen

of oxygen

1."

of

when

say,

consequently

FIG.

negative

that

volumes

two

Fig.

positive

decomposed by electrolysis,
one
oxygen

water

the volume

half

one

an

in

the

on

it is found

oxygen

shown

on

hydrogen

hydrogen.

of

like that

ments
ele-

When

passed through

is evolved

and

the

of

hydrogen.

is

apparatus

plate

is

compound

and

electric current
in

USES

WATER

oxygen

of

II

flame

mixing

or

an

mix-

elec-

COMPOSITION

THE

AND

USES

OF

WATER

example,in the apparatus in Fig.2, water


is left uncombined.
is formed and no hydrogen or oxygen
and quantitative
Thus the qualitative
compositionof water
established.
is clearly
trie spark,as, for

FIG.

2.

Though

Explosion

"

water

is

of

mixture

of

hydrogen and

extremelyabundant, it

in the pure state in nature.


The waters
inland seas
are
salty. Lake water
many
brooks and rivers,
as well
contain

more

or

such
evaporating

behind

as

placedin

those of

is found

never

of the

while in contact

and the waters

has

been

with the soiland rocks,

of

the solids remain

well water

residue.

Thus

dish and

allowed to evaporate either

sea

of

springsand wells,always

saline waters, all

when

and

oceans

less solid saline material which

dissolved by the water


On

as

oxygen.

water

or

is

slowlyat

10

CHEMISTRY

ordinary temperature

or

residue of the material

AND

DAILY

upon

boiling,there

that

it and

analysisof

thus

the dissolved matters


Both

analyzed.

by

in many

water

which

over

the wind

its exact

determined

are

dust

cient
suffi-

chemical
Thus

nature.

have

been

by

the character

of

The purestnatural

no

down

by the descendingdrops.

the air has been well washed,

the rain that fallsconsists of much


air dissolved in it and

compounds

By

mineral matter, except


have been carried into the air

as

and then washed

ters
of the saline mat-

has coursed.

After it has rained awhile and

contains

obtain

make

to

the amounts

It contains

of
quantities

may

terrestrialwaters

and

the water

is rain water.

such small

one

determine

the nature

contained in

water

water

of such dissolved matter

amount

remains

dissolved in the water.

was

evaporatingseveral gallonsof

the rocks

LIFE

like nitrites and

purer

water, but it always

infrequently
nitrogenous

not

nitrates of ammonium,

which

flashes throughthe air. By boiling


lightning
the vapors a fairlypure water, comwater and condensing
monly
called distilled water, is obtained.
Figure3 shows a
ing
simpleapparatus for producingdistilledwater.
Every distillformed

are

as

the

apparatus consists of
In

Fig.3
The

these

retort,a condenser,and

indicated by A, B, and

are

heat of the

causes

sun

water

from

the surface of the oceans,

This

moisture

is then

to

receiver.

C, respectively.

evaporate continually

lakes,rivers,and moist soil.

condensed

on

of air,forming clouds,fogs,dew, and

reachingcooler layers
rain.

The

rain water

permeates the soil,dissolves portionsof it, and gradually


makes
its way into brooks, rivers,lakes,and the sea.
Then

evaporationagaingoes

on

from

the surfaces of these bodies

the ceaseless round

again takes place,rain falls,and so


furnishes
continues as long as the sun

the needed

Thus

of water, condensation

energy.

derived
really

from

the

sun.

it is clear that all water


But

not

all of the water

power

is

is thus

12

CHEMISTRY

example,

when

grass,

gentlyheated

in

test

AND

DAILY

LIFE

piece of carrot,

tube, water

or

lean

is

meat

is readilyformed

in

drops

the upper cooler parts of the


To
tube.
drive the water
out
on

of

old pieceof mortar

an

or

crete
con-

would, however, require a


much

higher temperature.
it would

be

to

necessary

heat the substance

The amount

deed,
In-

dull

to

of water

ness.
red-

contained

in

plantsand animals is usually


high. But different organisms
contain quitedifferent
frequently
FIG. 4.

substance

-Testing^

quantitiesof water,
of which

the

is commonly

amount

found

by

weighing the plant or animal substance and then drying


it to constant
point of water, namely,
weight at the boiling
100" C.
The difference between
the original
weight and
that of the dried residue represents the moisture
In this way

it has

been found

content.

that the leaves of herbaceous

plants contain from 60 to 80 per cent water; potatoes,


and succulent plantscontain from 85 to 95 per
juicyfruits,
cent

and

water;

contain

as

as

55 per cent

dry seeds contain much

less.

Dry

15 per

residue of the

plant substance

there

the

remains

plant.

The

ash, which
combustible

is the so-called

oxidized and

may

cent

be

grass
water.

water, and

seed, for
The

portion,which

largelyvolatilized

ample,
ex-

dried

burned, whereupon

representsthe mineral

organic matter

even

hand, wood

44 to

contains only about

in the

the other

On

98 per cent.

contains only from

commonly
many

much

algaeand other aquaticplantsmay

of

the

in the process

has

matter

been

plant.
of

stroyed,
de-

It is

burning

USES

AND

COMPOSITION

THE

OF

13

WATER

(seecombustion),there beingformed gaseous substances like


and ammonia.
The
carbon dioxide,water
vapor, nitrogen,

plantsubstances
of ash found in different

amount

Computed
considerably.
wood

per

cent, rye

grain2.09

material,for example,
cent ash, rye straw 4.46

the dried

on

contains about

oak

also varies

0.48 per
per

cent, tobacco

leaves 17.16 per

cent, potato leaves 8.58 per cent, potatoes 3.79 per cent.
ash than the other
the leaves ofplantscontain more
In general
ash of different plantshas different composition,

parts. The

fact will be discussed

which
The

few

considered

of the

indicates the amount

common

considerably.

of water

TART

2
CONTENT

WATER

45.5 per cent


63
per cent

ox

Fat calf

pig
Lean pig
Fat sheep
Lean sheep
Fat

Chicken
Goose

contained

animals, the entire body being

ANIMAL

Fat

also varies

of animals

content

table
following

The
in

water

later.
fully

more

flesh

41

per

cent

55

per

cent

43

per cent

51

per cent

74

per

.42

flesh

cent

per cent

Turkey flesh

55

per cent

Brook

trout

78

per

cent

White

fish

70

per

cent

79

per

cent

81

per

cent

(exclusiveof shell)
Oyster (exclusiveof shell)
Lobster

Table 3 presentsthe water

an

ox.

CONTENT

80 per cent
63 per cent

Brain
Heart
of the loin

Muscle

Kidney
Liver

Lungs

of various parts of

WATER

PART

Sweet

content

breads

'

'

62 per cent
76 per cent
71 per cent
71 per cent
80 per cent

14

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

these data it is apparent that

From
of the

AND

weight of

animal

LIFE

over
considerably

tissues consists of water.

in 'mind, however, that this water

be borne

is

half

It should
more

or

less

tightlycombined with the other constituents of the tissues.


the water in the process of drying,these combinations
By expelling
are
ruptured,the water beingthus liberated.
Now
human
from
as
beings subsist on food that comes
it is clear that the human
animals and plants,
body derives
such food

from

considerable amount

of the water

for drinking
water
This, however, is not sufficient,
in addition.

Chemically
pure

water is not

Freshly distilled water, obtained

by

it needs.
is required

gooddrinkingwater.

careful

distillation of

and flat to the taste,


springor artesian well water, is insipid
because by the process of boiling
chiefly
during distillation
the air which was
dissolved in the water
has been expelled.

For the

same

water

reason

that has been boiled and

then cooled

without

sufficient
opportunityto become thoroughlyaerated
again has a flattaste. Many natural springwaters and well
excellent drinkingwaters, though theyalways conwaters
are
tain
solid matter
soils

over

mineral

which
matter

in solution that
the water
varies very

solid material with which

from

comes

has flowed.

The

greatlywith
it has

that has coursed

been

the rocks and


amount

the nature

in contact.

of this
of the

So, for

rocks onlyhas but


granite
mineral matter in it,
soluble
for graniteis but slightly
very little
in water.
On the other hand, water in limestone regions
is
highlychargedwith mineral matter, for limestone is relatively
when the lattercontains carbon
soluble in water especially
readily
dioxide,and this is always the case with water that has been

instance,water

in contact

over

with the air,for the latter contains carbon dioxide

(seeair).
Table 4 givesthe amount
few

typicalnatural

waters

of mineral matter

in grams

per

1000

contained

in

liters. These

THE

COMPOSITION

obtained

figuresare

AND

USES

of the latter per 1000

amount

then

taken.

4
MINERAL
GRAMS
PER

FROM

CONTENT
IN
1000 LITERS

Atlantic Ocean
Indian
White

35,664
35,525

Ocean
Sea

Dead

Sea

Great

Salt Lake

water

computing the

litersof the water

TABLE
WATER

15

WATER

by evaporatinga given weight of

dryness,weighing the residue,and

to

OF

33,118
253,016
302,122

Lake

Michigan
Vichy Springs
Karlsbad Springs

145

6,798
6,091

Artesian well at St.

Petersburg

3,891

Artesian well at London

834

Artesian well at

371

Spring near
Rhine

Madison, Wis

Wausau,

Wis

64

River

Nile River

231
'
.

142

It is to be borne in mind

matter

to
oftenvaries materially
according

in river waters

placeoftakingthe sample.
lakes and

that the mineral

The

mineral content

also varies somewhat

dissolved

the time and


of waters

of

depth and
locality.The figuresin Table 4 are consequentlyto be
regarded as subjectto certain* fluctuations. They serve,
of mineral
however, to give a generalidea of the amount
found

matter

The
seas

oceans

course,

in natural waters.

mineral

consists
not

of oceanic water

content

of
chiefly

common

fit to drink.

considerable amounts

salts)in solution
quitegood

with the

for

are

salt,and

Spring and

of calcium

salts

called hard

well waters

is,of

that contain

(alsooftencalled lime

waters.

but

such water

They

may

be

good for
for in the boilers they
purposes,
scale,like that commonly found in

drinkingpurposes,

washing or steam boiler


deposita hard coatingor

and of salt lakes and

they

are

not

16

an
no

CHEMISTRY

AND

LIFE

ordinaryteakettle,for example,and with soap theyform


suds, but simply a curd, which is in realityan insoluble

calcium
soap

be used for

can

lime salts it contains


of two

which

salts in the water.

soluble

Before

washing or boiler purposes,


be removed.

must

This

of the fuel

the

be done

can

the water,
(1) by distilling

ways

account

on

decompositionof the

the calcium

employed, by

one

the

from
resulting

soap

such water

in

DAILY

process

required is expensive and

so

of the questionfor ordinarypurposes,


and
out
practically
(2) by throwing the lime salts out of solution by addingsome
other ingredients
which will form insoluble compounds with
the lime in the water.

Soluble salts which

with- them
lime salts and form precipitates
of

cleansers

water

as

in

commonly

use

are

sodium

soda),borax, and sodium


waters

or

construct
a

cement

often

for washingand
cheapest
stored

air has ready access.

(which see) it is

now

an

in clean

By
easy

cost.

Such

cistern water

when

the

matter

clean and

good drinkingwater, though its mineral


quitelow, beingsimply due to the small amount
dissolved from
Sometimes

mineral

those

suitable reservoirs for the storage of rain water

moderate

drink

spoken

(alsocalled washing
phosphate. Of all of the natural

aerated is

to

the

on

carbonate

It should be collected and

cisterns to which

of Portland

are

act

purifiers.Among

rain water is by far the best and

boiler purposes.

tanks

water

or

thus

the cement-lined

springwater

because

of

content

use

to
at

well
is

of material

walls of the cistern.

well water

of the poisonous

or

is found
otherwise

to

be unfit

injurious

But such cases


after all
it contains.
are
ingredients
alkaline or
quiterare, beingin generalconfined to excessively
For example, near
deposits
stronglysaline waters.
copper
the waters
contain a considerable amount
of compounds
may
of that metal and so be injurious
In any case
to health.
has a taste or smell that causes
it ought
ic hen water
suspicion,

to be
more

AND

COMPOSITION

THE

USES

OF

WATER

17

testedto ascertain whether itis potable. Water is


properly
nation
frequentlyrendered unfit to drink because of contamiwith plantor animal refuse,sewage, disease-producing

The

kind

of

FIG. 5

(6).

An

FIG. 5 (a).
"

bacteria,or

other

decaying animal
abound, and

"

water

well into which

example

of how

surface

water

pollution

may

will readily seep.

occur.

pathogenicorganisms. Wherever there is


or
vegetablematter there microorganisms
contaminated with such material is dangerous

18

AND

CHEMISTRY

to health.
as

drinkingwater

to

its content

chemical

to

tests

cesspools,barnyards, and
mind

that after all

which

water

up

from

the

does not

course,

being pronounced

wells
from

the

well is

human

near

like.

the

pump

prevent the

or

water

borne

in

ground into

drain.

Mounding
opening of the well,of
of the soil in the neighborhood
to

gettinginto the well. Such a


the well can
at best only prevent
is

be

hole in the

mound

from

openingof

outhouses,

It is to

merely a

safe for

habitations

from

seepage

surroundingstends

earth around

the

before

contaminated

become

LIFE

ought consequentlyto be examined


submicroorganisms as well as jected

Surface

drinkingpurposes.
soon

of

DAILY

the water

the

on

ground

the
that

surface of the

from

running

mouth

the

at

of

the

Typhoidfeveris one
and

commonest

into
well.

of the
gerous
dan-

most

diseases that may

sult
re-

from drinkingpolluted
This disease is due

water.
to

bacillus

the

which

typhosus,
infrequently

is not

contaminated

present

in

water.

Dysentery

and

other intestinaland gastric


FIG.

6.

"Typhoid

bacillus

greatly

disturbances

may

magnified.

from

organisms. //
known

to be

no

alternativebut to

use

water

of other
that is

it should

contaminated fordrinkingpurposes,

first

destroysthe organisms it contains,but the


taminated
Conafter boiling
tastes flat as alreadymentioned.
filtered through unglazed
is also frequently
water

be boiled.
water

there is

the presence

result

This

porcelain.Such filtersare commonly

known

as

the Pasteur

20

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

AND

LIFE

from
a
potable water
removing organic contamination
of purification
be adopted.
supply, chemical means
may
chemical substance
This always involves introducing
some

destroys the organisms

into the water, which


For

such

purposes

solution

of sodium

chlorite (bleachingpowder) is not


in
especially

the

of

case

mains

in the reservoir and

avoid

It is best to

drinkingwater,

shows

are

germs

the introduction

actuallypresent

which

It is only when

in the water

into

destroy bacteria
the disease

that such chemical

for the germs


is reallyjustifiable,

treatment

hypo-

chemicals

of such

for these substances

also deleterious to health.

are

calcium

or

employed,
infrequently
supplywhere the water
high bacterial content.

citywater

it contains.

far

are

more

of the antiseptics
small amounts
dangerous than the relatively
An
is a chemical
requiredto kill them.
antiseptic
that destroys
germs, or preventsor retards their growth,without
the livingbody.
exertinga materially
harmful effect
upon
are
Antiseptics
therefore
frequently
germicides.These will be
referred to again.

QUESTIONS
1. How

and

hydrogen
2. In

3.

that water

is

In

Why

proportionsby weight do
what proportion by volume ?
natural

are

are

waters

there in rain water

4. Draw

5. Make

compound

of oxygen

what

water

it be shown

may

not
?

these

elements

chemically pure?
In well water

occur

What

in

purities
im-

diagram of an apparatus for making distilled water,


naming the principalparts of the apparatus.
listof the

important ways

in which

water

is found

in

nature.
6. How

water

one

may

Give

determine

specific
example.

whether

substance

contains

COMPOSITION

THE

7.

In

dahlia

8.

drinking
9.

10.

and

yet

are

in

there

animal

an

21

WATER

like

cat

the

of

some

characteristics

important

of

good

water

What

is

How

would

must

is

water

OF

USES

root

What

much

how

About

AND

be

by

meant

treat

you

used

the

for

hard

term

drinking

water

water

that

purposes

is
?

known

Why

to

be

polluted

III

CHAPTER

HYDROGEN,

AND

PEROXIDE,

HYDROGEN

OXYGEN,

OZONE

WHILE

both

electric

is

current

is necessary

it

methods.

these

of

occurrence

obtained

are

oxygen

these

passed through water,

other

prepared by

be

and

hydrogen

in

elements

may

also

gases

of the

account

frequent

substances,

common

many

the

properties somewhat

their

study

to

On

when

more

closely.
is

Hydrogen

like hydrochloric
zinc

which

being

0" C. and

weighs 0.08987

colorless, but
and

oxygen

taken
flame

not
or

hydrogen,
to

liquifiedat atmospheric
and

colorless, that

only

0.07

forming
but
in

animals

hydrogen,

heavy
white
and

is

jet.

Mixtures

mixtures

or

to

as

crystals.

plants would

because

they

in

water

At

259"

"

from

require
22

level

sea

inflammable
The

gas.

is almost

flame

hydrogen,

great

253"

"

C.

C. it may

to

be

is clear

hydrogen

suffocation

be

with

but

is not

or

must

care

ignite them

gas

oxygen

dry

pure

at

appearance,

Hydrogen
die

gases,

Liquid hydrogen

pressure.

water.

to

of

pressure

air and

of

explosive, and

is, like

like

metals,

liter

an

By cooling hydrogen

spark.

as

from

are

such

heat

One

air.

Hydrogen

hot.

acid,

an

colorless, odorless, tasteless

atmospheric

be burned

very

certain

on

of

the lightest of all known

fact

under

gram.

it may

pure

lighter than

times

at

It is

light,in

is very

14.388

hydrogen

When

sulphuric acid,

or

iron, for example.

or

gas,

prepared by the action

commonly

it

is

ifies,
solid-

poisonous,
when

breathe.

kept
Be-

of its

cause

Though the
as

fuel in the pure

When
and

is formed

black

oxide

"

Making

hydrogen

unites with the oxygen


is set

and in
water.
even

at

room

vigorouslythan

touch.

coal gas,

the

as

taneously
black, is simul-

of iron, hammer

the iron

high temperature

by passing

in the water

temperature.
sodium.

the oxides formed

paper

of

steam

and

over

red-hot

iron.

thus the

hydrogen
free. Magnesium will similarlyliberate hydrogen,
that metal in boiling
this case
it sufficesto immerse
will liberate hydrogen from water
Sodium
rapidly

at

of water

are

used

expensive.

too

the constituents

of

used

fuels.When
in the air or in oxygen, the product
formed is
red-hot iron, hydrogen
is passed over
steam

obtained, for

FIG. 8.

balloons.
filling

hot flame, it is not

gas, all of which

natural gas, and water

hydrogen burns

for

condition,for this would be

Hydrogen is, however, one

water.

used

hydrogen is
lightness
gas burns with quitea

23

PEROXIDE

HYDROGEN

OXYGEN,

HYDROGEN,

In

Potassium
the

pass

case

acts

of sodium

alkaline to the taste, and

Strongersolutions

the flesh.

of

and

into solution in the

and form dilute lye. These solutions turn

blue,are

more

even

lye are

tassium,
po-

excess

red litmus

feel slippery
to the

caustic and

disintegrate

24

CHEMISTRY

AND

While hydrogenpractically
does

DAILY

not

LIFE

occur

in nature

it is exceedingly
abundant
free,i.e.uncombined,condition,
constituent

of many

also found

in many

in the
as

compounds. As alreadymentioned, one


ninth of the weight of water
is hydrogen. All plant and
animal
tissues contain hydrogen. Crude petroleumand all
of its various productscontain hydrogen. This element is
Oxygen

occurs

rocks.
in the freestate in the air.

In fact it forms

about 21 per cent of the total volume of the air. Combined


with other elements,oxygen
is also found in largequantities
and

very

the most

widely distributed
abundant

over

of all of the

apparent, for 88.88 per

the earth.

In

fact it is

elements,which is readily

of the weightofall water is oxygen,


and the latter also forms 44 t" 4$ Per cent of the weightof the
solid portionsof the earth. In all plantsand animals oxygen
is combined with hydrogen,
carbon,nitrogen,
phosphorus,and
minor amounts
of other elements.
Pure oxygen
is most
readilypreparedby heatingcertain
compounds which contain it,and which giveup their oxygen
content
fairly
readilyat highertemperatures. The substance
which is most frequently
chosen for this purpose
is potassium
chlorate. It consists of white crystals
whose
constituents
and oxygen ; the latterelement forms
are
potassium,chlorine,
39.1 per cent of the weight of this salt. Thus
from 100 Ib.
of potassium chlorate 39.1 Ib. of oxygen
be obtained.
may
The

oxides of mercury

cent

and

silver will also

decompose

on

free oxygen, and metallic mercury


and silver
heating,
yielding
when
heated will give up a
respectively.Again, saltpeter
Plants are
portion of its oxygen.
continuallygivingoff
oxygen as theybreathe.
Pure oxygen
is colorless,
odorless,and tasteless. It is
1.1 times as heavy as air and
sixteen times as heavy as
hydrogen. A liter of oxygen at 0" and under a barometric

pressure

of 760

under
(i.e.

mm.

and

of temperature

measured) weighs 1.429


in color,boils at
as

water.

"

pressure

melt at

"

soluble,1 volume

under

which

Liquid oxygen

grams.

is

182". 5 C., and is 1.1315 times

It is attracted

by

227"

C.

25

PEROXIDE

the so-called standard

ditions
con-

gases

are

pale blue
as

heavy

By chilling
liquid
be obtained,
crystalsmay

magnet.

snow-white
sufficiently,

oxygen

which

HYDROGEN

OXYGEN,

HYDROGEN,

In water

oxygen

is but

slightly

absorbingbut 0.034 volume of


of oxygen
in water
This slight
at 15" C.
solubility
oxygen
enables us to collect the gas over
The factthat oxygen
water.
is soluble in water, even if but slightly,
is nevertheless very important
in water depend
for fishesand other organismsliving
upon this dissolved oxygen fortheir supply.
In its abilityto form compounds with other elementary
of water

substances oxygen
stands at the head of the entire list of the
In fact,it will unite with all of the
chemical elements.
elements

except fluorine and

the

members

of the

so-called

namely argon, helium, neon, krypton, and


All ordinarycombustion in the air is really
union of
xenon.
the burningsubstance with oxygen.
That is to say, ordinary
combustion
is oxidation.
So when coal,petroleum,
paper, or
wood are burned in the air they are oxidized. A part of the
productsformed is gaseous and so escapes in the air,and
another portion remains
behind in the solid state as ash.
Now, when substances are burned in pure oxygen, the process
vigorously.In fact,some
rapidlyand more
goes on far more
in pure oxygen,
whereas in
substances will burn brilliantly
the air they either would not burn at all or the action would
proceed very slowly,for it must be borne in mind that the
ume
in the air is diluted,
so to say, with four times its voloxygen
of nitrogen,
which is a rather inert gas and does not take
liantly
charcoal glows brilHeated
part in ordinarycombustion.
in oxygen.
Sulphur and phosphorusburn brilliantly
argon

group,

26

CHEMISTRY

in oxygen

gas, and

even

AND

DAILY

the steelof

LIFE

watch

springburns

with

brilliant scintillationsin that gas.


One can
breathe pure
for a time without bad effects; in fact,the gas is frequently
oxygen
administered

to

patientswho experience
in
difficulty
breathing
and

get

so

oxygen

cient
insuffi-

an

supplywhen

breathingair.

It is inadvisab

however, for
normal

to breathe

person

for thus the system

oxygen,

gets too great a supply


of that substance and
oxidation

the

processes

in the system go

too

on

rapidly.
oxides

The

of carbon,
sulphur,and
phosphorus,
other

certain

elements

readilydissolve in water
and form solutions that
are

FIG.

9.

Burning

"

phosphorus

blue

turn

Such

solutions

are

and

to the taste

sour

in oxygen.

called acid solutions.

It

was

litmus
at

red.
time

one

thought that all acids contain oxygen ; this is,however,


the case, though it is true that by far the largernumber
allknown

acids do contain oxygen.

acid generator.
do not

contain

It has been
oxygen.

The

The

word oxygen

retained,even

not

of

means

though all acids

fact is that all acids do

tain
con-

hydrogen, which will be considered later.


Some oxides,for example,the oxides of sodium, potassium,
and calcium (obtainedby burning each of these metals in

28

CHEMISTRY

AND

also called hydrogen dioxide.

and hydrogen which


does water.

Thus

in water
while

LIFE

This is a

contains

of oxygen,

8 grams

DAILY

in

compound

of oxygen

justtwice as much oxygen


1 gram
hydrogen is united
hydrogen peroxide1 gram

as

to

of

In the pure state


hydrogen is united to 16 grams of oxygen.
hydrogen peroxide is a thick sirupyliquidwhose
specific
but like water
it looks blue
gravityis 1.458. It is colorless,
in thick layers. This liquid
is quiteunstable and decomposes
In dilute solutions it is more
readilyinto water and oxygen.
when kept cool and in the dark.
It is now
stable,especially
a

article of

common

frequently
being sold
This

the

commerce,

under

solution is valuable

the trade

3 per

of

name

solutions

cent
"

dioxygen."

mild

bleachingagent and
as
an
antiseptic.Its power as a germicide depends upon
the fact that it readilydecomposes into oxygen
and water.
The
set free destroys the organisms. Hydrogen
oxygen
peroxideis commonly preparedby the action of cold dilute
sulphuricacid upon barium peroxide,thus :
Barium

as

peroxide plus sulphuricacid yields


hydrogen peroxide plus barium

The

latter substance

contains

may

be filtered off.

The

sulphate.

clear filtrate

the hydrogen

peroxidein solution. On account


is
of the fact that hydrogenperoxidealso results when water
acted upon by ozone, the latter cannot exist long in the air,
which always contains moisture, and
this would interact
with ozone, forminghydrogen peroxideand oxygen.
QUESTIONS
1. What
2. How

are

may

3. In what
4. What

shown

the

important propertiesof hydrogen ?

hydrogen be prepared ?
compounds is hydrogen found

is formed

when

in nature

hydrogen burns?

How

?
may

this be

HYDROGEN,

5.

How

6.

How

7.

How

pounds

does

9.

What

10.

pounds
chlorate

and

How
What

11.

What

12.

Mention

the

is

be

is

ozone

could

be

prepared

from

83

properties

of

oxygen.

oxides

may

of

phosphorus,

carbon,

formed

Mention

its

important

ties.
proper-

hydrogen
the

be

ozone

may

is

formed

made

oxygen

How

important
oxide

an

iron

of

29

PEROXIDE

nature

be

oxygen

potassium

Mention

in

occur

pure

many

8.

sulphur,

oxygen

may

of

HYDROGEN

OXYGEN,

uses

peroxide
of

hydrogen

How

may

peroxide.

it

be

prepared

CHAPTER

THE

AIR,
THE

main

These
the

former

and

of the

argon

it is found

as

water

in the

100

volumes

OF

contain

as

volumes

Besides

of

these

carbon

two

dioxide,

helium,

namely
the

oxygen.

neon,

of

composition

country

or

the

over

sea.

OF

COUNTRY

NORMAL

AIR

Nitrogen

77.42

volumes

Oxygen

20.77

volumes

Argon, helium,
Water

krypton, and

neon,

xenon
.

0.93

volume

0.85

volume

0.03

volume

vapor

dioxide

Carbon

volumes

100.00

The

amount

ably from
and

time

proximity

various

to

time, depending especiallyupon

all of these

of

the

0.9

per

argon
cent

are

group

Minor

of water.

nitric

ammonia,

varies

consider-

temperature

quantities of sulphur
acid, particles of dust,

also present

in air.

The

amounts

also quite variable.

While

the

members

microbes

of

air contains

moisture

dioxide, hydrogen,
and

which

of

to bodies

are

present

are

by volume,

practicalimportance

and

SAMPLE

follows

and

of 78

vapor,

gives

TABLE

COMPOSITION

latter.

group,

Table

xenon.

of air

sample

the

of

AMMONIA

nitrogen

are

proportions

present, however,

are

elements

krypton,

air

the

volumes

AND

ACID,

of the

in about

21

to

there
the

NITRIC

constituents

present

are

gases

and

NITROGEN,

IV

these
hence
30

in air to
gases

are

the

extent

of

nevertheless

will receive

no

further

over

of

no

con-

sideration here.
or

the

over

sea

in cities where
double

as

to about

amounts

much

and

even

by volume,

0.03 per cent

fuel is consumed

the carbon

rooms

six to

31

AMMONIA

ACID,

The carbon dioxide in the air in the country

that amount

audience

NITRIC

NITROGEN,

AIR,

more,

but

the air often contains

while in

dioxide content

denselycrowded
run
as
high
may

eighttimes that found in cityair.

While the carbon

dioxide in the air is present to the extent

of only about 0.03


getall of their
per cent, yet it must be borne in mind that plants
carbon from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.They
breathe in carbon dioxide,which in the presence of sunlight
in the green leaf of the plant interacts with the moisture
that is present,forming starch and setting
free,which
oxygen
the plant therefore exhales. This change may
be written
as

follows :

Carbon

dioxide

green

The

water

in
(inthe sunlight

leaf of the

plant)yields starch

constituents of the air, Table 5,

united; theyform merely


relative amounts
in the

constant

The

mixture.

In

TABLE
TEMPERATURE

OF

SATURATION

-5"

15" C

nearly

6
AMOUNT
1 Cu.

OF

METER

WATER
OF

VAPOR

SATURATED

4.0 grams
5.4 grams

0"C
10" C

are

argon

in Table 6.

+5" C

chemically

the air is able to

which

hold at different temperatures is shown

oxygen.

spite of this the

and
nitrogen,
atmosphere everywhere.
of moisture

not

are

of oxygen,

highestamounts

the

;
.

7.3 grams
9.7 grams

20" C

13.0 grams
17.1 grams

22" C

22.5 grams

30" C.

30.0 grams

IN

AIR

32

AND

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

If the air has but 0.4 of the water

hold,

capacityof

maximum

feel that it is moist

of the water

mists,which
called clouds.

earth, they

When

the

of

largedrops are

ing
drops takes place,formtheir altitude are commonly

an

the surface of the

near

formed

are

that

extent

when

moisture-laden

regionsof the

ture-laden
mois-

portionof

This is frequentlycaused

in the upper

by

its

cold

When

strata.

air is such that

formed, these fall to the ground as rain,and


in solution

with them

carry

densation
atmosphere, partialcon-

the mists form

warmer
striking

the condensation

air, we

the moist air reaches the

called fogs. These

is condensed.
of air

current

is present in the
As

air is cooled to such

moisture

If, however, 0.8 of its

to minute

account

on

are

humid.

regionsof

cooler

and

upper

or

moisture

in it that it can

vapor

the air is dry.

feel that

we

LIFE

some

of all of the gases

in the

of dust, microorganisms,
atmosphere,togetherwith fine particles
etc.,that were
suspendedin the air. This material
on
reachingthe ground soaks into the soil in part, and in
part it flows off the surface into brooks, rivers,lakes,and

the

It has been

sea.

that fallsas rain

the water
and

20

estimated

per

cent

runs

on

that

about

the land soaks into the

off the surface

Snow, sleet,and hail form

at

80 per

cent

of

ground

into the waterways.

temperatures

at

and below the

Dew
forms at night. It consists
freezingpoint of water.
of drops of moisture that depositupon
objectswhich cool
off relatively
rapidly,and so chill the moisture-laden air
The
that comes
into contact
with them.
importance of
for the life of plants
these various aqueous
precipitations

will receive further consideration later.

The

common

the oxygen

from

in various ways.

way
an

of preparingnitrogengas is to
inclosed space of air. This may
So, for example,an animal like a

abstract

be done
rat

or

mouse

NITRIC.

NITROGEN,

AIR,

placedin

be

may

it will

upon
tightlystopperedbottle,where-

it will use

suffocate,because

soon

bottle

with

carbonate

calcium

By this chemical change,then, the carbon dioxide


part and parcelof

being made

of the

gases

only about

0.9 per

been discovered in the air since 1895.

unite chemically with

removing the
nitrogenis

not

of the

gases

argon

of how

space

any

They have

They

are

very

all

inert,

to

the

still

are

group

purposes,
necessary

description

the latter gases

removed;

up

obtained,for the

present. For the present


however, it will not be
to devote

all make

to get them
impossible
other element.
By simply
dioxide from the air, pure

carbon

and

oxygen

the

Now

found to be

in fact thus far it has been


to

water.

nitrogen plus the

of the entire air.

cent

is removed,

chalk.

as

latter in

These

group.

argon

same

in the bottle is

stillremains

which

bonate
car-

solid substance,the calcium

carbonate, which is chemicallythe


gas

comes
be-

yields

dioxide

-f-carbon

limewater

of
precipitate
carbonate, is formed, thus :

in appearance

of lime, calcium
Limewater

because

The

left in the

gas

The

clear limewater.

some

milky

by shaking the

be removed

may

the oxygen

up

carbon dioxide.

in the air in the bottle and breathe out


latter gas

33

AMMONIA

ACID,

may

suffice it here

to

be
say

that

perfectlypure nitrogen is
best prepared from certain pure
chemical compounds in which it
The

occurs.

may

oxygen

also be removed

air in

closed space.

of

the

air

FIG.

10.

from
alcohol

"

the

Removing
air by

in it.

by burning certain substances


So

one

may

burn

oxygen

burning

in the

bit of sponge

34

CHEMISTRY

saturated
water

with

dioxide

in

formed

are

and

LIFE

In this

case

in

water

dish of

and

carbon

the

latter gas is absorbed by the


In placeof the alcohol a bit of phosphorus

be burned

may

DAILY

bottle inverted

Fig. 10.

in the bottle.

water

the

alcohol in

shown

as

AND

in
similarly

the bottle.

In this

case

phosphorusunites

with the oxygen,


forming phosphoric
dissolves in the water, thus leavingthe nitrogen

oxide,which
intact.

In

both

of

the

last

experimentsthe water
the inside of the bottle,filling
rises on
the latter to the
fifth of the original
volume occupied by the
extent of one
and one
air,thus showing that fourfifths
of the air is nitrogen
fifth
oxygen.
If a burning splinter
a
or
lightedcandle is thrust into
nitrogengas, the flame is at once extinguished,
showing that
nitrogenwill not support combustion. Animals suffocate in
and die for lack of oxygen.
nitrogen,
Nitrogen gas is not
but it cannot
be used in respiration.In the air
poisonous,
it dilutes the oxygen

that is present and

rapid oxidation that would


inhaled.

placeif pure oxygen


ordinarytemperatures nitrogenis quitean

At

gas, but at

retards the too

so

take

high temperaturesit does combine


when

oxygen

takes place,even

highly,as,
a

for

instance,when

red-hot tube.

subjectedto
union

The

these gases are


if these gases

But

if

are

of

In fact

no

unite
union

heated

the mixture

mixture

not

togetherquite
is passedthrough

nitrogenand

oxygen

is

high temperature of the electric arc,


place,oxide of nitrogenbeing thus formed.
treated with air and water
yieldsnitric

the very

does take
latter when

acid,and indeed this process is now


that

mixed.

inert

with other substances

chemically.So, for example,nitrogendoes


with

were

in forming
used successfully

important substance on a commercial


is requiredin the process, this method
electricity
nitric acid is only profitable
where water

scale.
of

As

facturing
manu-

power

is

36

CHEMISTRY

trate, sodium

AND

nitrate,which

DAILY

is mined

called Chili saltpeter,


may
acid and

in Chili and

be used.

quently
conse-

Thus

nitric

sodium

sulphateare produced,instead of nitric


potassiumsulphate. We may write these changes

acid and
thus

LIFE

nitrate

Potassium

4- sulphuricacid

nitric acid 4- potassium sulphate.


nitrate

Sodium

sulphuricacid

nitric acid

sodium

sulphate.

Pure nitric acid is a colorless liquid


having a pungent odor.

gravity is 1.414 at 15" C. In the sunlightthe


specific
in color,due to partial
decomposition.
liquidturns yellowish
Nitric acid is a wry powerfulacid and also a strong oxidizing
agent. It turns blue litmus red, discolors indigosolution,
cloth, corrodes the flesh,and turns the skin
disintegrates
yellow. Metals, with the exceptionof gold and platinum,
acted upon
are
by nitric acid, being converted either into
The various salts of nitric acid are all
nitrates or oxides.
those of potassium,
called nitrates.
The nitrates,
especially
ammonium,
calcium, and sodium, are very important as
Its

fertilizers. While

nitric acid does

not

occur

in nature

as

that is,the nitrates,


are
such,its salts,
quitewidelydistributed
is also present.

in the soil. In the air nitrate of ammonium

Nitrates
is from

exceedingly
importantas

are

them

that

nitrates in the
holds them

plantsget

soil

are

soil constituents,
for it

their supply of

contained

in the

nitrogen. The

soil water

which

in solution.

manufacturingsulphuricacid,
in which case it serves
to oxidize sulphurto its higheststage
of oxidation.
Furthermore, in making collodion,
gun cotton,
dynamite,and smokeless powder, nitric acid is used in large
quantities.
Nitric acid is also used in

Nitrous

NITRIC

NITROGEN,

AIR,

be obtained from

acid may

the latter of

ACID,

part of its oxygen.

37

AMMONIA

nitric acid by
The salts

robbing

of nitrous

acid

called nitrites ;

in the soil,as a result of the


they occur
matter.
All plants
decomposition of plant and animal
contain nitrogenin combination with carbon,
and animals
hydrogen,oxygen, and minor amounts
phorus.
of sulphurand phosWhen
the plantand animal tissues decay,nitrogen
are

is set free in

part, and in part it is converted into ammonia,


of

nitrogenand hydrogen, and the ammonia


is graduallyoxidized to nitrites and
finallyto nitrates.
The latter represent the highestoxidation products. While
the nitrates in the soil are a very importantsource
from which
the
plantsderive their supplyof nitrogen,
theyare by no means
onlysource.
is a compound of nitrogenand hydrogen. It
Ammonia
a

compound

contains 14 parts of the former

weight. By volume
following
equation:
3 volumes

of

the

hydrogen

to

parts of the latter by

compositionis representedby

4- 1 volume

of

nitrogen

2 volumes

Hydrogen

and

nitrogendo

when

the gases

not

combine

at

the

of ammonia.

however,
all readily,

heated

togetherhighly,as, for
of the electric spark. On thus subjectinstance,by means
ing
of hydrogen and nitrogengases to the continuous
a mixture
action of the electric spark,a small fraction of a per
even

cent

of the gases

are

present is converted

to

ammonia.

But

by

heatingnitrogenous
plantor animal tissues,with littleor no
of air,ammonia
is readilyobtained, especially
when
access
the organicmatter

potash
and
as

and

used is mixed

with lime

or

caustic soda

or

subjectedto heat. In fact the ammonia


all of the ammonium
obtained
are
compounds of commerce
by-product
of the manufactureof illuminating
gas from
then

38

CHEMISTRY

coal.

In

remains

AND

the latter process

DAILY

LIFE

the coal, which

represents the

the

of

vegetationof the carboniferous age and


is heated out of contact
other earlygeological
of the
periods,
air. The gases that escape are washed
by gurgling them
is then found dissolved in
through water, and the ammonia
Plant and animal matter, includingcoal, peat,
this water.
with
etc., all contain nitrogenand hydrogen in combination
carbon, oxygen,
sulphur,phosphorus, etc., and when this
with the air (i.e.
material is heated out of contact
subjected
dry distillation,also called

to

from
Ammonia
It has

the

gaseous

mucous

cannot

gas

does not

of ammonia

gas

be burned

The

This

the saturated

and

contains

36

It has the

water,
same

does not

as

burn

About

in the

700 volumes

of water

nary
at ordi-

solution is

cent

per
gas

in

lighterthan water.
has a specific
gravity of
of ammonia
by weight.
is popularlycalled
water

spiritsof hartshorn, and


odor

flow of tears.

die in it. The

soon

in oxygen.

solution

solution of ammonia

ammonia

and

will dissolve in 1 volume

temperatures.
14" C.

causes

Animals

support combustion

air ; but it may

0.8844

and

membranes,

inhale the gas.

One

At

a
distillation),

which is
products are formed, among
The latter forms by union of nitrogen
and hydrogen
the organicmatter.
gas is colorless and only 0.59 as heavy as air.
tates
characteristic,
sharp,penetratingodor, irrivery

variety of
ammonia.

destructive

ammonia

aqua

ammonia.

gas, for the latter is

tinually
con-

being given off by the solution. Indeed, allof the


ammonia
be expelledfrom the solution by boiling
gas may
the same.
Finallywater alone remains behind. Ammonia
red litmus blue, and is consequentlyalkaline,which
turns
is further evidenced by the fact that it will unite directly
salts.
with acids,neutralizing
them and forming ammonium
So with nitric acid ammonia

forms

ammonium

nitrate,with

AIR,

sulphuric acid
ammonium

All ammonium

chloride.

On

lye,ammonia

prepare

is

gas

ammonia

pure

Ammonium

chloride

H-

For

soda

lye

sodium

and

is used

water

lime
to

ammonia

water.

salt)

does

It

be volatilized
salt with

example

in the household

polishing metals.

acid

this is the best way

chloride

(common

Ammonia

ammonium

evolved,and
gas.

hydrochloric

salts may

treatingany

39

AMMONIA

ACID,

sulphate, with

ammonium

by heating them.
or

NITRIC

NITROGEN,

cleansingclothes

in

attack

not

the

latter

as

acids do, and consequentlyis less objectionable.


drastically
as
Ammonia

remains
in

is

When

the

thus

ammonia

at

leachingsfrom

formed

hand, being

ammonia

important.
and

water,

hence

of the

are

which

gas,

In

air.

the

form of ammonium

ammonium

share

making coal

gas.

works

always

soil,then,

bonate,
car-

the

sulphateare
salts

are

soluble

in

in

as

of the soil,

of their supply of nitrogen,

salts

of ammonium

quite generally sold


gas

is

nitrite,ammonium

ammonium

be

may

salts,among

ammonium

sulphate,which

at the

in the

present in solution in the soil water.

considerable

the value

is

All

that

salts thus dissolved in the waters

ammonium

plants derive
hence

acid

of the

chloride,and

stables,

latter,and

acids

any

nitrate,ammonium

ammonium

From

constituent

the

in

rotting organic matter,

with

carbonic

is present in the

these ammonium

most

from

combines

once

present, especiallywith
at

nitrogenousplant and animal

decaying. So, for instance, it is found

are

dung piles,in

soil.

wherever

formed

as

fertilizers. In

contains

21 per

cent

merce
com-

gen,
nitro-

fertilizer. It is manufactured

large cities

as

by-product in

40

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

QUESTIONS

1.

in

the

(a)

What

(b)

In

air

what

3.

When

does

4.

What

becomes

6.

How

7.

Why

8.

How

9.

What

what

is

use

is

the

the

an

animal

nitric

the

acid

air

main

two

12.

What

is

ammonia

water

13.

Why

are

these

Mention

are

the

that

in

of

in

How

constituents

important

the

falls

to

Hail

Give

nitrogen

occur

the

ground

its

principal

as

rain

ties.
proper-

gas

nitric

the

air

moist

acid

soil

is

What
useful

as

it

prepare

salts
obtained

formed

nitrates

ammonium
salts

be

in

When

prepared

properties

ammonia

use

Sleet

die

is

what

dry

be

What

nature.

the

dioxide

11.

14.

the

water

Snow

nitrogen

may

are

feel

Of

are

do

carbon

air

of

dew

may

will

the

10.

source

of

Of

What

constituents

proportions

2.

6.

the

are

it

used

for

fertilizers

From

what

forms

in

which

nitrogen

occurs

in

CHAPTER

already learned

have

WE

phosphorus
in

dissolved
and

taste

in

blue

redden

example,

So, for

citric acid

which

the

crystals which
has

in

other

them

before

It is

state.

in water.

they

fruits

be

white

oxalic

contains

and

acid, is formed.

indeed

animals.

by
The

the

In

as

we

the human

have

acid, and

milk

also

gastric glands.

air,

carbonic

lactic acid

seen,

these
is

On

occurs

stomach
In

red

sours,

in the

41

much

the

acid
pure

readily soluble
The

jack-

fermentation
dilute

muscles

coal

is

of

acid

small

of

solution

lactic acid

formic

always contains

in cities where

in

hydrochloric acid
ants

is

tain
moun-

malic

acid.

is essentially a

When

acid

abundant

fruits

tartaric

acid.

tion
solu-

apples,

sour

which

contain

grapes

citric

is most

In

be

less
color-

The

same

the

to

may

water.

from

solid substance

apple juice, vinegar, which


acetic

in

world.

beautiful

of

similar

prepared

occur

is due

substance

well, and

as

Acids

lemon

This

other

many

possessing such

latter

quite ripe.

are

may

Similarly

in-the-pulpit

The

taste.

sour

citrous

It too

is present.

the

readily soluble

are

berries, and

ash

of

sour

in the mineral

also

or

are

have

acids.

juice. It consists

markedly

in

found

termed

it contains.

sulphur,

which

Substances

sourness

lemon

from

prepared

litmus.

plants, in animals, and

in

nature

carbon,

when

obtained

are

commonly

are

FORMULAS

products of combustion

the

liquids

water,

characteristics

that

and

burned

are

CHEMICAL

AND

SALTS,

ALKALIES,

ACIDS,

of

formed,

man

and

is formed
is found.
amount

is consumed,

of
it

42

CHEMISTRY

All natural waters,

of

processes

acid is
occurs

and

of the

one

sand

Silicic acid

is

has

and

and

taste

It

forming mountains,

of the earth's surface.

areas

does not

Boric

all substances.

of

practicallyinsoluble

no

during the

extent, and silicic

some

often

masses,
vast

this substance.

vegetablematter.

abundant

grainsit covers

acid in solution,

acids formed

regionsto

most

quartz in huge

as
as

in volcanic

sulphur..

highlycharged with

are

of animal

decay

acid is found

carbonic

also contain

Soil waters

LIFE

for coal contains

too, contain

spring waters

some

DAILY

sulphurousacid,

also contains

and

AND

in

It

water.

redden

quently
conse-

litmus.

ever,
How-

with
indeed

alkalies it has the power


to form
salts,which
is after all the most
important characteristic of all

acids.

In fact

litmus,and

acids

some

haw

are

weak

so

acidic
unquestionably

substances

theydo

taste, and

sour
perceptible

no

that

not

redden

yet they are

because they do

form

salts

with alkalies.

Lime,

lye,and

it is used

as

ammonia

blue.

paper

they have

substances which

are

They

or

corrosive

lye,potash

moist red litmus

turn

In strong solutions

alkalies.
typical

are

caustic

soda

for buildingpurposes,

action

on

.the skin.

With

acids

substances called
they react chemically,forming new
salts. So, for example,when a solution of soda lye is treated
with a solution of hydrochloricacid tillthe resulting
liquid
does not change either red or blue litmus paper, we say that
The substance
the acid and the lye have neutralized each other.
which
a

is

in the solution is

now

saltytaste, whereas the

had

an

each other may

lye

taste, and

sour

It has

the lye

to itself. The
quite peculiar
takes placewhen the acid and the lye act on

alkaline taste

change which

Soda

acid had

salt.

common

be

which

is

expressedin

the form

of

an

equationthus

hydrochloricacid yields
sodium

chloride

common
(i.e.

salt)+

water.

44

CHEMISTRY

AND

TABLE
Aluminum

DAILY

LIFE

Antimony
Arsenic
Barium

Bismuth
.

Boron

Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Carbon
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt

Copper
Fluorine
Gold
.

Hydrogen
Iodine
Iron

The

figuresin Table

have

all been

determined

by

the weights of the elements that unite to form


ascertaining
compounds. Experiencehas shown that chemical compounds
when pure alwayscontain the same
elements in the same
portion
proby weight. This is called the law of definite proportions.

So, for instance,hydrochloricacid always consists


of

hydrogen and chlorine,and nothing else. Moreover,

hydrochloricacid there
with every

are

35.5 grams

in

of chlorine combined

of

hydrogen; that is to say, for every 1


part by weight of hydrogen, hydrochloricacid contains
35.5 parts by weight of chlorine,
and this is represented
by
gram

the symbol HC1, commonly


acid.

termed

the formula

for

chloric
hydro-

ride,
salt,which is sodium chloAgain,in common
we
bined
always have 35.5 parts by weight of chlorine comwith 23 parts by weight of sodium.
The symbol or
formula for common
.then,is NaCl, and it expresses both
salt,
the qualitative
and quantitative
of sodium chloride.
composition

ALKALIES,

ACIDS,

SALTS,

CHEMICAL

45

FORMULAS

salt,i.e. NaCl, as derived


regardcommon
from hydrochloric
acid, i.e. HC1, the 1 part by weight of
hydrogen of the latter beingreplacedby 23 parts of sodium
by weight. Thus 23 parts of sodium by weight may replace
23 is said to
1 part of hydrogen by weight,and consequently
of sodium ; for it has been found
be the hydrogenequivalent
that whenever sodium can
to be true in general
replace
hydrogen
in a compound it takes 23 grams
of sodium to play the role of
1 gram
of hydrogen. The hydrogen equivalentof other
elements may
be found similarly.Such replacementsare
of the chemical symbols
by means
very easilyrepresented
We

indeed

may

mentioned.

Thus

HC1
(36.5

hydrochloric acid)

grams

Na

+
+

(23

grams

sodium)

yield

NaCl
(58.5 grams

+
salt) +

common

(1

gram

hydrogen)

then,thecomposition
general,
ofany compound is expressed
the other. However,
the symbolsofits elements one after
by writing
whenever the compound is a gas or vapor, the symbols
that represent it indicate^
not only the qualitative
tion
composiand quantitative
compositionby weight,but also the
weightof 22.4 litersof the gas or vapor at 0" C. and 760 mm.
barometric
So, for example, the symbol HC1
pressure.
stands for hydrochloric
acid and indicates that in this compound
of hydrogen is combined
1 gram
with 35.5 grams
In

chlorine ; it shows

also,however, that 22.4 liters of the


or"

weigh 36.5

grams,

whence

1 literweighs

gas

^rr"

or

1-629 grams.

22.4:

The volume
of

2 grams

which

litersis chosen because

hydrogen at

For

to

enter

our

0" C. and

760

it is the volume
mm.

pressure,

of

with

other gases.
It is not
for this practice
further into the reasons

it is customary

necessary

here.

22.4

purpose

to

compare

it suffices to know

that in the

case

46

CHEMISTRY

gas the

of any

AND

weightof a

DAILY

LIFE

liter of it may

be

found by dividing
the formula weightby 224The followingexamples will
illustrations. The composition of carbon dioxide
serve
as
by CO2, which indicates that 12 grams of
gas is represented
carbon

with

combined

are

2X16

32

or

furthermore,the formula indicates that


(the formula weight)is the weight of
44
1 liter weighs rr-r,

whence

12 +

22.4

32

44 grams

or

litersof the gas,

1.964 grams.

or

of oxygen

grams

Again,the

for-

""A

mula

for water
and

16

grams

2 +

16

is H2O, which

shows that it consists of

in the ratio of 2 grams


of the former to
of the latter; it also indicates,however, that

oxygen

or

of water

18 grams

vapor

liters of

22.4

occupy

under standard conditions,


whence

space

gen
hydro-

1 liter of the vapor

I O

weighs on~i"
the

or

0.8035

From

gram.

the above

illustrations

of

to the symbols of the elements is persubscripts


haps
tions
evident,but two further illustraalreadysufficiently
will here be given. The
is
symbol for cane
sugar
C^H^Oii, which shows that this compound is composed of
use

12 X
or

12

or

144

parts of carbon

parts of hydrogen by weight,to every

22

parts of oxygen

by weight;

of sugar

144 grams

contain

plus 176
acid
This

by weight,to

in other words

of carbon

11 X
every
grams

16

1 X
or

22

176

342 grams
of

gen
hydro-

symbol for phosphoric


anhydride, also called phosphoruspentoxide,is P2O5.
formula shows that this compound is composed of phosphorus
and oxygen
of 2 X 31 or 62 grams
in the proportions

of the former
The

grams

to 5 X

of oxygen.

plus 22

every

16

or

The

80 grams

of the latter.

of chemical symbols,then,serves to express quitea


number
offactsabout a chemical compound in compact form.
A few of 'the chemical
changes already studied will now
be expressed,using chemical
symbols and equations.
use

ACIDS,

ALKALIES,

will

These

the formulas

illustrate further how

to

serve

47

FORMULAS

CHEMICAL

SALTS,

are

used.
and
filings

iron

(1) When

Thus

sulphideis formed.

ferrous

Fe

+
32

C
carbon

pentoxideis formed.
P2

sulphateare

formed.

H2SO4
sulphuric acid
98

grams

P206
phosphorus pentoxide
142

grams

acts
:

Zn

H2

HC1
hydrochloric acid

sodium
40

grams

hydroxide
grams

potassium chlorate
potassiumchloride. Thus :
3O

KC1O3
potassium
122.5

chlorate
grams

oxygen

48

grams

161

grams

by sodium

is neutralized

sodium
58.5

chloride

water
18

grams

74.5

grams

yieldsoxygen

KC1
potassium

H2O

is heated, it

Thus

formed.

are

NaCl

(6) When
and

zinc sulphate

2 grams

NaOH

ZnS04

hydrogen

zinc
65 grams

chloride and water

hydroxide,sodium

grams

zinc,hydrogen and zinc

on

hydrochloricacid

(5) When

phosphorus

in oxygen,

Thus

grams

sulphuricacid

(4) When

44

oxygen

80

grams

dioxide

carbon

05

in the air,carbon

or

CO2

burned

Thus

phosphorus
62

in oxygen

oxygen
32 grams

grams

grams

phosphorus is

(3) When

36.5

88

02

sulphide

ferrous

grams

Thus

dioxide is formed.

12

FeS

is burned

carbon

(2) When

together,

sulphur

iron
56 grams

heated

sulphur are

chloride
grams

48

CHEMISTRY

There

AND

reallyonly

are

change possible,
namely
(1) When

two

or

more

three

DAILY

LIFE

different types of chemical

substances

unite to form

substance,as in reactions (1),(2),and (3) above.

new

one

These

are

all examplesof synthesis.

(2) When

two

of

This may

more

be termed
two

two

or

more

in

new

position
by decom-

reaction

substances react

(6) above.

with

with

synthesis.
another

one

substances,as in reactions (4) and

also termed

are

formed

are

analysis,as contrasted

more

or

(5). These

substances

singlesubstance, as

(3) When
to form

or

of double

cases

decomposition.

Chemical

cate
symbols,then,are a great aid in that they indithe chemical compositionof a compound at a glance.
It must, of course,
be kept in mind that such symbols are
and so
offactsfound out by experiment,
only the expression
the formula of a compound cannot be written tillafter
its composition
has been actually
ascertained by chemical analysis.
much
The formation of salts reallyappears
simplerwhen
of equationsin which chemical symbols
expressedby means
are

used, thus

KOH

potassium hydroxide
or
potash lye

2 NaOH
sodium
or

or

In

H2SO4

hydroxide

slaked

KNO3

H2O

potassium nitrate
or
saltpeter

sulphuric acid

Na2SO4
sodium

water

sulphate

H2O

water

lye

Ca(OH)2
calcium

nitric acid

hydroxide
soda

HNO3

lime

2 HC1
hydrochloric

CaCl2
calcium

chloride

H2O

water

acid

regardingthe last three equationsit will be seen that


be
acid is a compound containinghydrogen which may
an
trate,
by a metal, thus forming a salt. So potassiumnireplaced
sodium
sulphate,and calcium chloride are typical

CHEMICAL

SALTS,

ALKALIES,

ACIDS,

49

FORMULAS

hydroxides of potassium, sodium, and


calcium are typicalbases. A base is a compound (usually
an
hydroxideof a metal) which upon reactingwith an acid
And finallya salt is a compound
forms a salt and water.
formed when a base acts upon an acid. We may consider
salts as the productsformed
when the hydrogen of an acid
of elements that may
is replacedby a metal or some
group
playthe role of a metal so far as the process of a salt formation
salts.

the

Now

is concerned.

Common

salt,NaCl,

and chlorine,thus

sodium

by neutralization

Cl

by hydrochloricacid,thus

HC1

NaCl

H2O

sulphate,CaS04, may be formed by


lime,CaO, with sulphuric
anhydride,SO3, thus
CaO

by

or

SO3

the action of slaked lime

Ca(OH)2 + H2S04

may

at

are

times act

non-metals

Among

may

on

the union
:

CaSO4
acid,thus
sulphuric
CaS04

H2O

in

exhibit basic properties.

the most

common

salts

are

chlorides,
sulphates,

and silicates. These


nitrates,carbonates,phosphates,
be

and
substances,
general
base-forming
metals
substances,thoughsome
acid-forming
elements,and some
as
acid-forming
of the

The metals,then,are
the non-metals

of

hydroxide,NaOH,

Calcium
of

union

NaCl

base, sodium

of the

NaOH

by direct

Na

or

be formed

may

may

from
the following
respectively
acids: hydrochloricacid HC1, sulphuric
acid H2SO4, nitric
acid HNO3j carbonic acid H2CO3, phosphoricacid H3PO4,

considered

as

derived

50

CHEMISTRY

and

AND

silicicacid H2SiO3.

chloride

NaCl, calcium

DAILY

LIFE

So, for example, we


chloride

have

sodium

CaCl2, potassium chloride

magnesium chloride MgCl2, ferric chloride FeCl3,


cupricchloride CuCl2, etc., all of which may be considered
KC1,

as

from

derived

which

is

sodium

hydrochloricacid HC1,

of

hydrogen

the

metals.
replacedby the respective
Again,we have
monium
sulphate Na2SO4, potassium sulphateK2SO4, am-

sulphate (NH4)2SO4,copper

cium
sulphateCuSO4, calsulphateCaSO4, magnesium sulphateMgSO4, ferrous
sulphate(alsocommonly called copperas)FeSO4, etc. These
sulphatesmay all be considered as derived from sulphuric
acid H2SO4, whose hydrogen has been replacedby the metals
the ammonium
or
Similarlywe have
respectively.
group
potassium nitrate KNO3, sodium nitrate NaNO3, calcium
nitrate Ca(NO3)2, copper
nitrate Cu(NO3)2, ammonium
nitrate NH4NO3,
be regarded as
etc., all of which may
derived

from

nitric acid

carbonate

ammonium

of

Na2CO3,

carbonate

lead carbonate
carbonic

HNO3.

(NH)2CO3,

H2CO3.

carbonates

potassium

PbCO3, etc.,may
acid

The

like

K2CO3,

carbonate

calcium

CaCO3,

carbonate

be considered

as

dium
so-

derivatives

The

phosphates like calcium


phosphate Ca3(PO4)2, sodium phosphate Na2HPO4, potassium
phosphate K2HPO4, ferric phosphate FePO4, may all
be regardedas derived from phosphoric
acid H3PO4 ; whereas
silicateslike sodium silicateNa2SiO3,calcium silicate CaSiO3,
etc., may
like

be

acetates

manner

from

considered

arsenic

are

as

derived from

acid,lactates from

tartaric acid, oleates from

acid,and

so

derivatives of silicic acid.

on.

Each

acetic acid,arsenates

lactic acid, tartrates

oleic acid, borates

from

from
boric

acid is, then,capableof forming a

of salts which result when


by the various metals or
replaced
like ammonium,
NH4) that
series

In

the

hydrogen of the

radicals (i.e.
groups
may

act

as

metals.

acid is
ments
of eleIn turn

CHAPTER

THE

elements

THE

called

the

is found

but

CaF2,

all

apatite,which

is present
it gets

small

in

into

teeth

frequently

are

consists

extremely

plants,

of the

of calcium

percentage
small

and

so

latter notable

treating calcium

fluoride, hydrofluoric
H2SO4

calcium

acid

attacks

glass, sand,

fluoride, which
bases

gas

that

may

silicate is shown

CaSiO3
calcium
silicate

which

be

by

the

6HF
hydrofluoric
acid

its

action

CaF2
calcium
fluoride

52

It

water.

fluorides

silicon

with

silicon

tetrafluoride

any

calcium

on

SiF4

HF

general, forming

metallic

acid

thus

formed,

in

of

always

are

acid

following equation
=

enamel

hydrofluoric

Thus

present.

which

calcium

readily dissolves

is volatile, and

Fluorine

sulphate

silicates in

and

the

the

phate-plus
phos-

sulphuric

CaSO4

acid

is

with
is

sulphuric

fluoride

calcium

of fluorine

acid, HF,

minute

soils, from
In

fluoride

hydrogen

in

animals.

amounts

By

CaF2

of

the

spar,

of

fluoride.

quantities
into

in

constituent

essentially

are

compounds.

fluoride, fluor

minor

in

nature

in

met

iodine

distributed

fairly widely

present.

This

calcium

as

and

in

occur

granitic rocks, being

the

they

never

chiefly

it is after
in

amounts

mineral

They

state, but

Fluorine

HALOGENS

fluorine, chlorine, bromine,

halogens.

uncombined

VI

H2O
water

THE

acid
Hydrofluoric

is

HALOGENS

53

poisonous. The

solution of the latter

used

are

and also the aqueous

gas

for

etchingglass,

mond
dia-

"

acid is also used in the laboratory


Hydrofluoric
for the purpose
of decomposing silicatesin chemical analysis.
be obtained
Fluorine itself may
by passing the electric
current
through a solution of potassium fluoride and hydrofluoric
Fluorine is a light-colored
acid in water.
greenish
It unites with all
yellow gas of extremelypungent odor.
It is probably the
elements
directly,
except with oxygen.
ink.

active of all of the chemical elements.

most

Chlorine

XaCl, the

salt with

common
By treating

hydrochloric acid is formed, thus


NaCl

H2SO4

for
strong affinity

of

human

acid

hydrochloric

called muriatic

and

the

fumes

acid

are

of salt,
spirit

or

in the air,for it has

condenses

fumes

acid

the latter from

reallyminute

acid gas in water.


hydrochloric
and
atmospheric pressure, one

solution of

will dissolve about

acid
With

HC1

sulphate

water

Thus

drops.

temperatures
water

sodium

gas, which

is a colorless pungent

air to

NaHSO4

acid

Hydrochloricacid,also

acid,
sulphuric

sulphuric

sodium
chloride

salt,sodium chloride,

common

will be discussed in connection

of which

occurrence

sodium.

with

mainly in

is found

gas.

four hundred

Hydrochloric acid is

volume
of

there is found

hydrochloric acid, which


Hydrochloric acid is made
scale in connection

(which see). The

specificgravity

1.19

aids
in

powerful acid.

0.33

cent

the LeBlanc

aqueous

38

soda

solution
per

the

solution of

digestionof
largequantitieson a

contains

acid by weight.
hydrochloric

per

In

in the

with

saturated

and

of

chloric
hydro-

bases it reacts, forming chlorides and water.


stomach

the

droplets
ordinary

At

volumes

cent

food.
mercial
com-

process

has

the

of pure

54

AND

CHEMISTRY

Chlorine is
acid.

electric current

DAILY

preparedby abstracting
hydrogenfrom hydrochloric
This
be done
by simply passing the
may
hydrochloricacid soluthrough an aqueous

FIG.

12.

"

carboy of hydrochloric acid.

tion, whereupon chlorine is evolved


on

the other.

The

hydrochloricacid by
As such manganese

Mn02
manganese

dioxide

LIFE

common
means

on

way,

of

gen
poleand hydro-

one

however, is to oxidize

suitable

oxidizingagent.

dioxide is usuallychosen,thus
4HC1

hydrochloric
acid

MnCl2
manganous

chloride

H2O
water

C12
chlorine

The

dioxide and

manganese

togetherin

heated

yellow gas with

flask

very

55

HALOGENS

THE

hydrochloricacid
retort.

or

pungent odor.

many

of the

elements

it forms

sodium

chloride,

chemically,forming chlorides with


by

So with

direct union.

gently
Chlorine is a greenish
It is extremely active

sodium

are

cupric chloride,CuCl2 ; with phosphorus,


phosphorus chloride,PC13; with sulphur,sulphur
chloride,S2C12 ; etc. On water chlorine reacts in the sunlight,
acid,thus :
formingoxygen and hydrochloric
XaCl

with

copper,

H2O
The

C12

2 HC1

thus set free oxidizes many

oxygen

For

colors,microorganisms,etc.
(a solution of chlorine

water

agent and

an

gas

substances,destroying
this

into slaked lime, so-called chloride

in water) is

of

chlorine

reason

chlorine gas

antiseptic.When

is formed, thus

bleaching

is conducted

lime,bleaching powder,

Ca(OH)2

C12

slaked lime

chlorine

CaCl(OCl)
chloride

of lime

H2O
water

bleaching powder

Bleachingpowder
agent.

Its action

yield its

oxygen

CaCl2, thus

and bleaching
powerful antiseptic
depends upon the fact that it will readily
and
into calcium
over
chloride,
pass
is

and also
dyestuffs,
destroysthe color of many
kills microorganisms.Bleaching powder is manufactured
on
a
large scale commercially, and is used in bleaching
fabrics,paper pulp, etc. It is also used to rid the soil of
undesirableorganisms.
is mainly found as sodium
Bromine
bromide, NaBr, in
connection with sodium chloride. It may
be preparedby
methods
that are entirelysimilar to those used in making

The

oxygen

56

AND

CHEMISTRY

chlorine.

Thus

acid acts
NaBr

bromide

NaHSO4

sulphuric

acid

acid

is obtained

MnO2

dioxide

dioxide

with

MnBr2

water

elements.

Potassium

photography.
3.188 at 0".

Br2

bromine

manganous

bromide

bromides

forms

acid

hydrobromic acid,

acid

Bromine

hydrobromic

sodium

H2O

hydrobromic

manganese

HBr

4 HBr

sulphuric

sulphate

treating manganese

bromine

when

H2SO4

sodium
bromide

By

LIFE

hydrobromic acid is formed

sodium

on

DAILY

by direct union with

bromide,KBr,
itselfis

Bromine

It boils at 59" C.

many

of the

is used in medicine and

brownish

liquidof sp. gr.


250,000 pounds of it

About

produced yearly in the United States. It is used as an


also in making aniline dyes, bromides, etc.
antiseptic,
are

acid

Hydrobromic
Its

water.

when

than

the latter.

thus
from bromides by chlorine,
NaBr

Bromine

turns starch

is found

Iodine

iodate,NaIO3,
is

Br

bromine

sodium
chloride

paste yellow.

in the ashes of

in connection

sea

weeds, also

It dissolves

alcohol.

The

metals

forms iodides.

sodium

water,

but

metallic

copiouslyin

alcoholic solution is called tincture of iodine.

It is used in medicine
the

sparinglyin

as

Chili saltpeter.Iodine

with

crystalline,
grayishblack solid having almost

luster.

With

hydrochloric
Bromine
is set free

NaCl

chlorine

sodium
bromide

soluble in

Cl

colorless gas

similar to those of

propertiesare

acid, but it is weaker

is

pure

as

and

Thus

an

some
we

have

and
antiseptic
of the other
sodium

counter

elements

iodide Nal,

iodide KI, silveriodide Agl, calcium iodide

irritant.
iodine

potassium
CaI2, phosphorus

THE

iodide Pis, etc.


be obtained

by

57

HALOGENS

sodium

From

with

treatment

iodide,iodine
acid.
sulphuric

may

readily

Thus

gen
hydro-

iodide,hydriodic acid, HI, is formed, which, however,


at

attacks

once

the

sulphuricacid present, forming sul-

phorousacid,H2SO3, and water,


Nal

H2SO4

thus

NaHSO4

sulphuric

sodium

acid

acid

iodide

HI

hydriodic

sodium

sulphate

acid

and

H2SO4

2 HI

H2S03

sulphuric

hydriodic

sulphurous

acid

acid

acid

Iodine turns starch paste blue.

This

for starch. It is evident that one


in testing
for iodine. The vapors

H2O

iodine

water

factis used

may

21

also

of iodine

use

testing

starch paste
of

are

in

beautiful

violet color,from which fact the element has received itsname.


The thyroidgland contains iodine in the form

compound, thyroiodine. In
diseases connected

the treatment

of

complex

of goiter
and other

with the

thyroidgland,iodine compounds,
like potassiumiodide,or extract of the thyroidgland of the
by the physician.
sheep,are frequently
prescribed
Iodine may
be liberatedfrom iodides by treating
the latter
with bromine

thus
chlorine,

or

KI

Cl

KC1

chlorine

potassium

iodine

potassium

iodide

chloride

QUESTIONS
1. Name

found
2.

the

halogens,and

one

important compound

of each

in nature.

(a) How

may

(6) What
3. Describe
4. What

is

use

hydrofluoricacid be prepared ?
is made of this compound ?

hydrochloricacid and tell how

hydrochloric acid used


does this compound have ?

for?

it is prepared.
What

other

names

58

AND

CHEMISTRY

5.

How

6.

Explain

7.

What

how

is

made

be

chlorine

may

this

Describe

element.

bleaches.

chlorine

bleaching

LIFE

DAILY

powder

what

Upon

fact

its

does

action

depend

8.

What

9.

Compare

use

is

the

made

bromine

of

of

properties

How

iodine

may

with

it

those

be

prepared
of

the

other

elements.

10.

Mention

iodine

would

excess

of

of

some

be

potassium

obtained
iodide.

the
when

of

uses

100

iodine.

grams

how

Compute
of

chlorine

act

much

upon

an

60

gas

CHEMISTRY

should
been

then

can

DAILY

AND

make

its escape

into the

kept tightlyclosed for


filledwith sulphurdioxide.
by burning sulphur in the
be

Care must

be taken

LIFE

latter

several hours

after it has

The

also be prepared

gas

not

may
to

rooms

in this process

The

room.

be

to set

disinfected.

the

house

on

(seeChapter XXI).
agent. It is
Sulphur dioxide is also used as a bleaching
fabrics
used for bleachingstraw, feathers,and
especially
fire

FIG.

14.

"

Pumping

sulphur from

Louisiana

sulphur well.

61

ANTIMONY

ARSENIC,

PHOSPHORUS,

SULPHUR,

injured by bleachingpowder. It used to


be employed also in bleachingfood
products, such as
dried apples, and grainsdiscolored by fire,for example;
that

would

but

this

be

is not

poisonousnature

be

to

recommended

of the substance.

by uniting chemicallywith
altered.

The

the

is thus

action

on

account

Sulphur dioxide
substance

whose

quite different

from

of

the

bleaches
color is
that

of

bleaching with either hydrogen peroxide or bleaching


powder, which bleach because of oxidation of the coloring
matter.

black gunpowder,
Sulphuris also used in making fireworks,
lime sulphur
both soft and hard rubber, carbon bisulphide,
mixtures
for sprayingshrubs and trees, and sulphuric acid.
of tons of the latter compound are
Thousands
produced
annually. In its productionsulphuris first converted into
sulphur dioxide by burning it in the air. The sulphur
is passed
dioxide is then mixed with air and this mixture
over
finelydivided platinum heated from 400" to 450" C.
In contact with this hot, finelydivided platinum the sulphur
of the air,forming
dioxide unites further with the oxygen
thus
sulphur trioxide,

SO2 + O

Sulphur trioxide

forms

melt at 14".8 C.

It

sulphuricacid,thus

SO3

which
fibers,
long,white, crystalline
takes on water very greedily,
forming

SO3 + H20

H2SO4

is a heavy viscous
Sulphuricacid, also called oil of vitri61,
being 1.838 times as heavy as water at 15" C. It has
liquid,
with
and will dissolvein the same
for water
great affinity
be used in
heat. Care must consequently
liberation of much
pouringsulphuricacid into water. Always pour the acid

62

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

gradually into the

water

stir well

addition of acid.

aftereach

into the acid, or


water

at

if too

(never the
much

time, the heat

liable to be thrown

Sulphuricacid
With

of

out

is

LIFE

into the

water

If the water

substances, it forms

is

poured

of the acid is

poured into the


evolved is so great that liquidis
the container and injurethe person.
merce.
important article of comvery

of the metals,ammonia,

most

acid) and

salts called

and other basic

sulphates. Thus

we

have

sulphateCuS04, calcium sulphateCaSO4, barium


sides
sulphate BaSO4, ammonium
sulphate(NH4)2SO4, etc. Beits ability
to unite with basic substances to form sulphates,
the most striking
property of sulphuricacid is its attraction
So great is
for water, which has already been mentioned.
the affinity
of sulphuricacid for water
that it will abstract
copper

the latter from

all other

wood,

animal

sugar,

starch,meat, and in fact from

and

vegetablesubstances, thus charring


them.
Sulphuric acid is furtherused in making superphosphate
in preparinghydrochloric
acid and soda
fertilizers,
by the LeBlanc soda process, in manufacturingether,aniline
other
dyes,guncotton, dynamite,smokeless powder, and many
compounds in which a strong dryingagent is required. Upwards
of four million tons of sulphuricacid are manufactured
annually. Besides the process of making sulphuricacid,
which has alreadybeen described and which is known
the
as
contact
sulphur dioxide is also oxidized by means
process,
of nitric acid and oxides of nitrogen
in the presence of water
This

is

older process which


lined chambers, lead being but very
vapor.

is carried

an

sulphuricacid.

The

lead

chamber

on

attacked by
slightly

process

is still used

for making sulphuricacid


largeextent, especially
78 per cent strength.

Sulphuricacid
and liberating
the

will react with many

acids

in lead-

to

of 60 to

salts,
formingsulphates

thus
ofsuch salts,

NaCl
sodium

H2S04

NaHS04

HC1

acid sodium

sulphuric acid

chloride

63

ANTIMONY

ARSENIC,

PHOSPHORUS,

SULPHUR,

hydrochloric
acid

sulphate

KN03
potassium

H2SO4

KHS04

potassium acid
sulphate

nitrate

HNO3

nitric acid

sulphuric
Fuming sulphuricacid,also called Nordhausen
acid,is sulphuricacid in which additional sulphur trioxide
has been dissolved.

Sulphurous acid is formed


in water, thus

From

sulphurdioxide

when

SQ2 + HaO

dissolves

jj^

derived.

it salts called sulphitesare

Thus

we

have

also called
sulphiteNa2SO3, sodium acid sulphite,
sodium
NaHS03, calcium sulphiteCaSO3, etc.
bisulphite,
used in photographyand in the preparation
The sulphites
are
of wood pulp in the paper industry.Sulphitesalso used to
bidden
forbut this is now
be employed as food preservatives,
to health.
by law, for they are injurious
of hydrogen
Hydrogen sulphide is a compound consisting
and sulphur. Its composition is expressed by the

sodium

formula

pits,and
without

This gas is formed

H2S.

animal

wherever
proper

three volumes

is 1.19 times
water

and

as

heavy

3 O

volume

one

of the

latter

phide
Hydrogen sulwill burn, forming

of the gas.

as

sulphurdioxide,thus
H2S +

manure

vegetablematter is decaying
air. Hydrogen sulphideis poisonous

It dissolves in water,

absorbingabout

eggs, in

and

of

access

in rotten

air.

It

H20

S02

be prepared by treatingferrous
Hydrogen sulphidemay
or
sulphidewith hydrochloric
sulphuricacid,thus :
FeS

2 HC1

FeCl2 + H2S

FeS

H2S04

FeS04 + H2S

64

CHEMISTRY

When

introduced

AND

DAILY

into solutions

of

LIFE

salts

of

the

heavy metals,

forms characteristic precipitates


hydrogensulphide
consisting
much used
of the sulphides
of the metals,and it is consequently
in testing
thus :
for heavy metals in chemical analysis,
CuS04

H2S

CuS

H2S04

copper

sulphide

AsCl3 + 3 H2S

As"

6 HC1

arsenious

sulphide

bisulphide is

Carbon
1.26.

It boils at

mixed

with air

spark must

47"

colorless

and

is very

and
explosive,

are

be present when

carbon

It will riot dissolve in water.


and

liquidof specific
gravity
inflammable.Its vapors
consequentlyno flame or
is beingused.
bisulphide

It is used

oils,also for the extermination

as

of ants

solvent for fats

and

other

insect

pests. Carbon

bisulphideis prepared by heating carbon


and sulphurtogetherout of contact
of the air,usuallyin an
electric furnace.
The gas formed is then condensed
by
of cold water.

means

CaS04

gypsum
as

2
.

like
sulphides

lead
From

or

also

in nature

Sulphuroccurs

as

calcium

sulphateCaSO4,

H2O, and also in combination

iron

with

metals

pyritesor fool's gold FeS2, sulphideof

galenitePbS, zinc sulphideor black jack ZnS,

pyritessulphur dioxide

mineral in the air.


manufacture

of

Much

is obtained

of the

sulphuricacid

by heatingthe

sulphurdioxide

is obtained

etc.

from

used in the
this

source.

are
Nearly two and one half million tons of gypsum
duced
proannuallyin the United States alone. It is used as
land plaster,
wall plaster,
as
stucco, etc.
out
Finallyall plants and animals contain sulphur. Withit theycould not live. Sulphuris a constituent of albumen.

Thus

muscular

seeds contain

tissues,
horns, hoofs, hair,nerves,

sulphur. In

urine

eggs,

sulphur is present in

and
the

SULPHUR,
form

of

PHOSPHORUS,

for
sulphates,

as

ARSENIC,

ANTIMONY

65

the animal lives,


the sulphurcompounds

continuallyoxidized to sulphates,
of the kidneys. Some
which are then eliminated by means
like onions,garlic,
mustard, skunk cabbages,
radishes,
plants,
in its tissues are

contain odoriferous sulphurcompounds. In order to thrive

requirea soilwhich contains

well they

FIG.

of

15.

"

group

of

an

sulphur crystals on

adequateamount

limestone.

sulphur. When plantsand animals decay, the, sulphur


compounds they contain graduallydecompose, forming
abundant
the sulphur is relatively
hydrogen sulphidewhen
when
and access
to the air is limited,and sulphates
there is proper access
of air. When
these sulphatesare
again put into the soil,as in manuring or in treatingwith
land plaster(i.e.
gypsum), the rootlets of plantsagain
take them up, and transform them into the various sulphur
F

66

CHEMISTRY

compounds
completed.

of their

AND

and
tissues,

DAILY

thus

LIFE

the

sulphur cycle is

Sulphur springs contain

hydrogen sulphide,which is
easilydetected by its foul odor. Many mineral waters
contain
calcium sulphate,some
contain sodium
sulphate,
Na2SO4, others like those at Epsom contain magnesium
sulphate,MgSO4. The latter are bitter to the taste and
have a laxative effect. Magnesium sulphate
is called Epsom
salt,and is sometimes taken as a purgative.
in nature
in the free state.
It
occurs
Phosphorus never
is,however, quite widely distributed in small quantitiesin
It occurs
compounds.
calcium

as

phosphate,

Ca3(PO4)2,in phosphate
rock in the Carolinas and

of

some

Western

Small

states.

of

the

amounts

also

phosphatesoccur

in iron
in all fertile soils,

(fromwhich

ores

it passes

into blast furnace

when

the

ores

are

in

and

slags
duced),
re-

many

graniticrocks,clays,etc.
Bones
FIG.

16.

"

piece of phosphate

rock.

consist

phosphateto

of

calcium

the extent

about 80 per cent.


is

of

all

an

importantand indispensable
part of the

plants and

muscles, and
in locomotion

animals.

In

in fact in all animal


or

the

nerves,

parts that

of

phorus
Phostissues

brain, blood,
are

concerned

reproduction,phosphorus is found.

In

in the
phosphorus is always present, particularly
embryos, and without phosphorusplantscannot grow, hence

seeds

68

CHEMISTRY

As

animals

AND

DAILY

LIFE

live these

complex compounds are gradually


oxidized,phosphatesbeingformed, which are then eliminated
by the kidneys. Thus urine always contains phosphates,
calcium and potassium phosphates. When
these
especially
then returned to the land as fertilizer,
are
they are again
taken up by the roots of plantsand converted into complex
phosphoruscompounds in their tissues and seeds. These in
turn are
eaten
by animals, and so the phosphorus cycle completes
.

itself. It is clear,however, that considerable amounts


of

returned
phosphorusare never
continually togetherwith
away

to

other

material into the waterways, which


The sewage

the land,being washed


valuable

finallyempty

fertilizer
into the

largecities in particular
represents
In order to keepup the supplyofphosphorus,
a colossal waste.
bones, blast furnace slags,and ground phosphaterock are
When
bones are treated with sulphuric
employed as fertilizers.
acid,so-called superphosphateis produced,thus :
ocean.

Ca3(P04)2
calcium

2H2SO4

phosphate

This is more

of our

sulphuric acid

CaSO4 + CaH4(PO4)2
superphosphate

soluble in the waters

of the soiland hence

more

available to

plants.
is producedby heating
calcium phosphate
Phosphorusitself
with silica (sand)and carbon.
These are finelyground and
intimatelymixed and then heated out of contact with the
air in earthenware
The

retorts

in

or

suitable electric furnace.

following
changetakes place:

Ca3(PO4)2 +
calcium

SiO2 +
silica

5 C

3 CaSiO3

carbon

calcium
silicate

phosphate

Phosphorus is
Under

water

it may

5 CO
carbon
monoxide

yellowish,translucent, waxlike
be melted

at

44" C.

2 P
phosphorus

solid.

It catches fire in

the air at about 35" C.,and hence it is alwayskept and trans-

SULPHUR,

PHOSPHORUS,

ARSENIC,

ANTIMONY

69

ported out of contact with the air,usuallyunder water incans.


air-tight
Phosphorusis very poisonous,0.1 gram being
sufficient to produce death in the case
of an adult.
phorus
Phosburns are
dangerous,and they heal very slowly.
Phosphorus should consequentlybe handled with great
care.
Forceps should always be used when handlingphosphorus,
and small amounts, usuallynot largerthan a pea,
should be employedin experiments
by the beginner.
Phosphorus is used to poison rats and other vermin, and
in making matches.
For the latter purpose
yellow phosphorus
should not be employed, for the workers In match
factories are
frequentlypoisonedby working with it, the
poisoning being evidenced by an enlargementof the liver
and a gradualdestruction of the jawbones. When
heated
out of contact
with the air to from 250" to 300" C.,yellow
phosphoruschangesto a red powder, called red phosphorus.
This allotropic
form of phosphorus is far less dangerousthan
the yellowvariety. It will not take fire in the air tillheated
it is not poisonous. It is
to about 200" C., and moreover
frequently
employed in the chemical laboratoryin preparing
phosphoruscompounds, and it is also used in making safety
matches.
The latter commonly contain a mixture of potassium
chlorate,potassium bichromate, powdered glass,and
glue or dextrine,as the match head, whereas on the friction
surface

on

the box

there is

mixture

of red

phosphorus,
dioxide, and glue. The

antimony sulphide,manganese
which
powdered glassincreases the friction,
to

the

and

so

raises the temperature

pointat which the match head bursts into


flame. Safetymatches ignite
onlyby rubbingon the specially
first prepared in
preparedsurfaceon the box. They were
Sweden

are

often called Swedish

matches.

Matches

yellowphosphorusin the head will igniteby rubbing


containing
on
cause
any surface.They are dangerousbecause they may

70

CHEMISTRY

and
conflagrations,
lives

many

tons

of

DAILY

first came

poisonousnature
phorus
Phosmanufacturing them.

into

phosphorus

LIFE

of their

also because

sacrificedin

are

matches
3000

AND

in 1832, and

use

annually used

are

up

now

in

some

making

matches.

Phosphoric

acid

is

calcium phosphate
producedby treating

sulphuricacid,thus

with

3H2SO4

Ca3(PO4)2 +

3CaSO4

sulphuric acid

phosphate

calcium

calcium

sulphate

H3PO4

phosphoric acid

gravity1.88. It is a prosirupyliquidof specific


nounced
acid and forms phosphateswith the metals, with
ammonia, and other bases. On heating phosphoric acid
it loses water and forms metaphosphoricacid,HPO3, thus :
It is

H3P04

HPO3

H2O

Metaphosphoricacid is analogous to nitric acid,HNO3.


When
phorus
phosphorusis burned in the air or in oxygen, phospentoxideP2O5 is formed, thus :
2 P

The

latter

5 O

P2O5
forms

with water

treatment

on

phosphoricacid,

thus:

P205+-3H20
As

phosphorus is

percentage
in

content

valuable

as

2H3P04

constituent

in the latter should

making purchases.
stated

The

per cent

per

cent

P, which

of

means

of fertilizers,
the

always be considered
times
phosphorusis some-

the element

itself,

frequentlyit is stated on the label as per cent


phosphorus pentoxide,P2O5, which is erroneously called
that P2O5 contains
phosphoricacid. It is to be remembered
only 62 pounds of phosphorus to 80 pounds of oxygen.
That is to say, it contains only 62 pounds of phosphorusin
but

more

of fertilizersas

content

per

cent

largerthan

much

figureappears

the

Dealers like to express

pounds.

142

every

71

ANTIMONY

ARSENIC,

PHOSPHORUS,

SULPHUR,

phosphorus
the

of P2O5, for,of course,

expressedas

when

per cent

P.

to black, brittlesubstance having


is a steel-gray

Arsenic

It burns

metallic luster.

thus forms

white

odor

and

white

arsenic,As2O3, which

air

in the

emitting a garlic-like

powder, arsenious

floats in the air

as

oxide,

or

white cloud.

importantcompound of
the market and relatively
arsenic. It is quite common
on
sonous
inexpensive. Like all compounds of arsenic,it is very poiarsenious acid,or
White arsenic,
arsenic,"as it is
is used as rat poison. About
also often called in commerce,
1500 tons are
produced yearlyin the United States. It is
soluble in water and has a sweetish,sickeningtaste.
slightly
The antidote for arsenic poisoningis freshlyprecipitated
Indeed, white

arsenic is the most

"

ferrichydroxide.This

forms

an

insoluble

mass

with

senious
ar-

oxide.
as
poisonsfor
entirely
vermin and insect pests. Two
compounds of arsenic are at
present very commonly employed for this purpose, namely,
Paris green, whose
compositionis Cu3As2O6 Cu(C2H3O2)2,
being a double salt of cupric arsenite and cupric acetate,
arsenate
and
lead
Pb3(AsO4)2. Both Paris green and
but sparinglysoluble in water.
lead arsenate
They
are

Arsenic

compounds

are

used almost

used

are

that

proper

Directions

various

other

for

care.

Antimony
metal

exterminatingpotato bugs and

preparingthe proper mixtures for


sprayingwill be givenlater. It should be keptin mind
both compounds are strong poisonsand must be used with

insects.
such

in

and

is

Babbitt

brittle metal.
metal

It is used

for machine

in making type

bearings. As

molten

it expands and fillsthe molds, hence it


antimony solidifies,
it is hard and when
is valuable in many
alloys; moreover,

72

CHEMISTRY

mixed

with

suitable

lead and

AND

tin forms

DAILY

LIFE

alloywhich

an

for type, the

composition being 25
lead,and 25 per cent tin.

50 per cent
contains

70 to 90 per

and

Bullets

0.2 to 0.4 per cent

is particularly
cent

per

mony,
anti-

Babbitt metal

mony.
lead, alloyedwith tin and anti-

cent

shot consist of lead

alloyedwith from

arsenic.

Bismuth, too, is a brittle metal.

It is used in

preparing
low-meltingalloyswhich are employed in making readily
fusible plugs in the pipes of automatic
sprinklersfor fire
of
protection. So, for instance, Wood's metal, consisting
1

part tin,2 parts lead,1 part cadmium, and 4 parts bismuth,

melts at 60". 5 C.
the

most

nitrate,BiO

Bismuth

used

are

preparation being

common

NO3

compounds

BiO

OH,

in medicine,

bismuth

sub-

white

cultly
powder which is diffisoluble in water
and practically
tasteless. It is prescribed
in cases
of dysentery and other disturbances of the
.

alimentary canal.
powder.

It

is also sometimes

used

as

face

QUESTIONS
1. How

does

2. Describe
3. What

the

sulphur occur
how

this element

is formed

propertiesand

when

behaves

heating.

on

sulphuris burned

in the air ?

Describe

of this substance.

uses

4. What

use

is made

6. What

are

the two

on

in nature

of

sulphur?

methods

by which

factured
sulphuricacid is manu-

large scale ?

6. Describe

the

propertiesof sulphuricacid.

What

sulphites? Sulphates? Give

an

use

is made

of this substance ?
7. What

are

example

each.
8. What
9. How

is hydrogen sulphide?
is carbon

10. Discuss

bisulphidemade

the role of

How
?

is it prepared?
What

is it used for ?

sulphur in plantsand animals.

of

one

In

12.

Discuss

13.

What

use

14.

What

is

15.

How

what

of

the

In

What

them?

are

19.

How

20.

What

nature

plant

and

the

animal

life.

arts

could

HsPO-i,

Ca3(P04)2,

the

be

produced

essential

from
in

compound

much

18.

fertilizer

superphosphate

in

in

phosphorus

phosphate,

made

What

of

calcium

P20s?

17.

made

is

in

phosphorus

acid,

pentoxide,
from

of

phosphoric

How

16.

role

73

ANTIMONY

found

phosphorus

much

rock

phosphate

is

forms

11.

ton

ARSENIC,

PHOSPHORUS,

SULPHUR,

what

other

these

used

much

are

pound

acid,

of

phosphorus

H3P04,

could

be

P205?

of

white

in

there

phosphoric

much

How

pound
is

is

phosphorus

arsenic

commercial

does

compounds

arsenic

occur?

for?

arsenic

antimony

is

there

and

in

bismuth,

pound
and

of

Paris

what

green

use

is

made

of

CHAPTER

AND

BORON

Boron

calcium
The

in

occurs

salts.

element

diamond.

be

solution
acid.

sulphuric

of

crystalline flakes
Na2B407
sodium

acid

boron.

and

in

mild

because

preserve

the

is

of

about

blood

the
on

the

floors

milk, meats,

practice is

now

also

known

per

hot

hydrochloric

out

NaCl

form

in the

H3BO3

boric

acid

and

boracic

as

in

treating

the

the

consequently

is at

fish,etc.
forbidden

halls.
;

but

by
74

It has
as

law.

it is

acid

as

it is
tion
solu-

swollen

are

acid

boric

used
for

eyes,

parts of the body that


Powdered

of dance

saturated

boric

saturated

It

acid.

frequently

It is

cent.

Compresses of
on

important compounds

temperature

especially

poisoning.

touch,

either

sodium

the most

room

frequently applied

to

spread

by far

At

agent.

may

water

are

water.

contains

It

as

chloride

acid

antiseptic wash,

are

H2O

boron

by treating

separates

thus

cooling,

on

borax

Boric

solution

very

acid

with

solved
dis-

hard

as

H3BO3.

H2O,

acid

dissolves

boric

hydrochloric

tretraborate

an

latter

HC1

the

of

The

or

Boric

almost

composition
10

be

cools

mass

are

state.

It may

concentrated

of

the

Na2B4O7

borax,

uncombined

the

that

and

its sodium

and

the

when

crystals

has

acid

from

prepared

of

in

and

aluminum,

Boric

acid

brittle solid.

brown,

in form

out

boric

found

never

is

boron

in molten

separates

is

SILICON

in

nature

It

VIII

feels

pery
slip-

used

times

also been

used

to
to

injuriousto health,

Boric

acid

has

prac-

76

AND

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

of the solid part of the earth.

in the uncombined

occurs

luster.

metallic

that

Its

The

form.

LIFE

element

It is

specific
gfavityis

silicon

never

brittle solid having


It is

2.49.

so

hard

glasswith it. It is now made on a large


by heatingsilicon dioxide,quartz sand, with coke in

one

scale

scratch

can

the electric furnace,thus

SiO2

2C

silicon dioxide

2 CO

carbon

carbon

Si

silicon

monoxide

At present siliconis used mainly in the manufacture


where it serves

FIG.

19.

"

Molten

as

of steel,

reducingagent.

silicon

as

it is being tapped

from

an

electric furnace.

is the most
Silicon dioxide,SiO2, also called silica,

important
chalcedony,
flint,
Quartz,quartzite,

compound of silicon.
opal,amethyst,agate, carnelian,sandstone,white sand, especially
almost entirely
that on the seashore and the desert,
are

BORON

silicon dioxide.

AND

77

SILICON

Silica is hard and brittle,


and is much

used

Sandpaper consists of quartz sand

abrasive.

glued
Silica may be melted to a clear glassin the oxyhyon
paper.
drogen flame. Utensils of such glassare still quitecostly.
They are mainly used in laboratories. Althoughquartz glass
it will not break when
is quite brittle,
exposed to sudden
changes of temperature. So a dish of quartz glassmay be
as

an

made

then thrust into cold water

red hot and

Quartz sand

the dish.

When

20.

"

employedin making glass,


ordinarylime mortar.

Quartz crystals from

pulverized
quartz

SiO2

Na2CO3
soda

silica

Hot

sand

silicate is

carbonate),sodium

eggs,

and

in

When
together.

Na2SiO3

sodium

its solutions

cementingasbestos
sodium

(sodium

formed, thus:

silicate is also called water

soluble in water, and

Springs, Arkansas.

is fused with soda

water

Sodium

ing
break-

is also

porcelain,
portlandcement, and

FIG.

without

silicate

CO2
carbon

dioxide

glass

glass. It is readily

employedin preserving
fibersand asbestos paper
are

silicate solution

is treated

with

78

CHEMISTRY

hydrochloricor

AND

of flakes

or

thus
jelly,

Na2Si03
sodium

At

silicate

concentrated

but

hydrochloric acid

silicic acid

affect litmus, and

silicate solution

used

equation) is only

to

has

sodium

chloride

very

weak

acid.

taste.

In

water

it is

when

However,

prepare

the

sodium

the silicic acid (see above

strong, silicic acid will

cent

per

no

2 NaCl

silicicacid is

slightlysoluble.

very

H2SiO3

ordinarytemperatures

It does not

solutions in the form

2HC1

LIFE

other strong acid,silicicacid is formed,

some

this separates from

and

DAILY

not

with hydrochloricacid. By placing


acidifying
this solution in an animal bladder, like a hog'sbladder, and
immersing this in a pailof water, the sodium chloride and
of hydrochloricacid in the solution will pass through
excess

separate

on

the walls of the bladder

into the water

latter. By renewing the water

the outside of the

on

in the

pailconstantly,there
will finally
remain behind in the
bladder only silicicacid. Instead
of

of

bladder, a bag made

parchment

be used.

paper

could also

This process

of thus

the silicicacid from


separating
the other ingredientsin the
solution
first used
was
by
Thomas

Graham.

dialysis. By
off
FIG. 21.

about

apt

"

Preparing silicic acid


by dialysis.

10 per

to

Salts

cent

concentrated

separate in the form of


are

carefullyevaporating
of the water,

the silicicacid solution may


till it

jellyon

be

contains

However, the latter is

silicicacid.

of silicic acid

some

It is called

very

standing.

abundant
exceedingly

in nature.

BORON

The

only

AND

79

SILICON

soluble salts of this acid

those of sodium

are

and

The naturally
potassium and these are preparedartificially.
of the most
occurringsilicates are insoluble. Among some

important

of

these

be

may

mentioned

potash feldspar
CaAl2Si2O8,
feldspar
:

NaAlSi3O8, lime
KAlSi3O8, soda feldspar,
kaolin
ine

or

day H2Al2Si2O8

2
.

meerschaum

Mg2SiO4,

H2O, serpentineMg3Si2O7, oliv-

Mg2Si3O8

4
.

H2O, soapstone

or

hornblende
Mg3H2Si4Oi2, asbestos Mg3Si2O7 2 H2O,
and mica KH2Al3Si3Oi2. Granitic rocks consist
Mg2CaFeSi4Oi2,
and mica.
Our fine clay
of crystals
of quartz, feldspar,
soils are formed by the disintegration
of the graniticrocks,
in earlier geological
partlyby the action of glaciation
ages,
partlyby the process of weathering,that is,by the gradual
action of water, air,and wind, particularly
by alternate
freezingand thawing of water in the crevices of the rocks.
of potassium and also of phosBecause
of their content
phorus,
from
rocks and the clay that have come
for granitic
of calcium
their disintegration
always contain minor amounts
phosphate,clay soils are in generalquitedesirable for
agricultural
purposes.
While
sand and the naturallyoccurringsilicates are
all
soluble in water, yet they are by no means
only very slightly
insoluble. So all terrestrialwaters like those ofsprings,
entirely
talc

wells,rivers,lakes,and the

ocean,

contain silicatesin solution.

plants derive

in

From

considerable

as

well

all soil waters,

as

these dissolved silicates,

part the mineral

remains

when
in the

It is found

is frequently
met
itself
in the ash of the
particularly

of grasses,

of bamboo

and

to

which

constitutes

the

ash

that

Silica

stability.Often

half

of

other
the

ash

canes,

matter

cinerat
they are inash of plants.

stalks of the cereals,

consists

which
of

it

gives

silica. In

feathers,in the hair of animals, and in the shells of various


crustaceans, silicaabounds.

About

40 per

cent

of the ash

80

AND

CHEMISTRY

of the feathers

minute

organisms.

dynamite, which
infusorial earth

and

exact

of

then molded

of

into sticks.

SiO2

will attack

In the

plant
other
The

It

analyzing silicates.

is much
is

volatile

silicon tetrafluoride

acid
hydrofluoric

reason

in

water, thus

SiF4

hydrofluoric acid

this

with

silica,
forming

4HF

silica

with

yet been determined.

silicon tetrafluoride and

of

making

quite complex compounds.

of these has not

Hydrofluoricacid

compound,

in

mixed
essentially
nitroglycerine

is
and

the siliceous remains

infusorial earth is used

This

in the form

nature

For

consist

tomic
Depositsof dia-

bodies silica is doubtless combined

animal

elements

LIFE

of birds consists of silica.

infusorial earth

or

DAILY

H20

water

used in the laboratory

also

employed

in

silicates,
glass,and porcelain.The etching
etching silica,
depends upon the fact that silicon tetrafluoride is formed,
and

that

simultaneouslyproduced.
has been known

that may
be present are
art of thus etching glass

bases

fluorides of any

The

for centuries.

QUESTIONS

is boric acid

2. How
3. What

much

What

is borax ?

1. What

is the

use

is made

prepared?

most

abundant

What

of it?

is it used for?

compound

of

silicon?

How

silicon do 100 Ib. of it contain ?

4. Make

of which

listof the most

important things in the manufacture

quartz is used.

5. What

is water

glass?

is it

How

made, and for what

purpose

is it used ?
6. How

are

clay soils formed?

agricultural
purposes
7. Discuss

the

Why

are

they desirable for

occurrence

of

silica in natural

waters, also in

plantsand animals.
8. What

is the action of

acid
hydrofluoric

upon

silicates?

CHAPTER

AND

CARBON

WHEN
carbon
also

deposits

called

the

on

apples, bread,
overheated

largely carbon

they

meats

latter element

is

Such

remains

charred

fact

during

that
the

carbon

of

the

plus

burns

and

is

there

long

in

which

masses

all

vegetable

latter

What

always

matter

is due

the

air

carbon

the

i.e
in

to

volatilized

is very

remains

that the

living beings.

been

has

constituents,

are

vegetablematter

or

of

what
some-

of carbon, showing

or

of the

heating.

the

left too

is

baking potatoes,

original material, which

mineral

heating in

gradually

the

large portion

process

continued

of animal

less than

weigh much

of

constituent

essential

an

process

fact, all animal

In

remain.

candle,

soot, which

of

form

charred

only

oven,

are

similarly heated yieldsresidues

when

the

in the

When

or

the

in

of

flame

in the

is held

plate

lampblack.

COMPOUNDS

ITS,

porcelain plate

IX

largely

ash.

the charred

On
mass

off,

finally
the

leftnothing but
ash.

By heating wood
of contact

out

the

air

in
is

charcoal

When

is

with
ovens

FIG.

treated, bone

charcoal

may
G

"

charcoal.

Making
through

the

A
of

center

vertical
a

section

pile.

coal

similarly heated,

thus

22.

duced.
pro-

be

is formed;

coke
black

made

from

results.
blood.
81

and
In

when

like
Charcoal

bones

manner

is

are

blood

generally

82

CHEMISTRY

AND

wood

produced by pilingup
the

then
and

whole

with

DAILY

in

suitable manner,

earth to exclude

settingfire to

the wood.

undue

Thus

the rest is merely charred

access

is

Diamond

known.

"

Charcoal

cally
practibone

substances,

charred.

ivas

burning in Bavaria.

carbon.
crystalline

When

it burns,

Charcoal,coke, and

i.e.the ash, of the original


materialthat

23.

of air,and

it is heated

black ahcays contain,besides carbon, the mineral

FIG.

covering

portionof

because

with the air.

of contact

out

LIFE

It is the hardest substance

high index of
for which reason
it is greatlyprizedas a gem.
refraction,
Less desirable piecesof diamond
used for making drills
are
pure

to drill rocks.

Graphite also

in
infrequently
"

"

soapy

making

"

to

it is colorless and

fairlypure

the touch.

lead

"

has

in nature

state.

It is soft,black, and

It is used

as

and

is not

occurs

lubricant,also for

pencils.Graphiteis also termed plumbago,

84

CHEMISTRY

etc., these
to

bituminous

AND

DAILY

LIFE

formed
vegetableremains have graduallybeen transcoal. Wood fiber,peat, brown coal,softcoal or

coal,and anthracite

in
of gradations

or

hard

coal represent a series

the

gradualprocess which has taken placein


in the productionof coal. Beginning with wood
nature
carbon
fiber,by gradualloss of oxygen, hydrogen,and some
be regarded
as well,the other productsjustenumerated
may
So anthracite generally
consists of
as
having been formed.
about 95 per cent carbon, the rest being ash plus a few per
In soft coal there generally
is about
cent of volatile matter.
tile
of vola80 per cent carbon and a very much
higheramount
used
than in hard coal. Soft coal is consequently
matter
for making coal gas for heatingand illuminating
purposes.
In this process

the coal is heated out

in iron retorts.

In the latter finally


coke remains, which

contains the mineral content

or

ash of the coal.

represents the compositionof


coal gas
49

per

per

methane

or

cent; carbon

cent; oxygen,

marsh

gas,

per

per

Ammonia

of coal gas,

in the manufacture

cent

cent;

nil;carbon dioxide,1.1
cent.

The

also

ing
follow-

fairlytypicalsample of

34.5

monoxide, 7.2

nants, benzene, etc., 5 per


formed

with the air

of contact

as

per

hydrogen,
nitrogen,2.3
;

cent; illumi-

is also always

already stated in

of the gas before the latter


All of the ammonia
is stored and admitted to the gas mains.
and ammonium
obtained from the gas
salts of commerce
are

Chapter IV,

but it is washed

out

liquors.
When

coal gas

burns

from

an

ordinary jet,a luminous

depositssoot on a platethat is held in


it. The luminosity
of the flame is caused by the incandescent
of carbon that are presentin the flame. A hydrogen
particles
flame is colorless,
but can
be made
luminous for a time by
cient
suffiof soot into it. When
carefullyblowingfine particles
is suppliedto a coal gas flame, its luminosity
oxygen
flame results which

CARBON

AND

disappearsbecause
for the latter

for

the carbon
such

reason

The

one.

ITS

Bunsen

burninggas by

85

COMPOUNDS

in the flame is all consumed

flame is hotter

than

burner, Fig. 24, is an

firstmixing it with

nous
the lumi-

arrangement
of

sufficientamount

"D

FIG.

air

that

so

flows from
A.

In

zone

The

Bunsen

tube

both

air and

ignitedat B,

flame that has

which

and

burner

the small orifice0 and

the

with

"

perfectcombustion

more

mixture is then
burns

24.

an

its flame.

is secured.

air enters
gas

the upper
inner blue

is non-luminous.

The

at

mix
end

the

The

gas

opening

well, and
of T.

cone

inner

C and
zone

this

The
an

gas

outer

contains

86

CHEMISTRY

unconsumed

gas,

combustion
the

All

flame.

LIFE

DAILY

AND

while in the outer

zone

takes place. This

is the

intended

flames

gas

plete
compractically

for

part of

hottest

heating purposes

principle.So, for example,the burners


the gas stoves and ranges, the gasoline
in the laboratories,
heaters,
etc.,are all arrangedso that the gas is firstwell mixed ivith
air and then the mixture is burned from a jet. In the case
into the gas by pressure from
of blast lamps air is blown
this

arrangedon

are

some

source.

flame results only when


with

burn

never

Charcoal

them.

red hot and

become

Charcoal

burns.

gas

coke

or

flame, for in their productionall

expelledfrom

were

tillthey

glow

coke

or

in

consumed

are

so

gases

burning
that

only

ash remains.
carbon

When
carbon

dioxide

in

burns

thus
results,

of carbon

gas

CO

Carbon monoxide
the

monoxide

flame

is

quitehot.

which

with

burns

blue flame,

oxygen

CO2
carbon

dioxide

breathed it unites with

producesdeath. Carbon
of coal gas. Its
dangerous ingredient
In
water
gas," which is a mixture of

the

is the most

is formed, thus

excess

monoxide

carbon

is poisonous. When

hemoglobin of

monoxide

an

CO

carbon dioxide,thus
yielding

carbon

is limited and

monoxide

oxygen

is

monoxide

Carbon

dioxide

carbon

of oxygen

is present,carbon

carbon

in excess,

oxygen

co2

oxygen

in

or

amount

air

o2

carbon

When, however, the

the

blood and

"

carbon monoxide

hydrogenand

white-hot coke, thus


C

then

have

H2O

benzene, or

used

non-luminous

99

placed.

emits
gas

Bunsen
which

oxide

cerium

"

This

work
net-

oxide,
"

brilliant

is

stocking

incandescence

to
a

and

light.Producer

consists of 28 to 30 per cent

carbon

monoxide,
and

carbon

is

gas

63 per cent

minor

dioxide.

passing air
The

water

thorium

cent

per

heated

"

well, for

very

of 1 per cent

is

lamp

employed, over
of
mantle, consisting

and

"

With

is

flame
the

mantle

be

heating,but not at
By
enriching

gas produced

illuminating
gas.

the Welsbach

here

gas

it may
petroleumoils,

from

may

water

illuminatingpurposes.

this gas with

gas

over

H2,

is excellent for

gas which

for

as

CO

water

all suitable

be used

producedby passingsteam

carton
we

87

COMPOUNDS

ITS

AND

CARBON

of

amounts

It is made

red-hot

over

trogen,
ni-

readilymade

by
coke.
is

and

FIG.

frequentlyused

as

heat in industrial processes.


course,

drawback, for it

25.

"

Welsbach

mantle.

of

source

The
acts

nitrogenit

simplyto

contains

is,of

dilute the carbon

monoxide.
Carbon

dioxide, as

already stated, is

contained

in the

the carbon that is found


atmosphere,and from this source
in livingbeings is reallyobtained.
In the green leafof the
carbon dioxide from the air and moisture
plantin the sunlight

88

CHEMISTRY

react with

thus

AND

DAILY

LIFE

each other,forming starch and

eliminating
oxygen,

C02

6
carbon

H20

dioxide

water

Starch

is

in

cereals,potatoes,and

all

C6H1005
starch

oxygen

article of food. It is

an

02 +

presentin largequantities

other

vegetables.As

these

are

the starch is changed to sugar in the alimentarycanal,


passes through the walls of the latter into the blood, and is
utilized in buildingup tissues of the body. The latter as
eaten

we

live

which
as

we

againcontinually
slowlyoxidized by the oxygen
passes through the walls of the lungs into the blood
Thus carbon dioxide is formed and this is
breathe.
are

exhaled with every breath.


the air in the form

has been
carbon
can

of carbon

completed.
dioxide

In this way

and

The

carbon

dioxide and

plant can

the carbon

again take

now

it into

transform

starch.

again be eaten, assimilated,oxidized

in the

this process

exhaled, and

and

body,

so

the

lightand warmth

plantcould

latter

dioxide

that

continue
into

water

the

keeps

without whose

sun

live and

not

dioxide and

of transformingcarbon

the

from

The

energy

to

cycle
up

carbon

to

The

on.

going obviouslycomes

is returned

its work

and

starch

oxygen.

Carbonated

waters

waters

are

chargedwith

carbon

dioxide,

in a
the latter gas being placed under pressure over
water
such pressure is released from the water,
When
closed tank.
considerable

amount

springswhose
in nature.
are

baking soda

Soda

water

is water

It is so called because

formerlymade by

in bubbles.

ural
Nat-

are

highly carbonated.

NaHCO3

escapes

chargedwith carbon dioxide occur


example,at Colorado Springsthe waters

waters

So, for

carbon dioxide.

of the gas

the action of

H2S04

sulphuric acid

an

acid

Na2SO4
sodium

the gas
on

sulphate

charged with

employed was

baking soda, thus


H2O
water

carbon

CO2
dioxide

CARBON

AND

COMPOUNDS

ITS

89

to the taste and are


quently
conserefreshing
highlyesteemed. Carbon dioxide from the
rightfully
fermentation
industries is now
commonly stored in steel cylinders
and
used for making carbonated
beveragesof all

Carbonated

kinds.

waters

Since

are

carbon

dioxide

dissolves carbon

water

in the

occurs

air and

since

dioxide, the latter is present in all

natural waters.
Carbonates

reallycarbonic

acid

of carbonic acid. Carbon


anhydride,that is,carbonic

acid is H2CO3, but it has

Carbonic

water.

salts

are

for it decomposes readilyinto carbon

H2C03
acid

carbonic

The

carbon

acid minus

been

never

isolated,

dioxide and water, thus

C02

dioxide is

H20

dioxide

water

salts

and
of carbonic acid are, however,quitecommon
stable under ordinaryconditions. They are also of great importance
So limestone
calcium

and

carbonate, CaCO3.

-f-CaCO3.

These

buildingstones
out

of

are

and

making

of contact

consist of almost

pure

limestone

mite
dolo-

Magnesium

consists of magnesium

process

marble

and

valuable

calcium

buildingmaterials,(1) as
(2) for making buildinglime. In the

lime the limestone

with the air.

calcium

on

carbonate,MgCOs

as

Thus

heating

carbonate

is heated

carbon

and lime, calcium oxide,CaO, remains

CaCO3

or

calcium

limestone

kiln

dioxide is expelled,

CaO

in

CO2

-f
oxide

carbon

dioxide

lime

In

wash
slakingthe lime,as for buildingpurposes, making whitefor walls,or producingliquids
for sprayingtrees, etc.
calcium hydroxide results and considerable amounts
of heat
are

evolved

thus:

as

the chemical union

CaO
calcium
lime

+
oxide

H20
water

of lime and

water

Ca(OH)2

calcium
or

hydroxide

slaked lime

proceeds,

90

CHEMISTRY

When

this slaked lime is mixed

whose

hardeningor

FIG.

and

AND

at the

the slaked

with sand, mortar

"

setting proceedsbecause

26.

"

homemade

lime

time the carbon dioxide

same

is

obtained,
dries out

water

kiln.

of the

air

again acts

lime,formingcalcium carbonate again,thus

Ca(OH)2
calcium

"

LIFE

DAILY

hydroxide

slaked

C02

+
carbon

CaC03

dioxide

calcium

carbonate

on

H2O
water

lime

The

hold the grainsof


crystalsof calcium carbonate tightly
It is'clear
sharp sand in place,thus forminga solid mass.

that in order to set well,lime mortar


so

that it may

Moreover, the
may

dry

out

cold,damp

secure

the necessary

air should be
of the

mortar.

weather does not

must

haw

plentyof air

carbon dioxide therefrom.

dry in order that the water


fairly
in
and bricklaying
Plastering
produce the best results.

92

CHEMISTRY

salts in which
stearic acids

are

AND

is
glycerine
the acids.

DAILY

LIFE

the base and

and
oleic,palmitic,

By heatingsuch

fats with

strong

bases like caustic potash or caustic soda glycerineis set free,


and
for

the sodium

salt of the

fattyacid,a

soap,

is formed.

So

example :
(C17H33COO)3C3H5
glycerine oleate
cottonseed

3NaOH
caustic

soda

C17H33COONa
sodium

oil

oleate

castile soap*

C3H6(OH)3
glycerine

and consequently
cannot
fatsand oils are hydrocarbons
into soaps by boilingwith lye. It is thus
be transformed
between mineral oils and those of plantor
easy to distinguish
animal origin.
is no hyPetroleum products
cannot
serve
as foods. There
drocar
which
be used for food.
The lower boiling
can
for heating,
hydrocarbonoils from petroleum are used as fuels,
internal combustion
and for propelling
pletely
engines. When comburned they form carbon dioxide and water.
drogen
Hyburns more
readilythan carbon, and the richer in
volatile it is and the more
is,the more
hydrogena hydrocarbon
it burns.
For these reasons
readily
petroleumether,gasoline,
naphtha,and benzine are more suitable than kerosene forrunning
so-calledgasoline
engines, althoughkerosene is used at present
with a fair degree of success, especially
in those engines in
which that hydrocarbon is transformed into a very fine mist
This mist when
mixed with air and
by mechanical means.
subjectedto the action of the electric spark in the engine
cylinderexplodesfairlyreadily. It should be remembered
that all gases which burn in the air will also form mixtures
with air which are
when
explosive
ignited. Upon this fact
the running of gas and gasolineenginesdepends. The fuel

Mineral

is in each

case

volatilized and

mixed

with

air,and the mix-

CARBON

COMPOUNDS

ITS

exploded in

is then

ture

AND

the

93

cylinderof the engine by

ignition.
Acetylene is another

into
hydrocarbon which has come
for lightingpurposes.
It is a
prominent use, particularly
gas at ordinarytemperatures and is readilypreparedby the
action of calcium

CaC2

H2O

carbide

calcium

stonelike

carbide, a

C2H2

calcium

hydroxide

slaked

in
together

the electric
furnaceout

CaO

CaC2

coke

lime

On

3C

of its

account

lime

by heatinglime and coke


of contact with the air,thus :

carbide is obtained

calcium

The

water,

Ca(OH)2

acetylene

water

solid,upon

calcium

CO

carbide

carbon

monoxide

gas

high carbon content, acetylenehas great


and is consequentlyfrequentlyused for
automobiles, in running
on
especially

illuminating
power
lightingpurposes,
lanterns,etc.
projection
From
petroleumoils,too, gas of high illuminating
power
be obtained by
cracking the oils,which consists of
may
with red-hot stone surfaces
into contact
having them come
with the air. These oil gases are now
out of contact
produced
in many
municipalgas plants. They are also put on the
market
compressed in steel cylinders.Pintsch gas, which
is used for lighting
acter.
railwaycars, is a rich oil gas of this char"

"

Blaugas, named

from

its inventor Blau, is also

ilar
sim-

oil gas.

Hydrocarbonsare
as

the mother

carbon
or

are

marsh

from
matter

wry

substances

derived.
gas,

It is called marsh

CH4.

the marshes
which

The

and they may

on

be

regarded
from which all other compounds of
simplesthydrocarbon is methane,
numerous

warm

summer

is always present on

gas

days

because it issues
as

the bottom

the

vegetable

of such waters

94

AND

CHEMISTRY

slowly decays. The

by heatingsodium
CH3COONa
sodium

Marsh

gas will burn in the

marsh

202

with air it forms

FIG.

runningan

27.

"

marsh

From

by

treatment

Na2CO3

air,thus

sodium

carbon

CH4

methane

carbonate

C02

2H20

dioxide

water

explosive
gas mixture,which
internal combustion
engine.
an

Collectingmarsh
gas

prepared artificially

caustic alkali,
thus

hydroxide

oxygen

gas

be used for

Thus

with

NaOH
sodium

acetate

also be

may

acetate

CH4

Mixed

gas

LIFE

DAILY

gas

from

the bottom

of

varietyof products may


with

chlorine there may

could

ditch.

be obtained.
be

obtained

ITS

AND

CARBON

95

COMPOUNDS

successively,methyl chloride CH3C1,


CHC13, and carbon
CH2C12, chloroform

methylene chloride
CC14,

tetrachloride

viz* :

Of these

compounds

far the most

by

chloroform

important

and carbon tetrachloride


Both

ones.

Chloroform boils at
rather agreeable
odor,and

61"

temperatures.
than water, has

nary
ordi-

liquidsat

are

are

C., is heavier

is used

as

an

thetic.
anaes-

analogous iodine compound, iodoform, CHI3,


solid of rather disagreeable
is a yellowcrystalline
odor. It is
when
used in surgery
as
a
dressingfor wounds, especially
Carbon tetrachlorideis also a colorless,
heavy
pus has formed.
The

liquidwhich
not

does not dissolve in water.

which, of
inflammable,

of carbon

that it consists
is

an

course,

It boils at 76

is to be
and

excellent solvent forfats,and

recommended, for.it does

to be

mixtures

used

in

much

more
"

eum

and itis

ing
expected,consider-

chlorine.

for
forremovinggrease spotsfrom clothes,

"

Carbon

hence is
which

chloride
tetra-

oftenused
it is

purpose

form

dangerousexplosive
with the air like gasoline,
for example,which is also
cleaningclothes. However, carbon tetrachloride is
"carbonexpensivethan gasoline.The trade name

is sometimes

compound

given to

is also used in

not

carbon

tetrachloride.

The latter

fireextinguishers
ofvarious forms

ticularly
par-

those

bitant
of the syringetype,which are oftensold at exorprices. Carbon tetrachlorideextinguishesfiresbecause

it evaporates and
thus
further.

heat

is

crowds

making

the air away

from

the

it impossible
for combustion

stances,
burning subto

proceed

During the evaporationof the carbon tetrachloride


absorbed, and so the temperature of the burning

substances is lowered and this also tends to check the fire.

96

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

LIFE

in the following
extinguished
ways : (I)bycutting
offthe supplyof air from the burningmaterials,(2)bylowering
the temperatureofthe materials on fire
combustion
so that further
is impossible.Now
when water
is thrown
an
ordinary
upon
fire the latter is extinguishedfor two reasons;
namely, (1)
the water lowers the temperature,and (2) it also forms clouds of
Fires may

water

vapor

which
oils,,
water

will

which

crowd

will float

cannot
come

be

on

the air way.

of air to such

access

top of the

burning,the

w.ater, are

on

prevent

It is obvious that when

addition of

fire,for the oils

and continue to burn, the water

water

of spreadingthe burning oil.


servingrather as a means
firescan be put out by coveringthem with
Many incipient
ing
blankets,
offthe air. Burnrugs, earth,etc.,and thus shutting
oils are

tetrachloride.

Still other

been

suggestedfor

have

not

of the

one

for puttingout
delivered from
carbon

by
a

chemicals

they

Carbon

common

use.

very best

means

small

have

but

this purpose,

into

come

dioxide is

dioxide and carbon

ofcarbon

extinguished
by means

known

fires. It

may

be

pressed
cylinderscontainingcom-

dioxide,or

may

be generated

sulphuricacid

the action of

upon

saturated solution of baking soda,sodium


The

bicarbonate,NaHCO3.
that

ready for

are

to

use,

be

ers
fireextinguish-

inverted and

Fig.28,

contain

then

solution

glassbottle
A fire
FIG. 28.
in which sulphuricacid has been placed.
partly
bottle is looselystopperedwith a
opened to show its This
construction.
the entire appalead stopper. On inverting
ratus
acid bottle is inverted,its stopper drops
the sulphuric
of sodium

"

bicarbonate

and

are

tinguisher
ex-

out, the acid mingles with the sodium

bicarbonate

and the pressure


carbon dioxide is generated,

solution,

that thus results

CARBON

is sufficientto

AND

cause

of the saturated

stream

solution to be delivered from the nozzle.

time

and

thus

effervescing

This directed upon

burning material and

the base of the flames cools the


same

97

COMPOUNDS

ITS

at the

dioxide liberated crowds the air away


the fire. It need hardly be stated
extinguishes
the carbon

that small firesshould be

promptly put out, and the

means

doing so should be on hand wherever there is special


at times well-nigh
are
sible
imposdanger. Large conflagrations
for

to

be

cope

requiredto prevent

FIG. 29.

temperatures below
best that

can

of the

with because

that would

kindlingpoint.
is to prevent the

In such

common

cases

spread of the

by removal of combustible material to which there


dangerthat the flames will spread.
When

high

fire extinguisher in action.

the

be done

of water

of air and to lower the

access

"

mass

the
fire

is immediate

CH3C1, is treated with caustic soda,


methyl chloride,
off and simultaneously
salt splits
methyl hydroxide,

also called methyl alcohol

CH3C1
methyl chloride
H

or

of wood, is formed, thus


spirits

NaOH
caustic

soda

NaCl
common

+
salt

CH3OH
wood

alcohol

98

CHEMISTRY

Methyl alcohol

AND

is called wood

DAILY

alcohol

LIFE

because it is

cially
commer-

produced by the dry distillationof wood, that is to say


by heatingwood out of contact with the air,in which process
a
variety of other productslike pyroligneous acetic acid,
creosote, etc., are also formed.
Methyl alcohol is poisonous.
It is used forfuel and for making various chemical substances.
hyde
So, for instance, upon oxidation of methyl alcohol formaldeis obtained, thus

CH3OH

methyl

HCOH

H20

formaldehyde

oxygen

water

alcohol

Formaldehydeis

Its If) per

water.

It

formaline.

and

pungent,poisonousgas which

serves

its solutions

solutions

cent
as

sold

treatingseeds

are

treated with
of

infested with potato scab

formaldehyde solution

formaldehyde

and

drinks

as

before

preservativein

is forbidden

by

free them

to

injuriousfungi,etc., before planting. So,


that

the market

on

as

antisepticin fumigating rooms,

an

in

serve

are

is soluble in

from

for

example,potatoes
are
advantageously
planting. The use

milk

and

law because

the

other

foods

substance

is

poisonous.
On

further oxidation

of formic

fairlypowerfulacid,may
HCOH

be obtained, thus

formaldehyde

But

one

and when

of the
this

the formates.

oxygen

acid, a

HCOOH
formic

acid

hydrogensof this acid is replacableby metals,


has been accomplishedthe resulting
salts are
Formic
acid was
tillatio
formerly made by the dis-

of red ants, in which

Ordinary alcohol,also
is made

aldehyde, formic

commerciallyby

it

occurs.

called grain alcohol


the fermentation

or

of wine,
spirits

of sugar

by

means

100

CHEMISTRY

AND

this by the action of bases

perhaps the most common


Na
CH3CO2, and copper
.

FIG.

often used.

when

31.

"

The

Making

LIFE

series of salts called acetates

Of the metallic acetates

formed.
is

DAILY

lead acetate,

Pb(CH3CO2)2,

in

tate,
practice,
though sodium aceacetate, Cu(CH3CO2)2, are also

vinegar by the quick vinegar

process.

forms Paris
it will be recalled,
latter,

united with copper

is

arsenite.

green

Vinegaris also formed by

oxidation ofthe resulting


subsequent
alcohol in fruit
like cider,
juices,
forexample. By adding
like boric acid,benzoic acid,or sodium
to cider an
antiseptic
these
be prevented,but
as
benzoate, fermentation
may
substances are deleterious to health,the practiceis not to be
Cider or grape juicemay be keptunfermented
recommended.
the fermentation
of sugar

and

CARBON

AND

heated
if it is carefully

^^

COMFOT^SS

ITS

it contains,
destroythe microorganisms
and then,while stillhot,sealed in air-tight
bottles.
Denatured
alcohol is grainalcohol which has been rendered
unfit for drinkingpurposes
by adding about 10 per cent of
wood
C5H5N, or other poisonousliquid.
alcohol,pyridine,
and is used as a fueland for
Denatured alcohol is sold duty-free
manufacturing
purposes.
and

Whiskeys
of
3

from

20

8 to

As

cent.

per

45

65

to

cent, and

per

cent

per

from

beers

alcoholic liquidsare
beverages,

neither necessary

as
recognized

from

contain

rum

alcohol,wines
to

to

desirable

nor

for the

now

best

of

health.
There

are

other alcohols besides wood alcohol and

many

alcohol;however

but few of them

in

are

common

use.

grain
erine
Glyc-

reallyan alcohol. Its compositionis expressedby


the formula C3H5(OH)3. All alcohols contain the OH
group.
with acids to form salts and
They may all act as bases,reacting
is

So, for instance,

water.

C2H5OH

CH3COOH

sodium

seen

at

NaOH

on

acetic acid

CH3COOH

acetic acid

hydroxide

are
properties,
quitecommon

acetate

water

plays the

role of

called ethereal
in nature.

CH3COONa

acetate

there is
metal

salts

or

H2O

water

hydrocarbon

in that it has basic


esters.

Esters

the radical from

wood

oil,amyl acetate, CH3COO

are

So, for example, wintergreen oil,

is a salt of salicylic
acid,in which
methyl salicylate,

CH3,

H2O

sodium

Salts, like ethyl acetate, in which


radical which

that this reaction is similar to that when

once

hydroxideacts

sodium

ethyl

acetic acid

alcohol

It will be

CH3COOC2H5

alcohol,acts
.

C5Hn,

as

is formed

base.

when

methyl,
Banana

acetic acid

CHEMISTRY
and

amyl

alcohol

CH3COOH

C5HUOH
amyl

acids and

as

LIFE

CH3COOC6Hii

alcohol

salts in which

fatsare

DAILY

with each other,thus

react

acetic acid

The

AND

amyl

acetate

water

and oleic acids act


stearic,palmitic,

acts
glycerine

the base.

as

So in mutton

principallyglycerine stearate, in palm


glycerinepalmitate,while hog's lard, cotton seed
have

we

"oils are

rich in glycerineoleate.

of these

three salts

it is in oleine
richer

they

the

caustic

glycerine

calcium

salts which
calcium
2

soap

+ CaSO4

CnHsfiCOONa
sodium

When

"

cleansed
in the

when

calcium

sulphate

sponding
corre-

Glycerineis

glycerine

insoluble curdy

an

forming the

salt,thus

calcium

sulphate

cium
cal-

insoluble

(Ci7H35COO)2Ca

mass.

contains

water

Na2S04

+
sodium

stearate

"

that is to say, the calcium

form

of

insoluble

an

water

Na2CO3
sodium

carbonate

sulphate

be precipitated
calcium

compound,
a

calcium

So, for example

Na2SO4
sodium

may

will not form

treated with ordinarysoap.

CaSO4

The

soaps.

soft soaps.

soap,

carbonate,CaCO3, and then the


soap

stearic,

is first
treated with washing soda,Na2CO3, it

hard water
be

may

calcium

stearate

hard

Hard

soap.

soluble sodium

salts of

form

with

react

and

sodium

glycerineis

sodium
stearate
hard soap

used in hard water, soaps

reallythe

and

Ci7Ht6COONa-f ej

soda

lye

stearate

is

formed

of saponification
offats,for example

process

(C17H35COO)3C3H5+3 NaOH=3

This

olive

potash the corresponding

or

potassium salts are

When

and

softer the fat,the richer

caustic

or

potassium are
simultaneously produced. These
the
and oleic acids are
palmitic,
productof the

chiefly

oil

generalthe fatsare mixtures

of glycerine.The

the fats with caustic soda

salts of sodium

In

tallow

glycerineoleate; the harder the fats,the


On heating
stearine or glycerine
stearate.

or

in

are

H2O

sulphate

'CaC03

calcium

carbonate

CARBON

Instead

of washing soda, borax

the water, in which

case

carbonate

also

may

also be

may

borate

calcium

103

COMPOUNDS

ITS

AND

employedto soften
is precipitated.Ammonium

for the

serve

same

purpose.

distilledwater

forwashing
and so avoid the use of soda, etc.,for the process of
purposes
and the salts that remain
cleansingwater is alwaysexpensive,
in the water are hard on the clothes and also on the hands of the
laundryworkers.
is made
Ether
by very carefullyconducting alcohol into
It is best,
however,to

concentrated

or

heated to

about

alcohol loses water, which

sulphuricacid,thus

alcohol

rain water

acid
sulphuric

these conditions

2C2H5OH

use

is taken up

Under

by

the

H2S04

140" C.

sulphuric acid

H2S04.H2O
sulphuric acid
hydrate

(C2H5)2O
ether

is
itwill be recalled,
whereas alcohol,
ofethyl,
the hydroxide
ofethyl. Ether boils at 35" C. and has a specific
gravity of 0.736. It is very inflammable.In this respect
it is even
more
dangerous than gasoline.Ether is used in
medicine as an ancesthetic. It is also employedas a solvent
in analytical
chemistry. Sulphur
forfatsand oils,especially
ethers contain sulphurwhere ordinaryethers contain oxygen.
Sulphur ethers have extremelynauseatingodors.
Carbolic
acid or phenol, C6H5OH, is reallynot an organic
Ether is the oxide

hydroxidederived from benzene, C6H6,


coal
oil obtained by distilling
a hydrocarbon
presentin the light
In reality,
tar produced in the gas works.
then, carbolic
acid is closelyrelated to alcohols,but since its hydroxyl
hydrogen is easily replacedby metals forming so-called
phenolates, phenol is commonly called carbolic acid. It is a
It turns pink on exposure
melt at 42" C.
solid whose crystals
Fifteen parts
to air. It is poisonousand corrosive to the skin.
dissolve about 1 part of phenol,and the soluof cold water
acid at all. It is

an

104

CHEMISTRY

tion

serves

odor.

as

AND

DAILY

Phenol
antiseptic.

an

is

Creosote

mixture

has

bacon,

These

etc.

wood

is

of air,as in smoking fish,hams,

access

the

characteristic

very

produced when
into the meats

phenols penetrate

from

them

of guajacol, C6H4(OCH3)OH,

and creosol, C6H3(CH3)(OCH3)OH,


heated with but limited

LIFE

and

so

of

microorganisms,thus
preventing putrefaction.Hydrochinone, C6H4(OH)2, and
pyrogallol,C6H3(OH)3, also called pyrogallicacid,are also
phenols. They are used as developers in photography.
the hydrocarbon benzene, C6H6, are
From
derived many

preserve

ravages

other useful substances,such


oil of

or

whose

mirbane, C6H5NO2, benzoic

sodium

used

as

salt,sodium

stuffs that

are

used

now

dyeing

matters.

the many

that exist there


in

frequentlymet

are

(COOH)2,

acid

ink

and

used

rust

as

which

is made

C2H4(OH)

in

occurs

COOH.

bakingsoda

salt is used

as

With
in

CH

mountain

ash

taric acid

(CH

COOH

berries,and in
OH

potassium salt (CH

(1)

dizing
by oximoving
forre-

serves

tic
laboratory. (2) Lac-

milk.

It has

the formula
It is used

bases it forms lactates.

It

Its silver

making biscuits,
pancakes,etc.

OH

sour

in the

in medicine.
antiseptic

an

daily life:

sawdust

from

are

quently
and is frespotsfrom floorsand fabrics,

reducingagent

acid, which

CH2COOH

are

in the arts.

the latter with the aid of nitric acid.

with

dye-

are

other organic acids

the following,
which
oxalic

the

fabrics of all kinds

They

matters
replacedvegetablecoloring

Among

has been

consequentlyoften
coal tar dyes, aniline dyes, or coal tar coloring
as
and have practically
completely
They are excellent,

derivatives of benzene, CeHe.

spoken of

C6H5COOH,

Practicallyall

foods.

for

acid

zene
nitroben-

C6H5COONa,

benzoate

for
preservative

aniline C6H5NH2,

as

COOH)2

OH

in

occurs

many

sour

other
in

occurs

COOH)(CH

(3)

grapes.
.

acid,

apples, in

fruits.

OH
.

Malic

COOK)

(4) TarIts acid


is cream

AND

CARBON

of tartar

(6) Butyric acid, C3H7COOH,

rancid butter and gives to the latter its

(7) Valeric acid,C4H9COOH,


and it is the odor

is contained

of this acid that is

(8) Hippuric acid,C6H5

cats.

in the urine of herbivorous

so

NH

CO

(5) Citric

in lemons

occurs

citrus fruits.

baking powders.

OHCOOH

CH

(CH2COOH)2

in

is used

and

105

COMPOUNDS

ITS

and

acid

other

is contained

in

odor.
disagreeable
in the catnipplant,
much
esteemed by

CH2

COOH

occurs

animals.

largeand extremely
importantgroup of compounds of carbon. They all contain
over
only the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and morethe hydrogen and oxygen
are
always present in the same
hydrate.
carboby weight as in water, whence the name
proportions
consist of (1)the celluloses,
The carbohydrates
(2)the
starches,
(3) the gums and dextrines,(4)the sugars.
The

so-called carbohydrates form

hemp, linen, etc., when burnt leave


behind a certain amount
of ash, but aside from this,which
representstheir mineral content, they consist of almost pure
cellulose. Cellulose,then,is one of the most widelydistributed
Wood,

cotton, straw,

being the material out of which the


lulose
The compositionof celcell walls of all plantsare made.
is expressedby the formula
(CeHioOs)^ Cellulose
is insoluble in water, and when
completelyburned forms
In the form of hay, cornstalks,
carbon dioxide and water.

compounds

in nature,

straw, etc.,cellulose serves


but human
herbivores,
use

as

horses,and
foodfor cattle,

beingsand carnivorous animals

this material for food.

mankind.

Paper is made

etc. ; it therefore

together.
whereas

from

writing paper

rags,

and blottingpaper
and

many

not

for

various forms is invaluable


straw, wood

consists of fibers of cellulosethat

Filter paper

can

It is evident,however, that

cellulosein
and shelter,
clothing,
fuel,
to

other

other

are

are

pulp,
matted

unsized papers

papers

that have

;
a

hard, smooth, finished surface contain rosin which has been

106

CHEMISTRY

melted
The

and

AND

DAILY

rolled into the sheets by

surface thus finished does not

hence

well for

serves

Nitrates

with

celluloses

looks much
and

like

nitrate and

ordinarycotton, but

it burns
ignition

on

very

be made

Guncotton

of a

of fulminatingmercury.

white

can

nitric acid in presence


an

explosive.It
The

acted upon
acids.

be used

may

mixture

absorbed

When

sticks,it forms

cellulose are

it is harsher

formed.

to the touch

is

glycerine.
togetherwith nitroyellowishliquid. It is

produced

of concentrated
in diatomic

when

glycerineis

nitric and

earth

and

sulphuric

molded

worked

used in the arts


black
gun

cotton

for blasting
purposes.

is not

solvent and form

it is

in

gunpowder
soluble in

cellulose tetranitrate

It is used

into threads which

used

are

and
Guncotton, nitroglycerine,

gunpowder.

and

into

like guncotton,
Nitroglycerine,
of fulminating
but it
mercury,
shocks and it is consequently
a

dynamite.

be

are

as

or

explodedby means
also explode from other
may
With the aid of vaseline
very dangerous compound.
solvent like acetone, (CH3)2 CO, guncotton and
may

It

Guncotton,then,serves

alone

viscous

glycerineand

by

saponifyingthem

on

explodeviolently
by means
The latter is a dangerous
is acted upon
by
mercury

of alcohol.

latter is

the nitrate of

to

results when

that

powder

and
readily,

rapidlyand quietly,
forming no

smoke.
cap

so

hexanitrate, C^Hi^NOs^O^

cellulose

is

Guncotton

ink

by treatingcellulose
sulphuricacids. These nitro-

for
of cellulose,

esters

caustic soda, sodium

with

absorb

be formed

may

of nitric and
true

are

of hot rollers.

means

writingpurposes.

of cellulose

mixture

LIFE

They

and

glycerine
nitro-

smokeless

as

dynamite
have

are

also supplanted

militaryoperations. While
mixture

of alcohol and

pentanitrateare

soluble in this

viscous solution that is known

for making filmsin photography,and

employed in dressingwounds.

On

ether,

as

collodion.

in medicine

evaporation of

the

108

CHEMISTRY

AND

with water

DAILY

LIFE

it

yieldsa stickymass, and hence is


On heating
very commonly used as a cheap adhesive gum.
starch with dilute sulphuric
acid, it is converted into glucose.
The sulphuric
acid may afterwards be removed
by treatment
with lime, for thus insoluble calcium sulphateis produced.
treatment

Sugars
The

be divided into two classes,


the monoses

may

have

monoses

formula

composition corresponding to

C6Hi2O6, and

the

(1) glucose

are

group

dextrose,also known

or

of the bioses

also called saccharose

sugar,

and (3) lactose,or milk

grapes,

found in

whence

the

the

name

or

are

grape

(+

hot

the

right,hence this

yeast)
=

sugars.

diabetic

The

C2H5OH

2
carbon

For

of

carbon

latter is

CO2
dioxide

oxide,Cu2O, from

cuprous
a

stronglyalkaline

used in

This solution is much

example,by

patientssugar

may

dilute

this

be detected

largescale,as already mentioned


manufacturedfrom

means

sium
potas-

ducing
testing
for re-

in the

case

in the urine.

of

By

acid,glucoseis prepared
sulphuric

the consideration of starch.


thus

alcohol and

sulphateand Rochelle salt,sodium

heating starch with


on

is also

sugar

to dilute solutions

alcohol

Fehling's solution.
tartrate.

the

red
glucoseprecipitate

solution of copper

malt

Its solutions turn

sugar.

glucose

Solutions of

position
com-

of
fruits,
especially

yeast is added

When

formed,thus

C6H12O6

The

sugar.

dextrose,fermentationtakes place and


dioxide

sugar,

(2) maltose, or

sucrose,

juiceof many

lightto
plane of polarized
called dextrose.

grape

also called fructose.

sugar,

is

as

correspondsto the formula Ci2H22On,


of this class are (1)cane
representatives

and the chief common

Glucose

the

of this
representatives

common

fruit sugar,

(2) levulose, or

and biases.

corn

Thousands
starch

in connection

with

are
of tons ofglucose

annually in

the United

ITS

AND

CARBON

109

COMPOUNDS

good,wholesome food. It is mainly used


It is about three-fifthsas sweet
etc.
in candies,table sirups,
States.

as

cane

Glucose is

sugar.

juiceof fruits.
in honey. Its solutions turn the plane of
It also occurs
whence
the name
levulose;they
lightto the left,
polarized
of cualso reduce Fehling'ssolution yieldinga precipitate
prous
Levulose

or

is also found

fructose

in the

this sugar, too, may be fermented


alcohol and carbon dioxide.
with yeast, yielding
oxide.

Furthermore

cane
By treating

sugar

and levuloseare

n
cane

sugar

solutions with dilute acids both dextrose

thus
produced,
-f-H^O

CeH^Oe

CeH^Oe
levulose

dextrose

water

proceedsquiterapidlyon heatingthe solution


liquidturns the plane
gentlyto boiling.Since the resulting
the original
of polarized
to the left,whereas
lightslightly
cane
lightto the
sugar solution turned the planeof polarized
the process of thus changingcane
right,
sugar to dextrose and
levulose is commonly termed the inversion of cane
sugar.
alter Fehling'ssolution,
The
latter compound does not
This process

whereas

it will be recalled that both

dextrose

and

levulose

effectitsreduction.
Cane sugar is also known
contains from
Sugar cane

by the names
15

to

20

sucrose

per

cent

and saccharose.
of it,whereas

commonly yieldfrom 10 to 20 per cent. In


sorghum,in maple sap, in nuts, and in the blossoms of many
tribute
plantssaccharose abounds. Indeed, it is very widely disin the vegetablekingdom. Rock
candy is almost
pure saccharose and exhibits the beautiful monoclinic prisms
In water
in which this substance crystallizes.
it is very
soluble. One part of water will dissolve three times its weight
heating cane
of sugar at room
temperature. On carefully
sugar

beets

110

sugar

CHEMISTRY

it may

AND

be melted

to

DAILY

LIFE

colorless liquidat 160" C.

coolingthis yieldsso-called barleysugar,


substance,which after a time becomes
is

brown

substance

FIG.

to about

The

200" C.

latteris much

ofcane
fermentation

which

32. "A

Water

by heating sucrose

beets.

is given off

esteemed

amorphous glassy
crystalline.Caramel
an

is obtained

field of sugar

on

in candies.

forms.

the caramel

as

Yeast does not

sugar solutions at all readily.After

cause

time,

however, fermentation with productionof alcohol and carbon


dioxide does

occur,

for yeast contains

so-called enzyme,

invertase,which slowlyinverts

sucrose

lose,and

In manufacturing sugar,

these then ferment.

juiceobtained
with about

from
1 per

sugar
cent

cane

or

to

sugar

glucoseand

the

beets is treated

solution of slaked lime.

all acids present to calcium

levu-

salts,serves

to

This

verts
con-

coagulate

CARBON

AND

ITS

111

COMPOUNDS

time, beingan antiseptic,


present, and at the same
proteins
The excess
of lime is then
it guards againstfermentation.
of carbon dioxide, and the solution is
removed
by means
decolorized by filtering
through bone black, after which it is

FIG.

are

On

whirled

liquidin

"

so-calledvacuum

in
evaporated
of steam.

33.

in

field of sugar

pans

of
crystals
cooling,
a

which

centrifuge to

they

grew.

The

cane.

that

sugar

remove

are

heated by

separate
the

adhering brown

latter is sold

as

molasses.

after the removal

of

made

or

fed to

name

into paper,

cows.

The

These

out.

given to the residue of the beets


is used
their juice. The bagasse

Bagasse is the

means

annual

or

cane

fuel,
productionof
as

112

CHEMISTRY

from

sugar

Maltose

malt

or

sugar

DAILY

as
extensively

34.

Vacuum

"

Maltose

dioxide.

the

used

pans

in

in

This then

may

Upon

is

an

acts

be fermented

depends. The

fermentation
thus

solutions

may

Its solutions turn

sugar

factory.

alcohol and
yielding
intermediate productin the

diastase, an

to

alcohol and

from

distillation. When

dioxide.

dilute alcoholic solutions obtained

be concentrated

water

carbon

offermentedliquors
production
tion,
by fractional distilla-

yieldingwhisky, gin, rum, and


of 80 per cent and stillhigher.

entirelyfree

enzyme

starch,maltose is produced.

upon

these factsthe commercial

like beer

by

malt,

food.

right,reduce Fehling's

formationofalcohol from starch,for when


contained

of tons, which

with yeast

and readilyferment
solution,
carbon

in malt.

occurs

plane of polarizedlightto

FIG.

LIFE

is about ten millions

cane

that it is used very

shows

the

beets and

AND

cannot

such

be

even

Alcohol

obtained

so-called absolute

alcoholic
that

is

by fractional
alcohol

is

re-

CARBON

AND

quired,quicklimeis added
by distillationas
this

The

means.

lime

ITS

to

far

alcohol
as

and the latter


with the alcohol,

not

FIG.

35.

When

"

battery of centrifuges used

maltose

is treated with

that

it is

with

unites

113

COMPOUNDS

has

been

to
profitable

the water
can

do

centrated
conso

by

present, but

then be distilledoff.

in drying sugar

in

mill.

sugar

dilute acids,dextrose

only is

formed.
Lactose

or

milk sugar

milk contains about


as

cane

sugar

and

Six parts of water

temperature.

5 per cent

to say,
case

fermentation

the

ofmammals.

of lactose.

dissolve about

Lactose

Toward

in the milk

It is not

far less soluble in water

the rightand reduces


maltose.

occurs

than

Cow's
sweet

as

the latter.

part of lactose

at

room

plane of polarizedlightto
solution,but not as readily
as
Fehling's
turns

the

yeast it acts much

proceedsbut

very

productsformed, however,are

Yeast that is quitepure

does not

like cane

sugar,

slowlyindeed.
alcohol and

ferment

that is
In this

lactic acid.

lactose at all.

114

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

The proteins,
formerlycalled proteids,consist
and sulphur. They
nitrogen,

oxygen,

important class of substances,for


and

water

taken

are

from

the

as

food.

on

to

per

animal

animal

can

what

is left
sists
con-

live without

compositionof the proteinsis about

The

the average
24

exceedingly

an

ivhen the fats,mineral matter,

bodyofan

entirely
ofproteins. No

are

of carbon,hydrogen

cent

carbon, 50.5

to

54.5

nitrogen,15

to

17.7 per

6.5 to 7.3 per cent


0.4 to 0.8 per

0.3
sulphur,

cent.

The

cent

per

follows

as

; oxygen,

cent

to 2.3 per cent

proteins

21

hydrogen,
phosphorus,
;

nucleoproteinsso called often

tain
con-

of

phosphorus. The chemistry of the


and only of recent years
proteinbodies is quite complicated,
has notable progress
toward a better comprehension of the
5 to

6 per

cent

of these substances

nature

Albumins

are

teins,
pro-

in the seeds of

in beans, peas,
plants,
especially
albumins may
be coagulatedby

blood serum,

means

made.

for instance,in eggs, in muscles, in milk, in

they occur,
and

been

other

legumes. The
of acids. The name
of heat, also by means
noids
albumiis givento a class of proteinbodies that are closely
related
to the albumins.
So, for example,gelatin,
keratin,and

elastin

are

albuminoids.

Keratin

is the

main

constituent

nails,cuticle,
etc.,while
of hair,hoofs,horns,feathers,
is found
when

in the

albumins

connective
are

acted upon

tissues.

Peptones

by pepsin, an

are

enzyme,

elastin

formed
or

so-

unorganizedferment. In the changefrom albumin to


peptone,water is added to the compoundsby the action of pepsin.
This process takes placein the stomach
and is importantin
foods.
the digestion
of nitrogenous
When
proteinsare left to putrefy,poisonoussubstances
which
called ptomaines are
putrescine
produced, among
C4H8(NH2)2 and cadaverine C5Hi0(NH2)2 may be mentioned.
decayed meat, fish,or
Poisoning caused by eating partially
due to ptomaines.
other animal food is generally
called

116

LIFE

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

QUESTIONS
1. Make

How

do

list of the various

that all of these

know

we

the

2. Mention
3. What

essential difference between

6.

is

6. How
7. What

causes

What

How

Give

product of

and

does it

in nature

occur

and others to be

and

formed

monoxide

flames.

dioxide?

is it

How

is it used for ?

What

non-

explainit.

What

the gas works.

non-luminous

burner

Bunsen

is the

What

example.

an

propertiesof carbon

the

is carbon

How

is a

examples of luminous

are

carbon?

does it contain ?

flames to be luminous

some

diagram of

9. What

10.

produced ?

flame

Give

8. Draw

formed

it is that ammonia

Explain how

luminous

them

is coal gas made

4. How

occurs.

element

same

different varieties of coal?

the

are

the

are

carbon

charcoal,also of bone black.

of

uses

in which

forms

are

its chief characteristic

?
gas ?

is water

11.

What

12.

How

is starch formed

have

to be

would
13.

What

is lime,and how

Explain the

17.

What

happens

18.

What

is petroleum ?

can

process

cycle?

slakinglime.
sets ?

lime mortar

when

Mention

the various

important petroleum

the market.

on

mineral

pounds of carbon dioxide


pounds of starch ?

is it produced ?

of

16.

are

15. What

products that

many

to form

is the so-called carbon


is soda water

How

How

decomposed

14. What

19.

is it made

How

oil be

from
distinguished

that is of

one

plant or animal origin?


20.

What

21.

100 liters of

to make

necessary

What
?

How

is acetylene?

many

acetyleneat 0" and

is the difference between

Name

five

of calcium

grams

760

carbide

mm.

pressure

hydrocarbon and

are

hydrate
carbo-

examples of each.
?

For what

22.

What

is chloroform

23.

What

is carbon tetrachloride ?

24.

How

may

25.

Why

should

fires be
water

purpose

What

are

is it used ?
its uses

extinguished?
not

be used to

extinguishburning oils?

CARBON

26.

What

27.

How

pounds

its uses

are

alcohol would

wood

117

COMPOUNDS

What

alcohol ?

is wood
much

ITS

AND

be

requiredto produce

two

formaldehyde ?

of pure

28.

What

is formaline,
and

29.

How

is ordinaryalcohol

30.

How

much

is it used for ?

what

pounds of

would

sugar

grape

What

produced ?

its uses

are

required to produce

be

100

alcohol ?

pure

is it

31.

What

is vinegar?

How

32.

What

is denatured

alcohol ?

33.

What

?
is glycerine

34.

How

36.

To

alcohol and

are

is it made

Why

is it

How

produced ?

ether related

do the

class of substances

what

produced?

chemically?
plant and animal fats and

oils belong ?
36.

What

is hard soap

37.

What

is meant

Soft soap

by the

?
water"?

"hard

term

How

is water

softened ?
What

39.

Why

40.

What

41.

Mention

42.

What

do these
43.

the

is carbolic acid ?

38.

does it preserve
is benzene
six

in nature

Which

is it used for ?

and fish to smoke

hams
Benzoic

acid ?

of the

are

called

them

Aniline ?

organic acids .and tell where

substances

occur

What

they

occur.

carbohydratesand why ?

Where

carbohydratesserve

as

human

food ?

Classify

carbohydrates.
44.

To what

in any

form

45.

What

cellulose serve

animals may

do for this purpose


is

guncotton?

as

Explain by
Dynamite?

food ?
a

few

Will cellulose

examples.

Smokeless

powder?

Celluloid?
46.

What

the

are

propertiesof starch ?

How

test for the presence

of starch ?
47.

What

is flour?

Classifythe sugars, and give the chief characteristics of each


of the principal
sugars.
48.

49.

What

60.

To

belong?

is a

what

protein?

Give

class of bodies do

several

examples.

morphine, quinine,and strychnine

CHAPTER

THE

METALS

OF

THE

ALKALIES

ALKALINE

metals

THE

ccesium, and

of

THE

EARTHS.

the alkalies

rubidium.

AND

are

The

potassium, sodium, lithium,

last two
that

rence

of such

are

rare

occur-

will not

they

be

sidered
con-

here.
found

only

in

few

beets.

and

of

in

occur

form

in the

Buckwheat.

right all the


;

on

the

elements

On
are

left all except

the

the

ashes

practice
with

ashes

ent
pres-

potash

Potassium

life.

is

Without

an

element

potassium

salts

only

It has
leach

to

in the

of

plants

to

cannot

use

obtained

making

grow.

been

wood

out

plant and

tassium
po-

also

long

and

thus

solution

purpose

118

are

K^COa,

water,

is essential

that

un-

contain

always

tassium.
po-

the

never

elements

other

called potash.
"

sodium.

free or

They

state.

erties
prop-

alkalies

carbonate,

37.

to the

and

of salts.

Plant

FIG.

tobacco

and

the

nature

with

found

times
some-

of caesium

similar

of

combined

and

general its properties,

potassium

metals

The

micas

also those
are

It

amounts.

plants like

In

rubidium,

is

lithium

in small

in certain

occurs

and

Even

the
for
soap.

animal
All

soils

METALS

THE

contain
most

potassiumin

cases

OF

the form

THE

ALKALIES

119

of soluble salts,althoughin

in insufficientquantity. For

this reason,

it has

long been the practiceto return potassium salts to the land.


Certain quantities
get back throughthe applicationof stable
Wood ashes are commonly appliedto fields
when potmanure.
ash
is lacking. Feldspar,which is a silicateof potassium and

FIG.

38.

Geological formation

"

in all granitic
rocks and

aluminium, occurs
and

of the Stassfurt salt beds.

notable amounts

plantssecure

of

claysoils,

in many

potash from

this source,

for the soilwaters

graduallyextract potashfrom the feldspar,


bed ofpotassium
though this process is quiteslow. The largest
salts found in nature is that at Stassfurt
in Germany. Here
potassium occurs
as carnallite KC1
chiefly
MgCl2 6 H2O and
kainite KC1
as
MgSO4 3 H2O. It is also found there as
.

sylvite,muriate

of

potassium, KC1,

to

some

extent.

potassium salt depositsat Stassfurt form


thickness from
thick

beds

of

sixtyto
common

The

layersvaryingin
hundred feet. They rest upon
one
salt. Practically
the entire supply

of potassium salts of the world

is derived from

this

enormous

120

CHEMISTRY

AND

deposit. However, in small


found very widelydistributed.

DAILY

potassium

amounts

So

potassium occurs

the various secretions of animals.


about 2.45 per cent
about 0.04 per cent.

are

The

potassium,and

not

earth's crust

contains

in oceanic water

there is

potash, potassium hydroxide, KOH,

Caustic

salts

only
bones,muscles, blood,milk, albumin,and

in all plants,
but in

obtained

LIFE

by treatingpotassiumcarbonate

with

be

may

slaked lime,

thus:

K2CO3

Ca(OH)2

calcium

potassium
carbonate

CaCO3

calcium

hydroxide

2 KOH

carbonate

caustic potash or
potassium hydroxide

(insoluble)

of potassiumhydroxideare now
Large quantities
preparedby
of potassiumchloride,muriate of potash. Thus
electrolysis
this saltis decomposed into chlorine and potassium,and when
the latter acts

formed

are

water, hydrogen and

on

the reactions involved

2 KC1

down
By boiling

H20

therefore

are

by electrolysis

2 K

and

potassium hydroxide

=2

2 K

KQH

C12
+

H2

potashsolutions (which must be done


be
in silver or iron vessels,for glass or porcelainwould
stronglyattacked by the lye)solid potassiumhydroxide may
be obtained.
very

caustic

dissolves

It is a white,hard, brittlesolid which

readilyin

water

with

evolution of considerable heat.

animal and vegetable


disintegrate
hence the name
caustic potash. It is used in making
tissues,
tralization
softsoap, beingplacedon the market as potashlye. On neuIts solutions corrode and

with
A few of the most
Potassium

it was
now

acids,it

important ones

carbonate

formerlyderived
made

from

forms

has

various

potassium

will now

be described.

alreadybeen mentioned.

almost

entirelyfrom wood

the Stassfurt salts by

method

salts.

While

ashes,it is
similar to

THE

OF

METALS

121

ALKALIES

THE

preparingsodium carbonate by the so-calledLeBlanc


(which see). Potassium carbonate is also known
process
commerciallyas pearlash. It is employedin the manufacture
and various salts of potassium.
ofsoftsoap, hard glass,

that of

is present in small

Saltpeter,potassium nitrate, KNO3,


in all soils. It is

amounts

ordinary temperatures
of

white

parts of

100

potassiumnitrate,but the

dissolve 13 parts

water

of

amount

same

dissolves 247 parts of this salt.

salt. At
crystalline

boilingwater

is preparedcommercially
Saltpeter

by adding potassiumchloride (from the Stassfurt


NaNO3,
to hot saturated solutions of Chili saltpeter,
deposits)
thus:

NaNO3
sodium

KC1

nitrate

NaCl

potassium

sodium

potassium

chloride

nitrate

chloride

The

common

KNO3

salt,NaCl, is not nearlyas soluble as the potassium

the latter remains dissolved while


nitrate,consequently
the clear solution,
From
the former is precipitated.
crystals
peter
cooling. Saltof black gunpowder, which
is used in the manufacture
and 17.5 parts
11 parts sulphur,
consists of 75 parts saltpeter,
it is explodeda portionof the latter ingrecharcoal. When
dient
of

potassium nitrate

are

then

obtained

always remains unoxidized and

so

on

forms black smoke.

a thingof the past.


of black gunpowderin war is now
meats; so, for example,60
Saltpeteris also used in salting
and 10 parts of
salt,1 part of saltpeter,
parts of common
tion
a good solusugar, all dissolved in 400 parts of water, make
beefor pork.
forsalting
salt. It is
Potassium
chloride,KC1, is a white crystalline
and tastes
salty. It is chiefly
readily soluble in water
obtained from the Stassfurt depositsand is the commonest
and cheapestof the potassiumsalts. In crude form it serves
and other
it caustic potash,saltpeter,
From
as
a fertilizer.

The

use

CHEMISTRY

122

DAILY

AND

potassiumsalts are prepared. This


also present in minute

chlorine into hot solutions of


6 KOH

C12

it is

and

in

in water.

photography.

is

produced by conducting
caustic potash,thus :

KC103

chlorine

potash

sea

iodide, KI,

extremely soluble

are

chlorate, KC1O3,

Potassium

animals

potassium

used in medicine

of these salts are

caustic

and

KBr,

in cubes, which
crystallize
Both

in

amounts.

bromide,

Potassium

salt is also found

urine of herbivorous

In the blood and

water.

LIFE

5 KC1

potassium

potassium

chlorate

chloride

H2O

water

hot potassiumchloride solutions both caustic


By electrolyzing
potashand chlorine are simultaneouslyformed, and so most

potassiumchlorate

of the

Potassium

means.

in the market

chlorate is used in

K2SiO3, is made
silicate,

potassiumcarbonate, thus
Si02 +
silica

This

K2C03

prepared by this

making

It is also used
and explosives.
fireworks,
a gargle
as
for sore throat.
Potassium

is

oxygen,

matches,

in medicine,particularly

by fusingsand with

K2Si08

potassium

potassium

carbonate

silicate

salt is soluble in water

C02
dioxide

carbon

sirupy solutions
glass.

and

its

are

popularlycalled potassiumwater
Potassium
K2SO4, is found at Stassfurt in kainite.
sulphate,
In crude form
It is also a constituent of potassiumalum.
It is employedin the manufactureof
it serves
as
a fertilizer.
hard glass,
alum, and potassiumcarbonate.
Potassium
amounts

white

phosphate, K2HPO4,

in the

blood

salt
crystalline

Potassium

and

which

cyanide,KCN,

is present

in

urine of all carnivores.


dissolves

is an

readilyin

minute
It is

water.

extremely
poisonoussalt.

It

124

SIR

CHEMISTRY

HUMPHRY

DAVY,

AND

DAILY

1778-1829, the discoverer

LIFE

of the

alkali metals.

THE

and

Just

land

take up

THE

OF

plantstake
salt.

common

At

It is about

parts of salt,while the

36

of the secretions.

potassiumchloride,so sea plants


Common
salt crystallizes
in cubes
as

soluble in cold

parts of

100

temperature

room

all

up

and melts at about 800" C.


in hot water.

125

ALKALIES

in the blood,the tissues,


and

occurs
as

METALS

water

as

solve
dis-

of

water
boiling
dissolves but 39 parts. The
United States alone produces
million tons of salt annuallyand this
nearlyfour and one-half
is only about one-fourth
of the world's yearly production.
Salt is used for making chlorine,hydrochloricacid, caustic
soda, sodium carbonate,and other sodium compounds.
is quite similar
Caustic soda, sodium
hydroxide, NaOH,
to potasium hydroxide in its properties
and is preparedin an
It is used in making hard soap, also
analogousmanner.
in
It is further employed in the manufacture
softening water.
of carbolic acid and oxalic acid,also in making paper
and other articles. Being cheaperthan caustic potash,
it is
used in placeof the latterwhenever it is possible.
"

amount

same

"

Sodium

carbonate, Na2CO3, is also often called sal soda, or

in the
potassiumcarbonate or potash occurs
ashes of land plants,
soda is found in the ashes of marine
so
plants. Soda is used to make common
glass,hard soap, and
other sodium compounds. It is therefore manufactured
many
on
a very
ing
largescale. There are two processes of manufactursoda, namely,the LeBlanc process and the Solvayprocess.
soda.

Just

as

Both

utilizecommon

In

the LeBlanc

acid,thus
2 NaCl
salt

salt
soda

as

the

process

raw

material.

phuric
salt is first treated with sul-

H2SO4

NaCl

NaHSO4

salt cake

sulphuric acid

HC1

hydrochloric
acid

The

so-called

"

salt cake

sulphate. This

"

consists

is then

of salt and

heated

in

acid

dium
so-

suitable fur-

126

CHEMISTRY

thus

nace,

AND

forming

DAILY

LIFE

hydrochloricacid,

more

sulphate:

NaaSO4

salt cake

hydrochloric

sulphate

The

sulphateis then

sodium

carbon

monoxide

formed, thus

and

rotary furnace

4C

Na2S

sodium

CaCO3

sodium

soda

are

carbon

Na2CO3

4 CO

sulphide

calcium

entire

in this way

sulphideand

Na*S

carbon

sulphate

is then

mass

monoxide

CaS

soda

calcium

carbonate

sulphide

The

with charcoal and calcium

and calcium

escapes

acid

Na2SO4
sodium

heated in

and

carbonate

mixed

sodium

HC1

sodium

and

sulphide

treated with water.

The

sodium

dissolves and calcium

carbonate

soluble
sulphideremains as an intained
obresidue. From
the clear solution,crystalsare
10 H2O.
which have the compositionNa2CO3
This
soda.
is so-called washing soda or crystallized
On heating
the crystalsthey lose water
and form calcined soda or anhydrous
.

sodium

carbonate,Na2CO3.

By the Solvay
first obtained.

sodium

process,

This

salt is relatively
less soluble than

correspondingammonium
which

NH4HCO3,

ammonia

NH4OH

On

salt

CO2

carbon

ammonium
bicarbonate

saturated

dioxide is

NH4HCO3

dioxide

of

solution of sodium

bicarbonate, sodium

bicarbonate

chloride
is precipitated,

NH4HCO3
ammonium

bicarbonate

the

hydroxide

with ammonium

NaCl

water, thus

is

bicarbonate,
carbon

when

ammonium

treatment

thus

salt, ammonium
be obtained

may

passedinto strong

bicarbonate,NaIICO3,

NaHCO3
sodium

bicarbonate

NH4C1
ammonium

chloride

METALS

THE

THE

127

ALKALIES

chloride remains

ammonium

The

OF

in

solution.

In

actual

consists in

then, the Solvay process


practice,

conductingboth
and carbon dioxide into a saturated solution of comammonia
mon
both of the changes expressedby the last
salt. Thus
two
equationstake placetogether. Sodium bicarbonate is
also called saleratus

baking

or

It has

soda.

mild

alkaline

mz

^"P;^-

M?t
FIG.

reaction,and

is used

heating sodium

On

dioxide and forms


2

Even

when

39.

"

Chilian

saltpeter bed.

in medicine, in

sodium

carbonate,thus
Na2CO3

solutions of sodium

dioxide is evolved

baking powders, etc.

; upon

and

it loses water

bicarbonate

XaHCO3

.v?"

H2O

C02

bicarbonate

this factthe

carbon

use

are

heated, carbon

of saleratus in

baking depends.
Sodium

is

nitrate,XuXO3,

consequentlyknown

is found
as

Chili

largebeds in Chili and


saltpeter.With it occur
in

128

CHEMISTRY

smaller amounts
sodium

of sodium

iodate,NaIO3.

commercial

in

of

source

fertilizeron

and
sulphate,
latter compound is the chief

The

iodine.

Sodium

nitrate is used

H2SO4

NaHS04

as

It also is

ployed
em-

HNO3

time.

sulphate,Na2SO4, is formed

of the Leblanc
and when

soda

it crystallizes
from

formed.
much

This

used

Glauber
Sodium

as

as

the latter at

readilyin water,
temperatures

room

the composition Na2SO4

is the so-called Glauber's

of 'the products

one

It dissolves

process.

beautiful crystalsof

laxative. It

was

firstmade

10
.

H2O

are

salt,which

is

Johann

Rudolf

by

so

in 1658.

sulphite,Na2SO3, is made

dioxide into sodium

by passingsulphur

hydroxide solution. This salt

is used

photography.
Sodium

"

sodium
chloride,

in making nitric acid,thus


largequantities

Sodium

in

LIFE

nitrate should be added to the soil onlyin small amounts

Sodium
a

DAILY

of its nitrogencontent.

account

NaN03

at

AND

thiosulphate,Na2S2O3

hyposulphiteof

soda"

5 H2O,

"hypo," so

much

is *the so-called
used in

making
ing
the "fixingbath" in photography. It is produced by boilwith flowers of sulphur.
a solution of sodium
sulphite
Sodium
Na2SiO3,or sodium water glass,is produced
silicate,
by fusingsilica with sodium carbonate or with a mixture of
carbon and Glauber's salt. In laundry soaps it serves
as
a
the fibers
filler." It is also employed in cementingtogether
of mineral wool and asbestos,
rics,
and in fireproofing
wood, fabor

"

etc.

Borax

have
The

has

the

compositionNa2B4O7

10 H2O.

Its

uses

alreadybeen mentioned.
metals

of the

alkaline earths

are

barium, strontium,

calcium,and magnesium. They are so called


respectiveoxides BaO, SrO, CaO, and MgO

because
are

their

alkaline,

OF

METALS

THE

when

fact is apparent

which

for

red litmus paper,

they

example.

"

used

"

called
as

whenever

chloride solution

or

the metal

ployed.
em-

ously.
copi-

white

in

in

in nature

specific
gravityis
white pigment in

white."

quently
infre-

It is not

lead,a practice

sulphateis almost
a

all

with water

also in dilute acids.

and

sulphateis

pletely
com-

It precipitates

treated with

other

solution of any

barium

BaSO4

BaCl2

sulphate

as

Barium

solution of

salt,so, for instance

copper

Its

cheap adulterant

treated

occurs

masses.

permanent

insoluble in water

CuSO4

It

powder, it serves

to

that is to be condemned.

barium

be prepared

may

sulphate,BaSO4, also

is barium

barytes."

in compact

form

paints,being

or

spar

Ground

4.48.

of barium

source

called heavy

fairlypure

metals

moist

soluble in water, but not

hydroxidesare

The

chief

These

hydroxide of

the

and

they yieldhydrogen

The

with

treated

are

and when

silver-white in appearance,

are

129

ALKALIES

of their molten chlorides. They


electrolysis

the

by

THE

barium

barium

chloride

sulphate

CuCl2
copper

chloride

consequently
very commonly used in testing
of sulphur
also for determiningthe amount
for sulphates,
sists
present in a compound, for the latter process commonly conof convertingthe sulphur into a soluble sulphateand
of
barium sulphateby adding an excess
then precipitating
Barium

chloride is

barium

chloride

solution.

From

the

amount

of

barium

be computed,
of sulphurmay
sulphateformed the amount
for the composition of barium
sulphate is well known.
Barium
nitrate,Ba(NO3)2, is used for making green Bengal
all poisonous. Cattle in our
salts are
lights.Barium
Western states have been reportedas seriously
poisonedby

eatingherbs

that had

taken up

barium

from

the soil. This

130

CHEMISTRY

is, of

course,

found

in soils.

compounds

barium, only they

LIFE

rarer

salts color

while those of barium

not
ordinarily

those

to

Strontium

occurrence.

in fireworks and

strontium

is

entirelysimilar

are

of

are

Sr(NO3)2,is used
lights.All

DAILY

unusual, for barium

very

Strontium

AND

for

the

trate,
ni-

making red Bengal

Bunsen

color it green, and

of

flame

red,

calcium compounds

produce an orange-yellowcolor.
in
carbonate,CaC03, is found in largequantities
limestone,
marble,and chalk. Iceland spar or calcite

Calcium
nature

is

as

very

form
crystalline

pure

limestone

mixed

occurs

CaSO4,
sulphate,

occurs

and

In

alabaster.

calcium
the

with
as

hard

sediments

sediments

limestone

when

of chalk

ground

calcium

contain

the waters

serve

as

have

in contact.

come

and

reducingiron
is used

ores.

for
In

whiting,which

as

putty.

by heating limestone

or

dioxide is driven off and

on

heating

limestone

slakingof

These

marble

in

the oxide of

CaCO3

The

bicarbonate and

building stones, also

up with linseed oil forms

remains

H2O,

been dissolved from

have

calcium carbonate

Thus, carbon

oxides of iron, aluminum,


silica,

These

cement,

Lime, CaO, is made


kilns.

teakettles,boilers, etc.

etc.

making lime, glass,and


the form

When

Calcium

CaSO4

calcium

waters

soilswith which

and

Marble

is called marl.

anhydrite,gypsum,

in

generallyalso
or

carbonate.

quitecommonly found. They produce

magnesium,
the rocks

clay,it

natural

sulphateare

of calcium

CaO
lime

lime and its use

in

making

CO2

carbon

mortar

dioxide

have already

been described.
Calcium
acts

on

chloride,CaCl2,is formed when

limestone,thus

hydrochloricacid

132

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

Calcium

nitrate,

Ca(NO3)2, is very soluble


in water.
in

It is formed

composted

and

also

manure,

the whitewashed

on

walls of stables.
The

ammonia

present in

the stable air is gradually


oxidized
which

nitric acid,

to

then

attacks

calcium carbonate

the

on

the

walls, forming calcium


nitrate and

carbon

This, of

destroysthe
The

course,

wall

ing.
coat-

calcium nitrate

in the soil is

food,for it
calcium

oxide.
di-

goodplant

contains

both

and

nitrogenin
availableform.
Calcium

phosphate,

Ca3(PO4)2,is insoluble in
FIG. 41.

"

A broken
Paris

leg in

plaster of

cast.

water

but soluble in dilute


acids.

It

occurs

in

is the chiefconstituent of bones,and is


as
crystals
apatite,
The
found in phosphaterock,guano, and barnyardmanure.

fact that

phuric
by treatingbones or phosphate rock with sulacid,superphosphatefertilizeris formed has already

been mentioned.
rock

used

Over two

and

million
one-half

tons

of phosphate

annuallyin the United States as fertilizer.


The exportationof phosphate rock should be forbidden by
law,for the supply of this important material,without which
cannot
agriculture
thrive,is limited. The beds of phosphate
are

METALS

THE

rock

mainly
depositshave

occur

Mountain
As

THE

OF

in Florida and

also been

133

ALKALIES

Carolina, but

South
in

found

of the

some

cently
re-

Rocky

states.

silicate,calcium

calcium

in many

occurs

rocks, especially

garnet, mica,
complex silicates like feldspars,

in

blende,
horn-

etc.

by heatinglimestone together
silicatesin a kiln,and then grindingup the
with aluminum
clinker to a fine powder. This is usuallygrayishor grayish
Portland

is made

cement

FIG. 42.

brown

in color.

When

latter,forming
the

resembles
the

whence
be

native

Portland

stonelike

cement,

from

58

per

Magnesia,MgO,

cent;

must

not

itwill unite with the


which

mass

found

stone

contain silica,
SiO2,from
65

posts.

with water

mixed

must

to

fence

No

but

in appearance

Portland, England,

at

Portland cement.

name

givenfor

hard

Concrete

"

chemical formula

good Portland

20 to 25 per cent

alumina, from
exceed

5 per

to

can

cement

lime,CaO,

10

cent, and

per

cent.

the less

134

CHEMISTRY

there is of

it,the better.

in notable

DAILY

Iron

LIFE

oxide,Fe2O3,may

quantitieswithout doing harm

found in cements

the extent

to

impurities,like

small

be present

it is

commonly

of from 2 to 5 per cent.


of

amounts

Other

soda, potash, and

generally also found, commonly

are

per

AND

phates,
sul-

less than

cent.

At

Milwaukee, Louisville,and

natural

Rosendale, N.Y.,

depositsof limestone that


of aluminum

amounts

contain

silicates to

make

This material is heated in kilns,and


then

ground

and

up

quiteserviceable

"

sold

for many

the

and

purposes

is not

the

Portland

right

cement.

clinker
resulting
cement."

natural

as

it nevertheless

cement,

almost

occur

While

cheaperthan

equal

is

land
Port-

the latter in

to

wearing qualities.Portland cement sets,even under water,


be used in damp placeswhere ordinarylime
and hence can
will not

mortar
stone

or

cement

iron

or

concrete

harden

gravel and
forms

then

so-called

steel rods

or

Mixed

with sand and crushed


with

saturated

networks

of wires

It is much

used

in

water,

modern

In

concrete.

Portland

structures,

often embedded

are

strengthenit. This is then

to

concrete.

at all.

known

as

in

reenforced

erectingbridges,fireproof

buildings,etc.
Nearly fifteenthousand tons of Portland
cement
are
produced annually in the United States alone.
The slagsfrom blast furnaces,which contain silica,
alumina,
and

lime,are

cement, the

now

also used

in the manufacture

lackingingredients
beingadded, of

of Portland
course,

before

the material in the kiln. The cements


from blast furnace
firing
slagare generallyricher in iron and browner in color than
other cements.
nevertheless.
They are of very good quality,
Glass

commonly

calcium and

sodium.

consists of

It is made

mixture

silica,
by meltingtogether

SiO2,limestone,
CaCOs, and soda,Na2CO3.

correspondsapproximately to

'the

of the silicates of

The

final product

composition

METALS

THE

CaO

used
The
feet

135

ALKALIES

THE

SiO2 -f Na20

3 SiO2

soda

glass. It is
in making windows, bottles,and ordinary glassdishes.
in pots of fire clay about
four
mixture is melted
high and four feet in diameter. Potash lime glass
is known

and

OF

as

soft

glass

or

lime

(B)

(A)
FIG.

is hard

43.

"

(A) Blowing

glass bottle.

(B) Making

glass. It is also called Bohemian

window

glass. It

glass.

contains

potassium silicateinstead of sodium silicate. It is not as


readilyattacked by water, acids,and alkalies as soda lime
glass,and hence is used for making glasswarefor chemical
purposes,

like beakers, retorts, etc.

Crown

glass is also

glass. Jena glass contains boric anhydride.


Blue glassis colored by cobalt oxide ; brown glassby ferric
oxide ; green glassby ferrous oxide or chromic oxide ; etc.
Black glasscontains largeamounts
of iron and other metallic
oxides. Milk glass contains suspendedparticles
of calcium
potash

lime

136

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

phosphate. The Egyptians and Phoenicians knew how to


Window
make glasslongbefore the Christian era.
glasswas
firstused in the sixteenth century.
Metallic

in the form

of wire

or

ribbon.

It burns

with

The
formingmagnesium oxide,MgO.
light,
and
in signalling
fireworks,
for flashlights

FIG.

44.

"

in

is sold in the market

magnesium

Manufacture

of glass. Rolling out

powder, and

brilliant white

metal
in

is used

for

photography.

plate glass.

magnesium powder to nine parts of pulverized


powder.
potassiumchlorate makes a good flash-light
the carbonate
In nature
magnesium is found as magnesite,
commonly as dolomite or magnesium
MgCO3, but far more
tion.
CaCO3, which has alreadyreceived menlimestone,MgCO3
Five parts of

in many
natural silicates very
Magnesium occurs
widelydistributed. So there are hornblende Mg2CaFeSi4Oi2,
asbestos
Mg3Si2O7 2 H2O, meerschaum
Mg2Si3O8 4 H2O,
and many
other complex silicates that contain magnesium.
All plantsand animals contain magnesium compounds, and
.

THE

these

METALS

in the ash

finally
appear

THE

OF

137

ALKALIES

phosphatesand carbonates.
in guano
and is
Magnesium ammonium
phosphateoccurs
valuable as a fertilizer.
Magnesium

oxide

The

medicine.

and

as

magnesium

carbonate

are

used in

compound also serves as a facepowder.


is used for the same
Talc, a hydrous magnesium silicate,
pose.
purunder the
a purgative
Magnesium
as
sulphate serves
name
Epsom salt. A IImagnesium salts have a bittertaste and
laxatives.

latter

When

act

as

are

called bitterwaters.

found
Some

in natural waters, the latter


of them, like the waters

of the

springsat Epsom in England and Hunyad in Hungary, are


It is to be borne in mind that while the carquitefamous.
bonates
and

phosphatesof barium, strontium, calcium, and


soluble in water, and the sulphateof
magnesium are difficultly
the sulphates
and calcium
of strontium
barium is insoluble,
are
sparinglysoluble,the sulphateof magnesium is quite
soluble. Four parts of water dissolve one part of magreadily
nesium
at room
sulphatecrystals
temperatures.
In their chemical behavior, magnesium compounds are in
analogousto those of zinc.
many
ways
Magnesium chloride,which is cheap,as it is a by-product
of the potash salt industry at Stassfurt,forms with magnesium
oxide a basic magnesium chloride. This sets as
in
and
is frequentlyused as
hard mass,
cement
a
a
oxide obtained by
The
etc.
making floors,wainscoting,
calciningnative magnesium carbonate is mixed dry with
of sand, sawdust, or other filler
the appropriateamount
and the desired pigment,and then this powder is treated
in
with magnesium chloride solution of proper strength,
as
The material is spreadout with trowels,
making a mortar.
of good
and sets in about 24 to 30 hours to a hard mass
the material is called
wearing qualities.In Germany
Stemholz."
In America
this cement
is being intro"

138

CHEMISTRY

duced, and

various

metals

DAILY

fanciful

trade

LIFE

names

being

are

plied
ap-

it.

to

The

AND

salts of the element

are

similar to those of the

Radium

salts glow in the dark.

radium

of the alkaline earths.

The

of this
lightaffects photographicplates. The intensity
lightincreases with the purity of the radium compounds.
Heat

is also

evolved by radium compounds, and the


constantly
air in theirimmediate neighborhood
has lesselectricalresistance
than ordinary
air. This is due to the radiations or so-called
emanations
that are continually
being emitted by radium
compounds. In extremelyminute amounts, which indeed
almost infinitesimal,
radium

are

distributed in soils and


in
especially

radium

an

compounds

natural waters.

are

In

oxide of uranium

very

uranium

known

as

widely
pounds,
com-

blende,
pitch-

in

relatively
largerquantities.The
emanations from radium are able to destroy
They also
germs.
stopthe germinating
power of seeds and kill the tissues ofliving
fore
beings.Experiments with radium compounds must thereoccurs

be conducted
for

with great care.

curingdiseases

is stilla

Their value

as

an

agent

be determined.

questionto

QUESTIONS
1. Name

the alkali metals and state their

2. What

is potash and how

3. Where

is potassium found

4. Mention
6. What
6. How
7. What

is caustic

five

is black

potash prepared from it ?


?

in nature

important compounds of potassium.


gunpowder chemically?

is potassium chlorate
is

generalcharacteristics.

made, and what is it used for ?

potassium cyanide?

What

are

its

propertiesand

uses?
8. How

may

sodium

compounds

be

distinguishedfrom potassium

compounds?
9. Where

is common

salt found in nature

What

issalt used for ?

CHAPTER

THE

ALUMINUM,

XI

HEAVY

IMPORTANT

OF

all the metals


about

forming
crust

is

8 per

is

of the

It is found

composed.

THEIR

ALLOYS

aluminum
cent

AND

METALS,

the

by far

material

mainly

abundant,

most

of which
as

earth's

constituent

the

the

of all
siliceous

common

spars,
feld-

rocks, especially in
clays, micas,
slates,etc.
in

occurs

ites,
gran-

It

never

the uncombined

ity
state,for it has great affinfor
it
found
that
an

and

oxygen,

element.

of

colored

brown

presence

of oxides

beautifully

and
as

of aluminum,

FIG.

45.

"

An

emery

wheel.

source

manufacture
140

of iron.
are

of

are

gems.

hydrated

the

crystallized

highly prized
is

being

rubies

oxide

aluminum

minum
alu-

by

and

Sapphires

is

Emery
form

impure

as

with

compounds

oxide,

used

is

nearly always

in

Bauxite

deed
in-

ide
ox-

and

is

for

the

alumi-

HEAVY

ALUMINUM,
In Greenland

num.

A1F3
in water.

3
.

NaF,

is found.

It forms white

other

mass

be melted

through this molten

oxide.
mass

off at the
depositedand oxygen comes
by continually
pole. The bath is replenished
feeding

metallic aluminum

in

num,
alumi-

insoluble

dissolves aluminum

mass

By passingthe electric current

and

masses

is called cryolite. It may

the molten

141

ALLOYS

double fluoride of sodium

This mineral

quite readilyand

METALS,

is

oxide, also called alumina.

aluminum

more

is contained

FIG.

46.

in

"

vessel of

Cooking

The

carbon which
graphitic

utensils made

molten
serves

of aluminum.

deposited.Carbon sticks
form the other pole. Eight
volts electricalpressure is sufficientto keep the process going,
but the current strength
is usuallyseveral thousand amperes.
Thus the heat developed
by the electriccurrent is itself
sufficient
metal as well in the molten
to keep the bath and the deposited

poleon which the metal


dipped into the molten mass
as

the

is

142

CHEMISTRY

the process

state,once

has

is tapped off from

time.

to

Over

AND

DAILY

been

started.

the bottom

thousand
twenty-five

producedannuallyin

the United

tons

is silver-white in appearance,

though on

pound.

itoxidizes slowly,and the film of oxide

third

as

molten

of aluminum

States alone.

per

The

of the vessel from

sellsfor lessthan twenty cents

metal

LIFE

on

time

are

The

metal

to

itssurface

thus

metal

Aluminum

exposure

minum
alu-

the air

givesthe

bluish appearance.
Aluminum
is only about oneheavy as iron. It is malleable,ductile,melts at

660", and

is

It is used for

and many

and also of heat.


good conductor of electricity
wires and electric cables,for cookingutensils,

other useful articles.


is

of 75 to 90 per cent of
alloyconsisting
aluminum
and 25 to 10 per cent magnesium.
It isharder and
than aluminum
and may be polished
to a higherdegree.
lighter

Magnalium

Aluminum

consists of 90 to 95 per cent copper and 10


aluminum.
It is yellow in color,hard and

bronze

5 per

to

an

cent

often used in the


strong, and is consequently

paint consists of finelydivided aluminum

Aluminum
in

Mixed

suitable varnish

pended
sus-

laquer.

or

with the black oxide of iron,Fe3O4, finely


divided

metallic aluminum

forms

this mixture

once

arts.

of

mixture

called thermite.

is ignited(which can

be

When

accomplishedby

fuse of

magnesium ribbon to which is attached a


of magnesium
mixture
powder and potassium chlorate)
the chemical action continues rapidlyand vigorously,
the
temperature developedbeing about 3000" C. The change
that takes placeis that aluminum
robs the oxide of iron of its
means

oxygen

and

so

3Fe3O4
black

forms alumina
+

iron oxide

Thermite is used

8A1

and metallic iron,thus


=

aluminum

for weldingcar

A12O3

alumina

rails and

9 Fe
iron

making

welds in

ALUMINUM,
many

only

HEAVY

parts of machineryof various kinds.


to

be butted

together,a

mold

and the molten thermite mixture


is heated to the

the

even

"

necessary

the
repairs,

The

Welding

to

car

parts need

built around
upon

it.

rail with

the

Thus

welding point very quickly.

FIG. 47.

it is not

run

143

ALLOYS

METALS,

joint,

the iron

In many

cases

thermite.

take the machinery apart to make

is so

simple.
Aluminum
is made
aluminum
sulphate,A12(SO4)3,
by dissolving
hydroxide,A1(OH)3, in sulphuric
acid,thus :
2

process

A1(OH)3 +

3 H2SO4

This salt is readily


soluble in water

A12(SO4)3+

and is used

H2O
as

mordant

for

fabrics. In the paper industryit


fixingdyestuffs
upon
in sizing
serves
paper.
Ordinarypotassium alum is a double sulphateof aluminum
and potassium. It has the compositionK2SO4
A12(SO4)3
.

24

H2O.

Ammonium

and

alum

sodium

otherwise they are

and

sodium

contain

alum

instead
respectively
quitelike potassiumalum.

of

monium
am-

potassium,
Alum crystal-

144

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

lizes in octahedra, dissolves readilyin water, and


other soluble aluminum
membranes.

mucous
as

Alum

mordant

also still used

it has
salts,

in

is used

an

like all

effect on
astringent

as

mouth

wash

the

in medicine,

and unfortunately
it is
dyeingfabrics,

in

baking powders. Alum


baking powders
contain alum or aluminum
sulphateand bakingsoda. When
this mixture is moistened, as, for example,in baking,carbon
dioxide is evolved which raises the dough. There is simultaneously
formed sodium sulphateand aluminum
hydroxide,
and

these remain

in the biscuit,
bread, or

hydroxide is readilydissolved by

cake.

the

The

num
alumi-

hydrochloricacid

in the stomach, thus

chloride,a powerful
formingaluminum
and is harmful to
which interferes with digestion
astringent
of the digestive
the linings
tract.
Bread and cake made with
alum
baking powder looks well,for the carbon dioxide is
liberated steadilyand justabout at the rightrate to make
cookery. As alum bakingpowders are cheap
fine-appearing
much in use, even
they-are stillunfortunately
though in some
states the law requires
the fact that they contain alum or
aluminum
the
sulphateto be stated on the label to warn
public.
It is a notable factthat thoughaluminum
silicatesare present
in every soil,plantsand animals onlycontain minute traces of
aluminum.

of aluminum
Clay consists essentially
been

formed

from

silicatesthat have

weathering of feldsparsand other


complex silicatesthat make up the graniticrocks. In its
purest form clay is white and is called kaolin, H2Al2(SiO4)2
This is used
2 H2O.
for making white
porcelain ware.
Common
clayis discolored by impurities.Usually it is brown
red, which is caused by the presence of oxides of iron.
or
for making bricks,flowerpots,
and the
Ordinary clayserves
inferior and cheapergrades of pottery and crockeryware.
the

HEAVY

ALUMINUM,
In

making

into the desired


"

or

fired

and porous

bricks

"

as

earthenware

then

shapes and

it is called.

ALLOYS

METALS,

heated

the
to

145

clay is molded

redness in kilns,

cheap glazemay

be put upon

by simplythrowingsalt into the kiln. Thus as the


is baked out of the clay,the water
at the high
water
vapor
chloric
temperature that obtains decomposesthe salt,forminghydroacid and sodium
hydroxide. The latter unites with
fusible silicatewhich
the surface of the clay,forming an easily
such

ware

FIG. 48.

"

pottery

kiln.

Setting the shapes and getting ready

to fire.

produces a thin glassycoatingor so-called glaze. Butter


stoneware
crocks are glazedin this way.
jars and other
is vitreous throughout. This is accomplishedby
Porcelain
and quartz with the kaolin
mixing finelypulverized
feldspar
before molding the dishes. When
these are dried and finally
and quartz fuse and fillthe pores of the
fired,the feldspar
that it exhibits a perfectly
vitreous fracture instead
ware
so
of an earthy one, as the cheaperearthenware,either glazedor
"

"

146

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

LIFE

unglazed,always does. Fire bricks contain a largeramount


and
of silica than
are
consequently more
ordinary ones
rich in silica. Colored
refractory.Fire clay also is especially
of various
porcelainand colored glazesare producedby means
for example.
metallic oxides,as in making colored glass,
Ultramarine
is a fine dark blue pigment made by heating
and charcoal out of contact with
togetherclay,soda, sulphur,
minum
aluthe air. It is probablya double compound of sodium
silicateand sodium sulphide.Ultramarine is attacked
by acids,which destroyits color,but in presence of alkalies
it is quitestable. It serves
as
laundryblue,also as a pigment
more,
Furtherin paints,and in the manufactureof wall paper.
it is used to destroythe yellowappearance
of sugar,
linen,cotton,and paper pulp,only enough beingused to produce
a

pure

white

appearance.

and neutral in reaction toward

insoluble in water
"

"

earth metal.
are

There
so

that

they need

and

thorium

been

rare

very
not

belong to

lamps.

is heated

similar earth

several other
and have

these
are

used in

In the Nernst
to

through it.
Platinum,gold,and

making

lamp

incandescence

metals,

oxides of cerium

The

It has

already

mantles

for the

earths.

rare

an

importancein practice

no

be considered here.

stated that these

Welsbach
oxides

are

practically
litmus,is a

is therefore termed

aluminum

typical earthy oxide,and


but they

that is

oxide,being a white powder

Aluminum

filament of earthy

by passingthe

electric

current

occur

at

in nature

called the noble metals.

silver are

in the free

or

uncombined

state and

They
are

not

all readily
oxidized.
Platinum

occurs

malleable,and

is silver-white,
very

ductile.

It

in alluvial sands in the Ural Mountains, in California,

Brazil,and Australia.

It is not

acid,nor
or
nitric,
sulphuric

by

attacked

molten

by hydrochloric,

sodium

or

potassium

148

AND

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

LIFE

This alloyis much


gold and 1 part copper.
than pure gold,which is rather soft and consequently

contain 9 parts
harder
will not

gold
24

well.

wear

used

are

the

For

reason

gold

parts copper;

14

parts copper;

etc.

parts gold and

14

LTnited States

The

gold is

parts gold and 8

16

gold contains

carat

Pure

etc.

contains

alloys of

copper

for jewelry, ornaments,

fine ; 16 carat

carats

same

produces

about

10

160

gold annually,valued at about $96,500,000. The


whole world producesabout four times this amount
per year.
Gold
used in photography as
salts are
toning baths."
plished
Many metallic articles are platedwith gold. This is accomof

tons

"

by immersing the article to

be

plated in

bath

sisting
con-

gold potassiumcyanide,KAu(CN)4,
ity
togetherwith an electrode of pure gold; a current of electriction
is then passedfrom the latter electrode through the soluwhich is readilycoated with
to the article to be plated,
of

solution of

Gold is also used

the metal.

on

the

edgesand

backs

of books,

etc.
signs,church spires,
forornamentingchinaware, gilding

Silver,argentum,

in nature

occurs

sulphideand chloride. It
platinumand gold. Nearly 2000
as

the

annually in

the United

States.

in the free state,but also

is much
tons

The

abundant

more

than

of silver are

produced
metal melts at 962",is

and heat
malleable,ductile,and the best conductor ofelectricity
silver coins contain

Sterling silver and

known.
and

part copper

9 parts silver. Nitric acid dissolves silver

forming silver nitrate,AgNOs, which is the


the silvercompounds,for from

used in medicine and in

photography.

soluble of all salts. Even

parts in 100

dissolve 122
the

lunar

caustic

and

is used

are

importantof

prepared.

It is

in ice-cold water

one

of the

It is
most

it is possibleto

parts of water, while in boiling

increases tenfold.
solubility

water

warts, etc.

it allothers

most

readily,

for

This saltis also called

wounds, removing
cauterizing

Silver chloride,AgCl, silver bromide,

AgBr, and

HEAVY

ALUMINUM,
silver

darken

iodide, Agl,
exposure

on

all insoluble in water.

are

to

149

ALLOYS

METALS,

light,
probablybecause

These

salts

of

of
separation
of the use of these

divided silver. This factis the basis


finely
salts in photography.The photographicplate consists

(B)
FIG.

50.

"

Photography.

(A)

positive.

(B) A negative.

which covers
gelatine,
to lightin the camera,
side of the glass. On exposure
one
reduced.
When
but not visibly,
is slightly,
the bromide
the plateis afterwards treated with a developer (a reducing
the reduction
acid, hydrochinone,
etc.),
agent like pyrogallic
continues where the lighthas started it,and so the picture
be washed offwhen the
must
becomes visible. The developer

of
tially

silver bromide

embedded

in

150

CHEMISTRY

picturehas

been

DAILY

AND

LIFE

the process

or
sharplydeveloped

will continue

and

the undecomproduce a blurred outline. To remove


the plate (beforeexpoposed silver bromide in the gelatine,
sure
be treated with a solution of sodium
to light)must
This dissolves
bath.
the
thiosulphate,Na^Os,
hypo
the silver bromide, leavingonly the gelatine
with the metallic
silver particles
which form .the outline of the picture. The
plateis then thoroughlyrinsed off and dried. It is a negative,
i.e.it is dark where the objectwhich was
photographed
To make
and vice versa.
was
a positivethis negative
light,
"

is laid upon
a

bromide

"

printpaper, which

sensitive film of silver bromide

plate. The
be

printmust

"

whole

fixed

negative,and it may
Silver

"

in the

plating is done
The

which
gold plating,

black stains that

form

not

Copper, cuprum,
near

Lake

combination

silver oxide
in

Superior. In
with

the

light. The

as the
hypo bath the same
exposedto the light.
solution of potassium silver
a

is similar
been

silverware

been

to

mide
the bro-

on

"

already

on

occurs

"

process

has

forks,etc., which have


and
sulphide,

in

coated with

similar to that

exposed

now

then be

cyanide,KAg(CN)2.
to

is

is paper

mentioned.

on
(especially

in contact
as

in all respects

is often

spoons,

silver

with

eggs) are
thought.

in the
largequantities

Montana

The

it is found

free state

in

ores

in

iron and

nual
sulphur. Nearly halfof the anoutput of copper in the world is producedin the United
which contributes about 540,000 tons per year.
'States,
Copper
and gold are the only colored metals known.
Copper melts
It is tough,rather hard, ductile,and malleable.
at 1084".
It conducts heat and electricity
wire is
well. Much
copper

used in electricalwork.
is

generallyused

For

in the

melting the metals


The
followingare

other purposes,

form of alloys. These

together in
some

however,

of the

the
most

desired

are

copper

made

by

proportions.
important alloys of

ALUMINUM,

FIG.

51.

"

Plating silver

HEAVY

spoons.

The

the spoons

METALS.

upper
are

figure shows

hung.

151

ALLOYS

the

rack

on

which

152

zinc and

used.
1

metal, which

Dutch

95

to

brass and

cent

per

copper

and

tin

contain

zinc, and 80
in

often

German

silver consists of

5 to

10 per

in

nickel.

cent

part tin.

Bell

Gun

metal

alloysof

The

plus 1 part tin.

called bronzes.

are

part

brown, consists of

9 parts copper

consists of 3 parts copper

is reddish

5 parts copper.

contains

metal

yellow in color,contains
though other proportionsare

parts copper,

part zinc and

80

is

Brass, which

copper

LIFE

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

for statuary

Bronzes

monly
com-

3 to 8 parts tin,1 to 3 parts lead,1 to 10 parts


90 parts copper.

to

of

making parts

It is

machinery.

to which

consists of bronze

Phosphor

from

is used

bronze

hard.
especially

It

phosphorus

0.5 to 3 per cent

Copper dissolves readilyin nitric acid,also


hot concentrated sulphuricacid, but cold sulphuricor

has been added.


in

which

attack copper,
and

brass

been

formed

green

of copper,

CuCO3

in contact

ammonia

acts

but

copper.

The

most

its solutions

copper

which

In

Cu(OH)2.

with the oxygen

ammonia

water

copper

are

used

as

about

for cleaning
common

5
.

H2O.

salt
It

3 parts of water,

bath for copper

has been

copper

However,

of the air.

hence it is often used


slowly,
importantas well as the most
blue vitriol,
CuSCX
sulphate,

also is present, as

is

for copper

roofs,old coins, etc.,

in making Bordeaux
sprayingplants,
especially
also for preparingother copper compounds.

Mercury,

gradually

very

kept in mind,

of copper is copper
forms largeblue crystals,
is soluble in

copper

However,

exposedto moist air for a long time there is


carbondepositcalled verdigris. It is a basic ate

is soluble when

and

it.

and
cookingutensils,

for

poisonom. On

compounds are
that have

be

fact must

used
frequently

are

on

dilute acids do

of the air,many

in presence

littleeffect

has but very

hydrochloricacid

mentioned

mixture, and
In Paris green
before.

quicksilver,hydrargyrum, is the

liquidat ordinarytemperatures.

plating,for

only metal

It is found

in

HEAVY

ALUMINUM,

METALS,

in the free state, but

nature

generallyit

is combined

cinnabar, HgS, which is red in color and is used

beingcalled

Mercury

vermilion.

Prussia,California,Japan, and

153

ALLOYS

from

comes

China.

as

with

pigment,

Spain,Austria,

It is used

in thermometers,

barometers,in amalgams for the backs of mirrors,


also

So

for fillingteeth.

compounds

in water.

Mercuric

It is very

sublimate.

that all mercury


eggs and

raw

with
emetic

C.

357"
cut

or

The

are

metals

forms

melts at

over,
more-

insoluble

an

be hammered

may

The

pound
coman

boils at

into sheets and

alloysof
The

an

antidote

39".4 C. and

"

called amalgams.

are

is

and

salt,which is then got rid of by

with tools like other metals.

other

corrosive

poisonous. The

albumin

Mercury

Solid mercury

in water

slight'y

It is to be borne in mind,

compounds

the mercury
purge.

It is but

copiouslysoluble

milk.

in medicine.

chloride,HgCl2, is

exceedingly
powerfulpoison.
is

used

are

chloride,HgCl, is calomel.

mercurous

soluble

Its

mercury

amalgam

with

used in

teeth commonly consists of tin,silver,and mercury.


filling
Gold alloysvery readilywith mercury.
Indeed, the latter
readilydissolves gold,and so is used in extracting
fineparticles
of goldfrom the sands in which they occur.
Mercury is also
used in silver mining.
similarly

Tin, stannum,

in nature

occurs

tinstone, cassiterite,

as

SnO2, which is found in England, Germany, Peru, Australia,


Banca, and Alaska.

To

the tin from

obtain

latter is heated with carbon, thus

SnO2 +
Tin is very
exposure

in

malleable,melts

to

making

2 C

at

this ore, the

2 CO

Sn.

232", and boils at 1600".

On

the air tin remains nearlyunchanged. It is used

tin foil and

tin

plate. The latter consists of sheet

iron coated with tin by the process of dippingthe thoroughly


cleaned iron into a bath of molten tin. Frequentlycopper
is also treated

by

this method.

Metallic tin is also used in

154

many

and
The

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

alloys.Thus solder commonly consists of 1 part tin


1 part lead,though other proportionsare also employed.
bronzes,alreadymentioned, are alloysof tin and copper.
consists of 1 part lead and

Pewter

contains 90 per cent

metal

per cent

Britannia

antimony,

cent

per

the most

Among

copper.

tin,8

parts tin.

and

salts of tin

important

are

chloride,SnCl2,formed

tin in hot
by dissolving
and stannic chloride,
acid solution,
concentrated hydrochloric
stannous

SnCl4, produced by treatingtin

very

chloride forms

Stannous

chlorine.

chloride with

stannous

or

white

crystalsthat

soluble in water, while stannic chloride is a

which

boils at

chloride forms
which is used

a
as

ammonium

114".

With

double

salt,SnCl4

agent, for it readilypasses

fuming liquid

chloride

chloride is a

reducing

chloride,for

into stannic

over

stannic

NH4C1, called pink salt,

Stannous

mordanto

are

example ;
SnCl2

HgCl2

stannous

SnCl4

mercuric

stannic

chloride

chloride

chloride

Hg

mercury

gold is stannic sulphide,SnS2, prepared by heating

Mosaic

togethersulphur and
and

is used

costlymetal.
annually.
East

The

tin.

for

"

It consists of

bronzing

world

"

is

Tin

articles.

produces about

of this is mined

Most

goldenyellowcrystals,
110,000

in Banca

and

tons

other

rather
of it

boring
neigh-

India islands.

Lead, plumbum, is soft and malleable.

This metal has been

and it is 11.4 times heavier than water.


used in the arts

even

in ancient

It melts at 327" C.

times.

The

Romans

used

to this
for this purpose
pipes,and it serves
crystalchiefore of lead is the sulphidePbS, which lizes

lead for water

day.

The
in

cubes.

It is commonly

alreadymentioned,
tin.

Shot

and

solder and

known

pewter

are

as

galenite. As

alloysof lead and

bullets consist of lead containingabout

three-

156

CHEMISTRY

dex of refraction.
The

salts.

It is also

most

LIFE

DAILY

AND

employed

in

soluble lead

common

salts

Pb(NO3)2,and the acetate, Pb(C2H3O2)2


commonly known

as

The

taste.

the nitrate,

are

The

H2O.

3
.

of lead, for it has

sugar

various lead

making

latter is

agreeabl
sweetish,yet dis-

(PbO),,

basic lead acetate, Pb(C2H3O2)2

is often

used

as

solution of this salt

Pb3(AsO4)2,is

used

spraying trees

and

is but

lotion

being called
shrubs.

sparinglysoluble

in water.

latter,this

for wood

On

makes

mixture

is to stand

that

Lead

Paris

green,

White

lead

excellent
to

exposure

arsenate,
also

for

lead arsenate
is

being further

an

per cent

and

basic

It is sold in

PbCO3.

2
.

in linseed oil.

ground

lead water.

Like

parts, a

for poisoning potato bugs

of lead,Pb(OH)2

the

for diseased

bonate
car-

largequantities

diluted

with

paint,especially

the weather.

White

adulterated with chalk,so-called


infrequently
lead sulphate. It is to be borne
or
whiting,barium sulphate,
in mind
that all lead compounds are poisonous. The more
soluble the compounds are, the greater is the danger of being
of them.
Painters are often poisonedby
poisonedby means
This gets on their hands, and it
the white lead they use.
these touch the nose
is very likelythat when
and lips,
the
with the mucous
lead compounds come
into contact
branes
memand are absorbed.
Thus
small quantities
taken
are
and finally
into the system at a time, but these accumulate
lead

paint is

cause

lead

colic.

is

Chromium
at

about

occurs

not

1515"

in chrome

chrome

brittle metal
hard, steel-gray,

C.

iron ore, Cr2O3

steel,which

of chromium.

It is 6.8 times
.

heavy

as

makes

oxide,Cr2O3, is chrome

green

in

as

melts
It

water.

FeO, and is used in making

is steel alloyedwith

This

which

very

and

hard

is used

paint.

It is also used

Chrome

yellow is lead chromate, PbCrO4.

making

green

small percentage
steel.
as

Chromic

pigment in

glass and

glazes.

It is also used

as

ALUMINUM,

pigment
chromium
beautiful

HEAVY

157

ALLOYS

METALS,

soluble compound of
paint. The most common
is potassium bichromate, K2Cr2O7.
It
forms
as
crystals. It semes
an
orange-colored
oxidizing

in

tanningand

agent,also in chrome

in

dyeingfabrics.
of its properties
Tungsten is also a brittlemetal. In some
itresembles chromium.
Tungsten is used in making tungsten
and also in producingthe filaments for the incandescent
steel,
tungsten electric lamps.

closelyallied

is

Molybdenum

to

Ammonium

tungsten.

molybdate, (NH4)2MoO4, is used in testing


for the
for
phosphates,

when

there forms

added

to

nitric acid solution of the latter

characteristic

called
yellow precipitate
11 MoO3
6 H2O.
(NH^PCX
phosphomolybdate,

ammonium

very

This

is soluble
precipitate

Zinc

and

of

presence

is about

6.9 times

C.

boils at 918"

in ammonia

heavy

as

water.

water, melts at 420" C.

as

in nature

It is found

ZnCO3, and the sulphideZnS.

carbonate

popularlyknown

blackjack. These

as

with the air and

in contact

ZnCO3

are

heating

on

thus

zinc carbonate

ZnS

30

zinc sulphide

latter

the

ore

is

first heated

CO2

ZnO

carbon

dioxide

SO2

zinc oxide

oxygen

are

as

changed to zinc oxide.

zinc oxide

The

ores

ZnO

mainly

sulphur dioxide

(from the air)

From

its oxide,zinc is then obtained

in earthenware

retorts, thus
ZnO

zinc oxide

In the form

C
carbon

Zn

zinc

of sheets zinc is much

etc.,on

CO

+
]

carbon

used

buildings. Galvanized

of sheet iron which


of

by heatingwith carbon

monoxide

ornaments,
forgutters,
roofs,

iron,so called,consists

has been coated with zinc

dippingthe thoroughlyclean iron into

by the

bath

process

of molten

158

AND

CHEMISTRY

zinc.

DAILY

LIFE

beautiful flaky appearance

The

due to the crystalsof zinc


the iron

so

on

of galvanizediron is

its surface.

that it will not rust.

The

coatingprotects

Zinc is also used in many

primary
In the

electrical batteries.

batteryused

common

for ringing
doorbells,
Fig.53,
there is a solution of

nium
ammo-

sal ammoniac,
chloride,

into which dip a stick of zinc


and'

cylindricalplate of

carbon.
FIG.

53.

sal ammoniac

"

showing

battery,
so

the parts.

the

battery carbon
molasses

or

productat

coal tar

as

the

In this

latter is

shapedas

to form

of the

cover

ally
usu-

also

jar. The

by grindingcoke with black strap


binder,molding,and then heatingthe

first gently,
and

with the air.

through

is made

The

to redness
finally

battery,the

current

solution to the carbon.

out

of contact

flows from

Zinc

the zinc

chloride is thus

hydrogen is evolved at the carbon.


The hydrogen isabsorbed by the carbon and finally
escapes in
formed

as

the air.

the zinc and

Dry

batteries

contain the

same

gredients.
in-

casingis made
the negativepole
of zinc,which also serves
as
is a cylinof the battery. The carbon generally
drical
Only

here the outer

rounded
piecein the middle of the celland is surdioxide which oxidizes
by manganese
the hydrogen that is liberated. Plaster of
Paris is used to absorb the liquidand hold the
in place. But the contents must be
ingredients
teries, FIG. 54." A
moist or no
current
can
flow. Blue cup batdry battery.
Fig. 55, contain a zinc polein dilute
phate
sulphuricacid, and a copper pole in saturated copper sulsolution. As the current passes from zinc throughthe

HEAVY

ALUMINUM,

159

ALLOYS

METALS,

solution to the copper, zinc dissolves from the zinc plate,


and
depositson the copper plate. Other metals could be
copper
used in

placeof zinc,but

the latter is

the whole

on

economical, producing

the most

relatively
high

electromotive force.
is the most

Brass

tant
imporis in

alloy
ofzinc which
common

use,

but the latter

is often present in

metal

other alloys. About


hundred
the

States

blue cup

battery and its parts.

two

fiftythousand

and

United

riG.55._A

each

of zinc

tons

year,

and

the

are

rest

produced

in

of the world

The compounds of
producesabout two times that amount.
zinc are analogousto those of magnesium. It is to be kept
in mind, however, that zinc compounds are poisonous. Zinc
oxide, ZnO, is used in paints,being called zinc white.

Mixed
Zinc

lard

with

vaseline,it forms

or

chloride,ZnCl2, is very soluble in

zinc

oxide

ointment.

It is used for

water.

railroad ties. The salt permeates


wood, especially
preserving
the wood and is an antiseptic
; thus it is death to the germs
White
vitriol or
of the decay of wood.
that are the cause
zinc

salt.

sulphate, ZnSO4
It is

as

H^O, is another

readilysoluble
is

Manganese
times

7
.

heavy

a
as

very

zinc

common

in water.

hard, brittle metal, which


water,

and

melts

at

1300".

is
In

eight
ture
na-

which is mangapyrolusite,
nese
and iron are
dioxide, MnO2.
Alloysof manganese
used injhe steel industry. With
forms
copper,
manganese
bronze.
These are very hard and
alloyscalled manganese
Manganese dioxide is often used in preparing
strong.
it is found

thus
chlorine,

mainly

as

160

CHEMISTRY

MnO2

4HC1

dioxide

DAILY

2H2O

hydrochloric

manganese

The salts

AND

LIFE

-f MnCl2

water

chlorine

manganous

acid

C12

chloride

The manganous
quitenumerous.
salts are
MnCl2, sulphate,
pink in color,and the chloride,
MnS04, nitrate,Mn(NO3)2, and acetate, Mn(C2H3O2)2, are
soluble in water.
Manganese acts as an acidic element in

of manganese

are

and

permanganates. Of these salts potassium


and commercial
tance.
imporpermanganate, KMnO4, is of practical
manganates

This

salt crystallizes
in needles that

purple,lustrous
often
used

serves
as

Nickel
water.

hue.

The

as
laboratory
disinfectant.

meltingpoint is

about

nickel and

8.9 times

1485"

C.

75 per cent

as

and

oxidizing
agent.

an

is malleable, ductile,and

consist of 25 per cent

of

salt is soluble in water

in the

Its

are

dark
very

It is also

heavy

Nickel
copper.

as

coins

When

alloyedwith brass,nickel forms German silver. Nickel steel


is used for making armor
plates for warships. Nickel
does not
tarnish readilyon
hence
to air, and
exposure
it is often used to plate iron, copper,
brass, etc. Nickel
as
gold or silver platplatingis carried on in the same
ing.
way
The bath for nickel platingconsists of a solution of
nickel ammonium
sulphate, (NH4)2SO4 NiSO4 6 H2O, and,
of solid nickel isplacedin the solution opposite
of course, a plate
is then passed
to the object
to be plated. The electric current
from the nickel platethrough the solution to the objectthat
is to receive the nickel coating. The salts ofnickel are green,
and when soluble theyyieldgreen solutions.
Cobalt is analogousto nickel in most
importantrespects.
Its salts when dissolved in water yielddark red solutions,
and
the crystals
that depositfrom such solutions are also red,for
in general the crystalscontain water
of crystallization.
When
this water is driven off,anhydrous,i.e.dry,compounds
.

HEAVY

ALUMINUM,

are

which

formed

cobalt
containing

161

ALLOYS

Cobalt silicateis blue,and

so

silicateis blue glass,also called smalt

the

Indeed, about

blue.

are

METALS,

glass
glass.

only

which is at

use
practical

of cobalt is
in the production
of blue
and
blue porcelain,
glass,
enamel
blue glazes on

presentmade

Cobalt, nickel,

ware.

iron

and
are

metals that

are

attractedby a magnet,

consequently
said to be magnetic.
Of all the metals,iron,
and

are

the most

ferrum,is
It

found

rarelyis

very

in the free state

except in

in nature

The
ore

portant
im-

of

iron is

having

is

the

Fe2O3.
dark

red

in

teorites.
me-

most

hematite, which
oxide

ful.
use-

color

an

position
com-

It is
and

finelyground it
cast iron
FIG. 56.
A blast furnace in which
serves
as
a
pigment in
is made.
paint,being called red
The rich deposits
ocher.
gion
of iron ore in the Lake Superiorreconsist of hematite. Magnetite, or magnetic iron ore,
Fe3O4, is black. Limonite, 2 Fe2O3 3 H2O, is a hydrous
oxide of iron. It is yellow in color. It too serves
as
a
of yellow ocher.
These oxides and
pigment under the name
siderite,ferrous carbonate,FeCO3, form the chief ores of iron.

when

162
To

CHEMISTRY

AND

obtain metallic iron

charcoal,
coke,or

FIG.

furnace.

57.

"

from these

coal and

passes

mixed

theyare

ores,

limestone and

then heated in

with
blast

the pig iron bed.

part of the furnace carbon dioxide is

formed, for here air is blown


to

LIFE

blast furnace, showing

modern

In the lower

sufficient oxygen

DAILY

form

upward through the

in and

carbon

there is

dioxide.

hot carbon

consequently

The

latter gas

and is converted into

164

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

graphite,and from 1 to 1.5


carbide, i.e. chemically combined
as

per cent

of silicon,
from

sulphurup

to 0.2 per cent

LIFE

cent

of carbon

carbon.

From

per

of

0.4 to 2 per cent


are

also

iron

as

0.5

to

phosphorus,and

generally
present. Wrought
iron is the

purest iron

the market.

It contains

usually less than


of

cent

on

per

ents.
foreigningredi-

The

carbon

tent
con-

is generally
less than
0.2

Wrought

cent.

per

iron melts
and

can

from

900"

at

FIG.

59.

"

Wrought
the

iron

as

it appears

under

borate

welded

at

to

1100".

In

Thus
or

or

sand

is

slagof iron

iron silicate is

formed, and

microscope.

C.

be

welding,borax
used.

1600"

when

the

iron,brought to welding
this slagfliesoff and the clean
heat,is pounded together,
of the

piecesof

iron

that the forces of cohesion

into

come
can

act

and

intimate
hold

contact

them

faces
surso

together.

from cast iron by puddling, a process


which consists of adding iron oxide to the pig iron and then
heatingin a current of air in a so-called reverberatoryfurnace.
Wrought

iron is made

Thus

the carbon

with

the oxygen

of the

pig iron

is removed

of the iron oxide and

because it unites
of the

air.

Other

phosphorus,are also
of the iron. Finally
oxidized and form a slag with some
the iron is almost free from foreignmatter
except a few
stitute
tenths of a per cent of carbon.
Malleable iron is a cheap subfor wrought iron. It is made by embedding the castings
in iron oxide and then heatingfor about two days,after
impuritiespresent,

like silicon and

HEAVY

ALUMINUM,

165

ALLOYS

METALS,

of the carbon is
slowly. Thus some
removed
from the castings,
making them lessbrittlethan they
It is to be borne in mind that a largecarbon content
were.
iron brittle. Sulphur and phosphorusare
makes
especially
it quitebrittle. Steel is
in iron,for theymake
objectionable
free from sulphurand phosphorus. Silicon too is
practically
The carbon in steel varies
present only in small amounts.
from about 0.2 to 1.6 per cent, mild steel containingthe

all is cooled

which

of

smaller amounts
The

off

bon.
car-

of

process

hardening and tempering


consists of
the steeland
it.

then chilling

the carbon

out
crystallize

and

wry

sudden

Very

does
chilling

carbon

heating

the
makes

hard.

not

give

chance
as

to

ite,
graph-

combined
the

steel

If the cool-

irig proceeds

Very

FlG.

60._

steel

all
slowly,practically
the

carbon

out, and

so

to

the carbon.

of the carbon from cast


in oxidizing
producesteel consists essentially
This is accomplishedby blowing air into

mass,

so-called Bessemer

called open
much

mi-

By suitable chilling,
temper, that is,the desired degreeof hardness,

as

iron with

the

soft material is obtained.

the molten

under

croscope.

crystallizes

the proper
be obtained.
may
iron

it appears

as

The

in the Bessemer

as

converter

iron oxide
hearth

removal

on

the

process.

phosphorus,the

hearth

process,

is used,
hearth

When

or

of
the

in which

by heating cast
furnace,the so-

cast

iron contains

of the furnace is made

of lime

CHEMISTRY

166

obtained

AND

by calciningdolomite.
calcium

phosphates of
which
iron

sold

are

as

there

Thus

rustingof

An

"

series

iron

phorus,
phos-

and

open

States.

hearth

furnace.

of salts,the ferrousand the ferric.


chloride, FeCl2, and ferric chloride,

hydratedferricoxide
popularlyas hammer

is heated

iron

the

oxide, FeO, and ferric oxide, Fe2O3, etc.

oxide,also known
when

61.

ferrous

are

FeCl3, ferrous
the

two

absorbs

magnesium being formed


fertilizer. Nearly thirtymillion tons of

FIG.

forms

LIFE

This

producedyearlyin the United

are

Iron

DAILY

in

the

air, is

is formed.

The

black, which
ferrous

ferric

In

black
results

oxide,

magnetic. Iron nearly always


salts
acts as a basic element, and in this capacityit forms
with practically
all of the various acids. Only a few of the
FeO

most

Fe2O3

or

Fe3O4.

important salts of

iron will be mentioned

sulphate,also known

Ferrous

is FeS04

It is

7
.

H2O.

It is formed

as

by

green

here.

vitriol or

the oxidation

copperas,
of

pyrite,

HEAVY

ALUMINUM,

FeS2, which

occurs

crystalsare

of

in nature

and is called fool's gold, for its

lustrous,golden yellow appearance.

sulphatedissolves readilyin
tannin

It is used in

water.

latter contains tannin and

The

ink.

rous
Fer-

making

ferrous sulphate. The

in extract
essential ingredient

is an

167

ALLOYS

METALS,

of nutgalls,
which

sulphatesolution. Ferrous sulphate


in dyeing fabrics,
is also used as a disinfectant,
as
a mordant
and as a reducing agent. This salt is cheap and readily
is added

to

the ferrous

obtainable from

dealers everywhere.

chloride,FeCl3 6 H2O, forms

Ferric

not

mass,

unlike

copiouslyin water,
medicine.
the

The

maple sugar

with

brown

in appearance.

also in alcohol and

so-called stypticcotton

bleedingof wounds

dark

solution of ferric chloride.

It dissolves

ether.
which

consists of absorbent
This

line
crystal-

It is used in
is used to stop
treated

cotton

material

not

only

allaysbleedingby forming a clot with the blood, but it also


acts

as

Blue
a

an

thus protectingthe wound


antiseptic,

printpaper

solution of

ferricammonium

On

exposure

This paper
to

germs.

that has been coated with

citrate

latter is also called red

cyanide. The
K3Fe(CN)6.

consists of paper

from

plus potassiumferric
pmssiate of potash,

is thus coated and dried in the dark.

the ferric citrate is in part reduced


light,

to

and the latter,


like other soluble ferrous salts,
ferrous citrate,
reacts

with

the

potassiumferric cyanide,forminga blue

cipitate,
pre-

Turnbull's blue. Where the paper


Fe3" [Fe"'(CN) 6]2,
has been

forms ; and so when after


no
protected,
precipitate
in the printing
to light
exposure
process the paper is washed
with water, the parts on which the lighthas acted appear
blue, whereas the parts that have been protectedappear
white, for the original
coating on the blue print paper is
soluble in water.
that if blue print
It is to be remembered
is washed with water in the dark,
paper, not exposedto light,
white paper is obtained.
is done in frames
The blue printing

168

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

similar to those used

for printingphotographs
from negatives.
for making blue prints. But blue
The latter will also serve
printsare commonly made by using tracingcloth or paper
that is not too thick on which the writingor drawing that is
to be reproducedin blue printform has been traced.
The
thicker the paper, the longermust
be the exposure
to the
lightto get the desired results. Ammonia, caustic soda,and
caustic potash solutions decompose TurnbuU's
blue, and so
be used to write white characters on
blue prints. The
may
latter are stable in the light,
also toward acids,but alkalies,
blue color.

justmentioned, destroythe

as

It is to

be borne

in mind

iron is

in small amounts

that

To
the
everywhere.In all soils it occurs.
sand, earth, and the brownish and yellowishclays it

present almost
brown

gives their characteristic colors.


rocks all contain
sand

in the sandstones

oxides
all

compounds

of iron.

plantsand

Iron

for the formation

of iron.

compounds
The

are

sandstones

other

with
together
the tissues of

present in

leaf contains chlorophyl,

green

the blood of

and
iron is essential,

of which

and

Indeed, the grainsof


cemented

commonly

are

animals.

Our

in which iron playsan important


haemoglobin,
role. In fact,without iron plantsand animals cannot live.
that the quantityof
be remembered
Nevertheless, it must
iron present in living
important though it
beings,exceedingly

animals contains

is,is after all small

only about

0.004

; so,

for instance,the human

per cent

body contains

of iron.

QUESTIONS
1. Where
2. How

is aluminum

found

is metallic aluminum

3. Mention

the

What
4. What

most

in

nature, and in what

made

minum.
important characteristics of metallic alu-

is it used for ?

is thermite ?

form ?

Describe

its use.

HEAVY

ALUMINUM,

is alum, and what

5. What

porcelainmade

is

6. How

169

ALLOYS

is it used for ?
?

difference between

is the

7. What

METALS,

porcelain and

ordinary

crockeryware
8. How

is ultramarine

9. How

much

made

alumina

What

be made

can

its uses

are

from

45 grams

of

potassium

alum?
10.

What

11.

For

12.

What

the noble metals ?

are

what

gold used ?

is sterling
silver ?

What

14.

Discuss

15.

What

16.

Where

the

is

What

are

is it used for ?

of silver compounds

use

does

in

photography.

Mention

three

18.

Describe

the most

19.

What

20.

Of what

21.

Mention

important alloysof

its chief

are

copper.

compound o"fcopper.

common

is Bordeaux

mixture

is mercury

important compounds

two

what

uses

use

in nature, and

occur

copper

17.

they

What

negative?

characteristics and

of mercury

and

state

used for.

are

is tin obtained

from

its ores

22.

How

23.

What

is pewter ?

24.

What

is pink salt and what

26.

What

is mosaic

26.

Mention

27.

What

28.

What

the

does

Britannia

gold ?

metal ?

Solder ?

is it used for ?

State its use.

propertiesand

uses

of lead.

lead storage battery consist of ?

is lead

arsenate?

Sugar of lead?

White

lead?

is each used for ?

29.

What

use

30.

What

is ammonium

31.

How

these

Why?

important compound of silver ?

is the most

13.

What

each.

its uses

what

is

purposes

Describe

ores

is made

does zinc
?

of

occur

potassium bichromate

molybdate used for ?


in nature?

How

is it obtained

from

CHEMISTRY

170

What

33.

Describe

iron

galvanized

is

32.

AND

ordinary

an

DAILY

LIFE

?
such

battery

is

as

used

for

ringing

doorbell.
34.

State

35.

What

the

of

uses

is

chemical

the

36.

Of

what

37.

State

38.

How

39.

What

use

is made

40.

Name

the

chief

its

from
41.

is

potassium

used

chloride.

for?

Write

the

equation

and

nickel

to

iron

iron

an

nickel.
?

spoon

and

ores

of

uses

plate
cobalt

of

permanganate

characteristics

proceed

zinc

changes.

expressing

the

and

dioxide

manganese

use

oxide

zinc

briefly how

state

iron

is obtained

ores.

chief

is the

What

difference

between

iron

cast

and

wrought

iron?

in

42.

How

is steel

43.

Why

are

44.

What

45.

Explain

46.

many

What

48.

Describe

49.

Discuss

is it

phosphorus

iron

objectionable
is it made

How

and

the

production

series

of salts

also
of

tempered

and

does

iron

blue

print.

form

is

ordinary
how
the

to

occurrence

ink
make

cement

of

iron

in

plants

are

made

steel.
?

Mention

iron?

Portland

iron

in

series.

each

47.

how

fertilizers

how
with

How
of

and

sulphur

is malleable

connection

and

made,

and

animals.

two

pounds
com-

172

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

Thus

the fats pass into the solvent,and the clear


solution containingthe fat may
be filtered from the solid
matter.

residue that remains.

From

the solution the oil

obtained

off
by distilling

which
over

be used

can

the solvent,
and

over

again.

Linseed oil is the most

of
It

fat is

or

all oils for

is obtained

use

in

from

important
paints.

flaxseed,

bushel of the latter

yielding
about 2.3 gallonsof oil. The drying
qualities
of linseed oil depend
upon the factthat it has the poiver
to absorb oxygen
from the air.
one

oxidized linseed oil, also

This

called linoxin, forms

hard, resistant film and


unlike the

tough,

is quite

oil. By
original

linseed oil with lead


FIG.

62.

"

press

oil from

used

in

seeds.

moving
re-

oxides

of manganese,

or

ing
boil-

oxide,

linoleates

of these metals,the oil dries more


and the substances used to bring about this effect are
rapidly,
called driers.
oxidizing
They are, in general,
agents whose
of the oxidation of linseed
is to increase the rapidity
purpose
oil to linoxin. Linseed oil itselfis essentially
salt
a glycerine
of linoleic acid,of the formula
(CigHaiO^ C3H5O3. There
of about 20 per cent,
also present in the oil,
to the extent
are
linseed oil has a specific
American
olein, palmitin,etc.
gravityof 0.9336 at 15" when raw, whereas the boiled has a
specific
gravityof 0.938. It boils at 130" C. The raw oil
obtained by pressingground flaxseed
in the cold is very lightcolored,whereas oil that is pressedfrom the hot seeds,and
also boiled oil,
is dark brown in color and has a greenishtinge.
.

PAINTS,

OILS,

AND

173

VARNISHES

Upwards of fifteen million bushels of flaxseed are raised


annuallyin the United States,which would represent about
million gallonsof linseed oil. Being somewhat
thirty-four
linseed oil is often shamefully adulterated with
expensive,
which may
be mentioned fish oil,petrocheaper oils,among
leum
oil. The presence
of
oils,
rape, cotton, hemp, and corn
lowers the qualityof the paint
these adulterants,of course,
Rosin is also frequently
made by usingthe admixture.
used
to

adulterate linseed oil.


When

linseed oil is thoroughly


mixed with white lead,
lent
an excel-

yellowishin
paintis obtained. This is usuallyslightly
tint,due to the color of the oil,but by adding a very small
of blue
this yellow
Prussian blue,for example
amount
and a pure white paintis obtained,which
shade is dispelled
"

"

FIG.

63.

"

barrel

of white

lead.

for
but is exceedingly
durable,especially
slowly,
The
outside work that is to be exposed to the weather.
rapidlyby adding small
paint can be made to dry more
also termed Japan
of so-called driers,sometimes
amounts
driers. As stated before, they consist of substances that
from the air and then giveit off to the oil,
at
absorb oxygen

dries rather

174

AND

CHEMISTRY

least in part, thus


of the oil.

DAILY

LIFE

hasteningthe oxidation,that is,the drying,

Turpentine is a substance of this kind,and

so

its

addition to

painthastens the process of drying. Driers are


oxides
commonly made by heating lead and manganese
(about four pounds of the mixture) with a gallonof linseed
oil to about 500" F. and stirring
tilla uniform mass
results.
This is then dissolved in turpentinebefore it is cold. By
of the solution thus obtained to paint,the latter
addingsome
dries rapidly. Too much drier must not be used,or the paint
and, thus the oil will
afterhardeningwill keep on oxidizing,
and spoiled,
the painters say,
be oxidized too much
or, as
"

burnt."

Any

durable.

There

drier reallytends

linseed oil sold

is much

oil to which

boiled at all,being raw

not

it is
oxide

to

make
as

the

paint

less

boiled oil which is

drier has been

added;

"

popularlycalled
bunghole boiled oil." Often zinc
to the
is used in paintstogetherwith white lead, even
of half and half.

extent

Paints may

be colored by

able
adding suit-

pigments. These should be finelyground and then


thoroughly mixed with the white lead and oil. Stirring
all together. The pigments
is really
not as good as grinding
in the paint
remain suspendedin the form of minute particles
and also in the film as it dries after it has been applied. As
already stated, yellow ocher and red ocher are oxides of
iron. They are cheap,permanent, and excellent pigments.
Chrome
shade, but it
yellow givesa beautiful canary-yellow
is more
costly. Vermilion is suphideof mercury, cinnabar ;
and

chrome

oxide.
to

green,

often used

it is not

as

as

is very

brilliant in hue, is chromic

produced by adding ferric chloride


of potassium ferrocyanide,
K4Fe(CN)6. It is
blue too is used, but
a pigment. Ultramarine

Prussian

solution

which

blue

is

permanent.

kalsomines,etc.

Shades

It is excellentfor interior work

of

of lampblack to
quantities

gray

white

in

by adding small
paint. // is always best
result

PAINTS,
to

applytwo

or

OILS,
thin coats

more

than to attempt to

cover

This is obvious,for

the

AND

175

VARNISHES

ofpaintivellbrushed out, rather

objectwith

thick coat will not

but

one

thick coat.

and will
dry readily,

peeloff. As adulterants of white lead,chalk,barytes,


lead sulphate,
kaolin, and a mixture of zinc sulphideand
barytes,which is termed lithophone, are frequentlyused.
None of these should be present in highgradepaint.
Varnish is made by care/idly
meltingrosin and then stirring
the mixture together.This is finally
in linseed oil and heating
tend to

FIG.

"

Gathering

turpentine.

consistencywith

pentine,
turpentine.Turthe sap collected
CioHie,is obtained by distilling
pinetrees. After the turpentinehas been distilled off,

thinned

from

64.

to

the proper

AND

CHEMISTRY

176

LIFE

DAILY

Many paintscontain

the rosin remains behind in the retort.

givesa glossto the film that forms on drying.


used to thin varnishes or
benzine or gasoline
Sometimes
are
for the
but this is bad practice,
paintsinstead of turpentine,
film that remains after the benzine has evaporatedis not
durable.
The turpentine
wholly evaporates ; it always
never
which togetherwith the varnish or
leaves a film of its own
varnish,which

for greater durability.If,instead of

makes

paintfilm

rosin,

copal,a fossilrosin found in Africa,is used in making varnish,


far better article is obtained, but it is also much
more
a

costly.

enamel

White

white lead

zinc oxide

or

Other
suitable

colored

used.
or

paints result

enamel

Either

wood

goldenshellac has

from

is

oil and

FIG.

added

to

which

pigment.
by introducing
as

solution of shellac,a
alcohol

shellac is bleached

White

Shellac varnish
made

been

both have

consists of

varnish

resin,in alcohol.
brown

or

superiorvarnish

pigments.

Shellac

be

paints are

65.

"

the

cheaper,but

or

grainalcohol

shellac,whereas

may

the

natural color of the resin.


not

as

durable,as varnish

rosin.

Trinidad

plant

asphalt lake

near

the edge.

PAINTS,
Black

for

used

varnishes

AND

OILS,

177

VARNISHES

coating iron

commonly

are

by dissolvingcoal-tar pitch or asphaltum


or

benzine

is

asphaltum,
found

pavements,

crushed

and

stone

rollingthe
heavy, hot

in

hot mixture

hard

water,

can

for

used

it with

it

on

are

excellent

making

sand, dust, and

applying this

then

66.

chalk

paints. Many

forms

is also

by mixing

An

"

finely
of

foundation

securelyinto place by

of

both
means

kalsomines

coating
be used

plasteredwalls.

asphalt

or

be tinted by

may

of

or

Asphalt, also called

two.

pitch. Large quantitiesof

It

consist

Kalsomines

lime

turpentine

crete,
con-

of

means

rollers.

steam

FIG.

slaked

natural

Trinidad.

in

street

of the

mixture

or

in

pared
pre-

as

solution

thin
have
of

York.

New

in

street

been

of

glue

it dries.

which

These

added.

pigments just as

contain

to

in the

tures
mixcase

plasterof Paris, which

Kalsomines,

only for indoor

being soluble

work, preferably on

178

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

QUESTIONS

1.

For

2.

How

3.

What

4.

How

are

6.

How

are

suitable

for

what

oils

may

is

6.

What

is

7.

What

are

8.

Why

is

classified

oils

plant
animal

paint

drier

the

several

Name

it

why

state

Name

How

dries.

plant

several.

driers

are

adulterants

better

turpentine

used?

oils.

Are

these

Why

of

and

one

prepared?

so-called

some

Name

obtained

oils

varnishes

oil

drying

in

use

be

and

paints

are

purposes

in

used

than

benzine

used

linseed

in

oil

and

paints

nishes
var-

Describe

how

10.

Mention

five

11.

How

12.

What

is

shellac

13.

What

is

black

14.

What

is

asphalt

15.

What

is

kalsomine

9.

is

varnish

to

make

good

that

pigments
made

paint

for

used

are

outside

in

woodwork.

paints.

varnish

varnish

and

For

what

for

what

is

it

purpose

used

is

it

used

CHEMISTRY

180

AND

from the skin of animals.

have been
the

cocoon

then

woven

DAILY

Furs, too, are skins of animals that

certain treatment.

to
subjected

The

of the silkworm.
into cloth.

Silk is made

silkthreads

is the hair of the

Wool

cleansed,freed from fat,spun, and then


are

LIFE

woven.

substances containing
carbon,hydrogen,
oxygen,

FIG.

68.

"

are

spun

sheep.

from

and
It is

Wool and silk


and
sulphur,

sheep.

nitrogen.They are very like horn, hoofs,and fingernails in


chemical composition,
and when burnt all of these givea peculiar
odor,namely,the odor of burnt hair. This odor is due to
formed.
the nitrogenous decompositionproducts that are
Thus it is quiteeasy to distinguish
between wool and silk
on

not

the

one

evolve
has

hand, and
the odor

cotton

on

of burnt

the other,for the latter does


hair when

alreadybeen pointedout,
(C6HioO6)OTand so contains no

as

ignited.Cotton,
is practically
pure cellulose
nitrogen. Moreover, wool

LEATHER,
and

silk

is not.

and

WOOL,

SILK,

readilysoluble

are

in caustic

Cotton, too, is freed from

then

and

spun

whereas
alkalies,

mechanical

Because

woven.

181

RUBBER

COTTON,

of

cotton

impurities,

the great chemical

between cotton and wool, theyreact somewhat


differences
ently
differtoward dyestuffs
both cotton
; and if a fabric containing
and woolen threads is dyed in the same
their threads
liquid,
will appear
of different shades.
Frequentlycloth is made
by using cotton warp and woolen woof, and the rather rough
bulky nature of the woolen threads after the process of milling

FIG.

hides the cotton

is much

is far

frequentlytaken
cloth.

much

In

"

threads.

though it
for cotton

69.

fleece of wool.

Such

cheaperthan
apart and

this process

than

new

of such made

over

When

over

used

become
finally

so

cloth that is all wool,

cheaper than

Old woolen

wool.

used

over

the threads

shortened and the cloth

durable

cloth is often quite serviceable,

woven

clothingis

again to

of wool

are

therefrom

make

new

necessarily
is much

less

in the warp
cotton
goods. By usingsome
woolens, a better wearingcloth is obtained.
again and again, however, the threads
short

as

to

be worthless except as

fertilizer.

CHEMISTRY

182

AND

DAILY

LIFE

second time, there is cotton

Moreover, when

used for

with

threads,and such material

warp

the woolen
is

known

commonly

and linen

fabricsare

FIG.

70.

"

An

now

as

shoddy.

woven

on

mixed
cotton

Silk, woolen,cotton,

dyed almost exclusively


by means

old-fashioned

loom

of colonial

of

days.

also called coal-tar colors. As a rule the


dyestuffs,
and
colors are more
readilyfixed upon silk and woolen fibers,
less readilyupon the cotton and linen fibers. Linen is made
cellulose. Mordants
of flax. Like cotton, it is essentially
cotton and linen,and
on
oftenhave to be used to fix dyestuffs
sometimes also upon wool and silk. Dyestuffs are in general

the aniline

acid
either slightly

or

basic in character.

Mordants, too, are

LEATHER,
either

SILK,

weakly acidic
to show

will serve

of

use

illustration

first dippingthe fabric into

by

when

and

An

Suppose the

mordant.

of this acid,the fibers take up


substance

183

RUBBER

COTTON,

basic substances.

or

the

is tannic acid ;

WOOL,

they

are

certain amount

in

immersed

now

dant
mor-

tion
soluof the

dye

of

the latter is fixed upon the fiber.


properties,
is to producea material that is
In making leather, the object
to putrefacinsoluble in water, and not subject
tion.
strong,pliable,
first thoroughly
To this end the hides or skins are
softened by soakingthem in water.
They are then immersed
in a bath of slaked lime (milk of lime),which loosens the hair
that it can
afterward be readilyremoved
mechanically.
so
The process of removing the hair is called depilation. It is
also sometimes
accomplishedby simply hanging the moist
skins up so that slight
putrefaction
whereupon the
ensues,
If the lime
hair becomes loose and can
readilybe removed.
has been employed, the lime in the skin
process of depilation
be removed
before proceedingfarther. This is done
must
by treatingin a bath of dilute sulphuricacid and then washing
with water.
This treatment
greatlyincreases the bulk of

basic

the skin,and thus itis in excellent condition for the next


This

in extract of hemlock

consists of immersion
contains

This extract

tannin

Leather

does

not

unites

described.

by immersing the
Often

hides

Thus

the water

leather is formed
This

process

months,

or

even

extracts

by the union

requiresa
a

much

year, may

to convert

hide in extract

put

are

layersof ground tanbark, and


all.

and

dissolve in water

about seventy days


putrefy. It requires
into leather

into

water

is then added

tannin

from

will not

the hide

of tanbark
with

vats

as

alternate
to

cover

the bark, and

of the hide with the tannin.

longer time.
be

oak bark.

with the
chemically
compound which is called

which

fibersof the hide and producesthe


leather.

or

step.

requiredto

Two

secure

or

three

the end in

184

CHEMISTRY

Moreover, the bark becomes

view.
have
to

to

placed in

be

another

hide

gains about

the process

of tanning.

also used.

morocco

vat

Nevertheless,in this

time.

obtained.

are

DAILY

AND

71.

with
an

per

barks

from

"

scene

goatskinsor

in

tannery.

and

bark

new

the hides
from

time

excellent
cent

in

productis
weightduring

besides oak

So, for example,sumach

leather

FIG.

Other

exhausted

way
35

LIFE

or

hemlock

is employed in
imitation

Scrubbing

morocco

making
from

the hides.

proceeds rapidly;
sheepskins. The tanning in this case
The hair of the goatskins
usuallyit lasts only a day or two.
of lime
is removed
by the lime process, but the excess
This keeps
is then got rid of by usinghen or pigeon manure.
secured by
soft leathers are
the leather soft. In other cases
bran preparedby treatof sour
removing the lime by means

LEATHER,

ing

bran

with

and

water

lime

removing the

WOOL,

SILK,

sour
"

called

are

dough. These methods of


bating," for by employing

infusions of the materials named

the lime is removed

"

The
largeswellingof the hide is abated."
contains organic
acids which form soluble salts with
these then
aniline

can

be washed
Russia

dyes.

as

is used

sheepskins.These
with

sour

bran

are

to

willow

with
for

remove

with

the

bate
the

liquor

lime,and

similar manner,

tamarack

or

gloves,is

unhaired

and

leather is dyed with

is producedin

leather

only the tanning is done


leather, such

Morocco

out.

185

RUBBER

COTTON,

made

of

bark.

Kid

goatskinsor

lime,and then treated


of

excess

the

lime.

The

actual
of

tanningconsists of treatingthe skins with a mixture


This
common
salt,alum, flour,and egg yolk in water.

is the so-called tawing process.

fibers of the skin.

It is

The

alum

unites

antisepticand

with the

moreover

so

guards

againstputrefaction.The result obtained is a white, very


leather.
soft,pliable
the process
of tanning is carried so far that the
When
on
being boiled in water,
product no longeryieldsgelatine
have sole leather.
The ordinarysoft leathers yieldsome
we
gelatineon boilingin water, but kid leather and chamois
skin

or

buckskin

do not.

The

latter are

made

from

skins of

as
morocco
sheep in much the same
way
treated with animal oilsto make
leather,onlythey are finally
them
of oil is removed
soft and pliable.The excess
very
of alkalies. Splitleather is made by splitting
thick
by means
of machinery. Three or
hides,such as cowhide, by means
four or more
thin layersare thus made from one skin. These
then tanned separately
and the grainis pressedupon them
are
This split
leather is cheap,but not as durable
by machines.
as that from natural thin skins.
Much
leather is tanned in America by the chrome-tanning

deer, goats, or

process.

The

hides

are

unhaired

and

cleaned in the usual

186

They

manner.

then

are

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

in

soaked

LIFE

dilute solution of

drochl
hy-

potassiumbichromate, after which they


are
placedin a vat containinga reducingsolution like sodium
for example. Thus
hydratedchromic oxide is presulphite,
cipitated
which unites with the fibers
of the hide,much the same
does in making leather for kid gloves. The
that alumina
way
of a few hours.
chrome
tanning is completed in the course
The leather is finallywashed, dyed, and oiled as leather
acid and

with

made

tannin.
dark

edges are

cut

green

in color,due

to

Its

the presence

of

oxide.

chromic

Skins that

to

are

They

process.

be used for furs

tawed
and water, and finally

salt

and

getshard when

with

alum-tanned,

All

alum.

tanned

are

by

the alum

cleansed,dried,oiled,treated with

are

bran

wet

is chrome-tanned.

calf leather

Box

it dries,for water

solution of

sour

common

leather when

thoroughly

dissolves out

the alum,

and the leather then dries hard like rawhide.


is

Rubber

of

produced

The

best rubber

The

milky juiceis obtained

in the

About

six

grow

in

tropicalclimes.

from

the trees

of latex

are

rubber.

by making

the exudingfluid in
collecting

ounces

of three

course

milky juiceor so-called latex

Brazil,and is called Para

from

comes

in the bark and

vessels.

the

trees, which

india-rubber

the

from

suitable

collected from

days, and this yieldsabout

sions
inci-

1.8

tree

ounces

yieldsabout ten pounds of rubber per year.


The
of
world produces about seventy-fivethousand
tons
rubber annually,of which supplyabout one-half comes
from
of Africa and Asia
Central and South America, the tropics
the other half in approximately
equal shares. The
furnishing
island of Ceylon alone produces about 3000 tons per year.
of rubber.

tree

While the bulk of the rubber


grow

by

is stillobtained from trees that

wild in tropicalforests,a fair share is

cultivated trees of rubber

plantations.

alreadysupplied

188

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

AND

Pure Para rubber consists of about

ash,0.85

0.14 per cent

per cent

LIFE

caoutchouc,

94.6 per cent

water, 2.66 per cent

and
resin,

proteinsubstances. It is very elastic and not


readilyattacked by ordinarychemical agents. It does very
graduallyundergo oxidation on exposure to the air, and the
thus taken up unites with the caoutchouc to form a
oxygen
hard, brittlecompound. Thus it is that all rubber gradually
rubber
The
whether in use
not.
or
deteriorates,
goods in
all made
of so-called vulcanized
the market
are
practically
1.75 per cent

The

process

by Goodyear

in 1843.

rubber.

of

vulcanizing rubber

was

of
It consists essentially

discovered

addingabout
molding the

sulphurto the caoutchouc, then


desired article from this mixture, and heatingout of contact
A portionof the sulphur
with the air to 140" to 150" C.
ever,
unites chemicallywith the caoutchouc ; the remainder, howis nevertheless requiredto producethe desired product.
10 per

Such

cent

of

vulcanized rubber is

all sticky
as
in solvents

more

less porous,
elastic,

and not at

compared with caoutchouc. It is also lesssoluble


like carbon bisulphide,
benzine,and
turpentine,

naphtha, which

are

the

common

Furthermore, vulcanized rubber

solvents

does not

for

caoutchouc.

lose its elasticity

rubber
is vulcanized
subjectedto cold. Sometimes
it with chloride of sulphur,
without
heating,by simplytreating
ever,
which is a liquidat room
temperatures. This is,howWhite
rubber
for many
not as satisfactory
purposes.
cally
chalk or kaolin mechaniarticles are made
by incorporating
is similarly
colored by
Red
rubber
with the rubber.
black
of lamprubber
by means
black,
using antimony sulphide,
blue rubber
by using ultramarine blue, and so on.
made
by spreading
Rubber
coats, boots, shoes, etc., are
layerof caoutchouc properly
upon the cloth fabrics a plastic
mixed with sulphur. The vulcanizingis then accomplished
by heatingto 140" to 150" C. Treatingwith a solution of
when

LEATHER,
chloride

yieldas good
is mixed

caoutchouc

sulphur and

vulcanite

to

rubber.

thirty to fiftyper
that

temperatures

Hard

rubber

is used

combs, buttons, knife handles, bowls, trays, and

cent

from

are

tliose employed

thirty to forty degrees higher than


soft vulcanized

but

vogue,

ebonite, is obtained

or

with about

heated

then

189

RUBBER

COTTON,

results.

rubber, also called

Hard

of

WOOL,

sulphurin carbon disulphideis also in

of

it does not

when

SILK,

in making

in

making

many

other

useful articles.
Rubber
used

as

is

non-conductor

and
of electricity

insulatingmaterial for electrical wires.

an

too, is used

as

insulator

an

percha tree, is chemicallyvery


elastic.

as

for coveringwires

and

for the manufacture


The

demand

and
to

make

costly that

Rubber

consist

enormously
tires

however,

on

and

at

up

all the

the

on

article.

somewhat

with

ful,
success-

These

by heating certain
where

elastic

with

some

partial

is obtained,

mass

rubber

real rubber, and

mixed

still
scale.

market.

sulphur. Such

equal of

generalonly employed when

been

commercial

oil,to higher temperatures,

is worked

not

of recent

produced is nevertheless

of products obtained
essentially

are

rubber

automobiles

on

these have

yet made

are,

decomposition ensues

in

thus

it is not

substitutes

which

used

articles.

While
artificially.

oils,notably corn

like hard

serves

ever,
is,how-

Attempts have consequentlybeen made

the synthetic rubber


so

of the

is much

of rubber

use

the gum

good insulator,it
It also

ber,
rub-

machinery and
It

has increased

of the

rubber

from

comes

Hard

similar to rubber.

of various

vehicles.

other

cables.

for rubber

account

on

years

Being

electrical

on

appliances. Gutta-percha, which

not

hence is much

stitutes
sub-

they

are

of the genuine

190

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

QUESTIONS

1.

making

What

different

the

are

wearing
How

3.

What

is

shoddy

4.

What

is

linen?

5.

How

6.

What

7.

Describe

8.

What

is

sole

9.

What

is

split

is

the

10.

How

is

leather

11.

How

is

"

12.

How

13.

Describe

14.

How

15.

What

are

the

is

the

16.

How

17.

What

rubber

making

white

for

kid

use.

leather

by

of

use

oak

tanbark

that

of

process

made?
be

to

are

gutta-percha,

obtained

and

for

furs

treated

tanning.
the

from

vulcanizing

rubber

used

chrome

prepared

made

gloves

leather

its

leather

material

is

cotton

leather

by

hard

and

Describe
of

process

is meant

is

for

buckskin"
skins

material

wool

dyed

mordant

the

fabrics

are

obtained

between

distinguish

2.

improve

is

apparel

which

from

sources

rubber

rubber

what

are

How

is

What
its

trees

does

it

uses

used
?

this

for

process

CHAPTER
THE

LARGE

areas

XIV
SOIL

of the earth's surface

are

covered with

loose

layerof sand and claymixed with the remains of plantsthat


have decayed. This layeris called soil. Its depth varies
greatly,
beingusuallyonly from six to twelve inches,though
soilsmay

times be several feet deep,as the

at

that
experience

in diggingwells
gatheredincidentally
Livingorganismsof various kinds and variable

has

water

been

and air

are

also presentin soils.

The

has

shown.

amounts

of

soil,which is the

layer,rests upon the subsoil,which differs from the


and is
layer in that it contains less organicmatter
upper
in color. The subsoil gradually
generally
lighter
grades off
into the solid rock below,as isillustratedby Fig.73.
surface

FIG.

73.

"

Soil formation

showing
191

the transition of rock

to soil.

192

CHEMISTRY

clay, which

and

Sand
are
soils,

AND

mineral matter

form

DAILY

LIFE

by far the largerportionof

of silica,
of particles
cates,
siliconsisting

and

also carbonates,that have been broken


frequently
off from largemasses
of solid rock. This breakingdown or
of solid rock into small fragments is very important
disintegration
It proceeds toin the process of soil formation.
day
justas it has been goingon in the past. The chiefagencies
which are active in the process of making soil are water,
wind, animals,and plants. The effect of each of these will
be considered.

now

The work

and

the air in

rocks is comdisintegrating
It proceeds constantly.
monly termed weathering of rock.
The action of water
and air is in part purely physical,
that
is,mechanical,and again it is partlychemical in its nature.
All rocks are more
and consequently
allow water
or less porous
As this freezes,it expands and bursts
to soak into them.
the rocks,which then gradually
crumble.
Again, the water

of water

dissolves and
rocks
and

are

carries away

This

composed.

it further weakens

reduces the size of the


The

waters

the

As these

real sand.

In

effect is chemical
structure

of the

of which

in character,
rock

and

also

particles.

of shallow

their beds.

of the material

some

roll the

streams

gravelstones

along

along,they strike
knocked
off ; they are
againstone another ; their corners
are
ground smooth by the continual rubbing;and at the same
time they are also reduced in size by the solvent action of the
water.
Thus the particles
become
smaller and smaller till
then are
they are nothing but sand. These finer particles
the less soluble portionsof the disintegrated
rocks,
generally
and as they are carried forward by the stream
they finally
arrive in stillwater, where they sink to the bottom.
When
the stream
as
eventuallychanges its course, they appear
a

pebblesare

similar way

the

carried

waves

on

the shores of

THE

lakes

and

continuallyreducing rocks

are

seas

193

SOIL

to

fine

particles.
In the form ofice,
mechanical agent
water is a very important
in the disintegration
ice as
of rocks. So the cakes of floating
monly
they are carried down by rapid streams in springare comcovered with mud, rocks,and not infrequently
tions
porof trees and other detritus that has been torn
the banks.

The

ice

on

from

away

the shores of lakes incloses bowlders

and shoves them upon the beach duringthe spring.Geologists


have gathered evidence which shows that centuries ago the
North

American

River,was
74.

continent, about

covered with ice to


immense

These

as

great depth ;

glaciers moved
to

that of the

Mountains.

This

see

map,

was

that
glaciers

Fig.

like great

movement

present time in Switzerland, Greenland, and

the Ohio

as

southward

rivers,only extremely slowly. Their


similar
entirely

far south

less
doubt-

exist at the

in the

ice carried
largefield of glacial

Rocky
everything

before it. It gathered up great rocks, which froze into the


ice,and thus this heavy rock-shod surface slowlymoved over
the

underlyingrocks, crushingand grindingthem to fine


the sand and clayof the regionsthat
powder,which is now
have thus been visited by the glaciers.The latter have
thus been invaluable in preparingthe land for agricultural
All over
have passed
the North where the glaciers
purposes.
that escapedcrushingand were
be found huge bowlders
may
left behind

when

material and
are

round

so

and

action to which

the ice melted.


are

commonly

smooth

because

These

called

"

of the

are

of very

hard heads."

hard

They

grindingand rolling

subjected. It is clear,then, that


the soils of these glaciated
been transported
regions have really
to their presentlocalities
by the glaciers.In the South, on the
other hand, where the glaciers
have not been, the soils have not
been transported.Here they have been formed
from
the
they were

194

CHEMISTRY

underlyingrock
that have

been

rock upon

which

FIG. 74.

"

Map

upon

formed

AND

which

they

rest

LIFE

to-day.

by the weatheringof

they rest

of North

DAILY

are

the

Such

particular

called sedentary soils,whereas

America, showing the southern

limit of the glaciers.

soilsthat have been carried from other localitiesto the


where

they

are

the soils made

found

are

soils

termed

transported soils.

by glaciers
belong to the latter class.

place
Thus
But

soils are also found in regions


that have not been
transported
for wind and water
active everywhere in
are
glaciated,
soil material. Thus the rich soil in the lower
transporting

196

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

ferric compounds by the oxygen

of the

LIFE

air,and thus farther

results. This action is especially


facilitated
disintegration
by water, which always contains oxygen in solution. Carbon
dioxide,too,is alwayspresentin water that has been in contact

FIG. 75.

"

Sand

dunes

the shore of Lake

on

with the air,and this dissolves many

Michigan.

those that
rocks,especially

consist of the carbonates of calcium, magnesium,iron,etc.

importantagents in soil formation. So"


for example,rabbits,moles, prairie
dogs,and other burrowing
subsoil and
out
animals dig into the earth and throw
raw
piecesof rock, all of which help to make new soil through
the further action of alternate freezingand thawing. Even
Animals

are

also

the action of those


of material consequence

creatures, the

humble

in the work

of

earthworms,

is

formingsoils. They

bring a portionof the subsoil to the surface,draw dead


leaves and other vegetablematerial into their burrows, and
positin
of the soil through their bodies, depass largequantities
it

on

the surface at

rate

estimated

as

ten

tons

per

THE

acre

annually.

Ants

work

also active soilformers,and in

are

in Africa, they

climates,as

warm

197

SOIL

perform much

Growing plantssend their roots into


looseningthem up and renderingthem
allows air and

water

to

enter

rocks and

plant,they leave
water
gainsaccess to

throughwhich
This water always contains carbon dioxide
as
alreadystated,it dissolves portionsof
channels

The

them

roots

available

food

hairs of

and root

dioxide,which

as

is absorbed

condition

readily. Roots

more

after the death of the

soils,thus
a

porous,

penetrate the soil to great depth,and

sometimes

makes

same

the earthworm.

as

that

the

some

as

cay
they de-

in the soil little


the lower strata.

from

the air ; and

the soil and

for the rootlets of

new

thus

plants.

livingplantsalso giveoff carbon


cises
by the soil water and then exer-

the soil. Indeed, this carsimilar solvent action upon


bonated
the chief
water in the soil is probably
agent that dissolves
thus enablingplants to obtain the
materials,

rocks and

soil

necessary

elements

for their

growth.

It must

that all of these effects of plants in rock


and

soil formation

are

in
slight

any

one

greatdeal when carried

year;

not

be forgotten

disintegration
theless
theynever-

throughhundreds
of years. A small crack in a rock enables the tiny plantsto
work their way into it. As they grow, they exert great pressure,
the rock asunder.
which is frequently
sufficientto split
It is not uncommon
bowlders weighing several tons
to see
splitin two and a tree growingup between the pieces.
Peat bogs are formed in swampy
placesor shallow ponds
where plantsgrow year after year, dying at the end of the
and falling
As this
to the ground or into the water.
season,
is repeatedfor many
results a
years, there finally
process
largeaccumulation of vegetablematerial. This rots more
to be a type of soil. If the rotting
takes
or less and so comes
placeunder water, it proceedsvery slowlyand resultsin the
amount

to

on

198

CHEMISTRY

of peat, which

formation

of the

some

original
shapesof

there

In the low and

countless tons

LIFE

is fairlysolid and

IX, this material is in

of coal.

DAILY

AND

generallyshows

the

plants. As stated in Chapter


the first
stage toward the formation

undrained

marshes

of this country

of peat

waitingto be used for fuel


Peat has been an important
or other purposes.
fuelin Europe
for hundreds of years. If the decayingvegetablematter is
water-soaked and
exposed to the air and becomes alternately
This
dry, it decomposes rather rapidlyand forms muck.
are

is soft and

been washed

When

does not

show

It is usuallymixed

formerlywas.
have

and

spongy

small

of what

trace

any

it

with sand and clay which

it.

over

quantityof

soil is viewed

with

the naked

which
it appears
made
look like
up of small particles
and decayed
littlegrains. They are tinypiecesof disintegrated
eye,

rock which
seen

to

those that

which
particles,

piecesof

range

are

are

in size from
as

fine as dust.

the mineral

roots, stems, leaves,etc.,which

that
particles

are

organicmatter
largeenough to

sand, while the very


A

clay. The

fine dustlike

be readily

Besides these rock

matter, there

In peat soil the

and

those that may

are

also present

the

ter.
organicmatpredominates.The rock
be readilyseen
called
are
termed silt
are
particles
are

latter represents the very

finest material.

magnifyingglassis requiredto see the finest sand particles


and to distinguish
the siltfrom the clay. There are several
important classes of soils that are commonly recognized.
So when the sand particles
abundant, the soilis called a
are
sandy soil. If the sand grainsare not abundant, and the
soilis quitefloury
there
when crushed,itis a clay soil. When
is a considerable proportionof sand present but also some
The popularexpressions
clay,the soil iscalled a loam.
sandy,
lightsandy,loam, heavy clay loam, and clay,all express the
of clay,silt,
relative proportions
and sand in the soil. Loams

THE

199

SOIL

make good soils. They


generally
The vegetablematter
worked.

in sands,loams, and

be

seed

usuallyfertileand easily

are

claysis
soils are
called humus, and muck
sometimes
spoken of as
is vegetable
soils.
Real humus
matter
humus
so
completely
decayedthat one cannot tellwhat it was originally.
and tiny
Though thus made up of minute rock particles
tains
piecesof decayed roots and stems, the soil nevertheless conthe substances necessary to make plantsgrow and develop
to maturity. When
moisture
a seed is placedin soil of proper
and germinates. Firming the soil
content, it absorbs water
about the seed bringsit into closer contact
with the moisture
and hastens the absorptionof water.
But besides moisture,
seeds require
germinating
oxygen, and so while the soil must
in close contact

moisture, it
around
to

must

the seed

with
be

not
to

as

the

and

nor
water-logged

for

some

time at the expense

it contains ; but

chemical

so

sufficient

closely
packed

exclude air,otherwise the seed will fail

germinateand will actuallyrot.


has taken place a
After germination

grow

contain

sooner

or

elements

are

seed will continue to

of the

reserve

food which

growth will cease unless


available for absorptionby

later

tain
cer-

the

plant. These so-called essential elements without which the


plant cannot grow are nitrogen,
phosphorus,sulphur,potassium,
calcium,magnesium, iron, and hydrogenand oxygen
in the form of water.
ments
Plants indeed also contain other elelike sodium, chlorine,and

considered

as

them.

It should

be

chemical

elements mentioned

are

plantsin

the form

of salts that

soils contain

getsits carbon

are

for plantshave been


non-essential,

without

Humus

but these
silicon,

are

erally
gengrown

clearlyunderstood that the


absorbed by the rootlets of the
in solution in the soil water.

great deal of carbon, but the plant

from the carbon dioxide ofthe air through


its leaves (see Chapter IX), and not from the soil throughits
content

200

roots.
structure

salts.

CHEMISTRY

Some

AND

of the elements

of the

So while

hydrogen, oxygen,

fats,and

LIFE

used to build up the organic


others remain
in the plant as

are

plant,while
hydrogen and
and

DAILY

carbon

unite to form

oxygen

combine

to

form

water,

lulose,
starch,cel-

oils (see

Chapter IX). Nitrogen,


and phosphorustogetherwith carbon, hydrogen, and
sulphur,
form the very complex substances called proteins(see
oxygen
Chapter IX), which are absolutelynecessary for the growth
of the plant.
sugar,

Each

crop

taken from

the essential elements


of such

elements

the soil removes

which

certain amount

the soil contains.

thus removed

have

been

The

of

amounts

tained
carefullyascer-

togetherwith the
by chemical analyses. These results,
that
chemical analysesof the soils themselves,have shown
soils contain enough of the essential elements to furnish
most
Nevertheless,as will be further
crops for hundreds of years.
explainedbelow, the available supply of these elements is so
limited that additional amounts

must

be added

either

as

mercial
com-

if crop productionis
or
as
farm manures,
fertilizers
to continue at a profit.Chemical
analyseshave also shown
that an acre
surface foot of soil may
contain enough potassium
of phosphorussufficient
to last 1500 years, and supplies
for 200 to 500 years, of nitrogenfor 100 to 300 years, and
The amounts
of plant food
sulphur for 200 to 300 years.
of our
from an
removed
common
acre
by some
crops are
given in Table 8.
above
Besides the essential elements
mentioned, plants
of water throughouttheir periodof
requirelargequantities
growth. This water is necessary to dissolve the soluble salts
them
in the soil and to convey
through the walls of the
is also needed to keep the
rootlets into the plant. Water
cell walls of the

leaf moist

so

that

it may

absorb

carbon

the temperature of the plant; for plants


dioxide,and regulate

THE

JEAN
The

first chemist

BAPTISTS

who

analyzed

201

SOIL

BOUSSINGAULT,
crops

and

manure

1802-1887.
and

relations of chemistry to farming.

studied

closely the

202

CHEMISTRY

AND

TABLE
AMOUNT

OF

PLANT

CROPS,

FOOD

REMOVED

EXPRESSED

DAILY

8
FROM

IN

LIFE

POUNDS

THE
PER

LAND

BY

VARIOUS

ACRE

exhalation
of
regulatetheir temperatureby transpiration
(i.e.
from their leaves)just as animals
water
keep their
vapor,
from their
perspiration
skins. The amount
thus requiredby a plant is
of water
very great. So, for example, it takes from 250 to 300 pounds
ofwater to producea pound ofdry matter in the corn plant,and
in the clover plantfrom 500 to 600 pounds of water are necessary
obtain a pound ofdry material.
to finally
The fertility
of factors.
of the soil depends upon
a number

temperatures

normal

by

means

of

204

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

lacking. Thus from the decompositionof mineral


the remains
of roots
from
and other vegetable
particles,
which

are

soil,
as well

the

left on

matter

from

as

used, there graduallyaccumulates


material that

serves

decay, and

aided

so,

leaves its roots

by additional

furnishes the material necessary


But

there

other

supply of

and

stems

and

manure

for the next

it

as

to

fertilizer,

crop, and

so

on.

always losses ofplantfood by erosion,the leaching

are

and

of manure,

considerable

food for the season's crop, which

as

the land in turn

is taken from

and fertilizers

manures

the sale

of grain,sheep,cattle,
hogs,milk, and

the farm.

productsfrom

These

constantlycause

duction
re-

succeedingyear'scrop. On the
other hand, there may
be very substantial gains made,
and carbon, by
of desirable compounds of nitrogen
especially
raisingcrops that absorb nitrogenfrom the atmosphere,a
which is accomplished by the action of bacteria
process
Clover, alfalfa,beans, peas, as well
growing on the roots.
of material for any

as

other members

character.
extent

It

of the

is,of

have been

made

; nor

humus

that

bind

readilyblown about by
three times its

gainsthat

are

and essential elements presentin


the soil

to be

reaction,are

of the
own

soil,so

weight of

the

that they

less

are

It also increases the moisturethat it


water.

can

hold from

two

to

Again,in clay soils it


of the soil are
particles

the

held

it easier to work

this makes

tion.
produc-

organic
soil grains. It

lessens the tenacitywith which

together,and

most

the decompositionof

coatingaround

winds.

the

in crop

considered

the soil grainstogetherso

retaining
power

estimate the

soil has sustained,especially


by

produced by

in the soil forms

helpsto

to

by growinglegume crops.

prominent factors
matter

easy

of this

crops

is it simpleto ascertain the

Usually,the organicmatter
with
available form, together
The

always

not

course,

of the losses which

erosion and waste

legume family,are

these

soils

THE

205

SOIL

storehouse of nitrogen
is, moreover,
a
properly. Humus
compounds, and consequentlyhumus soils are always rich
in nitrogen.By the slow action of bacteria,complex nitrogenous
broken down
are
successively
compounds in humus
and nitrates.
into the simple compounds, ammonia, nitrites,
and highest
The nitrates are the final
oxidation product. They
of nitrogenfor the growing plants,
whose
serve
as
a source
roots

the nitrates dissolved in the soil waters.

absorb

process

by

is transformed

ammonia

which

is called nitrification. The


waters

for most

at any

of

nitrates in soils

nitrates in the soil

small,yet it is very important,

time is very

one

their supply of

plantstake

in this form.

amount

to

The

nitrogenfrom

the soil

utilize the nitrogenthus obtained

Plants

in

and complexconstituents,
the
building
up those wry important
proteins.
The preparation
of the available supply of nitrogenfor
esting
plantsby the bacteria of the soil forms one of the most interchaptersin the story of the feedingof crops. When
plantsdie,their roots, stalks,and leaves are returned to the
soil,where their decompositionis brought about by molds,
bacteria,and other low forms of life. Much plantmaterial
is fed to animals, but even
then a largeresidue of unoxidized
is returned to the soil as manure.
This vegetable
matter
matter
animal refuse is attacked by putrefactive
bacteria,
or
which
reduce the proteinsto simpler compounds. Still
other bacteria convert
these into ammonia, which
really

represents the first step in the process


nitrate

making.

Ammonia

nitrite bacteria,and

is

changed

nitrites and

to nitrous and

on

nitrites by the

The

bacteria do not

really

nitrates,but they oxidize ammonia

nitric acid.

stop further action

to

finallythe nitrate bacteria effect the

oxidation of nitrites to nitrates.

produce the

i.e.
nitrification,

of

As

these acids accumulate, they

part of the bacteria

hence the

neces-

206

CHEMISTRY

AND

sityof having limestone


to

neutralize the acids

nitrate is

in
left

or
as

LIFE

air-slaked lime present in the soil

they form.

In

this way

calcium

the soil as the finalproduct


In
ofnitrification.

of nitrates,the

the form

DAILY

into the plant,where

nitrogenthen

passes

the soil

from

it is utilized in

buildingup proteins.
These are then returned to the soil direct,or they are first
fed to animals, in which case the nitrogen
is excreted in simpler
compounds (urea,uric,and hippuricacids)in the urine
and more
complex ones in the feces. When returned to the
soil,all of these compounds are
and
firstconverted to ammonia
and thus
finally
again to nitrates,
the nitrogen cycle completes
itself
and over again as long as the
over
the necessary energy
furnishes
for plantgrowth.
While plantsin generaldo not
get their nitrogen supply direct
from the air,it has alreadybeen
sun

that

mentioned
to

store

air in

up

legumes are
nitrogen from

little nodules

the

on

In

of

these

FIG.

76."

Nodules
of

on

the

roots

from

bean.

the

certain

of

are

observation.

nodules
the

red

of

cowpeas

common

take

which

their

on

roots

clover,beans, and
matter

the

So, for example, the

bacteria.
nodules

aid

the

roots, with

able

are

bacteria

nitrogen direct

air, and

then

give it

plantin the form of


nitrogenouscompounds. This process of converting the
compounds is commonly
nitrogenof the air into nitrogenous
a

soy

over

to

the

spoken

of

the fixation

as

gives the bacteria


plant dies,there

of

food

such

207

SOIL

THE

nitrogen. The
as

nodules

is left in these

supplyof nitrogen,which

live on.

growingof a good crop of cowpeas

turn

When

the roots

on

the

siderable
con-

cation
subsequentnitrifi-

upon

available for the next

becomes
the

to

sugar

plant in

Thus

crop

it is that

soy beans will

usually
leave enough available nitrogenin the soil for a good crop of
cotton or corn.
raisinga crop of a legumein a
Consequently
the
rotation is one ofthe most important
methods ofmaintaining
available nitrogen
supplyof the soil.
Soils are spoken of as acid,alkaline,
to
or neutral according
their reaction toward

for the successful


desirable

to

litmus pamper.

old, thoroughly air-slaked

marl.

limestone
pulverized

unsuitable

are

per

It is better

than

properties.A

acre

in five years

once

to

fresh
ton

of

use

lime,
quickfinely

is commonly

much.

too

of

amount

being from
from

soils

lime, rather

for the latter has caustic

The

Acid

ally
growth of legumes,and it is therefore usuof
such acidityby an application
correct

fresh lime, ground limestone,or

not

or

0.02

phosphorus in

to 0.1 per

the soil,in which

soilsis generally
small,

most

All crops

cent.

this element

take

is present as

phosphorus
phosphates.

in their seeds. The


phosphorus,especially
tained
supply of phosphatesin the soil can consequentlybe mainthe sale of seed,or crops, or by adding
by lessening
suitable phosphorus containing
fertilizers. If a farmer buys
of feeds,especially
bran, for his stock and sells
plentifully
only milk and animals, he may not need to purchasephosphorus

Plants store

up

in the form
soils offarms

feeds are
Raw

rock

fertilizer. Indeed, the

of commercial

ofdairystates,where

purchased,may

milk and

actuallyshow

phosphate, also called

"

cream

are

sold and

gain of phosphorus.

cial
floats,"is a cheap commer-

fertilizerfor soils deficient in

phosphorus. When

used

208
with

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

organicmaterial, although rather

LIFE

slow

in

becoming
of the fact that its phosphatesdo not
available on account
dissolve very
readily,it nevertheless gives good results.
Superphosphate, or acid phosphate (which,as has been stated
in Chapter VII, is made by treating
bones or phosphaterock
with sulphuricacid),dissolves far more
readilyand hence is
immediatelyavailable to plants. It should be used when a
supplyof organicmatter is not at hand.
There is usuallya sufficient
amount
of available potassium
in soils. This is especially
true of claysoils,
which are rich
in feldspars.And
when
these soils are furnished with
so
plentyof organicmatter that givesoff carbon dioxide as it
the solvent action of the soil
decomposes,thereby increasing
water
the feldspathic
on
constituents,an ample supply of
potassium is furnished to the rootlets of the growing crop.
Some soils,
like sands and marshes, are deficient
in potassium.
To these it should be added at the rate of fiftyto one
hundred pounds of potassiumchloride or potassiumsulphate
per

acre.

Although the quantity of sulphur in soils is usuallylow,


being about as low as that of phosphorus,it is replenished
to a considerable extent
during the year by rains. These
in solution from the atmosphere.
carry sulphurdioxide down
The sulphurdioxide has come
into the air mainly from the
burning of coal. For some
sulphur,
crops which need much
like onions,cabbage,
and rutabagas,
additional sulphur
turnips,
in the form of gypsum,
is advantageous.
calcium sulphate,
From
100 to 200 pounds per acre
is a good application.
It has alreadybeen stated that the soil must
be in proper
mechanical
condition so that it will readilyhold the proper
of water, permit air to circulate in it,and allow the
amount
roots to penetrate it. Proper tilth of the soil,that is to say,
mechanical working of the soil with the plow,spade,
proper

THE

209

SOIL

etc.,is of great importance.While it is


hoe, harrow, roller,
of the soil be sufficiently
desirable that the particles
fine,it
that they may
also be remembered
be so fine and closely
must

compacted togetherthat
This

entrance.

soil.

lumpy

decreased.

dry
a

out

From

common

or

too

nor

root

hairs

condition is justas unfavorable

In

drains away,

neither air

either

the water

case

soilsthat

are

too loose

can

as

gain
coarse,

storage capacityis
and porous,

and the air circulates so freelyin them

moisture

that they

rapidly. It has alreadybeen stated that this is


defect of sandy soils. By the force of capillarity,

water
capillaryattraction,

rises in tubes of small

bore

or

of
of solid substances.
soils,
Fine-grained
particles
claysoilsare an excellent example,have small pores or
and hence water will rise from
between their particles,

between
which
spaces

below and be
of

coarser

nearer

grain.

to

the surface in these soilsthan in those

It is indeed

to aid the upward capilpossible


lary
in a dry season, when the seeds

ofwater so that
low.
have been planted,moisture will be drawn to them from bethe ground,for rolling
This is accomplishedby rolling
forces the particles
of soil closer togetherand thus a
results.
of water
by capillarity
stronger upward movement
is lostby
Much
water that has thus been drawn
up by capillarity
at the surface
evaporation
ofthe soil. This loss can be greatly
reduced by covering the surface with a protecting
layer or
soilmulch.
So if the surface of the soil to the depth of two
three inches is thoroughlystirred on a dry, windy day,
or
the dry layerthat is thus formed becomes an effectivebarrier
against large losses of moisture from below. In regions
is of the very greatest
where rainfall is lightthis practice
importance. It is upon this principlethat so-called dry
movement

fanning is based.
In

speakingof soil waters, the terms


water
are
capillary
water, and hydroscopic

water,
gravitational
often used.

Their

210

neck of

soil,and

funnel be
then

water

the soil will be in

is-removed,

and the
stoppered,
poured on till the

portionof

be filled with

funnel

full,

funnel is brim

saturated condition.

considerable

LIFE

the followingexperiment. If the

will be clear from

meaning

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

If
the

the stopper

now

water

off ; this is called gravitational


water, for it

will drain
off because

runs

gravitation.If the lower end


of the funnel is now
stopperedagain and the whole allowed
surface exposed,a largepart of the
to stand, with the upper
moisture
retained by the soil will rise up to replacethat
which is lost at the surface by gradualevaporation. This
of the water in the soil is due to capillarity,
upward movement
of the force of

of the action

and

held

the water

and

If the funnel

water.

the air for several days

to

become

weighed out

is thus allowed
or

this

expelledis

thus

to remain

that it is held

called

more

lary
capil-

exposed

apparentlydry

and then heated at the temperature of

bath, 100" C., it loses stillmore

water

is termed

weeks, the soil it contains will

portionof

if a

But

dry.

in this way

moved

hydroscopic

tightlyby

the

moisture.
water.

soil

soil be

boiling

The

water

It is obvious

than
particles

the

water.
capillary
water
by proper natural or
gravitational
artificialunderdrainingis necessary
because, if it remains in
and so displaces
the soil,the latter becomes
water-logged,
in the soil for the growing roots.
the air which is necessary
Drainage lowers the water level in the soil,causing roots to
penetratedeeperfor moisture, and consequentlytheir feeding
ground is increased. This helps them to withstand drought.

removal

The

The

amount

in

of

of moisture

in

determiningwhether

the soilor not.

"

soil must
it is an

be taken

into consideration

opportune time

to

work

So, for instance,if heavy claysoilsare worked

are
wet, the particles

when

forced close togetherand

is the result. This is a brickmaker's term.

In

"

dling
pud-

making

of

effect

humus

soils, humus

sandy

In

together

The

warm

heat

quickly.

They

that

the

important factor

and

water,
ones,

regardlessof
that

than

quickly

more

water

cools

sweat

warm

the

from

up

out

sun's

rays.

gardening

of

the

them
Such

or

large

fine

animal

latter, just

they

early spring

crops.

warm

so

borne

in

which

at

to

the
as

it will

evaporate

rapidly

dust

equal

the soil is the

heat

than

Barefooted

most

wet

boys

become

warm

of

evaporation
the

evaporation
sandy

gravitational water

readily absorb
are

be

Dark-colored,
the

soils, then,

not

in

more

Indeed,

spring because
and

do

rate

road

body.

soils do

of

ones

composition.

or

the

up

and

consequently

must

of

warm

soil.

wet

the

color

readily

light-colored

moisture

sorb
abwith

the

by

are

It

amounts

and

sand

soil cools

earliest in

drains

of

determining

their color

dry

soils.

amount

by

to

power

heat

They
hand,

cold

secured

readiness

dark-colored

dry soils always

so

know

well

it takes

for

up,

in

The

consequently

they

called

are

however,

warm

of

and

by their

soils absorb

as

sand

of

particles.

sun.

other

the

be

greatly influenced

is

puddle.

to

grains

not

coarse

the

of

readily

so

content,

most

could

that

is affected

rays

the

is to

clays,

as

tendency

cement

such

soils

On

soils.

moisture

mind,

result

the

relatively rapidly.

warm

absorb

not

to

dark-colored

Thus
up

called

tends

absorbed

is thus

soil.

the

the

from

heat

which

so

of

temperature
heat

lessen

LIFE

soils, such

so

around

of water

films

mere

firmly,

more

DAILY

fine-grained

on

particles and

the

divide

of

AND

CHEMISTRY

212

heat

suitable

soon

from

for

soils

the

market

THE

213

SOIL

QUESTIONS

its

formation

is

How

3.

What

is

What

is

are

soil
is

peat

bogs

the

what

and

made,

What

2.

soils

formed

difference

active

agencies

in

glacier

the

are

?
and

sedentary

between

transported

?
4.

What

is

the

humus

Name

the

6.

About

how

of

7.

wheat

How

essential

elements

much

would
much

corn

between

difference

soil

sandy

and

soil

clay

5.

crops

in

what

From

1.

phosphorus
it

plant

?
it

8.

Why

is

9.

How

would

required

is

to

necessary

for

is there

in

make

production.

crop

soil, and

how

many

dry

matter

produce

water

needed

to

have

of

plenty

pound

of

organic

in

the

be

the

matter

soil?

10.

proper
11.

What

of

humus

capillary

between
12.

for
is

What

How

does

reaction

the

may

reaction

maintain

you

the

on

the
and

nitrogen

the

soil

of

growth
by

meant

the

the

of

water-holding

drainage

help

and

soils

should

what

legumes

of

puddling

gravitational

be,

of

content

clay?
of

power

What
soil

is

the

Distinguish

water.

plant

in

season

of

drought

fluence
in-

CHAPTER
COMMERCIAL

COMMERCIAL

They

fertilizersare

manufactured
warehouses

plant foods.
and seed stores.

$100,000,000 is spent annually in the purchase of

fertilizersin the
this money

againstthe
not

FERTILIZERS

usuallykept for sale at

are

About

United

is thrown
use

States
away.

of commercial

they should

that

XV

be

and

probably

This

is not

one-half

an

argument

but it does
fertilizers,

purchased with

used at all until trialshave shown

that

mean

judgment,

proper

they are

of

and

actually

necessary.

and
Experimentalinvestigations
shown
in most

that material

common

increases in the

experiencehave

yieldof

the land have

adding to the soil but three


of the essential elements necessary for plantgrowth ; 'namely,
phosphorus, and potassium. These elements, it
nitrogen,
is to be recalled,are not appliedin the free or uncombined
that will
state, but in the form of compounds,usuallysalts,
dissolve in the soil waters, so that they can
be absorbed by the
rootlets of the growing crop.
of the results
In consequence
of experience,
fertilizersas placed on the
then, commercial
market
to-day contain as their essential ingredientsonly
nitrogen,
phosphorus,and potassiumin the form of mixtures
of salts or other compounds of these elements ; and thus it
is that the nitrogen,
phosphorus,and potassiumin a commercial
value.
the only materials which givethat fertilizer
are
fertilizer
It should be remembered, however, that equallygood results
that
sometimes secured by applyingto the land dressings
are
cases

been

obtained by

214

FIG. 78.

"

Effect of fertilizers on
used.

215

FERTILIZERS

COMMERCIAL

(B)

crop

No

of potatoes.

fertilizerused.

(^4) Complete

fertilizer

216

CHEMISTRY

do not

contain any

AND

DAILY

LIFE

of the three elements

So, for example, lime


beneficial.

or

limestone

and

just mentioned.
gypsum

are

quently
fre-

The

derived from lime is usually


benefit
due to its basic properties,
neutral or alkaline
which cause
a
reaction of the soil. Gypsum, on
the other hand, acts as a
of sulphur,
and also producesphysical
source
changesin the

soil.
Commercial
which

are

made from a few basal materials


are
fertilizers
articles of commerce.
A so-called complete
lizer
ferti-

consists of two

or

basal materials

such

more

mixed

gether
to-

gen,
givethe desired percentage content of nitrophosphorus,and potassium. These basal materials are
derived (1) from inorganicor mineral matter, and (2) from
material.
organicmatter, that is to say, from animal or vegetable
of nitrogen,the inorganic
salts,
So, for example,as sources
ammonium
rials
sulphateand sodium nitrate,and organicmatelike dried blood, meat
scraps, tankage,fish scrap, and
so

as

to

cotton-seed meal

are

in

bones and
as

sources

and

use.

As

of phosphorus,

basic

and kainite,all of which come


sulphate,
salt deposits,
are
employed. All of these

be considered

sources

slag,which are inorganic,


nally,
utilized. Fiwhich are organic,
are
guano,
of potassium, potassiumchloride,
potassium

phosphate rock
and

common

more

from

the Stassfurt

materials will now

in detail.

Among the nitrogenous fertilizers ammonium


sulphate,
(NH4)2SO4,also popularlycalled sulphateof ammonia," is
This salt has already been
used to a considerable extent.
mentioned in Chapter IV.
It is a by-productof the manufacture
of illuminating
tion
gas from coal,also of the dry distilla"

of bones in the manufacture

sulphate is

of bone black.

concentrated

Ammonium

containing20
fertilizer,
soluble in water, does not
per cent ofnitrogen.It is copiously
readilyleach out of the soil,and very quicklyundergoes
a

very

COMMERCIAL

that is,conversion
nitrification,

into nitrates.

Sodium

trate,
ni-

also called nitrate of soda, has been described

NaNO3,
in

217

FERTILIZERS

Chapter X.

It

occurs

Chili

as

in
saltpeter

rainless districts of western

in the

natural

value of fish as

from

South

America.

saltpeterbeds contains a
salt. This, however, is practically
of common
largeamount
removed from the productbefore it is placedon the market,
that as sold it is a crude nitrate of soda containing
so
from 15
to 16 per cent ofnitrogen.Nitrate of soda is readilysoluble
in water
and easilyleached from the soil. It should consequently
be appliedjustbefore
plantingor afterthe planthas
possession
of the soil. Fifty to one hundred pounds per acre
age
is a proper application.Dried blood, meat scraps, and tankfrom the slaughterhouses.
Dried blood is simply
come
animals dried and ground. Like all
blood of the slaughtered
it is insoluble in water ; but it
organicnitrogenousfertilizers,
its nitrogenin soluble
ferments readilyin the soil and yields
form to the growing plant. Dried blood contains from 13
while meat
to 14 per cent of nitrogen,
scraps contain variable
of nitrogen,
The
amounts
usuallyfrom 4 to 10 per cent.
The

material

posits
extensive de-

the

fertilizerwas

known

to

our

American

ans.
Indi-

Squanto,an Indian, taught the New England settlers


that they could increase the yieldof corn
by puttinga fish
under each hill. This gave the grain the two
elements it
needed most, phosphorus and nitrogen. To-day fish fertilizers
made in largeamounts
from rough fish and fish
are
oft'alon

the Atlantic coast

and

the Great

Lakes.

seed
Cotton-

by removing the hulls and oil from


seed.
The residue is then ground and put on the
cotton
market.
It is extensivelyused as a fertilizerin the south.
There are stillother nitrogenous
fertilizers
like waste leather,
hoof and
horn
and
meal, hair from the slaughterhouses,
meal

wool

waste

is obtained

from

the woolen

mills.

The

chemical

nature

218

AND

CHEMISTRY

of these 'has
XIII.

sale

already been described

All of these

soil that
as

to

LIFE

in

Chapters IX

materials decompose

and

slowly in the

so

their
passed laws prohibiting
fertilizers. In ordinaryfarming it is seldom profitable
for the nitrogen
purchasenitrogenous
fertilizers,
supply
states

many

have

of the soil can

be maintained

the proper

of

in

DAILY

Chapter

use

by

Such

aids to the farmer

crops

of farm

in rotation,as

legume crops

XIV.

means

as

manure

and

alreadystated

the clovers,
peas, and beans

if he
nitrogengatherers,especially
plows under a goodly part of the plant. In
occasionally
intensive farming, like market gardening,
it will be necessary
liberal use
to make
of nitrogenousfertilizers
of commercial
are

as

origin.
Since three-fourths of the
soil is

depositedin
sold from

the

phosphorus absorbed from the


narily
grainof the crop and therefore ordi-

lizers
the farm, it is clear that phosphatic ferti-

phosphorus
offundamental importance. In the soil,
the phosphates of calcium, magnesium, and iron.
occurs
as
As already pointedout in Chapter VII, phosphates are salts
of phosphoricacid,H3PO4.
In all the importantcommercial
phosphatefertilizers,
includingphosphaterock, bones, basic
slag,and guano, phosphorusis present as phosphatesformed
acid,H3PO4, with lime,CaO.
by the combination ofphosphoric
These are phosphates of calcium, commonly spoken of as
phosphatesof lime. With lime, phosphoricacid forms three
importantcompounds : (1)insoluble phosphateoflime,which is
tricalcium phosphate,
Ca3(PO4)2; (2)soluble phosphateoflime,
are

which ismonocalcium

phosphate,CaH4(PO4)2

of lime,which
phosphate
The

firstof these, as

in water

Ground

its name

and hence is not

bone, guano,

is dicalcium

and (3)reverted

phosphate,Ca2H2(PO4)2.

indicates,is almost

insoluble

available to plants. Ground


readily

and floatscontain their

phosphorus in this form.

bone, or bone meal,is a productof the packinghouses,

220

CHEMISTRY

Wyoming.

It contains

AND

from

DAILY

LIFE

of phosphorus
and is the chiefsource
and also the cheapestsource
of phosphorus
have
supply on the market. Recent investigations
that when
shown
used with sufficient organicmatter, such
farm manure
as
or
ground phosphate rock
manure,
green
for the organicmatter
has high fertilizing
posing
decomon
power,
11 to 13 per cent

furnishes carbonic acid, which


tricalcium

phosphate,

phosphate

of lime

thus

making

aids in

it available.
"

is also known

the
dissolving

as

lime

one

Soluble

phosphate,"

acid

phosphate,acidulated rock, superphosphate,etc. It is


made
by treatingbones or phosphate rock with sulphuric
acid,as stated in Chapter VII, where the chemical equation
its formation
is given. Because of its solubility
explaining
in water, this fertilizer
contains the phosphorusin the most
available form for direct use by the plant. A goodsample contains
about 7 per cent of phosphorus,
or
only about half as
much
a
as
good sample of rock phosphate. Furthermore,
a

ton

The

of the material contains about

half

ton

of gypsum.

latter is formed

simultaneouslywhen the sulphuric


acid acts on tricalcium phosphate. Though readilysoluble
in water
for the
superphosphateis not leached out of the soil,
lime an"d iron in the soil can form insoluble phosphates with
of making acid phosphate the whole
it. In the process
of the insoluble phosphate is generallynot acted upon.
The
tricalcium phosphate thus remaining when
left with large
of the monocalcium
quantities
phosphate forms dicalcium
phosphate,thus :
Ca3(PO4)2
tricalcium
from

bone

or

phosphate
phosphate

rock

CaH4(PO4)2
phosphos-

monocalcium

phate, "acid
phate

the monocalcium

Ca2H2(PO4)2

dicalcium
"reverted

phosphate
phosphate"

"

It is clear,
then,that the dicalcium
atid than

phosphate formed

phosphate,i.e. the

is less

latter has

COMMERCIAL

"

reverted

"

221

FERTILIZERS

somewhat.

Hence

it is known

phosphate." Though almost insoluble

"

as

reverted

in water, it dissolves

in water

similated
containingcarbon dioxide and hence is readilyasby plants. As stated in Chapter XI, a phosphate
of steel. This
fertilizeris produced in the manufacture
material is popularlycalled basic slag,its compositionbeing
about
Ca5P2SiOi2. Though it was
formerlythrown away,
its value as a fertilizeris now
duly recognized.It contains
from 6.5 to 8.5 per cent ofphosphorusin a somewhat different
form from that in the other phosphatesjust described,as
the formula given indicates. It should be finely
ground, for
it is difficultly
soluble in the soil water.
The factthat it is
rich in lime makes it specially
desirable for use on acid soils.
Most of the basic slagon the market is importedfrom England,
but it is not unlikelythat more
will soon
in the
be made
United States,as iron ores of highphosphatecontent are used
in the iron and steel industry.
The potash fertilizers are commonly considered as of less
tilizer
importance than either the nitrogenousor phosphaticferfor potassiumcompounds are usuallymore
abundant
in the soil than either nitrogen-bearing
phates.
compounds or phosMoreover, thoughmost crops remove
more
potassium
than phosphorus,
the former element is more
liable to be returned

to the soil than the

in the stems

that

latter. Potassium

and leaves of

plants,and

as

is more
these

are

abundant
the parts

returned to the land in the form of manure,


generally
the supply of potassium is constantly being replenished.
On the other hand, potassiumis a very necessary constituent
intended forlight
offertilizers
sandy soils,
for marsh land, and
forfieldsthat are to producecrops which consume
largequantities
like potatoes,
and fleshy
ash
Potroots.
tobacco,
ofpotassium,
fertilizers
be appliedin the fallon heavy claysoils,
can
or
in the springon sandy soils. As stated in Chapter XIV, clays
are

222

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

AND

LIFE

do not need potash fertilizersif well supplied


with
generally
The potassium salts used as fertilizers
have
organicmatter.
from the
alreadybeen described in Chapter X. They come
So the chloride KC1, also called the muriate
Stassfurt mines.
of potash, contains about 47 per cent of potassium,
which is
combined

with chlorine,as

be used

can

all crops

on

beets,and potatoes,which
present.

Potassium

the formula

except
appear

indicates.

This salt

few like tobaccco, sugar


to be

rine
the chlo-

injuredby

sulphate,K2SO4, also called

potash, contains about 44

phate
sul-

and
"f potassium,
value for those crops that are
is of special
injuredby the
Kainite
chloride,as just mentioned.
(see Chapter X), the
is essentially
most common
a double
fertilizers,
ofthe Stassfurt
salt of potassiumchloride and magnesium sulphate. It contains
phate.
from 10 to 12 per cent ofpotassiumas chloride and suland while
It is thus a low-gradepotash fertilizer;
phate,
than the muriate or sulcheap per ton, it reallycosts more
for these are so much
richer in potassium. For many
of potassium for
the sole source
ashes
wood
were
years
furt
but since the introduction of the Stassfertilizing
purposes,
of

salts,ashes

unleached,ashes
hence

are
as

appear

contain

valuable.

much

from

Per

less

cent

on-

the

2 to 7 per cent

When

of potassiumand

Furthermore, ashes contain the potassium

carbonate,K2CO3, and also carbonate

both of which

market.

of lime,CaCO3,
"

are

that is, correcting,"


excellent for neutralizing,

soil acidity.
A
are

salt
of substances like lime,gypsum, and common
but they are
to the land under certain conditions,
beneficial
number

of plantfood,
not considered
as
generally
important sources
There are
and so are frequently
termed indirect fertilizers.
but few if any soils that do not contain enough lime to supply
the needs of the plant,and so the value of lime as a fertilizer
is indirect. It corrects acidity,
other compounds
acts upon

COMMERCIAL

223

FERTILIZERS

liberate soluble

and helpsbacterial
potassiumsalts,
life in the soil. By keeping the soil neutral, it creates
a
home for many
microorganismswhich help to make
proper
is
plant food available. Lime for agricultural
purposes
put on the market as caustic or burned lime,CaO ; air-slaked
lime or carbonate of lime, CaCO3 ; ground limestone rock ;
CaCO3 ; and also as beet sugar
ground clam or oyster shells,
refuse. The chemical nature
of lime, limestone,or calcium
has alreadybeen sufficiently
described
carbonate,and gypsum
in ChaptersIX and X.
Air-slaked
lime is quicklimewhich
has again been converted to the carbonate,CaCO3, by exposure
so

as

to

to

it must

the air.

be

When

caustic lime is used

appliedwrith

the land

on

already stated

in

Chapter
is coming into generalfavor,
XIV.
Finely ground limestone
be obtained at a sufficiently
and when it can
low cost, it is
undoubtedly the safest form in which to apply lime, especially
by the inexperienced.Lime should be spread over
the surface and then incorporated
with the upper
two
to
four inches of the soil. The clovers and legumesin general
lime than do the cereals,
for theyare much more
require more
sensitiveto the acidity
of the soil. A ton per acre every four
five years is a good application
of limestone.
or
Gypsum,
land plaster,CaSO4
2 H2O, has given excellent results with
clovers and legume plants. It is also a cheap source
of sulphur,
which is low in amount
in most
soils,and is freely
used by plantsof high protein content
well as by such
as
rutabagas,onions, garcrops as cabbage,kohlrabi,turnips,
lic,
and horse-radish.
Common
salt,NaCl, has sometimes
been used as a manure,
but it is not supposed to furnish
plantfood, and while it has givenbeneficial results
necessary
care,

as

at

times,often it has failed to do


Mixed

fertilizers

are

fertilizermanufacturer

very
very

so.

common

on

does
generally

the market.
the

mixingof

The
the

224

AND

CHEMISTRY

LIFE

DAILY

already described, and sells them to the


farmer as complete fertilizers. Mixed
fertilizersare indiscriminate
and all sorts of
recommended
for general use
startlingclaims are made for them by the manufacturers.
of the
They are offered as universal fertilizers,
irrespective
plant food contained in the given soil or the needs of the
The
corn
special of one manufacturer
crop to be grown.
tobacco
be like the
special of another firm. The
may
and when he has
farmer must studythe real needs of his fields,
materials
done this,he will preferto buy the basal fertilizing
and known
of definite
compositionand apply the proportion
that is best adaptedto his needs, rather than buy mixed goods.
home
It is wise to practice
mixing. The difference in the
and the basal materials per pound
cost of completefertilizers
of plant food is considerable.
It has been estimated to be
from eight to ten dollars per ton.
On the farms of the
United States it is becoming common
to buy
eastern
practice
basal materials

"

"

"

"

the

basal

The

materials

proper

and

mix

them

at home.

selection of commercial

fertilizersis obviously

tions
directo givedefinite
impossible
to kinds and quantities
as
offertilizers
for different
crops,
because soils differ
in their content of plantfood. But
greatly
valuable suggesby carefullynoting the growing crop, some
tions
be gainedas to which fertilizersare most
needed.
may
So a crop with a deep green color,well-developed
leaf,and
luxuriant growth is not suffering
or
from a lack of nitrogen
potassium. A rank excessive growth of leaf and stem, but
sized
imperfect bud and flower development, and small undergrain,denotes plentyof nitrogenand potassium,but a
lack of phosphorus, These suggestions
are
helps,but it is
not
periments
always safe to depend upon them entirely.Field exTo determine with any degreeof
are
necessary.
certaintywhat particularfertilizerwould be helpful,the

of great

importance.

It is

225

FERTILIZERS

COMMERCIAL

himself.This can be
farmermust conduct some experiments
of the fieldof
done by carefully
marking off certain portions
uniform soil into plotsof definite size,and then usingdifferent
materials on these plots. A plotone
rod
fertilizing
wide and eightrods long contains one-twentieth of an acre,
and is of convenient size for experiment. Careful notes
should be kept during the growingseason, and the weights
of the harvested crops should be recorded.
This givesdefinite
if continued over
several years.
information,especially
When

it has thus been established what

basal materials

of these materials

then the cheapestsources


effective,

most

diagram given below indicates the

should be selected. The

arrangement

of

the

plotsand

of materials to

the amounts

In addition to the fertilizer,


a part of the

apply.

This will

be limed.

are

give evidence

as

to

plotsmay

the need of correcting

the acidityof the soil.

DIAGRAM

Plot 1. None.

Plot

8. N and S

phate).
(Blood and Sul-

Plot 2. N (Dried Blood,30 lb.).

Plot

9. P and S

phate).
(Bone and Sul-

Plot 3. P

(Steamed Bone
10

Meal,

Plot 10. P

and

(Bone

and

Chloride).

lb.).

Plot 4. S

(Gypsum,

Plot 5. K

(Muriate of Potash, Plot 12.


10 lb.).

10

Plot 11.

lb.).

Plot 6. None.

N, P, and S (Blood,
Bone, and Sulphate).
N, P, S, and K (Blood,
Bone, Sulphate, and
Chloride).

Plot 13. None.


Plot 7. N and P (Blood and Bone)

No

definite rule
to

apply,for
Q

can

be

givenas

to the amount

soilsvary in their original


content

of fertilizer
of

plant

226

CHEMISTRY

AND

food ; and then the kind of crop


Five hundred

pounds per

acre

on

DAILY

LIFE

be grown

to

is also

factor.

soils already
is
fertile

heavy

application
for ordinary
farm

and

crops

will

only

returns
giveprofitable

fertile soils when

on

used in

intensive

farming. It is
better to make lighter
plication
apoffrom 100 to
200 pounds of any
one
basal
and

to

from

,itw

material

the amount

vary
to

year

acre,

per

when

year,

experience has

shown

that economical

returns

be

can

expected from
applications*

heavier

protect the farmer

To

againstfraud,many
fertilizer

that the

guaranteed

tilizer should
FIG. 80.

"

with

bag for commercial


the analysis printed

complicatedas

than

so

Greek

many

given on page 227.


The thingsthat are

be

fer-

placed

on

on

it.

confuse
letters.

and
A

bag containingit.

the

are

of such

of

sample

no

legendsare

of such

essential in the statement

on

value

more
a

page

label is

227

are

"

"nitrogen," available phosphoricacid,"and


and onlyconfusing.The
potash." The rest is superfluous

the amounts
"

to

of

ysis
anal-

fertilizer

Most
so

require

laws

formula

or

state

label
per

means

cent

of

that there is contained


of available P2O5 ; but

in this fertilizer8 to 10

this is erroneouslycalled

CHEMISTRY

228

of

3.

When

should

4.

What

is

acid

useful

doubly

7.

8.

it

do

9.

potash

salts

Of

How

to

soil

the

leather

scrap

as

source

fertilizers.

does

How

an

from

come

On

kind

what

soils

of

is

it

are

is

in

wood

it

best

what

to

from

come

ashes

is

use

fertilizers

mainly

What

compounds

add

lime

to

sold

commonly

and

soil,

added

when

gypsum

soils

to

is

What

should

why
?

by

meant

home

mixing
10.

of

use

phosphate

floats

slag

form

what

added

be

of

from

contained

are

In

applied

Where

value

LIFE

basic

does

What

be

the

to

kinds

differ

phosphate

6.

of

fertilizers

DAILY

soda

of

objection

three

Name

5.

nitrate

the

for

nitrogen

AND

How

fertilizer

the

can

requirements

of

soil

be

best

mined
deter-

11.

of

mixed

and

phosphorus,

ammonium
make

fertilizer

ton

of

such

of

cent

per

bone

sulphate,
up

contains

potassium.
and

meal,
mixture

cent

per

kainite

of

nitrogen,
How
would

many

be

per

cent

pounds

of

needed

to

CHAPTER

XVI
MANURE

FARM

OF

farm
all fertilizers,

is the oldest and

manure

stillthe

liquidand solid excreta of


the farm stock, plus the bedding employed. Early Roman
of
writers called attention to the fact that the application
most

popular.

the excreta

It consists of the

of farm

resulted in increased crop

animals

and from that time to the present day the

duction,
pro-

majority

for
placed their reliance on such manures
of the land.
maintainingthe fertility
A well-kept
manure
heap may safelybe taken as one of the
in farming. The fertilizer
and success
surest indications of thrift
value of the manure
ferent
produced each year by the difof farmers

have

classes of farm

animals

United

States aggregates

total of $2,225,700,000. This estimation is based

the value usuallygiven to


and

in the

phosphorus (P), potassium(K),


which
fertilizers,

nitrogen(N) in commercial
10 cents, 6 cents, and

15 cents

per

pound

are

spectively
re-

for the

materials in the order named.

It is safeto say that the manure

made

has

year,

on

the farms of Wisconsin

value

of $75,000,000 per
and that throughimproperhandlingone-third of the value
on

is lost.
The

manure

produced by

the

various

classes

of farm

mals
ani-

differs greatlyin its compositionand

solid

physicalproperties.
both the
from the pig and cow
The manure
(including
and liquid
excrement) is very high in water, containing

least 75 per cent.


Because it is so moist, it ferments very
and so it has been called a cold manure.
slowlywhen piled,
at

229

230

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

the other hand, the combined

On

sheep have

lower

water

LIFE

from

excreta

content, about

65

the horse and


to

70 per cent.

rapidlyand are called hot manures.


varies greatly,
While the compositionof manure
ton of
a
mixed
manure
of average compositiongenerallycontains approximatel
2 pounds of phosphorus (P), 10 pounds of
nitrogen(N), and 8 pounds ofpotassium(K).
is influenced
The composition and value of manure
by three
things: (1) the nature of the ration fed the animal; (2) the kind
and age of the animal ; (3) the kind and amount
of the bedding
These

ferment

used.

The

more

from

manure

animals

like clover,alfalfa,
bran, and
animals

that from

fed

fed

are

cottonseed

meal

rich foods,

on

is better than

timothy hay, straw,

on

rich in

other feeds not

and

that

stover,

corn

nitrogenand phosphorus,and

to

Furthermore, the
grainhas been added.
from young 'and growinganimals, as calves and colts,
manure
is not so valuable as that from older animals, and especially
animals that are fattening. Young growinganimals use up
more
phosphorus,and potassiumin the foodfor
of the nitrogen,
little or

which

their

no

bodies to make

own

animals.

animals

Mature

as

not

are

poor

in

but
flesh,

are

tening,
fat-

for the production


of fat does

phosphorus,and potassium,
requirethe retention ofnitrogen,
A milch cow
does the buildingof bone and muscle.
will

produce as
This

ration.
go

that

rich manure,

producea
not

blood,bone, and fleshthan do older

over

rich

manure

is because

into the milk

There is in 5000

and

If the milk
no

pounds of

are

not

If the milk

is skimmed

loss occurs,

are

on

the

same

of the fertilizerconstituents

some
so

steer
fattening

returned in the excreta.

material equal in
pounds of milk fertilizing

value to about $4-90farm.

as

the butter is sold,practically

phorus
nitrogen,
potassium,and phosvalue of 500
milk.
The fertilizer

for the

in the skimmed
butter is

and

is sold,this is lost to the

only about

10

cents.

This

shows

how

FARM

231

MANURE

dairyor animal farm has the advantageover a grainfarm in


the land.
The bedding emon
ployed
helpingto keep up the fertility
will alter the compositionof the final manure.
The
the richer the manure;
richer the bedding,
but the materials
commonly used, such as the straws and sawdust, are low in
If peat is used, it will increase the
fertilizer ingredients.
considerably.
nitrogencontent of the manure
is not appreciated
The greatvalue offarm manure
to itsfullest
A largeproportion
to have
extent.
of our farmers seem
littlerealization of the immense
loss incurred throughthe waste
of this importantproductof the farm. They begrudge the
ing
time and labor requiredto remove
it from the farm and feedto see the purchase of comlot,and it is not uncommon
mercial
fertilizersand the waste of farm manure
goingon at
a

the

same

time

and

on

steep hillsides

practiceinsures

on
or

the

same

the banks

largewaste.

in two ways:

farm.

of

Barns

are

running

The value

often built

streams, which

of

manure

(I) by the selection and

may

offeeds
rich in fertilizing
that are
materials,or (2) by purchasing
suitable commercial
plantfood and adding it to the manure.
The firstmethod
that the farmer must
means
purchasesome
of the mill by-productsnow
offered for sale,and feed them
A successful stock man
to his stock.
usuallyfinds it profitable
with one or more
to thus reenforce his home-grown grains
of the various mill by-products. A farmer who is buying
of his
largeamounts
of concentrates is increasingthe fertility
be

increased

land, provided

he

is

saving

the

manure.

Bran

use

is

trate
concen-

phosphorus and potassium,while oil


meal and gluten feed are rich in nitrogen.
of enhancing the value of manure
The second method
is
practicedin systems of animal husbandry as well as in systems
of mixed
farming. Experiments have shown that on
certain soils,
with either kainite,
reenforcement of the manure
that

is rich in

CHEMISTRY

232

acid

floats,or

gypsum,

in crops.

AND

The

DAILY

LIFE

phosphate results

in

crease
profitablein-

however,comes
greatestprofit,

the

from

ofeither acid phosphateor floats. Any of these materials


be appliedat the rate of 40 pounds per ton of manure.
can
To secure
the manures
the greatestprofit,
for most soils should
with floatsand gypsum,
for these maprobablybe reenforced
terials
furnish additional phosphorus and sulphur respectively,
use

of which
Farm

elements
is

manure

there is often

lack.

perishable
productand

with intelligence
to obtain the greatest
value
is handled

manure

as

half of its worth

the waste

absorb

to

express

of the

on

most

is realized.

The

liquidexcrement
it. The
of

purpose

contains

and

but

Most

Another
the

The

of

plant food

less,
Doubtone-

ding
using sufficientbed-

not

to

in the floor for the


run

off

as

rapidlyas

practice.Pound for

uncommon

valuable than the solid.

more

It

of the potassium,

of the

mal.
phosphorusexcreted by the anithe phosphorusis found in the solid droppings.
trace

fact of great

more

by

than one-half of the nitrogen,


most

more

it.

greatest loss is through

allowingthe urine
is

from

farms, only about

boring of holes

is by no means
an
possible
pound the liquidexcrement

be handled

must

importance in

this connection

in the urine is soluble in water

available to

solid excrement

and

quently
conse-

that in the solid

dung.

consists in part of the indigestible


tions
por-

of the food, and

plants,it

plantsthan

is that

before its

become

nitrogencan

able
avail-

undergo decompositionand decay.


Besides the losses due to incompleteabsorption
of the urine
by the bedding,manure
suffers
heavily
from leachingby rains.
Often animals are confined in yards and no effort at all is
made to save
the droppings,
and the result is that the rains
to

wash
the

them
manure

away.

must

Very

is thrown

and the rain from

often when

under

the roof

soon

the

stables

eaves

saturates

are

cleaned

of the barn

the

pileand

or
a

out,
shed
dark

233

MANURE

FARM

plantfood,
or
soaking
and it is usuallylost by draininginto a stream
Then again,
it
into the ground where no plantsare to grow.
into largepilesthat
is thrown
often happens that manure
allowed to lieexposedto the rain and weather for months.
are
liquidbeginsto

FIG.

81.

An

"

only

productionof
ammonia

boy

on

gas

that the air cannot

bacteria cannot

prevented. Other

of wasting farm

ferments.

manure.

results in the

by bacteria,and

suffered with

accumulated

and

warm

contains

nitrogen.

into the air and is lost. Many

smartingeyes
from

.manure

be prevented.Thus
largely

compact

"

"

way

Leaching and fermentingcause


can

contains much

(NH8), which

escapes

has

gets

common

ammonia

the farm
the

too

is caused

This fermentation

The

it

conditions

such

Under

This

away.

run

the

great losses
if the

manure

pilebe
most

moving
re-

stable.

horse

which

to manure,

penetrate it,the

live in it and

when

made

tive
destruc-

hence hot fermentation

bacteria will be active in the

so

pileand

cause

is

234

AND

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

LIFE

rotting
; but this is not harmful, beingon the contrary a process
for market
greatlydesired in the productionof manure
gardening. The secret of keepingthe hot fermentationdown
is to keep the manure
heap compact and moist. This allows the
ammonia
will be small.
as
pileto rot,but the loss ofnitrogen
It is better to allow the

to accumulate

manure

in the stable

trampled underfoot by the animals, providingplenty


of bedding is used, than to throw it out in a pileto ferment
and leach. The tramping in the stable keeps the manure
solid and moist, and checks the heating. This, however, is
for dairy cows.
But in some
not a sanitaryway,
especially
calves,colts,sheep,or steers are
cases, for instance,where
fed loose in a stable,the manure
might be allowed to collect
and be

the entire winter.


should

manure

As

soon

as

the animals

taken

are

out, the

be hauled to the fieldand spread. In general,

it is better to clean the stables out

dailyand

haul the

manure

wherever
to the field. This is the very best practice
directly
and saves
than any other
the manure
more
perfectly
possible,
method.
Sometimes
the ground is too wet or the fields,
too
and make
other causes
arise which prevent hauling,
or
hilly,
In such cases, a good comit necessary to store the manure.
pact
pileshould be built where water can be appliedto keep
it from gettinghot. The pileshould be made solid and so
deep that the hardest rain will not soak through. This can
from five to six feet high.
be accomplished
by making the piles
with the bottom and sides of cement
A basin-like depression
A roof is not so necessary.
is a good placeto store manure.
the losses of
is exposedin loose shallow piles,
When
manure
of the total
plantfood in a few months may be at least one-half
in the

manure.

It has

already been said

the field
as
It is very

soon

as

that

possible.It

wasteful

of both

manure

should

should
also be

fertilizerand

be hauled to

spreadat once.
labor to dump

236

CHEMISTRY

the average

to

cover

water

workable.

Any

better
kind

than

to let them

crop.

It is
The

best

they add

Clovers,

good results

when

even

nitrogen than
to the soil

the

adds

legume

only

the

farming,

of the

to

feed

to the

nitrogen

nitrogenwhich

to

the land.

and

land, providedhe

it is
cut

In this way

nearly all
saves

common

plants

the

soil.

the

manure.

more

ing
manur-

green

they are

green

manuring

the

are

in the

These

legumes,

soils need.

most

are

all

of the

plants produce
only the

largeroot systems
much

leaves

bean.

or

No

All others

hay

the farmer

plant food

more

plant

it in the
bandry
hus-

of animal
and

but

giveback

can

they obtained from


for

Red

good.

harvested, and

stubble
pea

sandy

plowed under

used.
is

green

cowpeas

clover

puts

and

while

better, in systems

the

aids

time

warmer

weeds

because

of the

humus

same

this is what

crop

But

roots

firstplace. Usually

manure

the

of

humus

cultivation; thus

manuring

clover, their

red

the

of green

will add

they

at

and

one

under.

turned

alfalfa and

the

is

under

addition

under

nitrogen,and

common

manure

amounts.

be used for

can

autumn

green

clover is the most

plowing

and

beans, vetches, and

soy

the

clays become

Rye

in the

sown

smaller

for

plow

go to seed.

with

The

plant

It is better to

crop.

of

and

of

by

heavy application.

quantity of

in the soil

decay

condition

physical

soils retain

stubble

oftener

dioxide.

carbon

removed

of ground, and thus, if desired,

retainingmoisture,

it in better

spring.

considered

is meant

in their

that

soil in

because

largearea

manuring

green

produce

the

is not

be treated

can

plants so
and

LIFE

spreadera small

manure

be made

the fields

This

crops.

With

By

DAILY

composition will replace the plant food

average

can

AND

return

the

gets the benefit


goes

back

to

the

"

237

MANURE

FARM

QUESTIONS

1.

and

state

2.

content

3.

is

What

does

how

is

What

value

cold

annually

manure

with
?

manure

How

ton

of

the

value

What

produced

of

is

the

its

dairy

in

your

products

approximate

water

influence

5.

Name

two

methods

6.

How

is the

value

7.

How

would

8.

How

would

9.

What

is

What

the

be
is meant

nitrogen

and

the
of

of

composition

increasing
lost

manure

you

prevent

harmful

you

prevent

leaching

best

applied
by

phosphorus

there

are

spectively
re-

manure

factors

should

of

pounds

many

What

10.

the

it compare

4.

acre

of

in

per

the

to

way

apply

annually
green

the

of
value

manure

of

manure.

fermentation

and

manure,

how

many

tons

manuring,

and

of

what

benefit

is it ?

CHAPTER
PLANT

THE

farmer

WHAT

his animals

feed

part of his produce to those who


to

means

the education

work with the seeds

He grows

the

on

need

buy clothingand tools

providefor

to

PRODUCES

IT

plantsand animals.

rears

his land and

on

AND

LIFE

XVII

for

the

plants

plants. He sellsa

it and

thus

the

secures

and

farming purposes,

of his children.

He

beginshis

of plants.

in common.
livingthings possess certain properties
Careful study has shown that the livingsubstance in plants
This living
the same.
substance is
and animals is practically
called protoplasm. It is a clear,granularsubstance of about
It is this that grows,
the consistencyof the white of egg.
tions
builds the plantand the animal, and performs all the funcof life. Exactlywhat it is,
is not known, but it is closely
allied to some
of the complex bodies which the plantcan build,
All

proteins.Protoplasmis found in every


plantand animal, not in one largemass, but in thousands of
littleparts called cells. These are so small that the compound
The walls
microscope must be used in order to see them.
of different cells vary in thickness. They separate the cells
as,

for example,the

from

another

one

In most

of the

walls that

are

and

common

enable them
animals

some

filledwith mineral

to

maintain

their form.

of the cells have


matter.

the skeleton,while the rest of the cells are

These

thick

make

soft-walled.

up

In

firm walls. As long as the


plantsmost of the cells have fairly
tions
funcOne of its peculiar
protoplasmis alive it is at work.
is to manufacture
new
protoplasmout of various sub238

PLANT

LIFE

which

stances

are

AND

not

it.

of themselves

is alive and

thus formed

IT

WHAT

239

PRODUCES

alive.

The

new

toplasm
pro-

like that which

produced
animal which is increasing
in size and weight
protoplasm.Among the other activities of
the absorptionand assimilation of food and

plantor
is making new
protoplasmare
the storing
of reserve
foodstuffs in the seed for future use,
also the building
of new
cellwalls,the secreting
of substances
for protectionand the repairof injuries
that may
have been
and the elimination of various waste
received,
productsthat
are
constantlybeingformed.
A knowledgeof the seed and seed germination is of fundamental
importance. On examining a kernel of corn it will

FIG. 83.

be

seen

to

nourish

"

good

ear

that it contains

that it can

of

corn.

The

kernels

are

of good shape.

offoodmaterial that is intended


the young
planttillit has sufficiently
so
developed
draw sustenance from the soil and the air. It is to
a

store

240

CHEMISTRY

be borne in mind

AND

that

DAILY

LIFE

plantslive to produceseed,which will

reproducetheir kind. If a kernel of corn is soaked in


water
overnight,it can easilybe separatedinto its distinct
parts. There is the tough outer coatingof the seed ; at the
tip is the cream-colored germ ; packed around the germ is
a layerof food material,
mainly starch ; and outside of this
there is a still harder layermade up of starch and protein.
The germ is the onlypart of the seed that sprouts. It may, indeed,
be called the baby plant. It is the livingprotoplasm
of the seed. The other materials are placed near
the germ
for the sole purpose
of supplyingit with food when it first
have this
must
Every seed that is to germinate
beginsto grow.
in it; but the seed must also
living
germ, this embryonicplant,
be suppliedwith moisture, warmth, and air. Dry seeds do
to preventseeds from growing
not germinate. In fact,the way
is to keep them dry. This is well known
from common
perience.
exin turn

On

They will

rot.

and

warmth

air

noticed that

not

if the germ

grow

furnished.

are

in the shock

start

seeds will either grow

the other hand, wet

or

stack

is in
Who

duringa

the beans

rot

good condition and

has not
wet

when

or

the seed

seen

and who

season,

has

planted too earlyin

moist, cold ground?


After the seed has been

plantedin sufficiently
warm,

ground, it absorbs moisture and swells. The


broken

which

and the germ sends a root which


into the soil. A little later a tiny shoot
open,

grows

upward

the plant above

growth

the

surrounded
warm

of

common

have

germ

the
was

it in the

to form

seed coat
starts

is

is

ward
down-

put forth,

is,the part of

the stem, that

ground. During this earlyperiod of


fed by the starch and protein that
That
the groundmust be suffiseed.
ciently

in order that seeds may

experience. So

sometimes

moist

remained

oats

sproutand
sown

grow

is a matter

during cold

unsprouted for

weather

month, while-

PLANT

when

LIFE

in

sown

AND

temperatures

to awake

germinate.

Thus

ground

cucumbers

84.

in

wheat

the

and

of

make

them

wheat, oats,

sprout,that is,
rye,

and

the ground is still quite cool, and

them

than

them

seeds

FIG.

sows

241

PRODUCES

they came
up in about oneSeeds of different
plantsrequire
different

third of that time.

farmer

IT

weather

warm

germinate when

WHAT

"

Germinating

6orn

so

requireswarmer

for seeds of cotton, cowpeas,


be stillwarmer.

ground must

the

kernels.

earlyspring. Corn
and

barley

or

good farmer

plantsthese seeds until the soilhas warmed up.


It has alreadybeen stated in Chapter XIV
that the air
seeds
must have access
to the roots ofgrowingplants. Sprouting
also need air. So if corn
is plantedin a fieldwhich is then
never

overflowed with water, itwill not


some

seeds that will

of rice and

be

oxygen

water

up.

germinateunder

lilies; but

dissolved

come

in

the

even

water, like the seeds

in such

water.

There are, indeed,

cases,

Packing

there must
the soil too

242

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

LIFE

around the seed will keep out the air and so hinder or
closely
true of heavyclay
prevent germination. This is particularly
On
soils.
the other hand, packing loamy or sandy soils
around seeds aids germination
tact
by bringingthe seeds in confilms surroundingthe soil grains. These
with water
of air
stillpermit sufficient access
soils,
being more
porous,
than
Some
to the seed.
more
difficulties
plantsexperience
others in their efforts
to come
up, that is,to reach the surface
of the ground. For example, instead of sending up slender
like the peas, or thin blades like the barley,they raise
stems
and try to lifta portion
the entire swollen seed out of the soil,
of the ground up with it. The bean is a plantof this kind.
be keptin
In plantingseeds these two types of behavior must
mind.
Thus wheat, barley,peas, and corn
belong to the first
therefore always be planted a little
type; and they may

beans, radishes,beets, carrots, melons, clover,

deeper than

buckwheat, and squash,which


latter should

Other

thickness.
but
a

no

be covered

never

seed should

seeds may
be

planteddeeperthan

supply of soil moisture.

After

the tiny root


clothed

finest silk. These


absorb

water

and

with

has
a

started

downy

to

grow

somewhat
necessary

from

fringethat

delicate fibers are


nutrients from

five times

than

more

be covered

proper

becomes

of the second type.

are

The
their

deeper,
to insure

the seed, it

looks

like the

called root hairs.


the soil for the

They
further

lifeof a plantthe root and


stem that started in the seed normally continue to grow
by
their tips. After a
division of certain groups
of cells near
plant has used up the material of the seed, it must
young
food
supply. A part of this, namely, the
gather its own
carbon, is taken from the air by means
of the leaf,but water
and all of the other thingsnecessary for growthare taken from
the soil throughthe root, which is consequently
a very
imporgrowth of

the

plant. During

the

244

CHEMISTRY

essential for

vegetablelife.

its

plant food

the roots and

AND

LIFE

It is this soil water, then,with

that is absorbed

in solution

thus

DAILY

gainsits way

into the

by the root hairs on


plant. To accomplish

their work, the root hairs penetrate between

and wind

the soil particles,


lyingin the film of water

that

around

surrounds

the solid

grainsof the soil. Moreover, as alreadymentioned


in Chapter XIV, these rootlets,
as they grow,
continually
give
off carbon dioxide.
This is absorbed by the soilwater, which
better solvent for many
thus becomes
of the ingredients
a
of the soil.

The

upward from the

sap passes

root

to

the leaf as

result

the action

and evaporation
of capillarity
of water from the
surfaceof the leaf. The heightto which sap may thus travel

of

is sometimes
trees

very

considerable.

In

the

of the

case

of California,for instance,the distance from

hairs to the leaves amounts

to hundreds

of feet,and

giant

the root
the work

done in transportingthe liquidto this height is great.


observe

to
interesting

of

the stem
of

passes

stem

of

This

plant.

white snowball

solution
The

up

the

upward
may

lilyin
through the
or

plant is

connected

vase

stem

of the

liquidin
by placingthe stem

passage

be done
a

of red ink.
and

of which

The

red

colors the flower.

system of tubes

cells,some

It is

formed

carry

in solution to the leaf,while others carry

by

tinuously
con-

pounds
simplecomfood,made

in the leaf,back to the root.

for the farmer and for the food and clothing


fortunate
material
that the plant derives more
supply of all mankind
It is

for its solid substance

from

the

air than

from

the

soil.

In

pounds of dry plantmaterial there are usually


from the soil. The
less than three pounds that have come
grainsof corn, wheat, rye, and rice consist chieflyof starch.
Other plants,
such as the sugar beet,are rich in sugar, while
seeds like flax and cotton contain much oil and fat. Starch,
every

hundred

LIFE

PLANT

oil,and

sugar,

the

in plants are

dioxide

carbon

taken

from

which

absorbed

are

by the

salt solutions

from

roots,

of which

openings,most

are

the leaf

located

chlorophyll,the substance
color.

green

for when

the

Here
is

sun

of the water
oxygen.

to

wonderful

shiningon

on

through

the under

The

latter gas

which

chemical
the

in the cells act

other

the soil in the form

leaf. It then passes into the cells,


where it comes

and

the air,

of

already explained. The

as

dioxide of the air enters

carbon

some

made

the water, nitrogen,phosphorus, potassium,and

elements

with

245

PRODUCES

other substances

many

in the leaves from


and

IT

WHAT

AND

on

leafthe

small

very

side of the
into contact

the

leaf

owes

its

change takes place,


carbon

dioxide and

each other,
forming starch

is exhaled

by

the

leaf. The

equationexpressingthis change has already been


Thus
it is that carbon is
given in Chapter IX, which see.
taken from the air and retained by the plant. The starch
All parts of
in the leaf are plant food.
and sugars formed
the plant,
includingthe stem, branches,leaves,and roots, are
ments
nourished by foodformed in this leaflaboratory
from the eletion
The formafrom the air,the soil,and water.
gathered
of chlorophyll
and the conversion of carbon dioxide and
take placewithout
water into oxygen, starch,and sugar cannot
The plantis like a machine run by a motor, the sun.
sunlight.
All parts of the machine
be perfectand in readiness,
may
is in action.
but work will not proceedunless the motor
It has previously
been stated that water
evaporates from
water
the surface of the leaf. It requires
a great deal more
remains
to carry food from the roots to the leaf than finally
as an
integralpart of the tissues of the plant. This surplus
is transpired
water
or
given off by evaporation from the
chemical

leaves, and
hundred
matter.

is thus

returned

to

the air.

Plants

use

several

pounds of water in making a singlepound ofdry solid


Most
plants thrive best when they have much

246

CHEMISTRY

sunshine

AND

DAILY

LIFE

and

frequentshowers. In wet seasons


they may
and in dry seasons
suffer from want
of sunlight,
from lack of
The food preparedin the leaf goes to all parts of the
water.
plant in the form of sap. It passes through the soft fibrous
layercalled the cambrium, which is between the hard outer
bark of the tree and the woody trunk.
It is diffused throughout
the cells that compose
the plantand causes
it to increase
in size and number
the plant to grow.
This
; that is,it causes
be obtained in large quantitiesfrom some
trees,
sap may
maple, which is the source
as, for instance,from the sugar
of maple sugar and maple sirup.
The leaf,which is the world's food laboratory,gives off
in the sunlight
it synthesizesstarch from carbon
as
oxygen
But in the absence of sunlightthe leaf
dioxide and water.
exhales carbon dioxide.
It really
and
to live,
requires
oxygen
breathes in that element just as animals do.
But during the
time that the lightfalls upon
the leaf,the carbon dioxide
that would be exhaled is utilized instead,in making starch
and sugar.
Consequentlyonly in the absence of sunlight,
that is,when the workshop of the leaf is closed,does one
of the fact that the plant breathes in
reallybecome aware
and
and givesoff carbon dioxide just as an
uses
oxygen,
animal
The

plant is the
Man

man.
an

does.

animal

flesh

usuallyeats
which

from

or

of food for all animals, including


some

meat, but this is derived


its nourishment

either received

vegetablematerials.

of food

source

source

is the

plant. The

In all cases,
food

from
the

materials

from
other

ultimate

produced

by plantsmay be divided into two great classes : (1) the


The
first group
and
non-nitrogenous,
(2) the nitrogenous.
includes the carbohydratesand
as

the

name

of which

the

fats,while the second

group,

bodies
consists of nitrogen-containing
implies,
are
by far the most important.
proteins

LIFE

PLANT

WHAT

AND

247

PRODUCES

IT

alreadystated in Chapter IX,


and closely
include the starches,
celluloses,
sugars, gums, pectins,
of the
related bodies. These form by far the largest
proportion
plantsand food
organiccompounds in the plant. In many
materials the carbohydrates are present largelyas starch.
About 75 to 80 per cent of the dry matter stored in a farmer's
haymow and grain bins is made up of carbohydrates.The
devoted to the production
activities of plantlifeare largely
of carbohydrates; and their consumption by animals is correspondingly
The

carbohydrates,

as

extensive.

compounds

of oxygen,

made

are

It should be remembered

that these

hydrogen,and carbon,which

The chemist in
wholly from the air and water.
his analysisof plant tissues always separates the cellulose
from the rest of the carbohydrates,as being of littlevalue
are

derived

to

animals.

This

to

the rest

of the

he
the

cellulose he calls crude

crude

fiber,and

bohydrates
car-

gives

nitrogen-free

name

extract.

Starch

is

distributed

widely

and

dant
abun-

constituent of vegetable
tissue. It isfound
in all the green
of leaves,and

parts

lates
accumu-

in those organs

plants which
stores

serve

of

reserve

It

occurs

of
as

rial.
mateFIG.

are

cent

more

Starch does not

"

Potato

starch

grains.

cially
espe-

in roots, fruits,
and
60 to 70 per

86.

seeds.

is present.

abundant

than

In

some

seeds

as

much

a^

lose
Probablyonlywater and cellustarch in the vegetable
world.

exist in solution in the sap, but it is found

248

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

in the interior of

which

have

seed in which
Potato
in
an

starch

plant cells in the form of minute grains,


shape,size,and structure characteristic of the
they are found (see Figs.86, 87, and 88).
grainsare large,
being about 0.003 of an inch

diameter,while

those of wheat

inch in diameter,and

glass.

These

are

resemble

in
differences

smaller,about 0.001 of

in outline

thick burning

the size and

shape of starch
grainsfurnish the most

importantmeans

of

tecting
de-

adulterations

one

as,

of
grain with another,
for example, when
flour

corn

with wheat

is

flour.

changed by
chemical
is not

means,

87.

"

Pea

starch

less
Unsome

starch

soluble in water.

Prolonged

FIG.

mixed

with

hot

the

starch

grains.

swell and

treatment

water

causes

grains

to

burst, thus

forming starch paste, which is used as an adhesive. Starch


is spoken of as potato starch,wheat starch,rice starch,etc.,
of the plantfrom which it has been
accordingto the name
obtained.
Potato starch is prepared by raspingthe potato
with water
and passing the product through fine sieves.
remain on the sieve,while the starch
particles
The
through the meshes in suspensionin water.
passes
is allowed to stand in vats till the starch has
turbid liquid
All kinds of starch have the common
settled to the bottom.
treated with iodine.
property of being colored blue when
Starch is used as human
food, and it is also extensively
ejnThe

coarse

ployed in

laundries.

Applied as

paste

to

linen,it

causes

LIFE

PLANT

AND

IT

WHAT

249

PRODUCES

together,thus making the


some
stiffer. The hot iron of the laundry converts
starch to dextrins,which impart a glossto the linen or
threads

the

fabrics.
a

taste, and

the

that

the

loaf

the

In

in toast

and

crust

they

from

is baked.

of bread

cotton

they

formed

when

starch

of the

substances

same

are

fabric

have

Dextrins

sweet

are

adhere

to

particularly

are

abundant.

The

are

sugars

valuable

very

carbohydrates,

although they

plantsin

in

occur

less amounts
FIG.

than

the starches.

88.

"

Wheat

starch

grains.

hey

in hays, while in seeds


quantities
their amounts
are
scarcelyappreciable.In fruits sugars are
abundant.
more
They are also found in solution in the sap
of young
plants,hence the sweet taste of this juice. The
is sucrose, also
most important
considered,
sugar, commercially
known
cane
as
(see Chapter IX). As a
sugar or beet sugar
and sale
human
food it is widelyused, and its manufacture
constitute a prominent industry. In some
plantssucrose

found

are

occurs

only in

in abundance,

the south.
is

small

to-day

The
a

very

sugar

in
in the sugar cane, which grows
beet which thrives in northern climes

as

important

of sugar.

source

Sucrose

in
exists in sorghum and in considerable quantities

fieldcorn,
contain

sweet

an

other sugars

potatoes, and

pineapples.Fruits

appreciableamount
and

organicacids.
also known
Chapter IX, dextrose,

of this sugar
As
as

ordinary
generally

mixed

already pointed
glucose and

also

grape

with
out

in

sugar,

CHEMISTRY

250
is

wry

AND

DAILY

importantarticleof commerce,

the market

in the form

it is also present to

some

LIFE

usuallyappearingon

of certain candies and sirups,


though
extent

in molasses,which

see.

Corn

ing
sirupis glucosepreparedby the usual method, i.e.by heatstarch with dilute sulphuric
acid ; see Chapter IX, where
the behavior of dextrose and other sugars toward Fehling's
solution is also described.
is formed

from

Fructose

starch when

occurs

in fruits,and

seeds

germinate. These
sugars too have been described in Chapter IX.
The
closely related to the carbohydrates.
pectins are
of fruits such as applesand
of the jellying
They are the cause
currants.
They exist in greater abundance in fruit that is
not quiteripe,and consequentlythis is commonly selected
for jellymaking in preference
such unto ripefruit. When
ripe
fruits are
and are
cooked, the pectinstake up water
bodies which set to a firm mass
on
changed into gelatinous
cooling.
The tough or woody parts of planttissues consist of cellulose.
Wood, cotton, linen, hemp, flax,etc.,when freedfrom
mineral matter, are almost pure cellulose,
as
already stated in
Celluloseis insoluble in water, and is not readily
Chapter IX.
attacked even
see
by strong acids,as previouslyexplained,
In tables of the results of food analysis,the
Chapter IX.
This material is largely
term
crude fiberis commonly used.

maltose

cellulose.
Plant

tissues also contain fats and

said in Chapter IX

as

to

the chemical

reviewed
should be carefully
will be recalled that

oils,and what

though

fats and

nature

has been

of such

pounds
com-

in this connection.

It

oils,like the carbohydrates,

consist of carbon, hydrogen,and oxygen,

yet they

are

compounds. The fatsand oils


and other fatty
mixtures of esters of oleic,
stearic,
are
palmitic,
is set
acids with glycerine
actingas the base. The glycerine
an

entirelydifferent class

of

CHEMISTRY

252

as

DAILY

oats, barley,rye, and

corn,

peanuts

run

oils from

wheat

LIFE

contain from

cotton
fat; while flaxseed (linseed),

five per cent

as

high

as

thirtyto forty-five
per

of the seeds

some

cottonseed and

Thus

AND

olive oils

are

to

seed, and
cent.

of great commercial

are

two

The
value.

importantarticles of food,

(compare Chapter XII) is used in enormous


in the paintindustries.
quantities
In Chapter V
Some
plantsproduceacids in abundance.
attention has already been called to this fact. Thus citric
while linseed oil

acid

in lemons

occurs

present in

and

other citrous fruits ; malic acid is

apples,currants,
givesthe tart taste

sour

tartaric acid

mountain
to

in rhubarb, oxalis,and

grapes

ash berries,
etc.;
;

and

oxalic acid

the

jack-in-the-pulpit
The ordinaryfarm seeds,roots, and fodders,
however,are free
to fermentation
from acids ; and it is onlywhen theyare subjected
A familiar example of
that acids are formedfrom them.
this is the productionof silage. Here fermentation changes
the sugars of the fresh corn
mainly to acetic and lactic acids
(see Chapter IX for a descriptionof these), and it is the
volatile acids that give to silageits sour
smell. The sour
smell of the ill-kept
kitchen garbage pailis also due to volatile
What
has been
organic acids produced by fermentation.
said about organicacids in Chapter IX should be carefully
may

be found

reviewed

The

here.

complex compounds, are


to the life of every cell. They consist
absolutely
necessary
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
times
nitrogen,sulphur,and somephosphorus about in the proportionsindicated in
It is for the purpose
Chapter IX.
of buildingup these proteins
that the root of the plant must
have access
to nitrates,
the
and phosphates.If any one of these is lacking,
sulphates,
Just as there are various carbohydrates,
plantceases to grow.
so

proteins, which

there

are

are

several kinds of

very

proteins.A

familiar

one

is the

PLANT

LIFE

AND

IT

WHAT

253

PRODUCES

This will dissolve in water


of the egg.
and coagulate
when heated.
The process of the coagulationof albumen

albumen

is

reallya remarkable

understood.

Some

reallydepend

upon

of
properties
secures

the

the housewife

by

no

fully

means

of

observation

and
the chemical, physical,

proteins. So, for


cud

of gum

watches

the

separate from the cold

water

the liquidis boiled,or


the egg

is

matters

common

very

tenacious

change which

physiological
example,the farmer's boy

from

fresh wheat

kernels,

stringsof coagulated albumen


extracts

observes

of fresh lean beef when

the white

harden

mass

as

The seeds of plants


dropped into boilingwater.
richer in proteins
than the stems.
Wheat
are
graincontains
from eleven to twelve per cent of protein,
while in the straw
there

is

only from three

are

rich
particularly

to

four per cent.

Some

seeds

are

in

proteins. So, for instance, peas and


beans may
contain from sixteen to twenty per cent of protein.
The proteinsthat are soluble in water
called albumins.
are
They are found in the juiceof plants,but also in blood,
in eggs.
The globulinsare another class
milk, and especially
of

proteins which

insoluble in water,

they are

the ground seed with


There

abundantly in

most

occur

they may

five per cent

seeds.

be dissolved

solution of

While

by treating
salt.

common

which cannot
be mentioned
proteins
here. When heated with soda lime all proteins
giveoffammonia,
which fact is frequently
used to detect their presence.
Certain
are

numerous

other

color reactions to which attention will be called in connection


with the

laboratoryexperiments(Chapter XXII) also

serve

for this purpose.


In young

growing plant tissue there is found a group of


amides."
In complexityof
nitrogenoussubstances called
"

chemical composition,these liebetween

proteins. It is in the
of the

form

the nitrates and the

of these amides

growing plant is carried around

to

that the

nitrogen

the various cells.

254

kind

Nitrogenouscompounds of this
hays and

roots

in

contained

far

are

in

trogen
part of the ni-

hays, like timothy, the

for

plants cut

abundant

more

considerable

in seeds.

than

LIFE

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

alfalfa,is in this form.

clovers, and

QUESTIONS
What

1.

What

2.

What

3.

is

name

things are

three

given

given

effect does

to

common

all

living

living part of the seed ?

to the

to make

necessary

substance

the

to

is it contained

In what

matter

is

name

What

seed sprout ?

have

temperature

germination of

the

on

seeds ?
How

4.

differ in

seeds

the

they

way

the

through

come

ground

What

5.

do

of the root, and

action

is the

material

food

does

how

it ?

enter

What

6.

proportion of the solid substance

of

plant comes

from

the air ?
What

7.

is

especiallyactive
What

8.

the
9.

10.

fruits
in its
11.

What
12.

is the function
a

plant do ?

of

substance

What

in the leaf

starch ?

sunlight in making
that

plant with

three substances

that

of

animal.

an

carbohydrates.

are

pare
Com-

How

would

for starch ?

How
causes

does

cane

their

differ from

sugar

jellying?

starch ?

does

How

What

substance

cellulose differ from

in

starch

properties?
What
does
What

elements

What

are

the ether extract


elements

important element
13.

sunlight?

in

breathing of

Name

test

you

an

does the leaf of

two

acids

are

contained
in the

found

in fats ?
process

in

in the soil ?
are

found

Name

in

of food

protein ?
a

silage?

dissolves fats ?

What

Why

analysiscontain ?
is

protein.

nitrogen such

CHAPTER
THE

ANIMALS

the carbon

nor

AND

ANIMAL

feed

cannot

XVIII

on

in

dioxide

FEED

ITS

the mineral
the air.

in the soil

matter

Plants

live

both.

on

The

lies in their ability


to
of plantsto man
chiefusefulness
convert the minerals of the soil and the carbon dioxide of the air

into substances

that will nourish

domestic animals.

Plants form

him

and

his servants

"

the

the natural food of the animal

of the farm.

The

bodies of animals

teeth, hair, etc.


the

consist of flesh,fat, bones, blood,

nevertheless,the chemist

classes of substances

same

are

would

say

that

mals
present in the bodies of ani-

found in plants; namely, water, ash or mineral


fats, and carbohydrates. Each of these
matter, proteins,
substances from the plant may
be utilized by the animal in
similar materials in its body. But plants
forming somewhat
contain important substances,like cellulose and the starches,
as

which

are

are

not

present in animals.

The

starches

represent

of the most importantfoodsof animals. Instead of adding


starch to its own
body unchanged,the animal converts it into
animal fat,or uses
it as a fuel to produce animal heat.
lulose,
Celbeinga very resistant material,is utilized by animals as
Most of it that iseaten passes out
extent.
foodonlyto a slight

one

of the intestine

as

part of the feces.

More

than

halfof the

weightof the body of an

animal

the water which

drink,theyeat food which is in

measure

animals

composedof water.
255

consists of water

and

besides
a

large

256

CHEMISTRY

The

dry

mineral

AND

matter

DAILY

which

LIFE

remains

when

the bodies

plantsor animals are burned is called the ash. The nature


of plantash has already received attention.
The ash of an
animal
comes
mainly from its skeleton. While the skeleton
usuallyrepresents only about 8 per cent of the total weight

of

of

an

animal, nevertheless

body is in

this

95 per cent

earthy framework,

of all of the ash of the

which

consists

principally
of calcium phosphate. The ash of the animal always contains
all of the mineral elements that are necessary for the growth
mineral constituents that a plant
of the plant. The same
have in order to be able to develop are also required
must
by the animal in its process of growth. Animals generally
sodium and chlorine than plants,
contain more
for the blood
is rich in common
salt. There is generally
abundance of
an
ash in the common
feedsto supplyall of the mineral matter the
animal needs. But pigsfed on grainalone,without access
to
receive wood ashes in their feed,for
to advantage
a pasture, may
this will furnish them
and
to range

other

tion
lime,and thus aid in bone forma-

more

ways.

Laying

need extra mineral

bone, or limestone.

These

used by the hen in

matter

hens

having no

in the form

opportunity

of oyster shells,

should be suitablyground.

They

making the shell of the egg.


The animal is essentially
a protein
structure,while the plant
is a carbohydrate
structure; for the animal is rich in proteins,
and the plant usuallydoes not contain so much
of these
mal
compounds. The proteins of the plant are used by the anilean meat, muscle, blood, nerves, brain,hoofs,
to make
hair,and the casein of milk. It is also very probable that
fat,which is non-nitrogenousin character,may be formed
from proteins
; but this questionis stilldisputed. Proteins
In the case
of a dog that eats
of energy.
a source
serve
as
only meat, probablythe greater part of the proteineaten is
not
stored, but used as fuel for producingbody heat. An
are

ANIMAL

THE

animal
have

ITS

AND

257

FEED

but it must
or fat,
get along without carbohydrates
certain amount
ofproteinin its dailyration,
for the cells
can

which can
losingnitrogen,
only be
constantly
by protein.
replaced
free from nitrogen. Those
The fats,it will be recalled,
are
be depositedin the tissues of
with the food may
consumed
essential change. Small depositsof fat,
the body without

of

the

body

are

in every

indeed, occur
in

cell,but the

held

amount

greatlywith the nutritive condition of the


lazy, overfed pig will have great reserves

varies

reserve

So

animal.

of fat,while
The

and

organ

horse will not

hard-worked

fat of the food is either burned

heat and mechanical

or

energy,

show

in the

it is stored

as

such

body

reserves.

to furnish

reserve

material.

starch,sugars, and cellulose,


carbohydrates, especially

The

origin.They
part ofallfoodofvegetable
form by far the largest
dized
not stored permanentlyin the body, but as they are oxiare
in the system they furnish heat or mechanical work.
of sugar in the blood,
less
There is always a small amount
"

than

one

contain

per
an

cent,

but

"

after

of the

abundance

reallyanimal starch.

But

meal

the liver and

muscles

carbohydrateglycogen,which

this is only a small

portionof

is

the

carbohydrates.When consumed in
of the immediate
are
excess
requirements,carbohydrates
illustration
changedto fatsand stored as such. As a practical
animal's dailyintake of

of this truth may

be mentioned

the well-known

rich in starch,as
meal, which is particularly
The

animal
some

body performs work.


energy

Even

a
an

value of

food.
fattening
idle horse

in the circulation of the blood

digestionof food. The

more

work

corn

and

pends
ex-

the

the horse does, the greater

expend ; and so the horse uses


in the food he eats for the
a part of the energy
represented
production of motion, just as a steam
engine uses coal in
In addition,a certain amount
furnishingpower.
offood is
the amount

of energy

he must

258

CHEMISTRY

AND

oxidized in the animal

body dailyto

The temperatureof domestic animals


which

is much

DAILY

above

LIFE

maintain
and

man

its temperature.
is about 38" C.,

the

prevailingtemperature of any
climate, and to maintain this temperaturefuel is required.
All of the foodstuffs
carbohydrates,fats,and proteins
fuel in the animal body to produce heat and
serve
as
may
other forms of energy ; but when fats and carbohydratesare
the proteinsof the tissues are not normally burned
available,
for this purpose.
and fats are lacking
Only when carbohydrates
will the animal burn up its proteins; and so, because the
latter are relatively
economical to have
expensive,it is more
in the diet as sources
a plentiful
supplyoffatsand carbohydrates
protein,however,
of heat and other energy, providingsufficient
when new
in growth,or when milk
to be built,
tissues are
as
is to be produced,as in the case
A working
of the milch cow.
horse needs some
protein,but uses mainly carbohydrates
and plant fats for the production of heat and work.
A
pound of fat will produce2.4 times as much heat as a pound
of carbohydrates;which will not seem
strange when it is
that fats contain relatively
much
remembered
carbon
more
than is present in carbohydrates.A pound of proteinwill
of heat as a pound of caramount
bohydrates.
produce about the same
"

The

"

important process by which the food of animals or


is rendered capable of being absorbed
into the system
man
and used in building
up or renewing the tissues of the body
is called digestion. So, for instance,corn
meal or hay cannot
directlybe transferred to the blood. These must first
gestive
be brought into solution before they can
pass out of the ditract into the blood and lymph ; for justas no solid
solid
so
no
can
particles
pass into a plantthroughits rootlets,
can
particles
pass through the walls of the alimentarycanal
into the body. Furthermore, justas the rootlets of a plant

260

CHEMISTRY

fluid also prepares

AND

DAILY

LIFE

the food for

tion
swallowing. After masticathe food passes down the gullet
into the stomach.
In the
case
of man, the horse,and the pig,the stomach is a singlesac,
and true digestion
In ruminants
begins here at once.
(cud
chewers),like the ox and the sheep,the stomach consists offour
is reached by the food does
sacs, and not until the fourthone
true digestion
begin. These sacs are used for storage, and
The largepaunch
they are rather complicatedin structure.
of

the

the

which

ox,

is

first compartment

reached
after

of 50

is in

food

leaves

it

mouth,

the

by
has

the

capacity
to 60 gallons. It
the paunch that
a

the food is stored


because

its

of

and

coarse

nature, it is returned
later for

the mouth

to

thoroughdividing
and mixing with saliva.
more

This
FIG. 89.

"

Stomach

of

"

The

is what

is called

horse.

action of the saliva

on

chewing

the food in the

the

cud."

paunch is thus

longerthan would be the case in the true


the food reaches the
stomach
of man
the pig. When
or
in the pig,true
fourth stomach
in the ox, or the first one
from cells
fluidcomes
digestionbegins. The active digestive
continued

in the
a

much

membrane

mucous

watery

fluid

acid,and the
bination

that

two

enzymes,

pepsin and

acid is the

the

proteinsof

on

stomach.

It is

containingvarious salts,free hydrochloric

ofpepsinand

It acts

lines the

rennin.

This

com-

tion.
effective
agent in the digesthem
the food,dissolving

ANIMAL

THE

AND

ITS

261

FEED

by convertingthem into simple nitrogenousbodies. This


works best at the body temperature,
like ptyalin,
enzyme,
38" C.
It is said that the stomach
juiceof the sheep has
low acidity,0.1 per
a
cent, while
is

dog

of the

that

much

higher.

Chemically the results


in the stomachs
accomplished
of all farm animals
the same;

are

the
to

thai is,

are
changed
proteins
simple soluble nitrogenous

substances.
utilization

of

The
coarse

feed

by the horse is not


complete as by the

as

ox,

for the

reason

that

FIG. 90.

"

Stomach

of

sheep.

with the former there is


remastication before the food material comes
preliminary
with the gastricjuice. The purpose
into contact
of the
rennin in the stomach juiceis to curdle the milk. Here rennin
acts exactlythe same
when it is used in making cheese.
as
no

As

milk, the sole

fluid which

cannot

source

be

of nutriment

for the young,

absorbed, it would
directly

not

is
be

so

not firstconverted to a solid


completelydigestedif it were
for it would pass through the intestine too fast. The
mass,
rennin curdles it and givesthe pepsina longertime to act.

When

the food leaves the stomach, it enters


At

this

testine
the small in-

point it is only partlydigested. The fats


have not been changed,
and undoubtedlya considerable part
of the proteinsand carbohydrates
is stillto be acted upon.
The juicefrom the pancreas, which is poured into the intestine
at a point justbelow the junctionof the stomach
and small

262

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

the solution of all


is the active agent in completing
intestine,
be digested.It is a stronglyalkaline
the materials that can

solution and contains three enzymes,

(1) trypsin,a protein-

and (3)
(2) lipase,a fat-splitting
splitting
enzyme,
enzyme,
amylopsin, a starch-digesting
By the action of this
enzyme.
becomes
the acid chyme from the stomach
alkaline,
juice,
and the unattacked
proteins,fats, and carbohydrates are
reduced to simplercompounds, which are more
soluble in
testina
the juiceand capable of being absorbed
through the inwall. The fat undergoes but little change,but a
part of it is converted to soap, the formation of which helps
divided
to hold the rest of the fat in suspensionas very finely
that can be absorbed.
globules
The
proteins,carbohydrates,and fats of the food are
Throughdigested
by the processes justdescribed.
gradually
out the length
proceedsrapidly.
of the longintestine absorption
Water, salts,and the products of digestionpass from the
intestine into the circulating
lymph and blood. The sugars
and stored
carried to the liver,converted into glycogen,
are
temporarily,
being doled out again to the blood in constant
cells of the body
to be carried to the remotest
quantities
carried to all the cells of the body,
for fuel. The proteins
are
in the work of repair
and new
where they serve
growth. The
fatsare either depositedin the various tissues,or are used
food by the hungry and moving muscle cells.
as
with oxygen.
Here purple
In the lungsthe blood is supplied
which it
blood is changed to scarlet by the oxygen
venous
At the same
absorbs.
bon
time, a considerable quantity of cardioxide,which was formed in the burning of fuel in the
and given
is brought to the lungs by the blood stream
cells,
air contains about 21 per cent ofoxygen
up to the air. Inspired
and 0.03 per cent of carbon dioxide,while in expiredair there
is approximately16.5 per cent of oxygen and 4-4 Per ceni "f

ANIMAL

THE

carbon dioxide.

Though

263

FEED

is absorbed

oxygen

the process

here that

is not

ITS

AND

of oxidation

in the

lungs,it

of the carbon

and

of the food takes place. The blood acts


hydrogen content
actually
simply as a carrier of oxygen and the combustion itself
tissues.
takes placein the remote
The
nutrients of foods are not wholly digested.A part
and
passes through the animal without having been liquefied
dissolved by the digestive
juicesand thereby made available

Foods

the animal.

to

such
cellulose,

hays,straws,

as

will leave much

differ in this respect.


and

the

Those

rich in

parts ofgrains,

coarse

residues than whole grains


greater indigested

digested.
of grains. Milk is completely
likewise differ in their ability
feeds.
to digest
coarse
and the horse will make better use of hay and straw
pig. This is mainly due to the largestorage apparatus

the interior parts

or

Animals
The

cow

than the

in the former

animals.

Because

of these differences in

of their nutrients
of feeds, the availability
digestibility

the

naturallydiffers.

This

of the
availability

nutrients

of foods

is called the coefficient of digestibility.It is the amount


nutrients that the animal

of

from a givenfeed. For


of the dry matter
example, the coefficient of digestibility
of corn
meal is 89.6, and that of timothy hay is 57.9. This
from corn
that in 100 pounds of dry matter
means
meal,
89.6 pounds are
available,while in timothy hay but 57.9
pounds are available. These figuresare for the cow.
Larger
reference books on the subjectof feeds and feedingmust
be consulted for tables givingsuch coefficientsof digestibility
can

secure

of foods for the various domestic


A

knowledge
animal

in the

ought to be fed,that is,it suggests

feeding standard.
many

of the several
digestibility
feedingmaterial determines how

of the relative

nutrients contained
an

animals.

Such

knowledge

experiments with animals.

has

It has

how

been

to

make

secured

also been

by

found

264

CHEMISTRY

AND

LIFE

DAILY

practicethat the feedof an animal may be varied within


proteinsto
fairlywide limits,providedthe ratio of digestible
all other digestible
organicmatter is keptwithin certain limits.
functions and less than a certain quanProtein has special
tity
the
would limit growth or production. For this reason
be held within defiratio of protein
to the other nutrients must
nite
in

It will be recalled that fat and

limits.

that

starch

are

used

pound of fat can produce 2.4 times as


The nutritive ratio is
much
heat as a pound of starch.
always expressedas amount
of proteinto amount
of starch,
includingin the starch the fat reduced to a starch basis. The
nutritive ratio consequently becomes :
for fuel,and

The
The

follows

as

weight of digestibleprotein

weight of digestiblecarbohydrate +

example,the

For

100

nutritive ratio of

fat
(digestible

2.4)

is obtained

meal

corn

Ib. contain

7.9 Ib. digestible


protein.
66.7 Ib. digestible
carbohydrates.

fat.
4.3 Ib. digestible
7.9

7.9

7.9

66.7 +
The

(4.3 X 2.4)

there

66.7 +

76.02

9.32

9.6

nutritive ratio
that for

means

J^

=
~

are

9.6

This
1 : 9.6.
of corn meal is therefore
proteinin corn meal
every pound of digestible
carbohydrates and fat
pounds of digestible

equivalentthereto. A wide ratio is one in which there is a


of carbohydratesin proportionto the protein.
largeamount
ratio
Oat straw has a wide ratio,namely 1 : 33.7.
The corn
is medium, while the ratio of oil meal, 1
The
are

many

Wolff-Lehiriann

the oldest and

most

scientific and

feeding standards
used.

They

were

1.7,is called narrow.


for farm

animals

constructed

practicalexperiments

on

after

domestic

ANIMAL

THE

animals

had

made

been

AND

ITS

determine

to

the proper

protein,fat, and carbohydrates for


of this work

are

embodied

standards.
i.e.

in what

ration

not

The

commonly
conforming to such
are

containingthe proper amounts


is called
fat, and carbohydrates,
are

amounts

ration.

of

one

Feeding standards

265

FEED

hard and

results

ing
called feeda

standard,

digestibleprotein,

balanced

of

fastrules,because

ration.

there

are

in feeds and animals ; but they are good general


differences
guides. Below are examples of standard rations for several
animals.
For complete tables,texts on feeds and feeding
should be consulted.

WOLFF-LEHMANN
FOR

1000

LB.

This table indicates that

STANDARD
LIVE

WEIGHT,

DAILY

22 pounds of milk
yielding
of average
compositionwill need daily 29 pounds of dry
protein,
matter, which shall contain 2.5 pounds of digestible
13 pounds of carbohydrates,
and 0.5 pound of fat,for every
1000 pounds of her live weight.
that animals
thrive
Practical tests have shown
generally
better when the ration is properly
balanced. A balanced ration

is

more

animal.

economical
There

is

cow

for the farmer

generallywaste

animal is fed
If,for instance,
an

as

in

well
an

as

better for the

unbalanced

ration which

is too

ration.

high in

266

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

LIFE

it will consume
more
carbohydratesand too low in protein,
carbohydrates than it needs in order to get the necessary
protein. Sometimes, under specialconditions,depending
the feed

on

hand

on

desirable to feed

an

and

the market

value, it is necessary
This

ration.

unbalanced

or

ever,
should,how-

guardedagainstas far as possible.


Young animals requireless food than older ones, to produce
increase in their weight. Thus it is more
the same
profitable
is less than a year old than one nearlytwo
to fatten
a pig which
need an
abundance
of protein
years old. Growing animals
be

ash

and

in their rations.

Narrow

rations

suit them

best.

adapted for young


The foodrequirements
animals
offattening
growing animals.
animal is
an
fattening,
are
from this. When
quitedifferent
not storing
consequentlyitsdemands for protein
up protein,
In fact,
much less than in the case of a growing animal.
are
Milk

is

ration, and

narrow

and fatscan
carbohydrates

animals, and
been found

Working

be abundant

in the rations

nutritive ration of 1

satisfactory.This is much

by
considered

it is well

as

the Wolff-Lehmann
sound

animals

10 has

wider than

of fattening

actually
that

standard, but it is

ommended
recnow

practiceby the best authorities.


be fed rations
also advantageously
may

of fairlywide nutritive ratios. Both heat and other energy


be produced by animals from carbohydratesand fats,
can

largesupply of
proteinabove that requiredfor maintenance need be supplied.
abundance of carbohydrates,
The farmer always producesan
that working and fattening
it is fortunate
and for this reason
be properlyfed with the farm-grown
animals as well can
without the purchaseof proteinconcentrates, such
materials,
as
gluten feed, bran, or oil meal. Horses working on the
of the FijiIslands receive 15 pounds of
plantations
sugar
and their feed has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 11.8.
molasses daily,
as

already stated.

Since this is true,

no

CHEMISTRY

268

foods

Do

9.

in

residues

10.

What

is

11.

From

the
ratio

nutritive
From

12.

weighing

cow

materials

The

What

13.

pig,

working

meant

the

the

in

same

1000

oat

horse,

grain

may

and

and

feeds

large

leave

there

growing

feed

also

balanced

giving

be

gluten

feed,

in

ration

animal

the
?

calculate

the

milk.

of

ration

pounds

30

feeding,

hay
a

corn,

of

and

alfalfa

calculate

oats,

are

ratio

on

and

pounds

differences

text

tables,

available

nutritive

the

by

tables

of

foods

intestine

the

What

digestibility?

in

differ

LIFE

DAILY

AND

of
and

of

for

milk
alfalfa

dairy
daily.
hay.

fattening

XIX

CHAPTER
AND

HUMAN

foods consumed

THE

origin. The

animal

ANIMAL

FOODS

by human beingsare of vegetableand


vegetablekingdom furnishes all of the

constituents of food in cheaper form

necessary

of animals

and

without

characteristic of

an

of

excess

than

the meat

protein. The

vegetable
foods is

guishing
distin-

their richness

in

a
feature which offersa strikingcontrast to
carbohydrates,
which contains practically
animal flesh,
no
carbohydrates.The
food of animal origincontaininga fair proporonly common
tion

of

The

carbohydrates is milk

with

of milk

its content

disadvantageof vegetable
foods is that they are

bulky and

as

rule but

are

Bulkiness

property

relatively

for their chief


incompletely
digested,

nutrient, starch,is contained


walls of which

sugar.

in

vast

number

of cells the

composed of cellulose,which, as already


pointed out, is not easilydissolved by the digestivejuices.
It is strongly
in favorofvegetable
tain
foods,however,that theyconand that in
all of the various essential food constituents,
these are present in well-balanced proportion.
vegetables
many
foods.

is

It is due

that

chieflyto

is

the

to

common

largeamounts

carbohydrates which vegetablematter

all

vegetable

of water

contains.

The

and
green

especially
bulky ; in fact,their bulk is
of nutrients which
out of all proportion
to the small amount
Four-fifths of the weight of fruits,green
they contain.
peas, beans, cabbage,carrots, radishes,etc., is due to water.
It is probably safe to conclude, however, that the proteins.

fresh

vegetables

are

269

270

AND

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

LIFE

in vegetables
are
equalin nutritive value
fats,and carbohydrates
substances derived from the animal kingdom.
to the same
is made

Bread

nutrition

of human

the

from

the

"

of cereals rests
made

domestic

our

the fact that

on

furnish

them

from

and

in

used

animals.

they and

mineral

The

the

matter

agreeableform.

an

alone, they

cheaply,
qualities

"

These

theless,
Neverfor the

productionof growth, and should consequentlybe


like milk or eggs.
by foods richer in protein,
case

of domestic

and

oil meals

will

prominent

Indian
as

furnish the

to

serve

like

concentrates

(maize) and

corn

these

of energy.

sources

loiv fat content,while the oat

In

the

gluten feeds

protein
cereals,

some

consequently

are

and

Rice

and

panied
accom-

additional

carbohydratespredominate in

required. The
like rice and

animals, mill

teins,
pro-

"

well suited

not

are

portance
im-

products

foodstuffs of the firstrank.

the cereals as
distinguish
when

also enter

the chief food constituents

carbohydrates,fats, and
abundantly,

It is the basis

staff of life. Cereals

rations of

largelyinto the

cereals.

grainsof

have

wheat

grain contain

high
proteinin

corn

as

of fat. Though the proportionof


nishes
cereals varies,yet the proteinis extremelyuseful,for it furthe materials necessary
for the growth and repairof
as

per

tissue.

cent

Wheat

is the most

importantcereal,but

and buckwheat
oats, barley,
character

making

of the
of

also

are

light,porous

most

light,
porous

ancient

This

bread.

The

sticky

of

foods.

and
slightly

general composition
water, 11 per cent ;

of

but

none

It

was

The

averages
the

10
protein,

of the other cereals

Barley is one

highly esteemed
about

cereals

11

per

is about

to 12 per cent

of the

by the
in cereals

of water

amount

the

property is also

same

loaf of bread.

athletes of ancient Greece.


varies but

of greatvalue.

rice,corn,

adapts it to
of wheat peculiarly
proteins

possessedby the proteins


of rye,
will make

rye,

cent.
as

The

follows

carbohydrates,

HUMAN

ANIMAL

AND

65 to 70 per cent ; fat,0.5 to 8 per cent


are

averages
to

as

run

may

high

but

grown

these

but

grainshaving thick

have

cellulosecontent

being used

Before

appliedtoo rigidly

Thus

the proteinsof

or

as

in which

low

8.5 per

as

the wheat

and

extreme

only from

Such

per cent.

be

not

17 per cent,

as

figuresare

of the cereals contain

ash,2

grain.

the climate

depending upon

cent,

of

particularsample

any

wheat

useful,but they should

271

FOODS

unusual.

was

Most

of cellulose;

2 to 3 per cent

coats, like oats and buckwheat,

outer

of 10 to 12 per cent.

food, the cereals

for human

usually

are

cellulose
powder the coarser
sifted out, and the fine product so obtained is
are
particles
meal
called flour, the term
being appliedto the coarser
out the bran, i.e.the outer coating
products. In thus sifting
this

From

ground

to

of the

grain in

matter

in the flour is greatlyreduced.

powder.

the

be better iftheir bread


the cellulose and
in their action.

case

were

mineral

of wheat, the

made
matter

from

quantity of

For children it would

the

coarser

meal, because

contained in it

Twenty-fiveyears

mineral

are

the wheat

ago

laxative

simply

was

ground between millstones,and then crudely


three
separated into three products by sifting.These
and middlings. Bran, which
productswere called bran,flour,
is so commonly fed to dairy cows
to-day,is rich in mineral
in potassium and phosphorus,but it also
matter, especially
crushed

and

contains about 15 per cent

taken from
Foods

the wheat

are

of protein.

All of these have

been

kernel.

preparedfor

the table

by baking
acted

and

cooking,

physically,
The chemical compounds
chemically,and bacteriologically.
of which foods are composed are altered to a greateror lesser
during which

degreeby heat.

processes

In

they

are

upon

boilinga potato, for instance,the cellulose

of the cell walls unites to

is,it is partlyhydrated,and

certain extent
so

becomes

with water

softened.

that

Further-

272

CHEMISTRY

at the

more,

changed

to

AND

DAILY

LIFE

water, starch is slightly


temperature of boiling

dextrin ; but

the temperature

is not

because
change is only slight,

high enough

On the other hand


of the starch will be

the

when

to

baked

effect complete alteration.


with

dry heat,more

dextrinized,for the temperature of the

is

The
considerablyabove that of boilingwater.
by boiling
water, but by
sugars are not altered appreciably
dry heat they may be changed to a dark brown substance
called caramel.
During the formation of caramel, water is
given off. The dark color of the crust of the loafof bread is
oven

due to caramel.
heat.

Some

The

acted upon to some


extent
by
of the vegetableoils undergo slight
oxidation,

but these changes are


on

fats

not

are

regarded as of

the food value of these substances.


tend to become

any

great influence

In

general,the proteins
less soluble by the action of heat, but

all

proteinsare thus altered. The white of the egg is


coagulatedby heat, but the main proteinof corn meal is not.
Coagulatedor hardened proteinwill be digestedmore
slowly
than raw
protein.But cooking produces such important
starch and the cell wall,that
on
physicalchanges,especially
its good effects more
than counterbalance
the unfavorable
not

action

on

the proteins.

The

physicalchangesproduced by heat and water consist


tissues of
of a partial
disintegration
of the animal and vegetable
foods. The cementingmaterials are loosened,and a softening
of the tissues results. Often the action proceedsstillfarther
in the case of vegetablefoods,resulting
in the disintegration
of the individual starch granules. When
foods are subjected
to

dry heat,
the

their moisture

is converted

into steam, which

burstingof the cells. Popping corn is a good


illustrationof this. In baking bread or other cereal doughs,
the starch grainsare partially
ruptured,and they are consequently
more
readilydigestedthan when raw.
Prolonged
causes

HUMAN

ANIMAL

AND

273

FOODS

improving the mechanical


condition of the tissues. At too high a temperature, the
natural flavoring
materials in the foods are partlyvolatilized,
foods in water, salts are
lost. By boiling
and so, of course,
and slow heat is most

FIG. 91.

"

(A) Popcorn

effective in

(B) Popcorn
partly popped.
Highly magnified.

fully popped.

is lowered.
palatability
lessened by adding salt
This undesirable effect will be greatly
in proper quantity.
to the water
The bacterial organisms in foods are destroyedin the process
of cooking,
provideda temperature of 150" F. is reached

extracted

and

from

maintained

of foods

them, and

so

their

for several minutes.

rarelyreach

temperature

The

above

interior parts
200"

F. while

Not only are bacteria destroyed


by cooking
cookinggoes on.
but various parasites,
such as trichina and tapeworms,
or baking,
also destroyed.But it should be remembered
that cooked
are
foods are
cases
more
readly
easilyreinoculated ; in some
than fresh foods, because they are in a more
disintegrated
condition. In many
instances,bacteria and yeasts are of
material assistance in the preparation
of food, as in bread
making, butter making,and the curingof cheese; and it must

274

CHEMISTRY

be borne in mind
,

entlynot

at all harmful

and

water

bake

Bread

mass.

when

The

it.

with the

eaten

is

are

appar-

food.

raw

food it must

as

is to

simplestway

This

be made

may

LIFE

the bacteria

cases

flour available

manner,.

proper

DAILY

that in such

In order to make

in

AND

be cooked
it with

mix

ship'sbiscuit, a leaden, heavy

light
by havinga

gas, carbon

dioxide,

in the mass, which slowlypushes the particles


develop
apart and
The viscid nature
of the gluten
thus produces
a light
sponge.
of the flour allows this to be done successfully.To produce
this gas, yeast is commonly

plants,capable of breaking
and

The

alcohol.

carbon

It consists of very

used.
up

into

sugar

minute

dioxide

carbon

dioxide gas is the effective agent

Two-thirds of the bulk of the ferthe dough.


mented
lightening
bread is gas.
Of the solid residue,about 40 per cent is

in

less than

much
This is relatively

water.

is from

of meat, which
a

than

littlemore
of

7 to 8 per cent

70 to 80 per
50 per

and
proteins,

All baking powders

at least two

carbonate, and (2) a compound which


dioxide gas.

carbon

obtained

commonly

is almost
known

The

carbonate

always
"

as

be

used

and

the gas

"

in

common

is

The
in

are

being

use

acid,H2C4H4O6,

tartaric

separatelyor

calcium

alum, NH4A1(SO4)2. These

in combination.

All

of

these

tened,
bakingsoda and moisin the food differ
widelyin amount
productsleft

character.

that remains

which

saleratus."
or
baking soda
to decompose the baking soda

liberatecarbon dioxide when


but the

liberate the

bicarbonate, NaHC03,

sodium

acid phosphate, CaH4(PO4)2,and


may

of fat and ash.

to

serves

"

of tartar,KHC4H4O6,

tains
con-

(1) a
ingredients,

from

compounds that serve


general acidic in character, those
cream

also

carbohydrates,about

2 to 3 per cent

contain

content

Bread

cent.

of

cent

the water

mixed with

It is the nature
in the bread

bakingpowder is more

and

which

amount

determines

desirable than another.

of the residue
whether

In the

one
cream

276

CHEMISTRY

proteinstock
from
as

The

feed under

24 to 28 per

the

cent

former

consists of the whole

brewing of

allowed to
the action
seeds.

In

It

tains
con-

grain which has

been

polished
The patent barleyis simply
used in
Barley is extensively

malt

liquors.In brewing, the seed is first


sprout ; thus starch is changed to sugars through
of diastase,a ferment which occurs
in germinating
broken by yeasts into carbon
turn the sugars are

dioxide and alcohol.


in these

flour.

of gluten feed.

of either pearl or patent barley.

of the husk.
to

LIFE

protein. Barley is chieflyused

food in the form

pearlbarleyground

DAILY

name

human

after removal

the

AND

liquors.The

The

alcohol is the constituent

residues from

wanted

ling
brewing and distilindustries are dried. They are rich proteincattle foods,
such as brewers' grains and distillers'grains,havinga content
of 25 to 30 per cent of protein. Ajax
is such dried distillers'
grain. The cereal grain rice is extremely rich in
carbohydrates,and the common
product on the market has
been preparedby polishing
the original
seed. This polishing
was
formerly carried out by rotatingthe seeds in
process
drums lined with sheepskin,
the
but is now
done by agitating
grainswith talc.
In preparingbreakfast
foods, the entire clean grain is
in some
ground or pulverized
cases, while in others the bran
In order to improve their keepand germ are first removed.
ing
these foods are often sterilizedbefore being put
qualities,
is a preparation
Shredded wheat
up in sealed packages.
"

"

"

"

of whole

the

wheat, which has been cooked, then shredded, and


"

Force

of flakes,cooked

with

baked.
finally

"

is malted

steam.

whole wheat

By malting

or

in the form

partlypre-

digestingthe starch, a part of the latter is made soluble.


Grapenuts is another malted preparationof the entire
wheat
of
berry. The process of maltinghas changed some
the starch to sugar which gives the food its sweet
taste.
"

"

Oatmeal

This

AND

is the whole

oat

reduces

the

ANIMAL

with

corn,

277

FOODS

the outer

cellulose content

consist of cooked

flakes

malt

HUMAN

has

been

When

honey, dried,rolled,and baked.

removed.

materially. Corn

very

which

husk

treated

with

the amount

of
food contains is compared
food which a packageof breakfast
tcith its cost, the material is found to be quiteexpensive. The
had

cereals

better

be

bought

in proper

form

and

cooked

at

home.
The

istic
pulses include beans,peas, and lentils. The character-

leguminousfoods is their richness in protein.


When
their nutritive value is compared with their price,
they
are
undoubtedlythe cheapest
of all foods,and on this account
beef."
In an airthey may well be called the
poor man's
dried condition, they contain about 10 per cent of water,
20 to 25 per cent of protein,
60 per cent of carbohydrates,
1 to 2 per cent of fat,and 3 to 5 per cent of ash.
The pulses
but they are poor in
well suppliedwith carbohydrates,
are
of the pulses,
fat. The peanut, although botanically
one
and like them
reallyresembles the true nuts in composition,
it 'isrich in protein
and fat.
Just as the larger
portionof the grainof cereals is reallya
storehouse of nutrients for the use of the young
plant,so
for the nourishment
be regardedas reserves
roots and tubers may
for the adult plantitself. During the prosperous
days
of springand summer
the plant laysby a goodlysupply of
food material for the seed production
of the late autumn
or the
next
spring. The potato is one of the standard vegetables,
chieflyvalued because of its richness in starch. There are
produced in the United States annuallyabout 300,000,000
of

these

"

bushels of potatoes.

fresh potato contains 82 per cent

of

water, 16 per cent of starch,and but 0.3 per cent of protein.


The rest is ash and fat. From this it is clear that the potato
is one-sided in

compositionand

not

like the

pulsesor

the

278

CHEMISTRY

cereals.

per cent

about

being

of starch.

There

but this loss consists


and

LIFE

boiled potato contains less water

the content

one,

DAILY

AND

75 per

is some

mainly

than

loss of material

of mineral

and

of water

cent

20

in

boiling,
proteins,

and

matter

fresh

it is consequently
slight.

nutritive value.
turnipis a vegetableof but slight

The

contains about 90 per cent of water


Its water

and

5 to 8 per cent

of

It
bohydrates.
car-

even
therefore
greater than
that in milk.
None of this carbohydrate material is starch ;
it is present in the form of pectins. The peculiar
flavorof
turnipswhich is so highlyesteemed by some
persons is due to
tritious
nucomplexsulphurcompounds. Carrots are decidedlymore
than turnips,mainly because
of their richness in
On boiling
sugar, of which they contain nearly 10 per cent.

carrots, about
is

the

favorite

25

per

of this sugar

cent

vegetablewith

German

race.

is

content

Cabbage

those
people,especially

many

It is also

is lost.

of

prizedby good shepherdsas

sheep feed. Cabbage contains 90 per cent of water, 2 per


and 6 per cent of carbohydrates.
cent of protein,
A distinguishing
featureof roots and tubers is that theyare
rich in ash, especially
in salts of potassium and calcium.
This gives them greater value in diets and animal
rations
than they would
otherwise deserve.
The rutabaga, radish,
a

onion, and kohl-rabi have


to that

of the
from

10 to

12 per

The

sugar

beet

table sugar
cane

cabbage.

it contains

that
compositions
Beet

roots

of

cent

is

very

similar

richer in sugar,

taining
con-

readilyavailable carbohydrates.

of the main

one

from

are

are

10 to 20

sources

cent

per

of

our

of sucrose,

sugar.

When
would
content

from
judged strictly
seem

to

of the

delightwhich

be of littlevalue

chemical
as

fruits
standpoint,
food, owing to their low

ordinary food constituents


they afford

to

the

palate and

but
the

when

the

eagerness

AND

HUMAN

with which
fruits

they are

to be

certainlyappear

normal

by

eaten

279

FOODS

ANIMAL

children

are

considered,

importanthuman

very

food.

generalcontains about 85 per cent to 95 per


0.5 per cent of fat,and
cent of water, 0.5 per cent of protein,
5 to 10 per cent of carbohydrates; also a small amount
of ash
and some
of dry
organicacids. Calculated on the amount
is really
considerable. The
matter,the quantityof ash in fruits
value of fruits as food depends largely
their mineral conon
tent
and their flavor. The ash of fruits is rich in potassium,
Fresh

fruit in

all of which
calcium,and iron salts,
cell.

of fruits

One-half of the carbohydrate content

consists of fructose,fruit sugar.


the other hand, cane
on
pineapples,
The

old.

valuable to the animal

are

first used

was

and
apples,apricots,
is present.

sugar

of canning fruit is only about

process

It

In

put fruit into

cans

placedthe

full

cans

time.

In

by

Frenchman

bottles which

or
or

usually

hundred

one

named
he

bottles in water

Appert,who

sealed.

and

years

He

then

boiled them

for

Appert'stime, and indeed until recent years,


it was
generallythought that the oxygen of the air caused
the spoiling
or
decompositionof the food. To exclude the
air from the cans
the explanation
of success
in canning
was
in his time.
It is now
that it is not the oxygen of the
known
air which causes
canned fruitand vegetables
but rather
to spoil,
the bacteria and other microscopic
organismsthat are present.
Appert'stheorywas wrong, but his method of sealingand
cookingby which he reallysterilizedthe contents of the cans
If food is sterilizedperfectly,
and the opening
correct.
was
of the jar is then plugged with sterile cotton, the contents
some

will not

ferment

for the bacteria and

due cannot

changesare
Bacteria

and

yeasts

matter.
vegetable

Some

pass
are

In fact

of them

yeasts

through the

to

which

cotton.

in the air,in the soil,


and

they

are

of almost

do great harm

such

universal

on

all

rence.
occur-

but it is believed that

280

CHEMISTRY

of them

AND

DAILY

LIFE

beneficial. Fruits

opment
spoilbecause of the develwhich bring about chemical
of these microorganisms,
odors and flavors
as the disagreeable
changes in the tissues,
that are produced clearly
indicate. Bacteria grow luxuriantly
in foodsthat are rich in nitrogenous
if the
material,especially
foods are warm
and moist. Among such foods are meat,
most

fish,eggs,
to

are

beans, and

peas,

because

preserve

is that in warm,

of the

muggy

quickly.Bacteria
of
largeamounts

milk.

do
sugar

not

; but when

acid,and
usuallyslightly

yeasts and

small quantitiesof sugar


bacteria grow
readily. Fruits
in

so

generalthey do

It is for this

Some

vegetablefoods contain
nitrogenousmaterial that very

much

so

few

than

port
sup-

fruits

by bacteria.

acid

bacteria

and
Lemons, cranberries,

not

that canned

reason

commonly fermented by yeasts

attack them.

it

milk, etc.,spoil
freshmeat, fish,
develop in material containing

are

more

Thus

weather

present, both

are

difficult

are

present bacteria.

ever

are

bacterial growth.

All of these

and

so

little

yeasts will

or

rhubarb

belong to

this class.
The proper
of
are

checking

use

the

of highertemperaturesis byfar the


growth

of

microorganisms, for

destroyedif exposed for ten

or

best way
of them

most

fifteenminutes

to

the temperature

of

But if the
water, i.e.100" C. or 212" F.
boiling
bacteria producespores, boiling
be continued for an hour
must
to insure their complete
destruction.
Yeasts and their
or more
more
easilydestroyedthan bacterial spores. Of
spores are
does not know what kinds of organisms
one
generally
course,
food that is to be canned, but it
are
present in the particular
is well known

that most

fruits are

growth of bacteria,and
destroyedby heatingfrom
of 212"

that

as

acidic and do not favor the


a

rule the yeasts

10 to 15 minutes

at

can

be

temperature

and the
// no living
organismsor spores are left,
used has been
sterilizationof all the dishes and appliances
F.

HUMAN

AND

ANIMAL

281

FOODS
i

there is no
thorough,
should not keepfor a

why

the

fruit,
ifproperlysealed,
fruit is preserved
year or longer.When
of sugar
with a large amount
(a pound of sugar to a pound
it does not need to be hermetically
of fruit),
sealed to protect
it from yeasts or bacteria,because the thick sirupformed is
not favorable
to their growth. Molds, however, will grow
fruit when thus preserved,
and it is better to seal the jars
on
in any

reason

case.

Every housewife is familiar


conditions of moisture
any

and

kind of organicmaterial.

weather molds
such
and

with molds, which

as

form in

on

grow

substance

containingmoisture

fine threads,which
the attacked

branch

substance.

preserves

is moisture

favorable.

develop

Molds

or

and

of

spore

their way

it
jelly,

enough present and


do not

as

on

canned

which

spores

falls upon

over

of these spores

one

tumbler

well

are
a

suitable food, it sends out

and work
If

from

When

in the air.

almost

upon

example,in damp, warm


all sorts ofstarchy
foods,

boiled potatoes,
breads,mush, etc.,as

always floatingabout

there

For

short time

preserved
fruits. Molds

jar of

warmth

under favorable

will

and into

drops on a
germinate,if

the temperature

is

penetrate deeply into solid foods,

because they requirefree oxygen


or semiliquids,
liquids
for growth; but if given time, they will at ordinary room
tain
temperature graduallypenetrate solid substances which conFor these reasons
moisture.
the
they will not cause
ordinaryfermentation of canned fruit. To kill mold spores,
food must be exposedto a temperatureoffrom 150" F. to 21%?
which it should be keptin a cool,
F., after
ered
dry placeand covthat no floating
so
carefully
find lodgmenton
spores can
its surface.
contain
Dates, figs,
prunes, and other dried fruits generally
from 20 to 25 per cent of water
and 65 per cent of carbohydrates
The remainder
; of the latter a largepart is sugar.
or

into

282

LIFE

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY
i

of these fruits is made

commonly

them

act

are

rich

are

protein. They are


in alkali salts,
and

mild laxatives.

as

the most concentrated offoodsand therefore

among

water-containingfruits.
and this makes
and proteins,
rich in oil,
carbohydrates,
are
extremely nutritious. Bulk for bulk, dry nuts are

present
Nuts

of ash, fat,and

food materials,which

valuable

Nuts

up

doubtless

strong

contrast

among

the

to' the

nutritious foods

most

in

existence.

generalcompositionis roughlyas follows : water, 4 to


15 to 20 per cent ; fat,50 to 60 per cent ;
5 per cent ; protein,
3 to 5 per cent ;
carbohydrates,9 to 12 per cent ; cellulose,
As the figures
mineral matter, 1 per cent.
show, fattymatter
substances,
predominates in nuts; and no other vegetable
unless they be flaxseed,cottonseed, and castor beans, are
rich in fat as nuts.
Occasionallysubstitutes for ordinary
so

Their

butter

example

"

nut

butter

"

the

expressedfats

and

"

of

nuts,

beveragesso important,but

these

stimulatingand restorative

as

for

nuttolene."

the nutritive value of coffee,tea, and

It is not
makes

from

made

are

effects which

that

cocoa

rather the

peculiar
they produce. All

peculiarvirtues to the alkaloids which


they contain (see Chapter IX). In coffee and tea the effect
it is masked by
of the alkaloid is more
striking
; but in cocoa
the heavy nutritious fats and carbohydratesthat are present.
of them

The

their

owe

three

alkaloids,caffeine,theine,and theobromine,

in coffee,
tea, and
relation to
somewhat
is not

one

another, and

similar.

The

the
readilyaffect

leaf,and the

cocoa

nervous

have a certain
respectively,
consequentlytheir effects are
of these

amount

beingonly from
large,

other medicines, such

in the

cocoa

1 to 2 per cent

alkaloids in

system.

seed all

tained
con-

come

tropics.Children ought

but like certain

quantities

coffee bean, the tea

The

not

very small

even

from

alkaloids present

plantsthat
to

are

grown

drink either coffee

CHEMISTRY

284

AND

FIG.

in the fruits

juicebecomes

are

93.

"

DAILY

LIFE

plantation.

tea

first changed to alcohols


hard

cider ;

by yeasts and so the


the alcohols are then changed to

acetic acid by bacteria.

These

ordinary temperatures,

but

changes are brought about

they proceed more

at

rapidlyat

90"-100" F.
The

and

foods of animal
milk.

These

characterized by
amount

are
a

fish,eggs,
origininclude meat, gelatin,
all

high proteinmaterials.

high ash, fat, and proteincontent.

of fat in meat

slaughteredanimal.
composition: water,

varies

greatlywith

Lean

sirloin has

is

Meat

The

the condition of the

about

the

following

25 per cent ; fat,


protein,
A fat sirloin may contain as
3 per cent ; ash, 1 to 2 per cent.
much
30 per cent of fat. It should againbe recalled that
as
in meat.
there are no carbohydrates
Only fresh liver and oysters
this
and even
contain the animal starch called glycogen,
is present only in small quantities.A pieceof boiled meat
can
easilybe torn into long,stringyfibers.On microscopic

examination

these

are

71 per cent

found

to

be made

up

of bundles

of

HUMAN

ANIMAL

AND

Nutritive

refute,and fuel
ingredients,
Kon

Nutrients.

285

FOODS

value.

-nutrients.

Fuel

Fati.

Fuclv8lue7calorl"r~[
400

800

Refuse.

Water.

Mineral

Carbo-

hydrates.

matters.

1200

1600

2000

2400

Sugar

FIG. 94.

"

Composition of food materials.

value.

Calories.

286

CHEMISTRY

AND

microscopictubes called muscle


in lengthin different kinds of meat.
short,as in the breast of chicken
as
longer,

the

in the

legof

tender and

more

should be cut

the crab.

more

the

across

of the tubes

LIFE

fibers.

These

In

they are

meats

some

in other

fibers vary

they are

cases

much

The shorter these fibers are,

is the
easilydigestible

Meat

meat.

grain,that is,at rightanglesto the

for then
of the fibers,
contents

DAILY

it is easier to chew

are

it ; and

better exposed,the meat

axes

since the

is also more

completelydigested. Gelatin is the chemical basis ofalljellies


preparedfrom animal materials. It is a proteinand comes
from

the connective

these tissues the

tissue and bones

are
gelatines

of animals.

dissolved and

on

On

boiling
coolingthe

is crude
Glue
mass.
resultingsolution sets to a jellylike
gelatin.It is commonly made from hide clippings.The
purest form of gelatinis isinglass,which is made from the
from those of sturgeons.
swimming bladders of fish,especially
Ordinary gelatincontains 85 per cent of proteinand 12 to
13 per cent of water
jellypreparedfor the
; but the common
table at home contains only from 2 to 3 per cent of gelatin.
hydrates.
Fish, like meat, contains protein,
fat,and littleor no carboIn localities near
the sea, fish is the cheapestsource
of protein. The
composition of the different food fish is
is usuallyabout
somewhat
variable,but the water content
60 per cent, the remainder
being bones, protein,fat, etc.
The proteincontent
varies from 10 to 16 per cent.
in the
Next to milk, eggs are the most wonderful
foodstuff
world.

Just

as

milk

requiredby
are
new

contains

the various

the newly born

life that

of it may
chemical

lies dormant

within

its

in the egg

so

young,

present all of the compounds that

uents
nutritive constit-

are

necessary

mass.
jellylike

there
for the

Out

bone, hair,blood, muscle, and feathers. In


language,the egg contains an abundance of salts,
come

and fats,
but
proteins,

no

The
carbohydrates.

average

weight

HUMAN

of

about

of water, and

87 per cent

complex than the white.


from 32 to 33
of protein,

more

per cent

of water, and

1 per

is yolk. The

is nearlya pure

1 per cent

of the latter,

of ash.

Some

kind,called lecithins;
of the yolk are of a special
in phosphorus(seeChapter IX).
In addition to the
from

them, which

there

are

on

the

serve

as

bulky foods

the farm.

silage.As

grainsand

These

are

the various

food for both

yolk

15 to

16

of the fats

these

rich

are

productsprepared
and

man

called forage which


the

The

of fats,50 per cent

of mineral matter.

cent

shell

solution of

It contains from
per cent

is

of which

cent

contains 12 per cent

and

proteinalbumen,

the

11 per

32 per cent

white

The

of lime.

is carbonate

287

FOODS

about

ounces,

per cent is white, and

57
shell,

is

is two

hen's egg

ANIMAL

AND

are

animals,

so

common

and
hays,straws, cornstalks,

corn

and
foddersare rich in carbohydrates
but they differ greatlyamong
themselves,
poor in proteins,
dependingupon the kind of plantfrom which they are made.
Thus
the hays made
from such plantsas timothy,
redtop,
and June grass are comparatively
and rich in
poor in protein
celluloseor crude fiber.They contain about 6 per cent of
proteinand as much as 30 per cent of crude fiber. The rest
of the plant consists chieflyof available carbohydrates.
These
available carbohydrates,however, are
not
really
starches and sugars ; they are more
like cellulosein character.
In contrast to the hays made from the above-named
grasses,
those from the legumes,
such as the cloversand alfalfa,
contain
from 12 to 15 per cent of proteinand nearlyas much crude
fiber and available carbohydratesas the hays of the firstmentioned

rule these

group.

pounds

of crude

but 300

to 400

An

acre

protein while
pounds.

of
an

alfalfa will
acre

This is the

of
reason

produce 1600

timothy

why

will

the

yield

legume

hays are such valuable fodders. They serve


as
sources
proteinto supplement the cereal grainsin the ration.

of
The

288

CHEMISTRY

cereal straws, such

AND

high

namely, from

FIG. 95.

after the

ears

40

as

per

straws

3 to 5 per cent.

"

An

alfalfa field.

have

been

considered.
generally
nearly furnish a maintenance

it contains about 19
field-cured,
of other

40
carbohydrates,

per

stover

"

It has

"

which is left,

has

been

higherfeeding
found

that

ration for cattle.


per cent

cent

taining
con-

will protect the hay.

caps

harvested

fiber,often

have but littleprotein,

Corn

The

barley,

timothy, redtop,

rich in

are

cent, and

value than
will

feeds than

poorer

and June grass hays. The


as

LIFE

those of oats, rye, wheat, and

as

generallyconsidered

are

DAILY

of

30
fiber,

of water, and

it

When

per cent

3 to 4 per

cent of

protein.
It is becoming common

is grown
wherever corn
to
practice
cut it before the kernel is hard and glazedand store it in a
silo. There are probably 100,000 silos in America, and 95
plant. Silage can
per cent of these are filledwith the corn
be made from beet leaves,
beet waste, pea vines from the canneries,
and to some
extent also from cloverand alfalfa
is the
; but corn

FIG. 96.

"

modern

concrete

silo.

(289)

290

CHEMISTRY

main

plantused

AND

as

to

silo

soon

down

exclude

acids,alcohols,and carbon

proteinspresent

plantsbreak

dioxide,and

of the

some

acids formed

partlydigested. The

are

material in the

of the

sugars

harvested

firmlypacked

possible.The

the

warm;

When

into the siloand

air as

much

as

becomes

to

LIFE

presentfor this purpose.

at

and cut, the material is blown


so

DAILY

are

mainly lactic and acetic,and the aciditymay be as high as


1 to 2 per cent.
The formationof the acid keepsthe silage
losses of dry matter in the
decay. There are some
from further

making

of

have

silage.They

least 10 per cent under


Nevertheless,these losses
material

estimated

been cured

relished by animals,and there is

Silageis
fed.

to

amount

probably smaller

are

fed after it had

were

to

the best conditions of

at

same

been

handling.

than
on

if the

the field.
when

it is

no

waste

in

vegetable foods?

QUESTIONS

Name

chief class of nutrients

foods in which

some

this is an

Name

the cereal

3.

What

is the effect of

very

of the

some

bread

makes

5.

What

is glutenfeed,and

6.

much

How

How
sugar

principalnutrient in
8.

What

9.

What

causes

much

the

How

does it affect

baking powder?
meal ?

corn

meal ?

corn

is there in fresh

is there in

walnut

is

compositionfrom
water

How

does it differ from

how

"force"

do beans differ in

starchytuber.
7.

the starch granules?

on

dough light? What

flakes" and

"corn

How

of these is bread made

high temperature affect starches ?


proteins?

What

are

which

baking

4.

What

exception.

grains. From

2.

does

is the

What

1.

sugar

Name

cabbage?

beet?

What

is the

of fruit?
spoiling

is the difference between

How

can

it be

yeast and

prevented?

mold

important foods of animal originand state their


chief characteristics. Of what is the shell of an egg composed ?
10.

Name

11.

How

How

does

some

timothy hay differin compositionfrom wheat flour ?


stover differfrom alfalfa hay ?

does
corn

292

AND

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

LIFE

Milk contains all the food that is necessary

forthe growthand

development
of young animals. It is a complete food, and
and selecting,
veloped
has deman
throughcareful feeding,
breeding,
the dairycow
much
milk
so that she now
more
yields
is needed

than

the milk.

for her

Some

have

cows

their weight
ofmilk in

producedfrom

year,

or

nature
ten

of this

albumen, milk

sugar,

and

ash.

few

but they
present in small quantities,

importance. The
milk is

average

about the

12.9 per cent

same

as

that in fresh

composition of
and

of cows

Fat

3.9 per cent

Casein

2.5

Albumen

0.7

Sugar

5.1

Ash

0.7

milk

is very

high,being

vegetables.

varies

great deal with different

with the individual animals.

The

dairy

as

lower percentageof this constituent.

cow

of littlepractical

Jerseysand Guernseys,usuallyproduce milk


fat,while the milk from Holstein and Ayrshirecows has

breeds,such

are

percentage compositionof cow's

It should be noted that the percent of water

rich in

substances

87.1 per cent

Solids

breeds

water, fat,casein,

other
are

most

follows :

as

Water

The

fifteentimes

quantityannually.

substances :
composedof the following

M ilk is

to

intended

20,000 pounds ; but

over

give less than one-fourth

of them

whom

for
offspring,

is not

sure

the

depends upon

sign of
cow

However, the breed of

the richness of her milk;

herself. A

cow

more

givesher largestflow

of milk after the calf is a few weeks old,but the nutrients of the
milk

increase
gradually

advances

and

the udder

as

in

quantityas

the flow decreases.

is very

The

the

periodof lactation

firstmilk drawn

from

called
low in fat,while the last fraction,

MILK

milk, will
stripper
a

notion

common

by the kind

AND

have

much

as

293

PRODUCTS

as

10 per

cent

that the fat of the milk

of feeds which

FIG.

ducted

ITS

97.

"

cow

But

eats.

pure-bred Jersey

It is

be increased

many

well-con-

cow.

that such

is very
influence
at all.
slight,
ifindeed the composition
ofmilk can thus be affected
The
fat occurs
in milk in the form of small globules.
They
are

experiments have

can

offat.

very

minute

proven

in size and

it would

take about

6000

of

placed side by side to make an inch. In the milk of


the average
size of the globules
Guernsey and Jersey cows
is considerably
largerthan in Holstein milk. This explains
sey
why the cream
layerisformed so much more rapidlyin Guernand Jersey milk than in Holstein milk. The globules
of any sample vary greatlyin size; and the largest
are
covered
rein the cream
when the milk is set, or run through a

them

cream

skimmed

separator, while
milk.

the

smallest

ones

remain

in the

294

CHEMISTRY

Casein
to

DAILY

AND

LIFE

is the principal
body in the milk and
nitrogenous

the skimmed

milk its bluish white color.

the milk

from

by the addition

of

It

gives

be separated

can

acid,or by the

an

action of rennet.

In the souring of milk, duringwhich process


lactic acid is formed from the milk sugar by bacterial action,

the casein is changed into


of

skimmed

milk

are

firm curd.

treated

with

To-day largeamounts
sulphuric acid.

(B)

(A)
FIG. 98.

"

The

size of fat globules


(B) Holstein

compared.

(A) Jersey milk.

milk.

casein is then partlydried and used in the


precipitated

and

When

rennet

is added to milk, the casein separates,

fat is firmly held in the curd.

the

startingpoint in the manufacture


Junket

tablets

are

facture
manu-

countless other

of knife handles, billiard balls,and


articles.

The

dried rennet.

of most
The

the

This

forms

forms

of cheese.

albumen

in milk

is,

probablyof
to the growing calf,but is not used commercially as a
use
separate product. It may be obtained by boilingthe whey
which is left after removing the casein.
has already been
is a carbohydratewhich
Milk
sugar
nitrogenouscompound.

of course,

also

described

(see Chapter IX).

It is

It is obtained

from

the milk

ITS

AND

MILK

295

PRODUCTS

by evaporatingthe whey left in cheese making. This sugar


givesto milk its sweetish taste. When separatedfrom whey, it
of infant foods,and also as a vehicle
isused in the preparation
It is the principal
constituent
or carrier for certain medicines.
the latter value as a feedfor pigsand calves.
in whey,and gives
that is left after burning
The ash of milk is the mineral matter
It contains all of the substances that
off the organicmatter.
of the growing
to build the bony structure
are
necessary
mation
animal,and furnishes the needed mineral matter for the forafter
tissue. The firstmilk secreted by the cow
of new
and rather thick. This is
the birth of the calf is yellowish
and is very rich in albumen, often containing
called colostrum
milk helps
This first
to start the action
13 per cent.
as
as much
tract of the young
calfand is consequently
of the digestive
very
importantto the latter.
To produce milk which is pure and fitfor drinkingpurposes,
or

for butter

making, requiresmore

cheese

or

than any

care

be

Careful attention must

givento
the surroundings
of the cow, to the actual process of milking,
and to the placewhere
to the dishes in which the milk is placed,
other

work

it is

kept.

on

the farm.

dust gets into milk, it carrieswith it small

When

These

one-celled bodies,called bacteria.


life;

these

favorable temperatures
hours

singlebacterium

which
millions,

are

all so

may

form of plant

previouschapters. At
bacteria grow rapidly. In 24

mentioned

been

they have

are

in

increase in numbers

small that they

are

not

to

several

noticed

cept
ex-

powerfulmicroscope. However, theirpresence and


the milk
to sour, for theychangemilk sugar
growth causes
the
lactic acid, and it causes
to acid. This acid is principally
with

milk
cause

to

curdle.

milk to

sour

The

notion

common

that

thunderstorms

is entirely
erroneous.

Disease-producing

germs

or

bacteria

throughthe dirt which getsinto the milk.

oftenintroduced
tuberScarlet fever,

are

296

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

and
culosis,
cholera,
typhoidfever,
and

spreadin

this way.

The

dirt and disease and should

LIFE

throat may

sore

fly is

house

be carried

great carrier of

be

-keptout of the milk. Milk,


of absorbinggases and odors and readily
too, has the power
acquiresthese from the air. A
strong silageodor in the barn or
onion
odor in the refrigerator
be absorbed
by the milk
may
and make
it objectionable
as
a
A
drink.
foul-smellingstable
All of
will also taint the milk.
these factsemphasizethe necessity
of cleanliness in milk production
and the adoptionof methods
to
FIG. 99."
A dirty fly. Greatly
check
bacterial growth. The
growth of bacteria can be checked
it is produced. This preas
by coolingthe milk as soon
vents
it does
a rapiddevelopment of these organisms,but
ness
not
entirelycheck their growth. Nevertheless, the sweetof the milk is prolongedby this coolingprocess, which
is a very practical
method and the one
usuallyfollowed.To
destroy the organisms in milk either heat must be employedor
chemical substances
antiseptics must be added to the milk.
If the latter is heated enough to destroyall organisms(which
requiresa temperature above 100" C.,i.e.212" F.),itwill turn
of thus
The
brown
and acquirea burned taste.
process
the organismsby heat is called sterilization. To
destroying
avoid its disadvantage,
the process known
as
pasteurization
which
is often substituted. In the process of pasteurization
was
by the famous French chemist,Pasteur,and is
originated
"

named

"

after him, the milk

only 60"

to

and yet most

80" C.

thus

is heated

for twenty minutes

affected,
slightly
killed and the keeping

the flavor is but

of the active bacteria

are

at

MILK

of
qualities
various

the milk

substances

milk

human

common

use
"

!"

cyhc

acid',
for-

r*

"o"fS

"

of bacteria

chief

The

hi sufficient

added

growth, the

be

can

becomes

milk

in
preservatives

^^fl

"

Q^

"

"""

"
o

.YJ^o- ".* ."J*^**

maldehyde, and

""O'00oVo o 'ocpi
V '.$"
.*"

acid.

6^6cn"^"-" ^

"*8"foS"Shft

in any

use

bacterial

By adding

are

acid, sail-

Their

growth

consumption.

boric

benzoic

the

however, antisepticsare

quantitiesto prevent
unfit for

297

PRODUCTS

materiallyincreased.

are

to

prevented. When,

ITS

AND

'

quantity is generallyprohibited

6
FIG.

"~""
u

lOO.

Pure

"

and

impure milk.

long black

The

and this

bylaw;
is

methods
because when used theyshow that uncleanly
right,
are
of milk production
beingpracticed.Milk produced under

clean, sanitaryconditions,and
as

it is necessary

The

for

fat of milk

the surface when

removed, what
milk with

cooled, will keep

well

transportationto

exists in
the milk

the

cityand

globuleswhich
After

stands.

tend

long

as

the

to

sumer.
con-

rise to
been

the fat has

is left is called skimmed

milk.

Cream

is

of fat in it. Cream can be separated


largeamount
or
from milk by gravitation,
by the much greater centrifugal
forceproducedby rapid rotation in the centrifugal
separator.
There are two
of separating
by gravity,
namely,the
ways
and the deep-setting
methods. In the shallowshallow-setting
setting,the milk is placed in pans two to four inches deep,
a

cooled to 60" F.,and

allowed to stand

The

cream

Not

all the fat is obtained

80 per cent

is then removed

with

in this

from

to

36

concaved
slightly
indeed,only
way;

of the fat is usually


thus removed.

settingprocess, the milk is put into

24

cans

hours.
ladle.
about

In the deep-

twenty inches deep

298

CHEMISTRY

and less than

foot in

one

ice-cold water.

AND

The

DAILY

LIFE

diameter,which

then

are

placedin
operationis

rises rapidlyand the

cream

practically
completein 12 hours. In this way
be removed, dependingupon
cent of the fat can

90 to 95 per

the conditions

of

nipulation,
cooling,ma-

and
the breed

of the

whose

cow

is thus

milk

treated.

Because

of its
the
globules,

small

the

fat of

Hoi-

stein milk cannot


be

completely

as

removed

that

as

of the Jerseymilk

by

this process.

Cream

tors
separa-

machines

are

which

are

in

now

generaluse.
them

the
into

runs

which

In

milk
a

bowl

is revolving

several
FIG.

101. -A

minute.
to

heavy
to

as

modern

This

revolvingtends

throw

the

times

heavy

of the bowl.

of the cover,

The
or

while the skim

edge of

the bowl.

of the bowl

cover

fat,can
milk

ticles
par-

Since the fat is not

the other constituents of the milk, it tends to

the center

the

thousand

to

the outside of the bowl.

that the cream,

near

separator.

cream

from

escape
escapes

There

are

from

many

is so

as

come
structed
con-

the center
the

opening

makes
different

300

CHEMISTRY

from

sweet

AND

is

cream

usuallynot

water, fat, and

more

Ordinary market

salted.

It contains

butter contains about

of fat,1.3 per cent

salt. Under

the Federal Pure

oil,"milk,and

not

Law, butter
than

more

"

oil.
"

Oleo

Neutral

colored

oil

oil

is much

used

by churning together
small amount

"

"

is the

16

to imitate

as

as
"

must

tain
con-

part of the

does not

vary

substitute for

"

oleo oil," neutral

of cottonseed

oil and

peanut

in which
butter,

it is taxed

case

butter is made from old


pound. Renovated
rancid butter, by melting it, separatingthe fat from
the
casein,and blowing air through the fat to remove

formed.

The

granularmass

which

Numerous

due

are

liquidfat
up

as

churned

with

cooling.This
made

are

the milk

albumen

in the

present in cheese. The

whey. Only

made

two

made

extract

is made

calf with
which
cheese

causes

of rennet

the milk to curdle.

making, the

milk is warmed

Rennet

cheese

In the process

and

and
is

to the milk.

contains

to 84" F.

of

monly
com-

are

by extractingthe fourth stomach

dilute salt solution.

ash

cheese

namely, Cheddar

small amount

of the

and milk sugar

Cheddar

rennet

All

largepart of the

cottage cheese,will be described here.


The

is then worked,

types of cheese which

in this country,

by addinga

pleasant
un-

milk, and

from milk.

casein,nearlyall of the fat,and also

are

the

butter.

kinds of cheese

are

and

volatile acids that have

to

is then

is obtained upon

salted,and made

of

cent

per

10 cents per

odors

of

liquidoil pressedout of beef fat.


is
lard. Some of the oleomargarine

is melted

yellowso

of water,

12 per cent

During the working of the butter


buttermilk
is squeezed out.
This buttermilk
much
in compositionfrom the skimmed
milk.
butter,is made

butter.

sour-cream

water.

Oleomargarine, which

what
some-

of curd, and 2.5 per cent

Food

of fat and

cent

per

LIFE

casein than

84.2 per cent

82.5

DAILY

of the
ferment

of Cheddar
"

"

ripened

MILK

to

0.25 per

cent

ITS

AND

is then added, and

acidity. Rennet

the curd is firm,it is cut into small cubes.


fat has become

warmed, which

After

beingmaintained

into

off and

solid mass.

the curd to shrink and

causes

for

warm

one

when

In this process

in the curd.
entangledmechanically

is now

is drawn

301

PRODUCTS

to two

The

the
vat

harden.

hours, the whey

the curd is piled. In this condition it mats

This is now

FIG.

102.

"

passedthrougha grindingmill,

cheese curing room.

salted,and pressedinto molds.

The cheese is next

put into

lowed
at a temperature of from 50" to 60" F. and alcuringrooms
to ripen. When
three to four months old,it is put on
the cheese at a temperaof ripening
the market.
The practice
ture
The process
as low as 30" F. is coming into generaluse.
of making cottage cheese is substantially
Instead
as follows.
of adding rennet
be allowed to
to curdle the milk, it may
it may
be soured by adding a
stand until it is sour;
or
A starter is a powder, containing
starter."
livingbacteria,
"

302

CHEMISTRY

which

will

AND

DAILY

LIFE

slowlyproduce lactic acid

when

added

curd thus obtained is strained from the

The

to

milk.

whey, and

after

beingsalted,this makes sour-milk or cottage cheese.


data will givea generalidea of the composiThe following
tion
Cured

of cheese.

Cheddar

per

cent

of water, 35 per cent

per

cent

salt.

fat,28

contains about

per

and

types of cheese,as Camembert

Some

high as

skimmed

50

cent

per

before

Milk

of water.

beingcoagulatedwith

its manufacture

There

are

stillother

skimmed

The

water.

third

milk

or

more

from

milk is evaporatedin

even
product,

milk

may

milk isa
is used when

partly
the product

rennet, and

In many

cheese.

the market.

whole

milk

certain

partly
to

pans

Condensed
In many

or

densed
Con-

portionof

largevacuum

of its original
volume.

contain at least 8 per cent of fat.

the

same

is sometimes

prohibited.
dairy productson

by evaporatingoff

has been added

in
extensively
composition.

is

is manufactured

milk

Roquefort, contain

thus obtained is called skimmed-milk


states

34

casein and

cent

is made

cheese, which

parts of this country, has about the

some

as

Swiss

cheese

cases

the
one-

milk should
cane

sugar

largequantities.This aids in preserving


after the cans are opened. A sweetened condensed

in

contain

40

per

good substitute

fresh milk cannot

cent

of

cane

sugar.

for whole milk

or

be obtained,as

on

cream,
sea

densed
Conand it

voyages,

mining camps, etc. Milk powders are made from skimmed


or
partlyskimmed milk by allowingthe milk to evaporate in
The product is scraped
a thin layeron
a
revolvingdrum.
off in flakes,and placedon the market as thin,yellow scales.
By a later process this powder is producedas a fine flour and
this is destined to be a very efficientway of handlingmilk for
in

long shipment's.Most milk powders cannot be made from


whole milk, as the high fat content of the powder impairstheir
from rich milk or from
is made
keepingquality. Ice cream

MILK

cream

milk

the

AND

ITS

latter is the

303

PRODUCTS

better.

Ice

cream

consists of

material,and sometimes
flavoring
stances
cornstarch,gelatin,
or
tragacanth. The last three subgum
added to give the ice cream
smoothness
and
are
body.
No two thingshave done more
to revolutionize the dairy
industrythan the cream
separatorand a simple test forfat.
or

cream,

sugar,

FIG.

The

103.

eggs,

"

Babcock

run

by

steam.

but the simple


separator is a European invention,

cream

efficientfat test for milk


S. M.
in 1890.

tester

Babcock

was

invented

of the Wisconsin

is a

in America

by

fessor
Pro-

Experiment Station

the milk
simplemeans
oftesting
forits amount offat. By its use the dairyman can determine
which of his.cows
are
paying their board, and in this way he
ascertain the value of a cow
for butter produccan
definitely
tion.
Knowing the per cent of butter fat in the milk and the
to
quantity of milk produced,it becomes an easy matter
compute justhow much butter fat is beingproduced. Again,
The

Babcock

test

304

on

CHEMISTRY

the basis of the test,milk


at

creameries

tester

has become

fat content

Babcock

watering milk

Babcock

has

DAILY

be

can

and

LIFE

paid for

the basis of its

cheese factories.

and

but too

Since the

practice

common

largelydisappeared.Coupled with

for the detection of water

test

on

established part of practically

an

dairyequipment, the old

every

of

AND

the

adulteration there

should be used another

equallyimportantinstrument,called
This instrument resembles a floating
thermometer
the lactometer.
(seeFig.107). Its purpose is to determine the specific
milk has a specific
gravityof
gravityof milk. Normal
1.029-1.034,and if the fat is partlyremoved, the specific
adds water, he
gravityis raised ; but if the adulterator now
bring the specific
gravityback to that of normal milk.
may
The

tampering with

of both tests detects such

use

the milk.

justdistribution of dividends at cheese factories,


there is coming into use a simplemechanical way ofestimating
For

more

the amount
casein

of

it

test;

test for

payment

proper

fatand

at

method

This

Station in 1907.
Babcock

devised

was

is known

This

casein in milk.

the Wisconsin
is almost

as

fat,and it will help to solve


for milk

casein tests the

at

factories.

cheese

as

the

Hart

Experiment
simple as the
the problem of
With

cheese-yielding
capacity
of the

both the
milk

can

be determined.

QUESTIONS
1.

What

2.

About

does the milk of animals


how

much

it exist in the milk ?


3.

Which

4.

What

5.

How

6.

What

has the
is the
would

from ?

milk, and how

fat is there in average

What

does

is this fat used for ?

Jersey or Holstein milk ?


largerglobules,

principaluse
you

come

of casein in cows' milk ?

obtain the milk

sugar

from

milk ?

precautionsshould be taken to produce clean milk?


and sterilization?
is meant
by pasteurization,
What

MILK

AND

STEPHEN
Scientist and
test has

inventor

revolutionized
X

MOULTON

ITS

305

PRODUCTS

BABCOCK.

1843-.

of the fat test for milk, which

dairying.

bears

his

name,

This

306

CHEMISTRY

What

7.

whether

is

should

they

Name

antiseptic?

an

DAILY

AND

allowed

be

ever

LIFE

antiseptics

two
in

Give

milk.

and

state

for

reason

your

answer.

Name

8.

fat

is

there

does

there

in

butter

10.

Describe

11.

How

is

sometimes

fail

and

oleomargarine

Cheddar

How

much

to

How

come

much

water

butter

how

milk.

from

cream

cream

ordinary

separating

of

ways

good

in

Why

9.

is

three

cheese

renovated

and

made,

butter

what

is

its

are

general

made.

position
com-

Who

12.

it

was

be

used

13.

done

invented
?

Of

at

cheese

What

is

the

what

is

importance

factories

used

commonly

lactometer,

for

payment
and

what

fat
it ?
of

is

for

test

What
milk

it

used

milk,
two

for

and
tests

where

should

CHEMISTRY

308

DAILY

AND

LIFE

other insects like the

aphidesor plant lice


not
and the San Jose scale that get their nourishment
by
eatingthe whole leaf,but by merely suckingout its juices.
To exterminate pests of this kind requiresa poison that acts
Again, there

FIG.

FIG.

105

105

are

(A).

"

(B).

"

San

Jose scale

San

Jose

scale

on

on

an

an

apple twig, slightly enlarged.

apple twig, greatly enlarged.

by envelopingthe insect and thus corrodingit,poisoningit


by absorptionthrough its skin,or cuttingoff its opportunity
Poisons that act in this

to breathe.

manner

are

called

tact
con-

poisons.
poisons generally contain

Stomachic

present not

as

the free element, but either

arsenic, which
as

is

the oxide As2O3,

POISONS

also known

FOR

white arsenic

as

ORCHARD

AND

FARM

arsenious acid,or

or

complex arsenical compound, like


The

arsenate.

alreadybeen givenin Chapter VII.


used as an insecticide ; but though
dissolves

water, it nevertheless
that corrodes

discarded.
an

"

burns

or

In

fact,any

insecticide must

"

as

more
or

lead

these compounds
White

not

arsenic

was

has
first

copiouslysoluble

in

to yielda solution
sufficiently

foliage.It was
arsenical poisonthat
the

therefore

soon

is to be used

littleuncombined

have wry

some

Green

Paris

of
'composition

exact

309

PESTS

white

as

arsenic,

As2Os, in it.
Paris

that bite and

the standard poisonfor all insects


^present

is at

green

compositionis expressed
by the formula Cu3As2O6 Cu(CaHsOi)2. This poison is
prepared by adding a hot solution of arsenious acid to a hot
swallow

their food. Its


*

solution

of copper

separates

out

Paris green

as

acetate.

fine

is almost

this mixture

From

powder

of

color.

brightgreen

insoluble in water, but

Paris green

Pure

it will

readily
dissolve in ammonia
solution being dark
water, the resulting
This is a test by means
blue.
in
of which certain impurities
Paris green may
be detected. Thus, if a sample of the substance
is adulterated

latter will form

with gypsum,

white

settle out
finally

on

separate out, it of

course

insoluble in ammonia
also be

as

in
suspension

the bottom

not

the ammonia

of the

only shows
are

sometimes

that

present.

occurs,
water

the
and

glass. If no solids
which are
impurities
The

glasstest

may

of the Paris green


applied. In this test a small amount
is placedin a glass
; this is then inclined and gentlytapped
that the poisonwill slowlymove
down the inclined plane.
so
In the case of pure
green,"the dust will be of a brightgreen
color. If it is impure,it may
streak,
yielda white, pale-green
substance that is
dependingupon the color of the adulterating
under the microscopewill also help
present. Examination
to determine
its purity. Paris green contains about 58 per
"

310

CHEMISTRY

of acetic acid.

cent

per

acid, 31

of arsenious

cent

AND

DAILY

These

oxide and

of copper

cent

per

LIFE

10

all

chemicallycombined
mula
compositionis indicated by the forare

compound, whose
given above. Paris green should not contain over 5 per
burn the foliage.
cent offreearsenious acid,or it will seriously
in spraying,from 6 to 8 ounces
For use
of Paris green should
be thoroughly
worked into a paste with a littlewater, and then
In addition,about 2 pounds of
added,to 50 gallonsof water.
in

one

lime should be added; this will neutralize any


also act

acid present, and

"

as

free arsenious

"

marker

the

on

sprayed

plants.
purple is

London

poison which

arsenical

an

ported
first im-

was

It is
England as a substitute for Paris green.
with slaked lime a purple,arsenious acid
preparedby boiling
bearingresidue from the dye industry. Arsenite of lime is
thus formed, together
with some
arsenate, which contains more
than the arsenite. London purpleis more
injurious
oxygen
of free
than good Paris green, because of its content
to foliage
arsenious acid. It should alwaysbe used with lime.
from

Lead

and

arsenate

first used

was

recommended

was

againstthe

by addinglead

These

dissolved in water.
the cold and react

Pb3(AsO4)2.
when

once

This

insecticide in 1892

an

It
caterpillar.

tent

solution to sodium

acetate

also

readily in

and lead arsenate

poison should be handled as a paste,for


does not again remain well in suspension.
in

insoluble of the insecticides now

it adheres wry

liableto scorch them.

is prepared

arsenate

dissolve

substances
sodium

to form

dried it

It is the most

acetate

as

For

to the
tenaciously

spraying purposes

commerical paste in 50 gallonsof water

use.

leaves and

thermore,
Furis least

pounds of the
commonly
proportion

two

is the

used.
Hellebore

is the

is often recommended

ground

root

of the

as

an

insect

poison. This

poke-rootplant. Pyrethrum,

or

FOR

POISONS

insect

FARM

AND

comes

from

powder, which

ORCHARD

311

PESTS

the flower heads of certain^

Both of these
is another poisonof similar character.
plants,
materials contain poisonoussubstances,but they deteriorate
much

with age.

Contact

poisons may

(1)by their causticproperties,


(2)by

act

because theyare absorbed by the surface


of the insect,
poisoning
tubes. Lime-sulphur
or
(3) by closing
up the insect'sbreathing
and kerosene emulsion are types of these poisons. They are
commonly used
againstthe scale

insects.

Lime-

sulphur was

first

employed in

this

country

as

sheepdip,but
its

1886

in

use

against the San


Jose scale began.
It is

now

either

FIG.

106.

"

purchased in the
commercial

form

or

made

at

simple home-made
arrangement
making lime-sulphur.

home.

It may

be

for

prepared

by heating together80 pounds of high grade flowers of


sulphur,40 pounds of burned lime,and 50 gallonsof water.
A rather pure lime should be used, one
that is low in magnesium,
otherwise there will be a waste of sulphur. The
or
lime is first slaked in an iron kettle; and the sulphuris
of water
thoroughly mixed with " small amount
separately
and

then added

for 45 minutes.

to the

The

lime, after which

mixture is best when

the

mass

is boiled

boiled by

passing

bines
throughit. During the heatingprocess, the lime comwith the sulphurformingcalcium sulphides
of variable
there results a yellowto orange
composition. On standing,
colored solution,
under which is an insoluble sludge. This

steam

312

AND

CHEMISTRY

DAILY

LIFE

consists of undissolved

calcium sulphite,
and calcium
sulphur,
stantly
sulphate.During the boiling,the solution should conmark
be kept up to the 50-gallon
by adding water
it evaporates. When
finished,the clear liquidshould be
as
strained off and tightly
barreled,because it does not keep
with the air,which oxidizes it.

in contact
For

scale
exterminating

of

the purpose

is diluted to test 4.5" to 5.0" Baume.


the solution

of

the

Baume

marks

For

is meant

solution must

to test

that the

but

strength

adjusted that a
hydrometer (Fig.107) will sink to the
mentioned
before the liquidis used.
It

is believed that

so

the tree

on

decompose

be

liquid
work,

summer

is diluted with water

By this

1" Baume.

insects the

and

the calcium

phides
sul-

leave free sulphur

as

the active agent.


in the form

Kerosene

is also often used


is a

It

FIG.

107.

Baume

"

use.

hydrogen and carbon and is


crude petroleum (seeChapter
insects,and when
appliedto

kills

be diluted with water


with the latter.

mixed

were,

insecticide. Kerosene

poolsof stagnant water, it suffocates the emerging


rectly
of mosquitoes. When
applieddipupse
A
it kills them.
Kerosene
to plants,
cannot
drometer
hyin

be

an

emulsion

of

compound
prepared from
IX).

as

of kerosene

and

with

keep

because

For this reason

it will not
kerosene

mix
must

it
material that will carry the oil,
as
it from
separatingout from the mixture.

some

usuallyemployed. Kerosene
emulsion may
be made
one
pound of soap in 2.5
by dissolving
gallonsof water, then adding 2.5 gallonsof kerosene to the
the entire
solution,and
thoroughlymixing by pumping
mixture througha bucket sprayer.
Diluted to from 20 to 30
For

this purpose

soap

is

POISONS

FOR

the mixture
gallons,
suckinginsects.
Tobacco

AND

FARM

be

may

decoctions

so

hot water

108.

Plant

"

extracts

againstscale

and

other

germicides;as
of the
poisonousproperties

lice

(aphis)on

as

maple

of the stalk and waste

cooled,and then used


to

the

313

PESTS

This alkaloid is soluble in water, and

they contain.

FIG.

used

also be used

can

such,their value dependsupon


nicotine

ORCHARD

as

burn tobacco in

an

leaf.

tobacco

insecticide. It is

are

made,
tice
prac-

common

to get rid of
greenhouses

certain

plant

lice.
Gaseous

insecticides

difficultto
particularly
acid gas

are

often used

attack.

is the most

Of

againstinsects that

are

these substances hydrocyanic

effective. Cyanides

are

deadly

314

CHEMISTRY

poisons and

should

AND

DAILY

be handled

never

LIFE

with

the

fingers(see
by treating

Chapter IX). Hydrocyanic acid gas is made


of
ounces
potassium cyanide with sulphuric acid. Two
acid are carefully
concentrated sulphuric
mixed with 4 ounces
this is placedin an earthenware vessel and then
of water;
of potassiumcyanide is added.
1 ounce
This is the proper
quantityfor
and
no

one

100 cubic feet of space.


breath

of it may

be inhaled.

means

make

its action

closed

rooms

or

To

gas is

be fatal ; it should

retain the gas about

effective,it should
under

or
buildings,

of San Jose scale

treatment

The

be

deadly poison

therefore

by

plantand
applied in tightly

tents,

the orange

on

as

trees

the

is done

in the

of California.

be openedfrom the outside and


afterwards
it is entered by any one.
aired before
thoroughly
Carbon
volatile liquidmade
from
bisulphide is a colorless,
carbon and sulphur(seeChapterVII). The liquid
is volatile
and its vapors are fatal to insects. Being heavier than air,
of grain,
the vapors will settle througha mass
and so theyare
in killing
grainweevils. A teaspoonfulfor each
very effective
cubic foot of space, placedin a shallow dish upon the surface
of the grain,will kill the insects present. The vapors settle
after their work
down through the grain,and may
is
later,
done, be released by boringholes throughthe walls of the bin.
Ants, moles, prairiedogs,and similar pests are exterminated
by placingcotton saturated with carbon bisulphidein the
with earth. Carbon bisulphide
heaps or runs, and covering
tightly
should never
be broughtnear a flame,for itis even
more
dangerous than gasoline.
The inclosure should

Fungicides

are

materials

for the

plantscalled fungi.
parasitic
use

is Bordeaux

control of the
4

mixture, which

The

destruction

of certain

in
chief
fungicide
in France
originated

common

for the

It is made by suspending
downy mildew on grapes.
pounds of copper sulphate(alsocalled blue vitriol

316

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

the copper
is
composition.When
appliedto the foliage,
slowlybrought into solution by the action of the carbon
dioxide of the air, and
the pest.

thus becomes

lime should

The

always be

active
in

in

destroying
Bordeaux,

in

excess

and

in quantityso that the mixture will turn red


sufficient
litmus paper blue. As long as copper
sulphateis in excess,
the reaction will be acid to litmus and the scorching
of the
The
foliagewill follow.
potassium ferrocyanidetest may
also be used to detect an excess
of copper
tion
sulphatein solufor when

Bordeaux

mixture is filteredand

solution of

brown
a
potassium ferrocyanideis added to the filtrate,
of copper
phate
precipitate
ferrocyanideforms if free copper sulis present.

alone has
To make

an

should be added.
of 4
There

and

productof
market

as

barn

green

or

lead arsenate

done in the proporfrequently


tion
gallonsof the Bordeaux mixture.
now

poisons that

which

formaldehyde,is

the

causes

This is

stillother

are

or

is

either Paris
insecticide,

to 50

ounces

the home

mixture

and it
fungicide,
effective poisonous action upon
plant insects.

no

it

Bordeaux

used

sometimes

in

be

malin,
discussed. Forbriefly
that is,it
powerfuldisinfectant;

must
a

are

complete destruction

of disease germs.

the oxidation of wood

alcohol,and is put

38 to 40 per cent

solution in water.

It is

For

on

the

killing

grain,the seeds are immersed for ten minutes


in a solution of one
pintof the above 40 per cent solution to
It must
be understood that formalde20 gallonsof water.
hyde
used as a spray forfoliage.For other purposes
is never
of disinfecting,
in water
closets or for
as, for example, for use
sick rooms,
it has no superior.
disinfecting
smut

spores

Mercuric

on

chloride,corrosive sublimate, is another

(see Chapter XI).


disinfectant
with

One

ammonium

chloride

part in 1000 makes

to

It is put up

hasten

common

in tablet forms

its solution in water.

sufficiently
strong solution

to kill

FOR

POISONS

most

Corrosive sublimate

germs.

insoluble

forms

antidote

or

eggs

of lime

Chloride

with

compounds

forit is raw

or

ORCHARD

AND

FARM

317

PESTS

poison,and
proteins.Consequentlyan
is

stomachic

milk.

(see Chapter VI)

bleaching powder

and bleaching
agent. It is a
disinfecting
powder preparedby passingchlorine into slaked lime. It
is

common

very

always

has

strong odor

The

and

other

and

chloride behind.

thus liberated is the active agent which

oxygen

germs

leavingcalcium

its oxygen,

slowly givesup

It is unstable

of chlorine.

destroys

organicmatter.

Javellewater, which is also used for disinfecting


purposes,

by treatingbleachingpowder with washing

is made

settle.

to
allowing the precipitate

soda and

clear solution

The

is

employed.
of the cheapestand most usefulof the
well
It will destroy organicmatter
various disinfectants.
as
bacteria,and therefore it is useful in disposingof the
as
alone

Lime

is

one

serves

as

water

to

"

milk

whitewash

have

which

bodies of animals

in barns

and

of lime

"

it must

with

pump,

spray

be
has

disease; it also

some

pens.

100 parts of lime will make

is the carbonate and

lime

died of

good

Sixty parts of
whitewash

or

for air-slaked
freshto be active,
When
no
germicidal
plied
appower.
will enter

whitewash

the cracks in

be very effective. Whitewash, containing


carbolic acid,is an especially
little
goodremedyin the poultry

stables,etc., and
a

house
The

for liceand
burning
;

vermin.

of

sulphur is

but it is not

very

one

destroy the

spores

oldest methods

infecti
of dis-

stroys
Sulphur dioxide debut it does
lifein general,

reliable.

insects,vermin, and animal


not

of the

of bacteria.

In

order to act at all,

the presence
of moisture. Sulphur
sulphur dioxide requires
tage
be procuredeverywhere, and it has the further advanmay
that it is cheap. In fumigatingwith sulphur proceedas

318

CHEMISTRY

follows

In

inches.
will

In

AND

washtub

bricks

this,
placeseveral

stones, which

or

LIFE

to

depth of

water

put

protrude above the

DAILY

bricks

flatstones

or

about two

water

about

four

that they

so

inches.

Upon

the

should be in about the middle of the

tub, placean

old iron kettle.

the bricks.

Now

See that it rests securelyon

place pulverizedsulphurin the kettle,


from 1 to 3 pounds, accordingto the size of the room
to be
fumigated. Open all the doors of closets,cupboards, etc.,
in the room.
Also spread out the bedding. Now, having
the washtub near
the center of the room,
insert into the heap
of sulphura pieceof blotting
paper about 3 by 8 inches,which
has

been

alcohol

or

in alcohol.

strong

even

that about

so

paper

soaked

rum

with

sulphur.
and

As

soon

with

alcohol

as

not

dioxide is gone.

match

Mount

in the

end

upper

be

the

burningwell,leave

the

opened so

inhabited

burn
to

tightly. After

may

be

lightthe

this

will be communicated

the alcohol is

close the door

It should

will do.

will take fire readilyand

which

the doors and windows


well.

denatured

or

3 to 4 inches will be immersed

hot blue flame

room

The

paper.

alcohol

whisky

or

powdered sulphur. Now


of the

Wood

several hours, all


as

air the

to

till all odor

In cities the health

room

of sulphur

will
officer

attend to the

that have been occupiedby patients


having
fumigationofrooms
contagiousdiseases.
Certain productsthat are preparedfrom coal tar are also
bolic
good disinfectants. Among these may be mentioned car-

acid, cresol, creosote, and


is used in moth
leum

are

used

balls.

in

naphthaline. The

Lysol,carboleum, germol, and

dips.

These

are

also the so-called fly removers

are

animals to protect them


Some
and

from

all coal tar

which

are

zeno-

products,as

sprayed upon

flies.

of the advertised lice exterminators

sulphuras

latter

the active materials.

These

contain tobacco
are

not

as

ef-

FOR

POISONS

fective

FARM

AND

ORCHARD

lime and carbolic acid.

as

In

319

PESTS

of the factthat

mew

so

compounded materials are fraudulent,


secretly
it is well to be sure
or
ineffective,
of what the
very expensive,
mixtures contain so as to be able to judgeof their worth before
purchasingthem.
It should be remembered
that nature has providedgood,
efficientdisinfecting
agents, which, however, must be allowed
killer. If sunto act freely. Sunlight is a powerfulgerm
light
these

of

many

could
or

the

nook

be carried into every

barn, there would

be any

seldom

or

of the house

corner

need of chemical

infectan
dis-

and typhoid
diphtheria,
oftuberculosis,
in six to eighthours. The
feverare killed by direct sunlight
is not nearlyso
diffused sunlightwhich reaches our
rooms
and it usuallyrequiresseveral
powerfulas direct sunlight,
days for it to destroygerm life. Another common
agentfor
bacteria is heat.
It may
be employed dry, as by baking
killing
The germs

in

an

Dry heat is

moist

or

oven,
not

as

All germs

heat.

as

by boilingwith

water

or

steam.

effective in

destroyinggerms as moist
clothingmay be destroyedby boiling

in

Floors and walls may be disinfected


with boiling
water to which some
cheaplyand efficiently

it for from five to ten minutes.

lyehas

been added.

QUESTIONS
1.

Name

classes of
2.

two

poisonsused

What

poisons?

is the
What

Paris green

in which

ways

to exterminate

common

is Paris green
for purity.

Why

should lead arsenate

4.

How

may

For what

do

the two

insects act ?

made

be

of ?

Give

two

ways

paste ?

Why

should

purchased as

lime-sulphurbe prepared ?

grade lime be used

How

poisonous ingredientof the stomachic

3.

5.

insects feed.

for testing

high-

purpose

used in its preparation?

is kerosene

emulsion

used ?

Why

is soap

320

CHEMISTRY

What

6.

is

in

excess

8.

What

9.

Name

how

it

10.

be

avoided

Bordeaux

preparation

its

is

formalin

the

DAILY

used

in

when

using

mixture,

LIFE

killing
this

and

why

can

it

gophers,

ants,
substance

should

etc.

is

Why

lime

be

used

in

and

chemical

whitewash

when

elements

in

be

used

advantageously

bleaching

good

material

to

be

What

is

the

action

powder.

State

acts.

hen-houses

11.

is

What

7.

substance

flames

should

Why

the

AND

of

sunlight

on

germs

used

in

stables

and

XXII

CHAPTER

TO

EXPERIMENTS

PRACTICAL

PERFORMED

BE

LABORATORY1

THE

MANIPULATION

LABORATORY

Cutting glass tubing. Place the tubing on

firmlydraw the edge of

IN

fileacross
triangular

the desk, and


it two

or

three

times

(Fig. 110)
at the placewhere
the glassis to be
Then

cut.

the

take

tube

hands

in

and

the

with

the thumbs

placed
together,

near

FIG.

just back

of

110.

"

Cutting glass tubing.

the

scratch,gentlypullthe glassapart, at the


outward

with the thumbs

break, make

(Fig.111).

deeper scratch.

same

time

pressing

If the tube does not

If the tube is

large,it may
be necessary to filearound the glass. The broken edgeswill
be sharp and should be rounded by rotatingthem in the tip
of

Bunsen

burner.

Bending glass tubing. Use

ordinarygas flame,or the


luminous
Bunsen
burner spread out
by a
wing top."
Hold the tube in the flame,as shown in Fig.112.
Rotate the
an

"

are

Lists of apparatus

given

students

at the

use
Y

end

proper

and

chemicals

of this
care

required for these experiments

chapter. The teacher will see to it that


in handling flames and dangerous substances.
321

322

CHEMISTRY

AND

DAILY

LIFE

tube and

heat

it until it

beginsto bend by its own

weight; then
from

the flame and


bend

desired
FIG.

111.

Breaking glass tubing.

"

tube

and
bore

of the tube

will not

contract

or

fully
care-

the tube to the

shape.

is heated
not

it

remove

too

If

the

uniformly

highly,the

flatten at the bend.

(See Fig.113.)

In

FIG.

Fittingcorks

to

tubing. Select

112.

"

Bending glass tubing.

glass

cork of

suitable size for the test


tube

flask to be used.

or

Soften the cork


of

cork press,

by means
ing
or by roll-

it between

the desk

and

block

Select

of

cork

smaller
slightly
tube
Place

to

the

be

borer
than the

inserted.

cork

desk and bore

wood.

on

the

throughit,

FlG"

bends

113'~Goodt^ngadglass
"f

324

CHEMISTRY

to

on

into

the shelf

AND

table.

or

DAILY

When

another,a glassrod,held

as

LIFE

pouring from one beaker


shown in Fig.115,will prevent
the liquidfrom running
the side of the beaker.

down

Filtering. This

ordinarily
the separation

has for its purpose


FIG.

116.

Folding

"

of

filter.

liquidfrom

Place the funnel in the


a

wooden

stand.

Fold the filterpaper

solid.

arm

of

into halves and then

rightangles into quarters (Fig.116).


is opened so as to form a cone
half
paper

at

The

folded

filter

is three

of which

thicknesses of paper and the remainder one thickness. Now


fit the cone
into a funnel of such a size that the edge of the
paper

does not

quitereach

FIG.

fit,vary
paper

the

"

If the paper

filter ready for

does not

use.

it does.

until
foldingslightly

placethe

Now

into the funnel and moisten it so that it adheres to the

sides of the funnel.

againstthe
The

117.

the top.

Press the paper

side of the funnel

filteris now

ready for

use

to

gentlywith

remove

(Fig.117).

any

the

fingers

air bubbles.

PRACTICAL

LABORATORY

Heating liquidsin

test tubes.

full.

one-third

Hold

325

EXPERIMENTS

it between

Fill the test tube


the

only about

fingersand thumb, and

constantlyrotate it in the flame so as to apply heat uniformly.


end of the liquid
heat should be appliedto the upper
The
the liquid,
to the glassabove
and not to the bottom
as
or

FIG.

shown
may

In

in

118.

Fig. 118.

Heating

"

liquid in

test-tube holder

test tube.

or

band

of paper

be used to hold the tube.


the

followingexperimentsthe student should record

observations and

conclusions

notebook,which
and

in
neatlyand carefully

is to be submitted to the teacher

suggestions
upon

completion

of

each

his

tory
labora-

for

rections
cor-

ment.
experi-

326

CHEMISTRY

AND

EXPERIMENTS

TO

Chemical

1.

of rock

and

taste, hardness, and

(1) Grind

CHAPTER

physical changes.

Examine

such
its properties,

crystallineform.

piecein

LIFE

ACCOMPANY

Notice

candy.

DAILY

Has

mortar.

and

Does

stir with

the sugar

the

add

its taste.

changed?

littleof the

Taste

(3) Heat

piece

its color,

as

taste

glassrod.

stillexist?

Describe

(2) Partly fill a beaker with water, and

powdered candy

the solution.
of the

5 grams

powdered candy in a dry test tube, applyingthe heat gently


and notingcarefully
at first,
the changes. When
further
no
at a much
change takes place,even
higher temperature,
allow the tube to cool.

Taste

in water?

Notice its color.

resemble?

Has

there been

platinum wire

Was

there

and

shake.

or

What
a

pieceof

the residue.

Will it dissolve

does the

substance

new

chemical

change? (4) Heat


and then let it cool.
porcelain,
? Was it physical
or chemical ?

changein this case


2.
(1) Note the visible propCompounds and mixtures.
erties
of a piece of sulphur. Test it with a magnet.
Is
it attracted ? Drop a pieceof roll sulphur,as largeas a
pea, in a test tube and add 5 to 10 cc. of carbon bisulphide
to have
is

no

Use

flame

Pour

on
some

bisulphide sparingly.

in

room

dangerous

more

into

carbon

watch

the

the

working

gasoline. Does

than

off the

while

liquidfrom

the

Remember

with

the

solve?
sulphur disundissolved sulphur

glass,and let it evaporate. Is there

watch

powdered

glass?
iron.

dissolve in carbon

Is
Test

it like
it with

sulphur?
a

it,for it

magnet.

residue

(2) Examine
See if it will

bisulphide.(3) Stir together3 grams of


powdered sulphur and 5 grams of powdered iron. What is
of the
the color of the new
powder ? Bring a magnet to some
Does the iron stillexist ? Put some
of the powder
mixture.
in a test tube, add carbon bisulphide,
shake, pour off the

PRACTICAL

LABORATORY

and evaporate some


liquid,
sulphurstillexist in the
3.

Chemical

with

small

tube

to

cool.

way

up

down

part
this to

run

the

tube

There

is

from

Test

black

by

TO

Electrolysisof

The

acid,for

pure

Note

with

II

shown

as

conduct

four

or

the difference in the volume

Can

substance ?

new

acidulated
slightly

Three

amine
ex-

been.

magnet.

experimentis to

will not

and

glow had

CHAPTER

This

distilledwater

well.
sufficiently

it open

the

ACCOMPANY

be

allow

not

of it with carbon bisulphid

iron in the

water.

used should

water

where

Set up the apparatus

the instructor.

Do

phur
sul-

the substance at the bottom

material

sulphuror

EXPERIMENTS

4.

tube.

be dissolved out

the

detect either

you

littlemelted

the tube is cool,break

sulphurcan

tube

test

begins to glow like a


the flame.
Lay the

mass

the substance in the bottom


See if any

of

mixture

experiment in

probably a

with

mix

of the

rest

the inside of the

When

of the tube.

the

Heat

the

and

down

the

mixture ?

When

flame.

watch glass. Does

on

the above

coal, remove

red-hot

of it

change.
iron from

sulphur and

327

EXPERIMENTS

dry

be done
in

with

Fig.1.
sulphuric

the electriccurrent
cells will suffice.

of gas formed

in the two

arms.

5.

Explosion of hydrogen
be done

is to

by

and

the

mixture.

oxygen

who
instructor,

of water,
oxyhydrogen gas by electrolysis

into the eudiometer

mixture

is effected by

Salts in well

well water

on

evaporate. The

over

water.

watch

will prepare

and then pass

mercury.

periment
ex-

the

The

plosion
ex-

of the electricspark,
the apparatus

beingarrangedas

for this purpose


6.

means

tube

This

Place

some

shown

in

Fig.2.
ordinary service

or

and set it in a warm


glass,
placeto
evaporationwill proceed best by placing

328
the watch

glasson

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

bath.

hot water

LIFE

the residue left

Note

in the dish.
7.
as

shown

flask.

in

Fig.3. Place from


Apply heat gently,and
Be

water.

Observe
the water

cc.

collect 100

cc.

is

before and

of the distillateby

watch

there

Is

result compare
8.

Water

with

any

some

50 grams

of each in

Then
of them

with

minutes

the

residue

wheat

or

carrot,

corn

on

How

left?

of
few

clean

does

(1) Take
or

potato

some

to

this

weighed dishes
a

warm

glassplate. Window

plateswill be dimmed

of tinned

green

represent a

samples of seed.

as

put the dishes in


a

odor

Evaporate

gentleheat

substances.

plant,also

root, and

and

denser.
con-

that of experiment 6?

in various

leaves of any

in the

of the distilled

taste

after distillation.

cubic centimeters

glass.

of water

runningthrough the

in the

the difference

apparatus

an

up

200 to 300

that cold water

sure

Set

distilled water.

Preparation of

Weigh

iron

or

lain.
porce-

placeand cover
glasswill do. In
over

with water

out

each
a

few

that has

plant by heat. Save the materials


for experiment9. (2) Heat piecesof beef,old mortar, and
salts each separatelyin a largetest tube and observe
epsom
the water
that condenses
the side of the tube (seeFig.4).
on
The piecesto be heated should be of about the size of a small
hickory nut.

been

9.

driven

Amount

that the

out

of

the

of water

in

plant. When

it has been

seen

planttissue in experiment8 is losingwater, remove


the glasscovers
and put the dishes in the open air or on the
On rebath to dry. This will requirea day or so.
water
weighingthe dishes,it will be found that the contents have
lost a good deal of water ; 80 to 90 per cent in the case of the
green leaves. The roots lose nearlyas much, while the seeds
Saw
the material for exlose only from 10 to 15 per cent.
periment
10.

LABORATORY

PRACTICAL

plant. Take

the

gentlyover a
has been
everythingpossible

flame

Ash

10.

9 and

heat

it

of the

cent

In the

ash which

white

or

gray

the

in

dry

in the

elements

ash

carbonates,chlorides,and

off.

There

are

2 to 5 per

removingthe water.
found, but these are

wherever it
as

will remain

from

to

was

The

grown.

phosphates,sulphates,

silicates. The

of calcium and

the presence

elements

present

are

left after

the plant,or

whatever

same

in

experiment
porcelaindish until

amount

was

plant ash only a few

residue from

burned

may

that

matter

329

EXPERIMENTS

teacher will show

phosphorusin

the ash by

simple

qualitativetests.
of

Deposits

11.

minutes

lime

about 200

mineral water

in

of lime

sediment

the carbon

lime and

cc.

Boil

by boiling water.

of hard

"

well water

or

flask. After the water

of
turbidity

or

the water.

dioxide,which

magnesia

is

for

White

few

Rock"

cool,note

any

Boilinghas

has held the carbonates

in solution.

When

this carbon

pelled
ex-

of

dioxide

is driven off,the carbonates

the scale in

and

depositsinterfere

These

Hard

12.

hard water

and

in

soft

The
in teacrust
kettles
precipitate.
of this nature.
boilers are
chiefly
with good heating and steaming.

Place

water.

about

50

of very

cc.

This water may be


or flask.
cylinder
prepared,if necessary, by adding 0.1 or 0.2 gram of calcium
chloride to 500 cc. of ordinarywater.
Add to this a measured
made as stated below.
Mix well,
quantityof soap solution,
and
a

notice how

permanent

of lime

tap

200-cc.

much

Repeat

solution ?

magnesiasalts in
10 grams

these in

solution must
Also

be added

notice the

before

precipitate

experiment,
usingrain water and
Which of these waters
respectively.
requiresthe

soap

scrape

soap

lather is formed.

soap.

water

most

and

the

Hardness

of water

solution.

of castile soap

literof denatured

is due

To prepare
to

fine

to

the soap

and
shavings,

the lime

solution,
dissolve

alcohol ; then dilute with water

330

CHEMISTRY

to 1350
a

cc.

DAILY

If the solution is not

LIFE

filterit. Keep it in
clear,

tightly
stopperedbottle.
EXPERIMENTS
13.

of

AND

TO

Preparation of hydrogen.

granulatedzinc

Cover

ACCOMPANY

in

the zinc with 25

dip below

the water.

for collection of

flask

cc.

Fill two

the gas

FIG.

119.

"

in

or

the

Hydrogen

that the stopper is tight,


for

Place from

arrangedas

of water.

III

CHAPTER

The

15 to 20 grams

shown

in

Fig.119.

thistle tube should

three cylinders
with water

pneumatic trough. See

generator.

hydrogen easilyescapes.
all is ready, add, through the thistle tube, about 15
concentrated hydrochloricacid. Do
not
apply any

When
cc.

of

heat.

332

"

tube

CHEMISTRY

AND

that the gas

so

When

the

while

stillunder

DAILY

is collected in

cylinderis filled,
cover
It

water.

then

of the

one

it with

can

LIFE

cylinders.

of the

glassplates
placed upright on

one

be

the desk, while another


two
filling

tube

or

from

cylinderis being filled. After thus


three cylinders,
the end of the delivery
remove

the water, and

the flame while the

remove

FIG.

do, a

120.

Making

"

the hot

tube

it for

moment

and

break
in

one

the flame.

remove

tube
delivery

will be formed

vacuum

then

is under

Do

water.

not

If you

oxygen.

and the water

will be forced into

(1) Light

splinterand place

it.

of the

cylinders
;

remove

it and

tinguish
ex-

the flame, but while stillglowing,thrust it into the

cylinderagain. (2) Put


than

grain of wheat,

sulphur in

flame and

into

small
a

small
the

iron spoon.

larger

Ignitethe

burning material into a


Record
the results. (3) Heat the end
cylinderof oxygen.
of a pieceof fine iron wire. Dip into it flowers of sulphur,
lightthe sulphur,and plunge the wire into a cylinderof
while the sulphuris stillburning. What
is the result ?
oxygen
(4)Heat a pieceof charcoal in the air,and while it isstillglowing
What
is the result ?
drop it into a cylinderof oxygen.
Now
shake the contents
of the cylinderwith 5 cc. of water ;
a

thrust

piece of sulphur,no

PRACTICAL

then

LABORATORY

test the water

with

add clear limewater

and shake

Ozone

machine
has

and

EXPERIMENTS

air

odor of

dioxide

clear limewater

the

ozone

There is

on
a

surface of water

in the

it under
no

end of

till you

water

than

more
a

bottle under
the white

it

are

it behave ?

and

blow

glasstube.

serve
Ob-

Expose

some

beaker for 24 hours and

serve
ob-

of carbon dioxide

of carbon.
thin piece of cork

pneumatic trough. Place

largeas

Handle

Note

pea.

it with

actuallyrequire

Let

spoon

the

absorbed.
Note

(1) Now

support

sulphur on

perfectly

test tube

carbonate.

air,beingcareful

pentoxide.
in the bottle.

of

cc.

on

it

phorus
Phos-

forceps. Keep

the

piece

for

use.

Ignitethe phosphoruswith the


quicklyplace over it a wide-mouthed

water.

fumes

IV

directed.

hot wire, and

bottle filledwith

small amount

as

dangerous.

10

clean

Preparation of nitrogen. Float

is very

Does

Pour

source
plant's

pieceof phosphorus half

Use

Ozone

CHAPTER

air.

air.

be detected.

can

the purpose

the air in

in the air and this is the


19.

sults
re-

containing yellow phosphorus

of calcium
the precipitate

the result.

in the

ACCOMPANY

in

through it,using for


to

the

frictional electric

(calciumhydroxide)into

clear limewater

Record

Also

discharges.

bottle

TO

Carbon

Work

produced

electric

of

The

in water.

18.

odor

by the

Smell

Ozone.

the contents.

sparks.

the

note

formed

been

17.

electric

by

litmus paper.

observations.

and explainyour
16.

pieceof blue

333

EXPERIMENTS

gas

The

the extent
test

keep the

stand

mouth

of the

water

over

white

fumes

are

until

phorus
phos-

of the rise of the water

the gas with

combustion?
and

to

(2) Place

insert it in the

lightedsplinter.
some

burning

nitrogen. How

does

334

CHEMISTRY

of

Preparation

20.

AND

LIFE'

DAILY

should

Specialcare

nitric acid.

be

exercised by the student in the preparationof all acids; but


nitric acid

with

is

on
spilled

specialcare

the hands it causes

Carefullyintroduce

shake

very

gentlyand
by
or

the
of

means

then

add 2

small

pieceof
becomes

in

chloride,10

tube

If

grams

of

Heat

tube, cooled by

test

(1) Remove

What

the

drop of

pieceof woolen

(2) Place

containing5

the mixture

few

drops of

of water

cc.

and

(3) Place

happens ?

flask

der
containingthe remainadd
place,

littlewater.

ammonia.

the

then 25

the retort, and

into

applyit to

reaction takes

no

of the copper

Into

in the test tube

copper

Preparationof

Fig. 122.

test

of nitric acid.

cc.

of the acid.

21.

and

glasstube

silk ; observe the result.

indigosolution

What

tests
following

in Fig. 121.

nitrate and

all is well mixed.

collect the nitric acid in

Make

water.

cloth

gentlyuntil

that

nitric acid.

Making

"

sulphuricacid

of concentrated

grams

acid

121.

wounds

shown

as

of sodium

25 grams

FIG.

and

painfulburns

slowly. Arrange the apparatus

heal

in

taken, because if any

be

must

Arrangeapparatus as
place 10

of ammonium

grams

powdered lime, and

shown

25

cc.

of water.

PRACTICAL

LABORATORY

335

EXPERIMENTS

apparatus is
properlyconnected, apply
the

When

heat

gentlyfor 8

to 10

minutes.

(1) Test

the

(2) Test the

paper.

with

litmus

red

with

gas

burning splinter.

evaporating
drochloric
place 5 cc. of hy-

(3) Into
dish

an

acid

and

and

of water,

cc.

gas

pour

of the
cylinder
Avoid inhaling
any

this into
gas.

of the ammonia
white

fumes

The

gas.
are

chloride.
you

10

nium
ammo-

Why did

collect the ammonia

gas in

inverted cylinder?

an

What
when

ammonia

treated
Shake

is

with
a

formed

Water?

cylinderof

gas

is

gas

with 25

FIG.

122.

"

Making

ammonia.

monia
am-

cc.

of water, and

test the solution with

red litmus paper.

EXPERIMENTS

22.

Acids

TO

in fruits and

ACCOMPANY

silage.

CHAPTER

(1) Cut

open

lemon

juiceinto a beaker. Add a few


solution and then carefullyadd
drops of phenolphthalein
bakingsoda until the red color
a dilute solution of potashor
Note
the loweringof the acid taste as the
just appears.
contain citric acid. This expotash is added. Lemons

and

squeeze

some

of the

336

repeatedwith

be

periment may

is tartaric acid.

acid

acids in this in the

and

Acids

23.

same

of dilute

bases.

sodium

10

out

beaker, and

add

and

solution,but by

of

means

solution to the paper.

used, add

alkalies turn

glassrod

In

drop

or

litmus paper.

Place the dish upon

heat

solution

until the

excessive

heating. This

solution becomes
in the

dish.

and

taste

sodium
and

It is

common

hydroxide.

TO

Preparation

some

Warm

of the gas

Test the

Bases

and

upon

apply
Avoid

dryness.

to

or

the

of the material

entirelydifferent

either

by

bath

some

salt and

hydrochloricacid

the

of

ACCOMPANY

union

of

an

the

bubble

with
liquid

CHAPTER

hydrochloric acid.

arranged as in Fig. 119, place 15


Through the funnel tube add 25
acid.

hydroxide

in
or

acid

Write the equation.

EXPERIMENTS

24.

of the

spatteringwhen

Taste

It is formed

drop

blue litmus red.

sand

will prevent

action from

into the

action
perceptible

no

evaporated

concentrated.

chemical

base.

is

paper

sodium

red litmus blue,while acids turn

the solution is neutral,it has

lain
porce-

this dilute

of the acid.

two

time, until the

transfer

much

too

case

Add

drop the

not

in

10

hydroxide solution

little at

Do

Put

salt.

of water.

cc.

solution is neutral to litmus.

When

the

mainly

are

of water

cc.

of sodium

cc.

50

10

the acid, a

hydroxide to

been

of

cream

neutralize

acids

of

Preparation

hydrochloricacid

Measure

dish.

has

and
silage,
the
silage

the main

get

we

grapes

In

way.

in which

lactic acids.

acetic and

into

the

From

LIFE

grapes

(2) Press the juicefrom

tartar.

cc.

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

mixture

grams
cc.

litmus paper.

Into

of

common

generator,

of concentrated

gently if

through water

VI

in

necessary.

salt.
phuric
sulLet

receivingflask.

Taste it carefully.
Take

the

away

water, and

the

ammonia
the

gas

burn?

near

the

nitric acid to 10

drops of

of
precipitate
well water

26.

air ?

moistened

with

Explain, and

What

water.

over

gas

write

of the solution add

some

To

which

few

is the

for chlorides,add

test

add

and then

of water

cc.

The

solution of silver nitrate.

1 per cent

lighterthan

is formed
precipitate

in water.

Chlorides

of

To

bottle by

silver chloride.

insoluble

25.

the

silver nitrate.

drops of
very

jar of

or

filter paper

gas.

to rise ?

the water

heavier

escaping

Invert

equation.

causes

Hold

in

of the gas

some

Is the gas

air.

displacement of
Does

collect

337

EXPERIMENTS

LABORATORY

PRACTICAL

formation

silver chloride indicates chlorides.

and

service water, also

on

of

few
of

cc.

white

Try

0.1 per

on

this

on

tion
solu-

cent

salt.

common

of

action

Bleaching

Place

bleaching powder.

the

Cover

beaker.

20

powder
acid.
with water, and then add 40 cc. of 10 per cent sulphuric
of
Hang a moist stripof red calico in the beaker by means
of

grams

wire.

bleachingpowder

Now

gently,and

the

cover

in

with

beaker

let it stand.

glassplate,warm
Turkey red

is the result ?

What

unchanged, but other cheaper calicoes

calico will be almost


will be altered.
27.

Vapors

and

an

and

then

add

gently.

Note

are

the vapors
28.

Vapors

which

tube,

test

Warm

formed.

These

of iodine.
of

bromine.

and

in

acid, and
bromine

sulphuricacid.

the violet color of the vapors

bromide
this mixture

potassium iodide

dioxide in

of concentrated

cc.

of

1 gram

of manganese

equal amount
2

Place

iodine.

of

are

1 gram

test

heat

Mix

gram

of manganese

tube, add

gently.

evolved.

cc.

Note

of

pulverizedpotassium
dioxide.

Place

of concentrated
the

brown

fumes

phuric
sulof

338

CHEMISTRY

AND

EXPERIMENTS

TO

ACCOMPANY

coarselypulverized,in
tube holder,and

CHAPTER

heat

slowlyuntil

becomes

to

test

thin,amber- colored

so

liquid

thick and viscid

be

it into water, and

quicklypour

when

describe its properties.On

reverts

dissolve

to

sulphur soluble

roll sulphurin carbon

some

off the clear liquid


on

watch

should

evaporate (no flame


a

cool examine

mass

it

in water?

bisulphide. Pour

glassand allow

it to stand and

near). Examine

be

the

standing several days

Is

ordinary sulphur.

to

the crystals

lens.
Fill

Sulphur dioxide.

30.

roll sulphur,

poured. Continue to heat until the material


in color and again is a liquid. Then
slightly
lighter

that it cannot

under

it is

darker, until it is quitedark and

becomes

of

grams

tube attached

test

VII

the temperature increases,notice that the

liquid.As

and

LIFE

Properties of sulphur. Place 15

29.

Try

DAILY

small

iron

half

spoon

full

sulphur. Ignitethe sulphurand then lower it into a small


cylindercontaininga pieceof wet, colored cloth,a pieceof red
of

litmus

or

paper,

red

the spoon

stops burning,remove
a

glassplate. What
and

paper,

carnation.

coloringmatter

is also

and

and

is the effect on

soon

the

as

the

cover

sulphur

cylinderwith

the cloth,on

the litmus

Sulphur dioxide destroysorganic

the flower?

on

As

good disinfectant.

It killsgerm

life.
Make

Sulphuric acid.

31.

acid
sulphuric

of the

(1) Put

or

in

cc.

used
a

test

into it and leave it there.

acid, and

off the

examine

What

is this black

about

of water

into 2

gram,

and

cc.

of

followingtests

in the Babcock

tube and
Then

stick

of the

Also

test
a

the

remove

the stick.

material ?
cc.

the

sulphuricacid.

sulphuricacid

into

some

for milk

fat.

of wood
splinter
splinter. Wash

It has

drop

with

turned

pieceof

black.
sugar,

(2) Put 10

test tube ; then

cc.

add

340

CHEMISTRY

EXPERIMENTS

boric

and

water

Then

stir in

residue

acid

from

tillno

of water

cc.

Add

(1) Dissolve

contained

On

in

100

cc.

of

will dissolve.

more

the
cooling,

Filter off and

out.

separate

VIII

Boil

borax.

borax

powdered

follows:

as

LIFE

CHAPTER

acidifywith hydrochloricacid.

of boric acid

DAILY

ACCOMPANY

TO

Making

35.

AND

flakes

the

test

solid

of the boric acid in

some

porcelainevaporating dish.

drops of sulphuricacid and 10 cc. of alcohol to the


solution,and then carefullyapply the flame to the dish.
When
the alcohol beginsto evaporate, ignite
it with the flame.
2

It will burn

with

of boric acid.

with

(2) Test

turmeric paper.

hydrochloricacid

having been

and

of

grams

of

and

wash

solution

with

boric acid solution

is acidified with

this solution.

silicates.

Weigh

off the acid

the rest of the soil on

acid.

hydrochloric

hour ; pour

an

presence

is dried at 100" C.

paper

ordinarysoil and place it in

for

the

the color produced. The

the turmeric

moistened

concentrated

Warm

Note

boric acid

36. Insolubilityof

shows

of the aqueous

some

result is better if the

after

flame which

green

to

carefully 5

out

flask and
Does

add

it

25

cc.

dissolve?

filterpaper,

through a

the filter paper.

Put the

the soil in a warm


placeand let dry. Then
containing
reweighthe residue after tapping it out of the paper, being

funnel

careful that

soil is

The

is lost.

none

Has

largelymade

up

the acid dissolved very

much

of

almost

which
silicates,

are

insoluble materials.
37.

Sodium

of sodium
cc.

silicate.

glassin

water

of water, and

acid.
ness,

Note
and

add

Place
an

2 to 3

cc.

of

sirupysolution

evaporatingdish,dilute
cc.

of concentrated

with

hydrochloric

the

heat

10

gelatinousprecipitate.Evaporate to drythe dish gently over


a low flame.
Cool, add

and examine
water, filter,

the solid residue.

What

is it?

PRACTICAL

LABORATORY

EXPERIMENTS

ACCOMPANY

TO

each

pieceof bone,

and

the bone

the charcoal and

with
be obtained

In

in wood?

elements

from

bone?

luminous

Heat

and

iron crucible

an

the crucible until

black.

wheat.

ground

some

IX

the flame, let cool, and

from

Remove

ceases.

bean, in

sand.

the materials with

cover

smoking

largeas

as

CHAPTER

Place 2 piecesof wood

38. Preparation of carbon.


a

341

EXPERIMENTS

What

the

principal
ment
experi-

are

Try the

same

Particles of carbon

gas

flame

or

amine
ex-

candle

or

may

lamp

piece of cold porcelainin the flame.


in chimneys as soot when fuel is burned
is deposited
Carbon
draft. When
fuel is burned
with a poor
completely,the
the gas, carbon dioxide.
carbon disappearsentirely
as
Mix
of carbon.
thoroughly from
39. Reducing power
of pulverized
oxide and an equal bulk
2 to 3 grams
copper
charcoal. Place the mixture in a small test
of pulverized
What
is the
Observe the result.
tube and apply heat.
the oxygen
causes
bright red material produced? What
from the copper oxide ?
to be separated
flame, by holding

Absorbing

40.

To

carbon.

of

power

10

of

cc.

water

drops of cochineal solution and 10 cc.


Add 3 to 5 grams of bone black
of hydrogensulphide
water.
animal charcoal. Stopper the tube with a cork and
or
shake it. Let stand 5 minutes,and then pour upon a filter.
trate.
Now
smell of the liquidand look at the color of the filIt has lost its color,and is odorless. The charcoal
in

test

both

absorbs
in

tube add

bag hung

colors and

odors.

in the water

of

half bushel

of charcoal

cistern will gradually


remove

the odor of the cistern water.


41.

Preparation
as

shown

in

of

carbon

Fig.119.

flask and sufficient water

to

dioxide.
Put

cover

20

Arrange

grams

the apparatus

of marble

in the

the end of the thistletube.

342

CHEMISTRY

Fill 2

AND

cylinderswith water
slowly through the tube

add

for

or

acid.

Allow

collect from
and

2 to 3

set them

is

cylindersof

note

and

(2) Test

some

(3) Pour

sodium

into

another

then

the cylinders,

(1) While

Boil

escapinggas
the gas

and

Remove

the

the reappearance

note

of the

chloric
hydro-

the apparatus
tube

test

of

is firstformed
precipitate

redissolved.

cylinderof

of

the gas.

of the gas

some

Then

gas.

of concentrated

cc.

the result.

happens? (4) Invert


solution

the
collecting

the table.

uprighton

graduallythen

thus formed

30

LIFE

of the fresh gas to escape,

some

runningpass

limewater,and
and

DAILY

of the

with

over

clear solution

precipitate.

burning splinter.

candle flame.

cylinderover

hydroxide. Why

25

per

the

gas

does

What
cent

appear
dis-

students may
also perform similar experiAgricultural
ments,
using other calcium-containing
substances, such as
caustic

lime, limestone,floats,and

to

gypsum,

if these

see

contain carbonic acid,as does marble.


hard

Making

42.

of caustic soda
into

in 120

porcelaindish

of water

and

In

soap.

beaker

of water.

cc.

of about

minutes, carefullyreplacingfrom
lost by evaporation. Then

Add

20

be
finally
of

grams

allow to cool.
of

excess

The

lye, and

time

time

to

The

more.

to

decrease

50

for

of the caustic

volume

of the

one-third.

few minutes, and

in solution.

the

Try

glycerine,
to

make

engine cylinder oil instead

gas

cc.

the water

about

rises to the top, and

salt remain

grams

Boil the solution for 45

salt,boil

soap

similarly,
using

soap

hour

allowed

common

add
capacity,

add the remainder

soda and boil for at least an

liquidmay

cc.

15

half of the water

Pour

500

of tallow.

50 grams

dissolve

of

tallow.
Alcoholic

43.

into

500-cc.

fermentation.

bottle,add

50

Weigh
cc.

of water

10

grams

and

of

small

flour

piece

of

yeast cake.

the flask with


to

with

water

clear limewater

(seeFig.123).

Cover the lime-

the

warm

on

bath

85"

half

containingenough

an

Place

Why?

over

connect

kerosene.

of

sand

delivery tube

one-

of

quarter

bottle

test tube

of

means

the end of the tube

cover

inch

By

343

EXPERIMENTS

LABORATORY

PRACTICAL

(not
for

F.)

hour.

an

Observe

Why?

of gas

the bubbles

given off and the


that is
precipitate
FIG.

in bread

occurs

fermentation.

Alcoholic

"

fats such

alcohol

spots from

clothing. Spotsdue

is

to

be removed

butter, tallow,olive oil,etc., can

as

This

formed.

are

making.

of grease

Removal

44.

and

dioxide

Carbon

water.

what

123.

in the lime-

formed

gasolineor benzine ; also by placingthe


iron. Try
fabric between blotting
paper and applyinga warm
the solubility
of fats in gasoline
benzine,also the removal
or
also
Grease may
of a grease spot by the hot iron method.
solution of borax.
be removed
water
even
a
or
by ammonia

with

soap

In the

case

with

or

of spots due to mineral

be treated,or

softened with

gasoline.Why?
flames
45.

around

of

when

used

you

soda.
as

carbonate, put 5

This

To

in

Do

is sodium

fillerfor soap.

grams

treated with

then

have

not

using it.

are

washing powders.

oil and

is inflammable.

Gasoline

Washing

sometimes

some

oils,the spot should first

test

carbonate

It is the main

such

test tube

powder

and

add

and

is

ent
constitufor sodium
few

drops

CHEMISTRY

344

AND

If there is

acid.
hydrochloric

of

of

indicates the presence


and

appearance

compounds.

The

instructor

and

LIFE

brisk evolution

nose

of

important organic

some

should

have

the

student

followingmaterials

the

oil,carbon

acid, ether, banana

of gas, it

carbonate.

46. Odors

with the eye

DAILY

amine
ex-

bolic
car-

chloroform,
tetrachloride,

etc.

of

gram

clover

dry

hay,

as

into another test


5

10

to

Connect

and

the test tube

with

red

The

carbon

carbon

form

and

dioxide and

carbonates

forms

dioxide

with

litmus paper.
decomposesproteinmaterial

water

Soda-lime

blue.

carbon

the

the

Test

protein unite and

of the

enough soda-

Fig. 120, but let the end of the tube lead


tube containingwater.
Apply heat for from

nitrogenas ammonia.

liberates

in

minutes.

It should turn

with

meat

or

peas,

lime to half filla test tube.

deliverytube

Mix

nitrogenous organic compounds.

for

Test

47.

with

oxygen

water;
soda-

the

lime.

proteins. Make about


potash solution by dissolving5 grams
45

for

Test

48.

In another

of water.

cc.

sulphate(bluestone)the
Place

water.

cc.

of the

cc.

of this egg

potash solution,
put

sulphatesolution

copper

color will be
a

10

until all is well mixed.

shake

to

size of

deep

wheat,

corn,

and

an

add

This is

bran, and

by

be crushed

or

of

the

tube,and

few drops of the


At

first the

only

standingthis will change


the test for proteins.Test

this

means.

ground,and warmed
in a littleof the caustic potash solution and
adding the copper sulphatesolution.
should

cc.

tube, add

test

over

again.

of water.

cc.

into 50

egg

copper

on

violet color.

meat

in 50

the thumb

shake

piece of

solution in

Now

greenishblue,but

pea

of

caustic

of caustic potash in

glassdissolve

one-fifth of the white

about

Pour

10 per cent

These
for

materials
short time

then filteredbefore

Preparation

49.

flour in
into

of

protein.

dish,add
porcelain
stiff dough. Do not

345

EXPERIMENTS

LABORATORY

PRACTICAL

Put
15

12 to

have

about

much

water

mix

present.

ing
dough,and, hold-

the ball of

Let stand one-half hour, remove

of

grams

of water, and

cc.

too

25

little by little and so wash


add water
fingers,
the starch by further manipulationwith the fingers.
out
Continue the washing until the liquidruns
clear,and then
it in the

placethe ball of glutenin

for one-half hour.

water

Remove

it from water
much as possible,
as
freeing
and then weigh it. Spread it out in a thin cake, and then
let it dry in the oven
or in a warm
reweigh
place,and finally
it. Calculate the per cent of glutenin the flour. The gluten
of the wheat.
consists of the two principal
proteins
of flax or hemp seed
50. Fats and oils. Crush 5 grams
A grease spot will appear
the
on
on
a pieceof white
paper.
latter. Should the test fail to show
oil,placethe crushed
in a warm
seeds and the paper
placeon a tin plate. The
highertemperature will melt the oil out, which will then be
shown
by the grease spot on the paper.

the water,

it from

Fats

51.

Place the

and

oils.

powder in

Crush

four

and
flask,

stopperedand away
off,and through a

filter paper,

the

gasolineto

beaker.

Allow

is left in

or

52.

spots

on

cloth

gasoline.

the flask

pour

loosely
the gasoline

catching the filtrate in a


resievaporate slowly. A due
the

it between

Test

removed

are

of

cc.

corn.

benzine

fingers

dissolve fats.

by washing with

line
gaso-

pulp of

clean

benzine.

Preparation of starch.

potatoes. Tie
a

Then

flames.

beaker.

it 25

Keep

feeling.Gasoline and

for its greasy

Grease

the

from

five kernels of

over

pour

it at intervals for 15 minutes.

Shake

into

or

the

pulp

beaker filled with

into water.

Allow

in

Make

cloth and

two

the

juice
water, occasionally
dippingthe bag
a

the beaker

to

squeeze

stand for 20

minutes,

or

346

CHEMISTRY

AND

until*the starch has settled.


if the starch

is not

settle.

the starch for the


for

Test

half

in 50

Taste

starch.

"

Shake
a

add

then

and

out
settling

the

starch

at

the
in

was

wheat, oats,
Test

54.

raisins in 50

then

few

starch.
in

gram

test

tube, then

test

drops of

save

It is
tube

boil,

iodine solution.

adding 1

gram

of iodine to the

throughoutthe

solution.

cold water, but do not

solution.

On

solution,in the second


test

filter;

standing,the starch,

bottom, will be blue.

In
it

was

the

first*case

arations
Prep-

not.

also be made

may

from

beans.

or

for sugar
cc.

Leave

potassium iodide

of starch for the iodine


corn,

and

of

of the starch with


of the iodine

some

dry, and

and

grams

by dissolving5

of water

some

is

the

solution.) A deep blue color appears


Treat

water

off the water.

of the

some

one-half

Place

the filtrate add

is made
cc.

by adding more

Finallypour

full of water.

and filter. To

off the water,

followingtests.

tasteless.
practically

(This

it

LIFE

pour

in the desk until the starch

the beaker

about

Now

clean,wash

againallowingit to

53.

DAILY

(glucose). Grind

of water.

25

of dried

grams

Filter the solution into

beaker.

This is
place 10 cc. of Fehling'ssolution.
of copper
6.2 grams
made by dissolving
sulphate,3.5 grams
of Rochelle salts (sodium potassiumtartrate) and 2 grams of
Place about 10 cc.
potassiumhydroxidein 100 cc. of water.
of the Fehling's
solution in a test tube and add from 5 to 10
Into

test

tube

cc.

of the raisin solution.

boil a few seconds.

Heat

over

A reddish brown

flame

and

let the

liquid

forms, which
precipitate

standingdepositson the bottom of the test tube. This


is the red oxide of copper, Cu2O, and shows
the
precipitate
of glucosein the solution. Test the water
extract
presence
wheat for glucose
of an apple,
from corn
or
; also the extract
of "Karo
a sample of honey, and
one
sirup."
on

348

"

holding

CHEMISTRY

piece of

experiment with
60.

with

if necessary.

Note

Place

process.
100

for four
it

test

of

some

by blowing
one-half

gram

10

of water

and

cc.

When

What

Lime

of

insoluble
61.

has

of

of

by

higher

than

small

the
62.

about

match.

The
the

powder

care.

of

slaking

allow

solution

Place

clay.

of acid-

cent

per

acid.

time, and

of silica and
10

and

tube, add

test

add

to stand

hydrochloric

consists

of water

inch

ribbon
white
consists

and

hard.

long

C.
so

Allow

WThy?

note

carefully heat

Regulate the
that

it to
that

in

it reaches
cool.
few

Mix

utes
min-

Explain.
Hold

magnesium.

an

115"

to

thermometer

C.

115"

tube

test

gypsum

of

means

becomes

mass

ribbon

to

in

less than

In

Paris.

quantity

Burning

Examine

contains

mass

bottle;

acid, a little at

more

the

glass tube.

lime

action,

the

of the

drops

dissolved

powdered

temperature

few

the

material.

Plaster

with

slaked

add

not

high purity

grams

no

then

in

some

grams

it well

how

vigorously,and
filter

of the

hasten

lime

40

moisten

observe

through it, using

the action ceases,

warm.

10

Then

air

about

and

to

and

slaked

shake

about

readily undergoes

the

five hours.

or

lime

fresh

of distilled water

cc.

Place

35" C.

reaction

also repeat the

salt.

lime.

about

to

the

Good,

up.

LIFE

evaporating dish,

an

warming

water,

warms

in

barium

quality of

the

lime

of burned

piece of

DAILY

salt in the flame

calcium

Testing

AND

in

burns

piece

forceps and

with

product

formed.

of about

of

magnesium

apply

lighted

brilliant white
What

is it?

flame.
light
Flash-

parts of powdered magnesium

parts of potassium chlorate.

It should

be

used

with

PRACTICAL

EXPERIMENTS

63. Testing for


to

few

test

drops

tube containing5

Observe

Add

solution.

the result.

observe

testingfor
alum

is

the

solution.

2 grams

Mix

the test, using a

absence

or

alum
same

well and

bakingpowder,

of alum.

In the presence

always obtained with tincture of logwood

add

few

protein. To

and

drops

of

in this

form.
To

This

tion
solu-

The

water.

aluminum

case

tion
solu-

solution and

alum.

ammonia

of

cc.

alum

an

proteinand

chloride add

result is noticed, but

of

heavy precipitatewill

compound

of aluminum

bonate
car-

and the

of alum

result.

insoluble

an

about

carbonate solution.

64. Compounds
observe

of ammonium

cc.

containinga

Repeat

tion
solu-

then add

drops of logwood extract

blue color is

white

and

result. Mix

carbonate

and ammonium

of egg

alum

an

drops of

the presence

XI

few

of ammonium

amount

of

few

drops of

of water

cc.

and

the

dish with water

CHAPTER

few

logwood extract

of

Add

alum.

solution.
of flour in

ACCOMPANY

TO

349

EXPERIMENTS

LABORATORY

same

hydroxide

is

formed.

65. Copper
about

one-fourth of

hammer

to

in

out

silver

dime

the coin and

hydrochloricacid until

The

then cut

nitrate in
over

residue is the oxide of copper.

Expose

copper

Copper

an

rate
evapo-

evaporating

flame.

formed.

The

black

the silver chloride

happens?

and

sulphatein

solution

Filter and

blue solution of copper


dish, finallyignitingto redness

66.

for the

Account

is
precipitate

further

the

light. What

It is best

the solution add

To

no

it.

is silver chloride.
white precipitate

to the

hood, dissolve

in dilute nitric acid.

bluish color of the solution.


of

Under

coin.

its reactions.
100

in the solution and

cc.

note

of water.

the

(1) Dissolve 5
Place

result.

grams

of

brightiron

nail

(2) To

grams

of

350

CHEMISTRY

Rochelle salts add

AND

10

DAILY

LIFE

of water, and 5

cc.

cc.

of concentrated

caustic soda solution,after all the salt has dissolved.

Now

sulphatesolution and then treat the


solution with 1 cc. of glucose
("Karo sirup") and boil.
resulting
A reddish brown precipitate
of cuprous oxide,Cu20, is formed.
add

of the copper

cc.

This is the test for sugar.


solution add

(3) To

10

of the copper

cc.

phate
sul-

drops of potassiumferrocyanide.
This is a delicate
A reddish brown
is formed.
precipitate
be used for testingBordeaux
ture
mixtest for copper, and can
for excess
of copper
sulphatein solution. In Bordeaux
if this test shows the brown
more
precipitate,
preparation,
lime must
be added ; see experiment 151.
the hood, treat about 0.2
Under
67. Copper in brass.
of brass with 5

gram

few

of nitricacid in

cc.

the blue color of the solution.


of copper

add 5

water

or

note

mation
This color is due to the for-

for

mercury

drops of

poisoning. To

the white

and then add to this solution


of

and

nitrate.

antidote

An

68.

test tube

of
a

an

egg.

20

cc.

of

Stir thoroughly

cubic centimeters

few

dilute solution of mercuric chloride (corrosive


sublimate),
The

1 in 2000.

In

mercury.

milk

are

is a compound
precipitate

of mercury.

chloride add

chloride.

The

gray

Note

mercury.

contained in
70.

whites

proteinand

of eggs

and

goodantidote.

69. Preparation
stannous

poisoningthe

of mercury

case

of the

Lead

the

bottle

and

To

cc.

of

solution of

drops of a solution of mercuric


that separates is metallic
precipitate
physicalpropertiesof some
mercury

on

few

the reagent shelf.

its salts.

Dissolve

5 grams

of metallic lead

Evaporate off nearlyall of the


Pour off
of acid and allow the liquid
to stand and cool.
excess
the remaining liquidfrom the crystalsand dissolve these in
of 5 cc. each of this
50 cc. of water.
Test separate portions
in warm,

dilute nitric acid.

LABORATORY

PRACTICAL

(a) hydrogen sulphide; (6) dilute sulphuric

solution with

(c) dilute hydrochloricacid.

acid; and

colors

lead

Action

of water

tube.
5 to

white.

are

Put

lead.

on

"

shavingsinto

water.

of different
Precipitates
sulphide is black; lead

Lead

formed.

are

sulphateand chloride
71.

351

EXPERIMENTS

of clean

gram

bright

tube

containing10 cc. of distilled


After 24 hours decant the clear liquidinto a second
acid and then add
acidifywith hydrochloric
Slightly
10 cc. of fresh hydrogen sulphidewater.
A black or

brown

test

coloration indicates

In

water.

coated with
of lime

in

solution.

Soft water,

water, attacks and dissolves lead

especially
peaty
does hard

lead

which

with hard water

contact

the insoluble lead

more

than

the lead becomes

sulphateand carbonate

protect the metallic surface from

further

attack.
72.

Preparation of

lead

To

chromate.

cc.

of

solution

of

potassium dichromate add 3 cc. of lead acetate (sugarof


formed is
lead) solution. The beautiful yellow precipitate
chrome yellow,or lead chromate, which is used as a pigment
in paints.
73.

Treat 10 to 20

Making formalin.

cc.

of wood

alcohol

with one-half gram


of potassium permanganate
and 1 to 2
drops of strong sulphuricacid. Heat the beaker gently.
Note

the odor produced. The

penetratingsmell is due to
the production of formaldehyde,formed
the wood
from
alcohol by oxidation of the latter by the permanganate.
In a loop of platinum wire, made
74. Cobalt bead.
by
bendingthe wire around the sharpend of a pencil,
placesome
borax and
bead.

then fuse it in the flame.

Now

nitrate.

dip

Then

again and

the bead

into

Note

dilute solution of cobalt

put the loop with the bead

allow

the bead

blue color of the bead

on

to

melt.

cooling.

the color of the

Note

into the flame


the

beautiful

352

CHEMISTRY

Preparation of

75.

nails in

sulphate. Place

iron

flask,add about

500-cc.

25

Add

beaker.

2 to 3

of dilute

cc.

sulphuric

gently until

warm

the clear solution into

off. Pour

comes

gas

of iron

25 grams

of dilute

cc.

acid (1 part acid to 5 parts water),


more

LIFE

DAILY

AND

sulphuricacid

to

clean

the solution,

liquiddown to one-half of its volume, and


of iron sulphatewill separate out.
it to cool. Crystals
allowed to
liquidshould be poured off and the crystals

allow

boil the

commonly prepared at
this salt

are

copperas,
of

76. Change
of ferrous

gram

steel

plate mills. Other

drain.

and is

and ferroussulphate.
vitriol,

green

ferrous

to

sulphatein 20

ferric

Dissolve one-half

iron.

Divide the

of water.

cc.

equalportions. To the firstportionadd a


is obtained.
until a precipitate
ammonia
water

other

portion add
this latter

Heat

five

drops

of concentrated

cool,and
portionto boiling;

until

water

for

names

into two
of

The

is the material used in the destruction of weeds

This

no

liquid

few

drops

To

nitric acid.

then

add

Compare the

precipitateforms.

the

monia
am-

two

The nitric acid oxidizes the iron,which then is


precipitates.
is ferrous
in a substance containing
The copperas
more
oxygen.
it with nitric acid it was
changed
sulphate
; by oxidizing
to ferric sulphate.

Compounds

77.
1 gram

of

of tannin

of tannic acid in 25

cotton

cloth

(about

Dry the cloth,and

sulphate(1

gram

cc.

of ferrous

Observe

78. Making
on

and

thin paper

then

cover

can

cc.

by

cc.

on

blue

10

Does

Dip

water.

cm.) into

to 5

the

solution of

of water).

sulphatesolution

of hot

be removed

the result.

(ink). (1) Dissolve

iron

dip it into

then

in 25

dried,see if the color

and

After

piece

solution.
ferrous

the cloth has

by washing. (2) Add


cc.

tion.
of tannic acid solu-

it look like ink ?

print. Place

leaf

or

drawing made

frame
printing
glassof a photographer's
it with a pieceof blue printingpaper
(the
the

LABORATORY

PRACTICAL

sensitive side next


at most

paper
expose

the leaf). This

to

Several trials must

time of exposure
the paper from
the printon

the

be secured

can

film?

Crush

the

days.

out

of

successful

Wash

with

is left.

Try

Solubilityof

corn

oils.

examine

gasolinein

spreada layer

it.

it set to

off the

hood, allow the

ruler. How

to dissolve

some

the

tract
Ex-

mortar.

flask. Pour

a
a

Has

the ruler with

oil on

Try

XII

well-varnished ruler and allow

doors,or under

film of

brush

of flaxseed in

evaporate off. Paint

to

the

print. Remove
and spread
water

CHAPTER

With

Now

10 grams

material with

and
gasoline,

oil.

of linseed oil (verythin) on


several

determine

to

ACCOMPANY

linseed

it to stand

made

dry.

TO

Drying of

79.

frame.

cloth to

be

for

necessary

EXPERIMENTS

80.

paper

the object
and
drug stores. The operationof placing
Now
togethershould be done in a darkened room.
the printing
frame to direct sunlightfor about 3 to 5

minutes.

hard

353

EXPERIMENTS

line
gaso-

oil that

does it act?
linseed oil in

ment,
experigasoline;also in carbon bisulphide.Try the same
usingcorn oil,also butter fat,instead of linseed oil.

EXPERIMENTS
81.

of

Odor

TO

CHAPTER

ACCOMPANY

burning wool and

cotton.

and horse's hoof and note


of wool, silk,

Burn

XIII

small

the odor in each

pieces
case.

The former materials


experimentwith cotton.
and other odoriferous
and give rise to ammonia
are
nitrogenous
nitrogenouscompounds,while cotton does not. Try the
above in amof the various materials mentioned
monia
solubility
while cotton
water.
Wool, silk,and horn will dissolve,

Try

the

same

will not.
2

354

AND

CHEMISTRY

82.

very

laundry. Another
namely, Prussian blue.
cyanide of iron. Because

goods if

the

depositedon
of

10 per

drops of

this form

add

Now

an

cloth into

the

nearly.drythey

are

the fastness of the color


Gelatine

Notice

dissolves.

No

how

flame

Set the wood

cloth

should

Removal
over

-a

aside
of

dish

for an

be

treated in such

the

experiment,

same

of rubber

of the tube.

and

swells up

What

slowly

near.

Dissolve

some

apply it to a piece of
to dry and note the stain
iron rust

hour and

the result.

contents

rubber

the

to

heat gentlyin
bisulphide,

of carbon

Solubilityof asphalt.

turpentineand
87.

cc.

drain.

in water

Place about 0.5 gram

bath, and shake the

happens?

in

Note

to

or become
gelatinize

been

gelatine.Try

rubber.

tube, add

hot water

86.

no

droxid
hy-

sole leather,half

pieceof

the solution

fresh cowhide.

85. Solubilityof
test

leather has

sticky? Sole

that it contains

Does

ferric

fabrics.

the hand, should be boiled in water

usinga pieceof
in

of

cc.

immersion

them

be washed

may

the various

on

in sole leather.

then allowed to cool.

way

After

stripsand allow

When

viscid and

To

woolen, silk,and

white

solution of fuchsine.

remove

they

precipitateof

Dip stripsof

in the solution

largeas

used.

the iron rust stains.

causes

83. Dyeing cloth.

as

bluing is

be

may

of caustic alkali and heat to

excess

reddish brown

the

This is what

84.

rust

and about
potassiumferrocyanide,
is Prussian
acid. The blue precipitate
hydrochloric

boiling. Note

test

of

it decomposes

solution of

cent

blue.

cotton

which

with

ease

add
solution of ferric chloride,

10 per cent

of the

alkalies,there is danger that iron

with

cc.

LIFE

used for bluingin


generally
material is now
commonly employed ;
This is ferric ferrocyanide,
a complex

Bluing. Indigowas

the

10

DAILY

from

hot
containing

cloth.
water.

asphaltpaint
unpaintedwood.
leftbehind.

Stretch the stained

Then

as

the steam

356

CHEMISTRY

Coffee

91.
same

and

manner

in the

removed

from

reagents

to

these

Apply

stains

leaving the stained

material

their color to

owe

water

fabrics

such

in the

in the

ing
due to the color-

are

is soluble in ammonia

therefore be

can

removed

are

They

liquids.Grass

chlorophyll.This
and

These

stains.

tea

LIFE

DAILY

the fruit stains.

as

matter

AND

in alcohol,

or

these

by

stains.

Also

sunlight. What

agents.
re-

try

is the

result?
Blood

92.

blood

the

These

stains.

called

red

pigment
coloring matter

of
is

water,

warm

of the

stain,before

CHAPTER

XIV

acid treatment.

EXPERIMENTS

in soil.

bulk of soda-lime
test

ACCOMPANY

TO

Nitrogen

strong

the

It is also soluble in

should be tried for the removal

usingthe

93.

to

This

haemoglobin.

easilydecomposed by acids.
which

due

are

in

tube.

Mix

5 grams

equal

an

and transfer the mixture

mortar

Connect

soil and

of

tube

the

with

to

deliverytube

Fig.120, but have the end of the tube lead into another
distilledwater.
Heat the first test tube
test tube containing
Test the
cautiouslywith a burner for five to ten minutes.
as

in

with

water

litmus

paper

and

note

the reaction.

soda-

The

of the

lime, aided by heat, decomposes the organicmatter


soil and

forms

latter contains

water, carbon
the

dioxide,and

nitrogenand

has

ammonia.

The
into the

passed over

water.

94.

add

25

Phosphorus
cc.

in soils.

Place 10 grams

strong hydrochloricacid,and

bath for half

an

hour.

Pour

nitric acid

solution turns

drop by drop

warm

on

off the acid,cool,and

gradually,
shakingafter
this until the

of soil in

each

flask,

a
a

water

add

monia
am-

addition,and continue

red litmus

blue.

until the solution is

Then

add

acid,
slightly

PRACTICAL

or

LABORATORY

until the blue litmus becomes

ammonium

molybdate

357

EXPERIMENTS

red.

solution.

add

Then

yellow color

10

of

cc.

precipitate
after a few minutes shows the presence
of phosphorus.
It is best to keep the solution at 65" C. to aid the precipitation
of the ammonium
phosphomolybdate.
(1) peat,
95. Reaction of soils. For this experiment use
tact
(2) a mildly alkaline soil,and (3) a clay soil. Bring in conwith each soil,moistened
with distilled water, pieces
Note
of sensitive red and blue litmus paper.
changes
any
in color of the litmus paper
In

similar way

and record what

the soils from

test

or

find.

results you

the fields of your

own

farm.

96. Correcting the acidity. When


-

that

is

which

one

changes blue

basin full of it and

wash

ground limestone.
test it again. Try the
it shows
soil

"

one

for most

of

limestone.

of fresh limestone,rotten

each

soil in separate beakers.

hydrochloricacid
hour.

An

Dry

water.

of known

Place

the per cent

oven

"

sweet

or

about

25

grams

stone
limestone,and residual lime-

Add

weight.

in the

them

lime

agricultural
plants.

100

Filter off the insoluble material

dried and

alkaline

at

of 5 per

cc.

each, and allow them

to

of burned

grams

mixture

blue color with litmus.

Weathering

97.

take

"

thoroughly and
same
experiment,using wood ashes
soil is stillacid,add enough lime until

If the

is the normal

acid soil,

an

litmus to red,

15 to 25

Stir the

or

instead of lime.

add

find

you

on

Wash

stand

to

filter papers

one

ready
al-

the residues with

100" C. and

of insoluble matter

for

cent

in each

weigh.
case

and

culate
Calplain
ex-

the results.

98. Puddling

pound

of

of

clay.

dry clay soil.

To

In
one

each

enough

water

to

make

the

basins

of these add water

soilis slightly
moist,but do not work
add

of two

or

stir it. To

place a
until the
the other

claysticky;mix thoroughly

CHEMISTRY

358
with

stick and

placethe

LIFE

DAILY

AND

mixture

in the

sun

to

To

20

dry.

Note

the results.
Effect

99.

soil in

soluble

box, add

To
the

of

25

another

salts

grams

box

salt and mix.

same

soils.

on

nitrate and mix thoroughly.

of sodium
of the

Water

of

pounds

soil add

same

both, and

of

2 grams

set them

in

proper

number
of seeds (25)
placefor growth. Plant with the same
number
and after the plantsare well started thin to the same
(12). Note the results. Too much of soluble salts may be
harmful.
An acre of soil 6 inches deep weighs about 2,000,000
the above
acre
on
pounds; estimate the application
per
of nitrate used for 20 pounds of soil. Does this
amounts
ers
suggest why soluble fertilizbe appliedin
must
not
?
largeamounts
Effect

100.

of

the

on

wall

the

may

the bottom

with 2 inches

that

so

be observed.

plant some

of

Plant 4 to 5 peas

glassjar.

near

3 inches

2 to

of moist soilon
a

of

germination

Place

seeds.

deep planting

Now

cover

of soil and

more

more

they

seed.

peat
Re-

.(Fig.
124),planting
seeds only an inch deep.
this

the

Keep
1 01.

124.
on

"

Effect

of

deep

Capillary action

planting

germination of seed.

water

soil moist

and

Record what happens.

warm.

FIG.

the

on

pieceof

soil.

of

Firmly tie a

linen cloth

over

the

ends of several glasstubes, one-half to three-fourths inches


in diameter.

Lamp

chimneys

are

suitable.

Fill

one

tube

PRACTICAL

with sandy soil,another


the

Compact

soils after
the lower

immerse

Then

them

Support
week,

measure

What

does

with

each

addition

allow

the

of

In

clay.

lime

and

the

makes

clay

them

each

and

with

soil to
to

the rays

table.

boxes
with

as

tin

of

amount

unlined

box

readings as

to

has
in

separate
made

water

add

one

influence

one-half

After
of the

gram

of

in

lime

parison,
com-

observe

hours

24

by

of burned

gram

for purposes

throwing

deep,

Insert
and

expose

hours.

in

thermometers
the

recordingthe reading
for two

soil and

with

lampblack and

with

one

boxes,

Fill two

temperature.

five inches

inches

1.5

boxes

the

the

equally

eters
of the thermom-

Arrange

the

results

is the conclusion?

drainage
above

not

the

soil

on

iron

or

oiled cloth.

lined until it
other.

Let

largely drained

experiment

103.

Fill two

temperature.

experiment, but have

galvanized

the soil in the box


same

three

1 add

chalk.

minutes

in the
or

of

No.

to it.

Cover

or

of

What

Effect

104.

and

of the sun,
ten

each

is used

soil

on

this.

gypsum

every

in

rises.

water

clarifyingthe liquid. Liming clay soils

square

depth

one

better.

gently compact
other

the

of color

foot

one

is added

note

work

Effect

103.

beaker

stir; to No.

lime

no

beakers, and

down

For

the

of turbid

cc.

stir; the third beaker


and

the

To

clay.

some

up

and

which

to

of water.

this show?

of burned
lime

basin

stand.

to

loam.

gently jarring.

by

them

height

cylinders,or beakers, place 200


shaking

third with

ends of the tubes in

day

Sedimentation

102.

clay soil,and

each

and

upright

359

EXPERIMENTS

LABORATORY

Add

water

to

Add

the

begins to drain.

stand
away.

until the water


Take

lined

box

one

in the

temperature

360

CHEMISTRY

EXPERIMENTS
Action

105.

foot square

AND

DAILY

LIFE

ACCOMPANY

TO

CHAPTER

XV

of fertilizers. Into each of two

and

boxes,about

five inches

dinary
deep,place20 pounds of ordry soil. Before putting the soil into one of the
oughly
boxes, add to it the following
materials,mixing them thorof calcium acid phosphate,
with the soil : 5 grams
3 grams
of potassium nitrate,and 3 grams
of potassium sulphate.
and when
Water the soils,
they have been properly
worked, plantin each box 25 rape seeds and placethe boxes
in a greenhouseor window.
When
the plantsare up, thin
one

them

down

to

16 and

let them

Note

grow.

the difference

in

Try the same


growth from week to week.
experiment,
usingsand as the soil,and note the results. What elements
needed by the plantsmay be lackingin the sand, and are not
Action on acid
suppliedby the fertilizeryou have used?
soil: try the same
experiment, using an acid soil and
clover seed instead

of rape

seed.

To

one

of finelyground limestone.

10 grams

of the boxes

Why

add

add

the limestone

?
1

bone
the
cc.

ash in 15

of water

cc.

of ammonium

one

gram

filter. To

the

solution.

the

warm

molybdate,and

precipitate?What
heat

add 3 to 5

and filter. To

mixture

(1) To

in bones.

06. Phosphorus

about

filtrate add

filtrate add

Note

(2) In

first added

to

Try

10

yellow
tube

cc.

of distilledwater

and

cc.

of ammonium

the result,and

the ash.

to

test

compare

the

same

date
molyb-

it with

obtained in the previousexperiment (1) in which


was

is the

What

does it indicate?

warm

of

gram

of nitric acid,shake

cc.

warm.

of bone ash with 20

one

that

nitric acid

experimentwith

acid phosphate ; also with floats.


107.

Solubilityof potash fertilizers.

kainit in

test

tube,add

100

cc.

Place

gram

of

of water, and shake the mix-

PRACTICAL

with

08.

of bone

acid.

Add

rod.

After

of

1 gram

Also

test

tube

the

odor.

been

allow

added,

mix

of commercial

grams

the

it for

soluble

phosphates

as

the

in
2

volatility of
of

grams

heat

cold

with

In

with

iron

an

mixture

in

100

sulphuric

stand

to

examine

it.

Test

experiment

106.

gently

and

of
thus

filter papers

portions
water

walls

of the

carbonate.

observe

volatilizes

ventilated

the

tube.

test

applied

less

horse

stables.

manure

verts
con-

ammonium

to

phate
sul-

it.

of

nitrogenous

in separate

Which

is much

the

to

carbonate

water,
100

cc.

of these

sulphate,

funnels.

and
of

Place

fertilizers.

nitrate, ammonium

until

same

barns, deposits of ammonium

ammonium

saves

of

the

Try

The

again

may

This

Note

result.

readily and

sulphate.

plaster,when

the

Solubility
of sodium

and

In

salts.

frequently found, especially in

i.e. land

some

ammonium

ammonium

ammonium

poorly

are

case.

box

of
lizers.
ferti-

potash

cigar

and

Apply

on

Gypsum,

each

muriate

slowly, stirring constantly

carbonate

carbonate

with

In

pulverize

place

volatile.

small

100

with

soluble

readily

Then

experiment

on

also

days.

ammonium

each

acid

Differences

deposit

nitrate) ;

experiment

same

the solubilityof floats in water.

test

109.

no.

and

all has

three

the

phosphate.

meal

the

Try

all

are

acid

Making

grams

for

salts

These

361

EXPERIMENTS

dissolve?

saltpeter (potassium

potash.

salt

the

Does

ture.

LABORATORY

Pour

continue

to

filtrate

have

fertilizers

are

and

10

dried

grams

blood

over

each

sample

leach

the

samples

been

collected

insoluble

in water?

in

362

AND

CHEMISTRY

EXPERIMENTS

TO

Losses

in.

from

of cotton

bottom, and

until

water

In

box

which

the

or

five inches

and

square

of rather

by pouring
been

window

and

deep, containing

horse

of ammonia

Loss

112.

the

by

in

manure

seeds.

quantity of soil,but

same

be added

as

germinated, thin
in

down

house
green-

growth.

of the great losses in

leachingof

from

to

needed, also plant

the differences in

note

idea

experiment gives an
occur

collected.

infertilesoil,plant 25 rape

After the seeds have

near

wad

good

manure

litersof filtrate have

two

dung washings will

food that may

in

leach the

pound

one

plants. Keep both boxes properlywatered

16

This

XVI

largefunnel having

containingthe

seeds.

25 rape
to

pounds

similar box

or

foot

one

15 to 20
In

one

CHAPTER

by leaching. Take

manure

place it in

on

LIFE

ACCOMPANY

of fresh manure,
in the

DAILY

plant

manures.

Place

manure.

glassbottle and stopper

fresh

some

it.

Let

it stand

placefor 24 hours, then open the bottle and note


the odor.
odor is due to ammonia.
The penetrating
Repeat
the above experiment,
the partlycompressed manure
but over
place a layer of moist dirt one inch thick. Is the odor of
a

warm

ammonia

noticeable ?

so

Moist

earth

is

good

absorbent

for ammonia.
Plant

113.

food

in

urine.

about

cc.

as

not

presence

few

test

57.

yellow coloration

phosphorus. Why?

in the

urine

phosphatesleave

the

of

our

body

in
a

(human

test

tube

place

to

65"

is very

animals.

in the solid excreta.

little
Most

cc.

C., but

shows
precipitate

There

or

experiment 56,

nitric acid and

Warm

or

domestic

as

In

drops of

molybdate solution.

boil.
of

experiment

of urine ; add

of ammonium

do

in

urine

some

the flame

animal) for potassium by


also for sodium

Test

the

phorus
phos-

of the

364

CHEMISTRY

Barium

hydroxide is
milky

is

good there

FIG.

126.

drawn
draw

Green

"

iness will

will be

that has been


of leaves and

with

very

small

LIFE

sensitive to

quantityof

carbon

the leaves.

over

dioxide

Now

from

If the

light

dioxide in the air


detach

ordinaryair through the

take carbon

coming
dioxide,be-

the gas.

evidence of carbon

no

the

leaves

DAILY

AND

the tube

tube.

Milk-

the air in the sunlight.

experiment shows that green


leaves take carbon dioxide from the air in the sunlight.
116. Germination
Take about 20 conveniently
of seeds.
soon

largeseeds,such
for

This

appear.

few hours.

as

beans

Then

day

or

two

corn,

plant them

the seeds about half

placefor

or

an

inch

in order

and

in moist

When

it take for the seeds to grow

does the

plumuleappear

them

in water

ing
sawdust, cover-

deep. Keep them in a warm


ine
to start germination.Exam-

the seeds from time to time and note

longdoes

soak

their progress.

radicle an

inch

How

long?

PRACTICAL

LABORATORY

Soak

half

dozen

of them

mutilate

some

in moist

sawdust.

cut

poisons and

of

Influence

117.

beans

mutilation
for

in various ways

on

few hours
before

Cut into the embryo of


the embryo of another;

bits off from

365

EXPERIMENTS

tion.
germinaand

then

plantingthem
of the beans ;

one

poisona

third by

touchingit with a trace of carbolic acid ; treat another with


Then set them out in the moist
water
a drop of boiling
; etc.
sawdust to germinate. The seed will not grow if the embryo
is cut or killed. The healthyembryo itselfmay
when
grow
separatedfrom the rest of the seed, provided the embryo
is kept moist with a proper food solution containing
sugars,
and salts.
proteins,
118. The
germinating seed needs air. (1) Put some
mustard seed into a bottle. Fill it completelywith water.
Then stopper it and let it stand in a warm
place. The seeds
start

may

but
a

to

sprout because of the dissolved air in the water,

they will soon

wide-mouthed

ounce

stop growing. (2) Grease

pint bottle.

Put

seed and

enough

of mustard

the stopper of

into the bottle one-half


water

to

moisten

the

seeds

thoroughly. Stopper the bottle and set it in a warm


place in the dark. The seeds will germinate,for there is
air in the bottle ; but they will soon
some
stop growingfurther
for lack of air. Open the bottle and at once
insert a lighted
that the oxygen
indicating
taper. The flame is extinguished,
in the bottle has been used up.
from the bottle just used into
with

clear limewater.
the presence

The

(3) Decant
a

of the air

some

clean bottle and

solution becomes

shake

it

cating
milky, indi-

of carbon dioxide.

Explainthe results.
in plants. Take
some
dry planttissue from
119. Carbon
like beans or wheat, and placeit in a porcegrowingplants,
lain
dish. Heat it stronglyover
Bunsen
a
flame, covering
the greater part of the dish with a porcelain
iron cover.
or
Thick

gases

will

come

off,and these will take fire if allowed

366

to

AND

CHEMISTRY

with

into contact

come

the flame, by

DAILY

LIFE

the flame.

After

completelycoveringthe

the burner, and allow the dish and


It will be

which

which

its contents

is carbon, set free from


in

Nitrogen

1 20.

basin.

draw
Withto cool.

that the interior of the dish is covered

seen

black soot

guish
time, extin-

The

plants.

is contained

in the

the

with

plant tissue.

important element
plant in combination

gen,
nitro-

with

other elements,is lost


in the ash

not

mix

or

gram

soda-lime,and
which

gases

smelled.

off will contain

come

Test

and heat it

put the
a

Crush

in seed.

Place the material

mortar.

cover

ammonia,

which

the gas also with moist red litmus

Phosphorus

121.
a

and therefore is
during combustion
of a plant. To show its presence in the plant
of dry plantmaterial in a test tube with
two
in a flame; the
then heat the whole directly

When
Add

10

and boil for 10 minutes.

cc.

iron

an

paper.

kernels of wheat

25

the Bunsen

or

Do

cool,transfer the charred

mass

of nitric acid and 50

Break

up

the charred

in

cible
porcelaincru-

burner.

stronglyover

on.

small beaker.

in

be

can

not

to

of water,

cc.

with
particles

rod during the boiling.Filter,and to half of the


stirring
filtrateadd 3 cc. of ammonium
warm
molybdatesolution. A
shows the presence of phosphorus. Why ?
yellowprecipitate
in clover.
Cut up some
clover hay with a
Calcium
122.
pairof shears. Place 25 grams of it in an iron crucible and
the burner tillonlyash isleft. Transfer the ash
it over
ignite
a

to

then

add

beaker.

Add

heat and
ammonia

blue.

white

The

cc.

of

add

of water

To

and

cc.

is

to

of nitric acid and


cc.

of the filtrate

just turns

of acetic acid, or

acid
distinctly

saturated

cc.

about 20

until the solution

water

Then

cc.

finallyfilter.

until the reaction


to

50

more

litmus.

solution of ammonium

shows the presence


of calcium
precipitate
is calcium oxalate,CaC2O4.
precipitate

red litmus

if necessary,
Now

add

oxalate.

in the ash.

PRACTICAL

potassiumwith

for

367

EXPERIMENTS

plants. Test

in

Potassium

123.

in

LABORATORY

the ash from

the flame test and

blue

the clover
described

glassas

experiment 56.
material in

the

wash

turnipand
out

place

all the soluble

washed

dilute hydrochloric

in

pulp

bag and

linen

the

Place

matter.

pectin. Grate

of

Preparation

124.

acid (1 part of concentrated


acid

let stand

Then

hours.

48

the acid

out

squeeze

water) and

of

15

to

liquid.

liquidand to the
filtrate add
an
equal bulk
of alcohol. The
precipitate
Filter the

formed

is

pectin.

The

ence
pres-

of this substance in fruits

is the

of their jellying.

cause

acetic

contains
Taste

acid.

and
vinegar,

some

place25
Add

gar
Vine-

Acids in foods.

125.

of it in

cc.

drops

two

then

beaker.

of

phenol-

phthaleinsolution,and
add
carefully
of

baking

dilute solution

soda

from

Fig. 127, until


color
taste

just
the

combined
has

but

then

rette,
bu-

red

with

is no

longeracid

the acid to form

little taste.

What

gas

often used to neutralize excessive


when

127.

"

Neutralizing

an

acid.

Now

appears.

liquid. It

FIG.

acid fruits,
such

as

in taste.

sodium

The

acetate,

soda has
salt which

escaped? Baking soda is


acidityin cookery,
especially

apples,plums, or lemons, are

ployed.
em-

CHEMISTRY

368

AND

TO

EXPERIMENTS

slaughterhouse.Wash
the

Remove

CHAPTER

XVIII

hog's stomach
thoroughlywith

at

the stomach
membrane.

mucous

LIFE

ACCOMPANY

Digestion of proteins. Get

126.

DAILY

Grind

water.

this membrane

in

tion
grinderand placeit in 500 cc. of 0.2 per cent soluacid. Add 10 cc. of chloroform
of hydrochloric
to prevent
putrefaction.After standingat ordinarytemperatures

sausage

for 24 hours, filterthe solution.

placeabout

into

white

egg

of

10 grams

Into

100

of this solution

cc.

coagulatedegg white made

by placing

Set the dish and

boilingwater.

its

tents
con-

place,not above 100" F., for 24 hours.


if not entirely,
the result. The proteinhas partly,
Examine
disappeared.It has been digestedby the pepsin from the
in

warm

stomach.

add

15

and

In

this

powder

Test

sugars.

solution

in the

be used in this

for this

solution.

Malt

in

Action

one-half to

are

small

converts

with

brewer's malt
be

may

one

100

cupboard for 24
a portionof the

of the solution for sugar

some

the sprouts

128.

test

experiment54. If
barley grainsthemselves

as

had, the

iodine

in

of flour and

2 grams

filteroff the solution,and


with

crush

mortar

30

flask,

tion,
After 24 hours filteroff the solu-

liquidadd

the

starch.

Put

of water.

cc.

to

for starch

when

on

Se"t the flask away

water.

Then

malt

barley kernels.

malted
and

of

Action

127.

inch

cc.

of

hours.
residue

starch to

Fehling's
cannot

germinated;
long the seeds

be
and
can

experiment.
of

saliva

experiment,chew

collect the saliva in

starch.

on
a

small

beaker.

To

pieceof

Make

some

obtain

the saliva

and
paraffin,
starch paste by

pure

suspendingabout 10 grams of starch in cold water and then


in boiling
Take 25 cc. of this starch paste and
water.
stirring
adjustits temperature to about 104" F. Add 5 drops of

PRACTICAL

LABORATORY

369

EXPERIMENTS

saliva and stirthoroughly.At intervals of

minute, remove

drop of the solution to a white tile and test the drop by


of a drop of iodine solution. If the blue color with
means
iodine stillforms after five minutes,add another 5 dropsof
saliva and stir. The turbidity
of the starch solution should
soon
pounds
disappear,indicatingthe formation of soluble comwhich give no blue color with iodine. After further
solution. A reddish
action,test the solution with Fehling's
brown
with this reagent shows that the starch
precipitate

has been converted to the sugar, maltose.

EXPERIMENTS

TO

in foods.

Water

129.

ACCOMPANY

Mark

CHAPTER

crucibles with
porcelain

two

your

initials,
using a lead pencil.Place them

and

heat

in

them

desiccator and

them.

weigh

of flour. Place them

4 grams

and allow them

to remain

Into each

in

an

10

15

to

them

95" to 100" C.

Cool them

in the

weigh them. The loss in


the sample (4 grams) and

weight,divided by the weight of


by 100 givesthe per cent
multiplied
from

Cool

crucible place

at

oven

for five hours.

desiccator for one-half hour, and

Flour will contain

in the flame

redness for five minutes.

to

XIX

of water
cent

per

in the flour.

water.

Repeat

the experiment with


of
covers

stead
grated turnips,or with butter. Incrucibles ordinarytinned iron salve box
porcelain

also be used.

may

Starch

130.

and

(starch)and proteintests
of the brown

it with
If you

get
made

bread.

test

from

Test

Make

samples of bread.

this extract

for sugar, make


a

the
Take

iodine
some

grindit up and extract


with Fehling'ssolution.
similar test,usingan extract

part of the interior of the

Compare the
2s

on

bread.

of the bread and

crust

water.

in

protein

results.

What

are

your

same

loaf of

conclusions?

370

CHEMISTRY

Effect of heat

131.

AND

DAILY

LIFE

With

potato starch.

on

the point of

knife scrape

the surface of a raw


lightly
potato and place
slide. Cover
a drop of the starchyjuice
a microscope
upon
with a cover
this liquid
glassand examine it under the compound
the starch grains. Make
this
microscope. Draw
examination, using a boiled potato and also a baked potato,
ing
drawing the starch grainsin each case.
Baking and cookrupture the cellsand thus it becomes easier to digestthe
food they contain.
grains. With a compound microscope examine
132. Starch
the starch grainsof wheat, corn, rice,and oats.
Draw
these drawings with those of the difthe grainsand compare
ferent
ceed
starch grainspicturedin Figs.86, 87, and 88. Profollows : Place a drop or two
of the starch water
as
made
from the grain on a slide. Cover the liquidwith
croscope
cover
a
glass,and examine the material under the mi-

Breakfast

133.
two

samples of
with

see

Under

foods.

cereal breakfast

the appearance

foods
134.

were

Eggs.

Tell from

Compare what you


grainsof wheat, corn,
fast
what grainsthe break-

made.

Composition

of the shell under

character.

foods.

of the starch

and oats, experiment 132.

microscope,examine

the

Crush

the

and

of

eggshell. Examine

microscope,and

grind an

its

note

tion
por-

cal
physi-

eggshell.Extract

it

thoroughlywith warm
water, and then dissolve the extracted
in dilute hydrochloricacid. Observe that a gas comes
mass
off. Hold in the gas a drop of limewater on the end of a
Filter
glassrod and note how cloudy the liquidbecomes.
line,
the acid solution,add ammonia
until stronglyalkawater
and then add 5

cc.

of ammonium

is the

?
What
precipitate

must

chickens be fed limestone?

What

oxalate solution.

is the gas that

Try

was

the

formed
same

Why

experiment

372

CHEMISTRY

one-half gram

of

Filter,and

date solution and


the presence

of

cc.
cc.

and add 3"cc.

of water

of ammonium

Grind
in

Place 20 to 30 grams

cates
indiyellowprecipitate

up

in

meat

some

flask and

let it stand

one-half

it with 50

cover

and

allow

it may

be set outdoors.
Do

the

gasolineoff

with

well before

up

into

this purpose
in the

peanuts instead

pouring on

the

of

gasoline.

the results ?

are

141.

the

of

cc.

occasionally

the fat left behind

Observe

experiment

same

meat, grindingthem
What

Pour

it

it to evaporate slowly. For

beaker

beaker.

hour.

grinder.

meat

gasoline. Stopper the flask loosely. Shake


and

molyb

phosphates.

in meat.

Fat

add

gently.

warm

LIFE

DAILY

bakingpowder in

of nitric water.

140.

AND

Action

of iron

compounds

tannic

on

Make

acid.

an

infusion of tea by placing5 grams of tea in 100 cc. of boiling


well. Filter off some
of the infusion,
hot water
and stirring
and add 5
1 gram

The

of ferrous

cc.

sulphatesolution (made by dissolving


sulphatein 10 cc. of water and filtering).
dark in color ; and if concentrated enough

of ferrous

solution turns

it becomes

black.

of hemlock

or

Try

oak

the

bark.

All of these

milk

on

examine

143.
paper.

is the way

examination

the milk

How

Make

some

of milk.

ink is
the bark

or

with

globulesand

for

Examine

of

XX

CHAPTER

Cover

infusion

tannin.

Place

of milk.

drawings.

do the two

Acidity
Let

for fat

an

common

instead of tea,

ACCOMPANY

microscopeslide.

hair,dirt,etc.
milk.

TO

Microscopic
a

This

plantmaterials contain

EXPERIMENTS

142.

experiment with

used

made, only nutgallsare


trees.

same

drop

of

glassand
such as
impurities,
a

cover

drop of skimmed

differ ?
Test

of the milk

fresh milk
sour

and

with

blue litmus

test this with

blue

LABORATORY

PRACTICAL

the sugar

in 100

of water, add 5

cc.

Has

hours.

24

acid (the acid in

in

turned
has

milk)

sour

or

flask uncorked
solution

the

milk

milk and 2

or

of blue litmus

cc.

the

red?

been

of

grams

of skimmed

cc.

phosphate. Add
the

Leave

Place

lactic acid.

of

of sodium
crystals

solution.

is lactic acid,producedfrom

by bacteria.

in the milk

Formation

144.
sugar

acid formed

The

litmus paper.

373

EXPERIMENTS

cupboard

for

If it has, lactic

formed.

Taste

the

with

the

solution.
Babcock

145.

pipetteinto
should

be

the

test

for

test

bottle

in

fat

17.6

and

carefullytaken

Measure

milk.

of milk.

cc.

well mixed.

The

Add

sample

17.5

cc.

of

commercial
mix

sulphuricacid (sp.gr. 1.83) from the cylinder;


acid and milk by rotatingthe bottle. Then
place
bottle in the centrifugal
machine
and whirl 5 minutes

the

the test
at

of 800

rate

hot water

1200 revolutions

to

to the test bottle to

the shoulder,and

whirl

with water

the top of the

for two

to

near

to

one

division represents 0.2 of

and

Jerseymilk.

Test

the

milk

to

whirl

again

the

from

treme
ex-

largedivision,as
Each

cent.

per

Test

cent.

per

Read

Each

whole

up

fillthe bottle

and
graduations

highestpoint.

two, represents

contents

Then

minutes.

two

minutes, and then read the fat.


lowest to the

from

bringthe

cient
suffi-

Add

minute.

per

Holstein

milk

cows

your

the

from

small

on

farm.

146.
of the
To

10

Formalin

preservativein
cc.

of milk add
acid

Pour

over
slowlyto boiling

147.

cc.

of

containingper

chloride solution.

motion.

and

milk

10

instructor should

The

in milk.

have

the

solution of

liter 2

the mixture

of 10 per cent

cc.

in

placesome
pupilsdetect it.
concentrated hydrochl

flame,givingthe

ferric

teacup and heat it


cup

slightrotary

If formalin is present,a violet coloration will appear.


Test

for

oleomargarine. Foam

test

for

purity of

374

CHEMISTRY

butter.

Heat

AND

about

DAILY

LIFE

of the

3 grams

sample in a largeiron
low flame, stirring
over
a
constantlywith a splinter.
spoon
Genuine
butter will boil quietly,
with the productionof considerable
froth or
foam.
Oleomargarine and renovated
butter will sputter and make
much
noise. Always
more
by making a simultaneous test with genuine butter.
compare
148.

Waterhouse

of sweet

butter

Into

test.

small

beaker

and add
milk,heat nearlyto boiling,

50

pour

cc.

of

5 to 10 grams

oleomargarine.Stir with a glassrod until the fat


Then
is melted.
placethe beaker in cold water and stirthe
milk until the temperature falls sufficiently
for the fat to
congeal. At this pointthe fat,if the sample is oleomargarine,
be collected into one
of a rod.
If it is
can
lump by means
butter,it will granulateand cannot be thus collected.
or

EXPERIMENTS

149.

TO

Purity

Paris green.

of

ACCOMPANY

Paris

Put

it in

Take

green.

beaker

CHAPTER

and

about

add 25

one

is pure, it will form

of

gram

of ammonia

cc.

Stir and let it stand for five minutes.

water.

XXI

If the

"

"

green

clear,dark blue solution,and leave

no

solid residue.
150.

in 200
Shake
with
or

Preparation of lime-sulphur. Slake


cc.

Add

of water.

50

grams

of flowers

the mixture

and heat it in
vigorously,
frequent shaking. Finally placeit over
free flame and

be watched

bumping.

pound

an

The

hour.

of

sulphur.

steam

wire

mixture

bath
gauze
must

and occasionally
stirred in order to avoid violent
After

the color of the


151.

boil for half

of lime

25 grams

allow
boiling,
liquidand the

Preparation of
of copper

slake 0.3 to 0.4

and settle. Note

character of the sediment.

Bordeaux

sulphatein

pound

all to stand

Dissolve

mixture.

pounds

of lime in 2

of hot

pounds of

water.

water

0.5
Also

and strain

PRACTICAL

the liquidthrough a cheesecloth


the

material.

coarse

pouredinto

pailand

the

mixture

of Bordeaux

The

375

EXPERIMENTS

LABORATORY

into

pailso

solution of copper

allis well stirred.

it is the aim

to

as

remove

sulphateis then

In the

preparation

justenough lime to
combine with all of the copper sulphate. Test the mixture
If it is acid, enough more
lime should
with litmus paper.
the litmus blue, The
be added to turn
ferrocyanidetest
also be performed as follows : Filter some
of the finished
can
mixture, and add a few drops of potassium ferrocyanide.
If a reddish brown
color appears, more
lime
or
precipitate
should be added.
What
is the reddish brown
?
precipitate
Destruction

152.

Place

about

barley,and

wheat, in

the seeds,wash

them

Do

solution of formalin
there

for half

they germinate?
with such

LISTS

AND

APPARATUS

FOR

THE

of 20

What

corn,

cent

per

Remove

in moist

sawdust
must

care

be

poisons?

CHEMICALS

EXPERIMENTS

as

hour.

an

placethem

practicedin treatingseeds

OF

formalin.

by

power

of different grains,such

with water, and

germination.

use

germinating

8 kernels

or

strength. Leave
for

of

to

NECESSARY

DESCRIBED

IN

THIS

CHAPTER
GENERAL
1 Babcock
1
1

to

1 eg., and

set of

weights,50

gr.

1 eg.

Drying

1 Water

2 Mortars

oven

bath

(copper).
(6 holes).

of porcelain,
(4 in.),
preferably
though glassmortars

do.
2 Thermometers
4

APPARATUS

tester.

Microscope.
Inexpensivebalance sensitive
to

LABORATORY

(0"-120").

Burettes,50 cc., and

2 Condensers

holders.

(Liebig).

will

AND

CHEMISTRY

376

DAILY

corks,sizes 7, 8, 9, 10, and

1 Gross

LIFE

12.

borer, set of six.

1 Cork

cylinders.
Cobalt glasses10 cm.
square.
Magnet (horseshoe).
Pneumatic
troughs,galvanizediron,1 ft. long, 8 in. high, and
milk pans.
in. wide, or can
use
1-gal.stoneware
Platinum wires,4 in. long,about No. 26 B. " S. guage.

2 500-cc.

6
1
4

lamp, bellows and rubber tubes.

1 Blast

tubing,sizes up to f in. int. diam.


4 Retorts
(glass)500 cc.
1 Dozen
cylinders100 cc.
Tacks, nails,brads,carpenters'tools,etc.,which can always be
here. With
obtained from local dealers,have not been mentioned
useful piecesof apand tinners' tools many
the aid of carpenters'
paratus
the
local tinner
Often
be constructed by the students.
can
secured
will make a pieceof apparatus that will serve
as well as one
elsewhere at higher cost.
10 Ib. Glass

LIST

burner

1 Bunsen
2

USED

BY

EACH

and tubing, or alcohol lamp.

Stirringrods.

in.).
Erlenmeyer flasks (300 cc.).

4 Watch
2

APPARATUS

OF

glasses(diam.

25 Filter papers
1 Box

(11 cm.).

matches.

1 Wire

gauze

2 Crucibles
1 Test

(4 in. square).
diam. 3.5 cm.)
(porcelain,

tube brush.

2 Funnels
1

(diam. 6.5 cm.).


Sand bath (4 in. diam.).

1 Test

tube stand.

1 Wooden

stand for funnels.

12 Test tubes 12
6 Beakers
1 Casserole
2

cm.

(nest 100

long, diam. about 1.7


to 600

cc.).

(200 cc.).

Evaporating dishes (diam.

1 Crucible

tongs (9 inches).

7.5

cm.).

cm.

STUDENT

1 Test
1
2
2
1
1

tube

clamp.
Water bath (copper).
dishes (2" in. diam.).
Aluminum
Feet of glasstubing (soft),
ext. diam.
File (15 cm.
long),triangular.
100-cc. cylinder.

1 Bottle each
1
1

377

EXPERIMENTS

LABORATORY

PRACTICAL

mm.

of blue and red litmus paper.


and rings.

Ring stand
Deflagratingspoon.

(wide mouth)

4 Bottles

250

cc.

tubing 2 ft. (int.diam.

Rubber

2 Flasks 500

mm.).

cc.

1 Thistle tube.
1 Desiccator.
1 Iron crucible 50

cc.

CHEMICALS

TEN

FOR

STUDENTS
GRAMS

Acid, Hydrochloric,sp. gr. 1.2


Nitric,
Sulphuric,
Acetic (50%)

sp. gr. 1.4


sp. gr. 1.84

1500

1000

2000
200

100

Alcohol
Alum

(potassium)

25

25

chloride

Aluminum
Ammonium

carbonate

Ammonium

chloride

Ammonium

hydroxide,sp.

Ammonium

oxalate

25

Ammonium

nitrate

100

Ammonium

sulphate
molybdate

Ammonium

50
250
gr. 0.9

.100

1500

50

Arsenic

trioxide

100

Barium

chloride

20

Barium

hydrate

20

Bone

black

Bone

ash

100
.

100

50

Borax
Calcium

chloride

(granular)

200
.

378

DAILY

AND

CHEMISTRY

LIFE
GRAMS

Calcium

sulphate (gypsum)

Calcium

carbonate

Carbon

50
.

50

(marble)

30

bisulphide

25

Citric acid

Charcoal,ten pieces8

cm.

cm.

Cochineal
Cobalt

10

nitrate

Copper (turningsor scrap)


Copper oxide (black)
Copper sulphate

250
.

50
100
50

Formalin
Fuchsine
Glucose

25

......;.

1000

(sirup)

Iron chloride

30
.

Iron powder

25

Iron

75

sulphate(ferrous)
Iron sulphide

250

Iodine

10

Indigo

15

Lime

50

Logwood

10
25

Lead

acetate

Lead

(cuttingsfrom lead pipe)

Lead

nitrate

.100
.

10

Litmus

10

Magnesium carbonate
Magnesium sulphate
Magnesium wire or ribbon
Manganese dioxide
Methyl violet
Mercury

50
20
10
1000
5

.......

Mercuric

chloride

100
20
10

Paraffin

Phenolphthalein
Phosphorus, yellow

10

Potassium

carbonate

50

Potassium

chlorate

Potassium

sulphate

20

Potassium

dichromate

25

250

INDEX
Alabaster, 130.
253.
Albumen,
in milk, 294.
Albuminoids, 114.
Albumins, 114.
Alcohol, absolute, 112.
amyl, 102.
denatured, 101.
grain, 98.
wood, 98.
Alfalfa, 287.
Alkalies, 42.
metals
of, 118.
Alkaline
earths, test for, 347.
Alkaloids, 115.
Allotropic form of phosphorus,
Allspice, 283.
Alum, 274.
143.
ammonium,
baking powders, 144.
potassium, 143.
sodium, 143.
testing for, 349.
Alumina, 141.
140.
Aluminum,
bronze, 142.
metal, 142.
paint, 142.
sulphate, 143.
153.
Amalgams,

aldehyde, 99.
Acetylene, 93.
Acid, acetic, 41, 98.
benzoic, 104.
boric, 42, 74.
butyric, 105.
carbolic, 103.
Acetic

carbonic,

89.

citric,105.
definition

of, 48.

formic,
hippuric, 105.
hydriodic, 57.
hydrobromic, 56.
hydrochloric, 53, 336.
hydrofluoric, 52.
lactic,41, 104.
malic, 41, 104.
muriatic, 53.
oxalic, 41, 104.
phosphate, 208, 220, 361.
phosphoric, 70.
Prussic, 123.
pyrogallic, 104.
salicylic,101.
42, 78.
silicic,
sulphuric, 61.
sulphurous, 63.
tartaric, 41, 104.
valeric, 105.
Acids, 41.
in fruits,335.
in plants, 252.
in silage,335.
Acidulated
rock, 220.
98.

Air, carbon

dioxide

Amides,

from

manure,

362.

preparation of, 334.


properties of, 38.

in, 30.

water,
Ammonium

composition of, 30.


in the lungs, 262.
moisture
in, 31.
nitric acid

253.

38.
Ammonia,
aqua,
composition of, 37.
from
coal, 37.

38.

bicarbonate,

chloride, 39.
molybdate, 157.
salts in soil,39, 361.
sulphate, 39, 216.

in, 35.

Ajax, 276.
381

126.

INDEX

382
Amyl acetate, 101.
alcohol, 102.
Amylopsin, 262.
Analysis, 48.
Aniline, 104.
dyes, 104.
Animal
foods, 284.
heat, 258.
Animals, 255.
action in soil,196.
carbohydrate in, 257.
fat in, 257.
mineral
matter
in, 255, 256.
protein in, 256.
water
in, 255.
work
by, 257.
Anthracite, 84.
Antidote, for arsenic, 71.
71.
Antimony,
Antiseptic, defined, 20.
Ants, as soil formers, 197.
Apparatus, list of, 375, 376.
Apparatus dealers, 379.
Aqua regia, 147.
Aristotle, 2.
Armor
plate, 160.
Arsenic, 71.
antidote

white,

for, 71.
309.

Arsenious

oxide, 71.

Asbestos, 79, 136.


Ash
in plants, 12, 329.

Asphalt,

177.

solubility of, 354.


Atropa belladonna, 115.
Atropine, 115.

Balanced

ration, 265.

oil,101.
Barium
nitrate, 129.
sulphate, 129, 347.
Barley, 270.
Barytes, 129.
Base, definition of, 49.
Banana

Basic

lead

Basic

slag, 218, 221.

156.

acetate,

Bate liquor, 185.


Batteries, blue cup, 158.
primary, 158.
Battery carbons, 158.
Baume
hydrometer, 312.

Bauxite,

140.

Beers, 101.
Beet, leaves

for silage,288.

roots, 278.
109, 249.
sugar,
Bell metal, 152.

Bengal lights,129.
Benzene, 103.
Benzine, 91.
Bessemer

process,

165.

Bioses,
Bismuth, 72.
subnitrate, 72.
Blackjack, 64, 157.
Black
varnish, 177.
Blast furnace, 161, 162.
Blaugas, 93.
Bleaching powder, 55, 317, 33'
Bleeding, stoppage of, 167.
Blood
charcoal, 81.
Blood
poisoning, 74.
108.

Blood

stains, 356.

Blue

B
Babbitt

Babcock,
Babcock

metal, 71, 155.


portrait, 305.
test, 303, 373.

Bacon, smoking, 104.


in food, 273.
in fruit,279, 280.
Bagasse, 111.
Baking, 271.
Baking powder, 274.
alum, 144, 275, 371.
carbon
dioxide in, 371.
phosphate, 275, 371.
Bacteria

tartrate, 275.

Baking

soda, 127, 274.

glass, 161.
Blue print, paper,
167.
making of, 352.
Bluing, 354.
Bone, ground, 218.
steamed, 219.
Bone
black, 81.
Bones, 218.
phosphorus in, 360.
Boracic

acid, 74.

Borax,
occurrence

128.

of, 74.

of, 75.
acid test for, 316.
Bordeaux,
mixture, 152, 314.
preparation of, 374.
uses

Boric

acid, 74, 340.

383

INDEX

Boron,

74.

Bottom
lands, 195.
Boussingault, portrait, 201.
193.

Bowlders,
271.

Bran,

Brass, 152, 159.


in, 350.
copper
270.

Bread,

making, 274.
protein in, 369.
starch

in, 369.

foods, 276, 370.


grains, 276.

Breakfast
Brewer's

Brimstone,

59.

metal,

154.

Bromine, preparation of, 55.


properties of, 56.
337.

vapors,

Bronzes,
Brucine,

152.
115.

Buckskin,

Bullets,

185.
72.

Bunsen

burner,

Butter,

299.

85.

composition of, 300.


fertilityin, 230.
sweet

cream,

Carbonated

waters, 88.

Carbonate

Brewing, 276.
Bricks, 145.
Britannia

Carboleum, 318.
acid, 103, 318.
Carbon, 81.
of, 341.
absorbing power
bisulphide, 64, 314.
cycle, 88.
dioxide, preparation of, 341.
dioxide in air, 30, 333.
monoxide, 86.
preparation of, 341.
of, 341.
reducing power
tetrachloride, 95.
Carbolic

299.

of potassium,

120.

Carbonates, 89.
95.
Carboneum,
119.
Carnallite,
Carrots, 278.
Casein, 294, 304.
Cassiterite, 153.
Cast iron, 163.
Caustic
soda, 125.
Cells, 238.
Celluloid, 107.
Cellulose, 105, 250.
nitrates of, 106.
Cement, for floors,131.
natural, 134.
Portland, 133.

Centrifuge, 111.

Cabbage,

278.

Cadaverine, 114.
Calcined
soda, 126.
Calcium, acid phosphate, 274.
carbide, 93.
carbonate, 130.
chloride, 130.
nitrate, 132.
phosphate, 66, 132.
silicate,133.
Calomel, 153.
Camembert
cheese, 302.
Cane

108, 249.
of, 109.
of fruit, 279.

sugar,

inversion

Cunning
Caoutchouc, 187.
Capillarity, 209.
Capillary water, 210, 358.
Caramel, 110, 272.
Carbohydrate, 105, 247.
digestion of, 262.

Cereals, 270.
composition of, 270.
Cerium, 146.
Chalk, 130.
Chamois
skin, 185.
Charcoal, 81.
Cheese, 300.
composition of, 302.
Chemical
change, 4, 326, 327.
Chemical
equations, 45.
Chemicals, list of, 377.
Chili saltpeter,36, 121, 217.
Chloride

of lime, 55, 317.

Chlorine, 53.
Chlorine

water,

Chloroform,
Chlorophyl,
Chrome

55.

95.

168, 245.
156, 174.
green,

steel, 156.
tanning, 185.
yellow, 156, 174.
156.
Chromium,

Churning,

299.

384

INDEX

Cider, hard, 284.


Cinchonine, 115.
Cinnabar, 153, 174.
283.
Cinnamon,
Cisterns, 16.
Clay, 79, 144, 192, 198.
puddling of, 357.
settling of, 359.
Cloth, dyeing of, 354.
Clouds, 10.
Clover, 287.
calcium
in, 366.
Coal, 83.
Coal

gas,

84.

Coal

tar

dyes,

Corrosive

"

of tartar, 104, 274.

Cream

separators,

298.

Creosol, 104, 318.


Creosote, 98, 104, 318.
Crude

fiber, 247.

Cryolite, 141.
Cyanides, 313,

314.

Davy,

portrait, 124.
proportions, law of, 44.
Denatured
alcohol, 101.
Depilation, 183.
Developer in photography, 149.
Dew, 10, 32.
Dextrine, 107, 249.
Dextrose, 108.
Dialysis, 78.
82.
Diamond,
276.
112,
Diastase,
Digestibility of feeds, 263.
Digestion, 258.
of proteins, 368.
Dioxygen, 28.
Distillation,destructive, 38.
dry, 38.
Definite

Coefficient of digestibility,
263.

Coffee, 282.
stains, 356.
Coins, silver,48.
Coke, 81.
Colemanite, 75.
Collodion, 36, 106.
Collostrum, 295.
223.
salt as fertilizer,
Common
Compound,
denned, 6.
326.
Compounds,
Concrete, 134.
reenforced, 134.
Condensed
milk, 302.
Contact
poisons, 308, 311.
Cooking, 271.
effect of, 272.
Copal, 176.
Copper, 150.
acetate, 100.
alloys of, 148, 150.

cleaning of, 152.


in coin, 349.
plating, 152.
properties of, 349.
Copperas, 166.
Corks, fittingof, 322.
Corn, 270.
Corn, popping of, 273.
"Corn
flakes," 277.
Corn
starch, 275.
stover,

Cream

104.

Cobalt, 160.
bead, 351.
Cocaine, 115.
Cocoa, 282.
Codeine, 115.

Corn

sublimate, 153, 316.


Cottage cheese, 301.
Cotton, 180.
burning of, 353.
Cotton
seed meal, 217.
Cotton
seed oil,102.
Cream, 297.

288.

Correcting soil acidity, 357.

Distilled

water,

10, 328.

Distiller's grains, 276.

Dolomite, 89, 136.


Double
decomposition,
Drainage, 210.
Dried
blood, 217.
Dried
fruit,281.

48.

Driers, 172.

Dry
Dry
Dutch

batteries, 158.
farming, 209.
metal,

152.

Dyestuffs, 104, 182.


Dynamite, 36, 80, 106.
Dysentery, remedy for, 72.
E

Earthenware,

145.

Earthworms,

action

of, 196.

385

INDEX

Ebonite, 189.
Egg albumen, 371.
Eggs, 286.
composition of, 370.
Elastin, 114.
Elements,

ancient

idea of, 2.

chemical, list of, 3.


classification of, 6.
defined, 2.
essential,in plants, 119.
Emery, 140.
Enzymes, 259.
Epsom salts, 66, 137.
Equivalents, hydrogen, 45.
Esters, 101.

Etching glass,52.
Ether,
Ether

103.

extract, 251.

Fires,extinguishing, 96.
217.
Fish, as fertilizer,
as
food, 286.
smoking, 104.
Fixation
of nitrogen, 207.
Flashlight powder, 136.
Flaxseed, 172.
Floats, 207, 219.
Flour, 107, 271.

Fluorine, 52.
Fly removers,
Fogs, 10.

318.

acids in, 367.


animal, 269.
human, 269.
water
in, 369.
Foodstuffs, classes of, 246.
Fool's gold, 64.
Forage, 287.
Force," 276.
Formaldehyde, 98.
Formalin, 98, 316.
action on seeds, 375.
in milk, 373.
preparation of, 351.

Foods,

"

Face

powder, 137.

Fat, digestion of, 262.


in meat, 372.
Fats, 250, 251, 345.

Fattening animals, 266.


Feeding standards, 263.
Fehling's solution, 108, 346.
Feldspars, 79, 119.
Fermentation, alcoholic,342.
Ferments, unorganized, 114.
Ferric chloride, 116, 167.
oxide, 116.

chloride, 116.
oxide, 116.
sulphate, 116.
Fertility,factors of, 202.
Fertilizer,phosphatic, 218.
Fertilizers,action of, 360.
analysis of, 226, 227.
commercial, 214.
elementary system, 227.
experimenting on, 224.
home
mixing of, 224.
indirect,222.

Ferrous

laws

on,

226.

mixed, 223.
nitrogenous, 216.
selection of, 224.
special,224.
Filtering,323, 324.
Fire bricks, 146.
Fire

clay, 146.
2c

98.

Formates,

91.
distillation,

Fractional

Fructose,

108, 250.

Fruit

stains,355.

Fruit

sugar,

108.

Fruits, 278.
Fundamental

considerations,

Fungicides, 314.
Furs, 186.

Galenite, 64, 154.


Galvanized

iron, 157.

Gasoline, 91.
Gelatin, 286.
silver, 152, 160.
Germination,
239, 240, 364.

German

Germol, 318.
Germs

Gin,

in water,

17.

112.

Glaciers, 193.
Glass, 134, 135.
quartz, 77.

tubing, bending of, 322.


cutting of, 321.
Glauber's
salt,128.
Glass

Glazes, 145.

1.

386

INDEX

Globulin, 253.

Hydrocarbons, 91.
Hydrochinone, 104.
Hydrogen, dioxide,28.
equivalent, 45.

Glucose, 108, 249.


Glue, 286.
Gluten, 107.
Gluten feed, 276.
Glycerine, 92, 101.
oleate, 102.
palmitate, 102.

Gold,

sulphide, 63, 339.


Hydrocyanic acid gas, 313.
Hydroscopic water, 210.

257.

147.

alloys of, 48.


rocks, 79.

copper

Granitic

28.

preparation
of, 330.
properties of, 22.

stearate, 102.

Glycogen,

22.

occurrence,

peroxide,

Hypo,

128.

Hyposulphite

of soda, 128.

"Grape-nuts," 276.
Grape sugar, 108, 249.
Graphite,

82.

Grass stains, 256.


Gravitational
water, 210.

Ice cream,
302.
Indian
275.
corn,

Grease

Infusorial earth,
Ink, 167, 352.
Ink stains, 355.

spots, 251, 343.

Green
Green

manuring, 236.
vitriol,166.
Growing animals, 266.

action
121.

Gutta-percha, 189.
Gypsum, 64, 130.
as

216.
fertilizer,

vapors,

starch,

on

Hail, 32.
Hair, as fertilizer,
217.
104.

[odoform, 95.
Iron, change to ferric,352.
compounds

with

Hay,

287.
as

Heavy

disinfectant,319.
spar,

219.

Hellebore, 310.

Hematite, 161.
Hemoglobin, 168.
Hippuric acid, 206.
Hoof

meal, 217.
Hornblende, 79, 136.
Horn
meal, 217.
Human
foods, 269.
Humus,
199, 212.
Hunyad spring, 137.

tannic

metal, 161.
pyrites, 64.
of, 354.

rusting of,
sulphate, 352.
ridium, 147.
singlass, 286.

166.

soprene,

187.

Hammer
black, 166.
Hard
preparation, 342.
soap,
Heat

57.

337.

rust, removal
H

Halogens, 52.
Ham, smoking,

313.

311.

Invertase, 110.
Iodine, 56.

Gun

metal, 152.
Gunpowder, black,
smokeless, 106.

Insecticides,gaseous,
Insect powder,

Guajacol, 104.
Guano, 218, 219.
Guncotton, 36, 106.

80.

driers, 173.
elly making, 250.
unket
tablets, 294.
apan

finite, 119, 222.


Calsomine, 177.
taolin, 79, 144.
Ceratin, 114.
Cerosene, 91.
emulsion, 312.

Cohlrabi,278,

acid, 372.

388

INDEX

Meat, 284.
Meat

N
217.

scraps,

Medium

ratio, 264.

79, 136.
Meerschaum,
chloride, 316.
Mercury, 152.
antidote
for, 350.
fulminating, 106.
preparation of, 350.
Metalloids, 6.
Metals, 6.
base forming, 49.
Methane, 93.
Methyl alcohol, 97.
salicylate,101.
Mica, 79.
Milch
needs of, 267.
cows,
Milk, 291.
acidity of, 372.
antiseptics in, 296, 297.
Mercuric

ash

in, 295.

Naphtha, 91.
Naphthalene, 318.
Narcotine, 115.
Narrow
ratio, 264.
Negative, photographic, 150.
Nernst
lamp, 146.
Neutralization, 42.
Neutral
oil,300.
Nickel, ammonium
sulphate, 160.
coins, 160.

metal, 160.
plating, 160.
Nicotine, 115.
Nitrate
of soda, 217.
Nitrates, 36, 205.
Nitric acid, 35, 36, 334.
Nitrification,205.
Nitrites,propertiesof, 37.
Nitrobenzene, 104.
Nitrogen, 32, 34, 333.
cycle, 206.
361.
fertilizers,

composition of, 292.


deep setting, 297.
digestion of, 261.
fat in, 293.
fertilityin, 230.
in, 295, 296.
germs
globules, 294.
lactic acid in, 295.
powders, 302.
preservatives, 297.

Nitroglycerine, 106.
Nitrous
acid, 37.
Non-metals, 6, 50.
Nucleoproteins, 114.

secretion

Nut

of, 291.

shallow

setting, 297.
souring of, 294.
yield, 291.
Mill

concentrates,

Mixtures,
Moisture

270.

Mutton

butter, 282.

Nutmeg,
Nutritive

283.

ratio, 264.

Nux

vomica,

115.

326.

111.

in fruit,281.

157.
Molybdenum,
Monoses, 108.
Mordants, 167, 182.
Morphine, 115.
Mortar, 90.
Mosaic
gold, 154.
Moth
balls,318.
Muck, 198.
Mulch, 209.
Muriate
of potash, 119, 222.
Muriatic

for, 344.

in air,31.

Molasses,
Molds

tests

Nuts, as food, 272.


"Nuttolene," 282.

108, 294.

sugar,

free extract, 247.


in soil,356.

acid, 53.

tallow,

102.

Oatmeal, 277.
Oats, 270.
Oil gases, 93.
Oil of mirbane,

104.

Oil of vitriol,61.

Oils, 250.
drying, 171.
non-drying, 171.
solubilityof, 353.
Oleomargarine, 300, 373.
Oleo oil,300.
Olive oil,102.
Onion, 278.

389

IXDKX

165.
Open hearth process,
Opium, 115.
344.
Organic compounds,
147.
Osmium,
Oxides, acid forming, 26.
alkali forming, 26.
Oxygen, 24, 331.
327.
Oxyhydrogen
gas,
Oysters, 284.
Ozone, 27, 333.

Photography, developers in, 104.


Physical change, 5, 326.
Pig iron, 163.
Pigments, 174.
Pink salt, 154.
Pintsch

93.

gas,

Pitchblende, 138.
Plant, stem of, 244.
Plant

food, 244.

in crops,

202.

in

urine, 362.
Planting of seeds, 358.
Plant

enamel,
stains, 355.
147.
Palladium,

life,238.
Plants, as soil formers,
carbon
in, 365.
nitrogen in, 366.
potassium in, 367.

Palm

oil,102.
Paper, 105.
Paraffin, 91.

Plaster

Paris

Poisons

Paint, 171.
176.

green,

test
use

of Paris, 131, 348.

Platinum, 146, 147.


82.
Plumbago,

71, 309.

for pests, 307.

Poppy seed oil, 171.


Porcelain, 144, 145.

for, 374.
of, 310.

Pasteur

filters,18.
Pasteurization
of milk, 296.
Peanuts, 277.
Pearlash, 121.
Pearl barley, 276.
Peat, formation
of, 198.
Peat bogs, 197.
Pectins, 250, 367.
Pepper, 283.
Pepsin, 114, 260.
Peptones, 114.
Permanent
white, 129.
Peruvian
bark, 115.
Petroleum, 91.
Petroleum
ether, 91.
154.
Pewter,
Phenol, 103.
Phenolates, 103.
Phosphate of lime, 218, 220.
Phosphate rock, 66, 132, 218.
Phosphates, 339.
Phosphor bronze, 152.
Phosphorus, cycle, 68.
in fertilizers,
70.
in soils,207, 356.
occurrence

197.

of, 66.

red, 69.
yellow, 69.
Photographic

plate, 149.

Photography,

150.

Portland

cement,

133.

Positive, photographic, 150.


Potash, 118.
caustic, 120.
fertilizers,
221, 360.
red prussiate of, 167.
118.

Potassium,

bromide, 122.
chlorate, 122.
chloride, 121.
cyanide, 122.
hydroxide, 347.
in soils,208.
iodide, 122.

metallic, 123.
nitrate, 121.
permanganate,

160.

122.

phosphate,
platinic chloride, 147.
silicate, 122.
test

for, 347.

Potato,
Potato
Potato
Producer

277.

scab, treatment
starch, 248.
gas,
114.

of, 98.

87.

Proteids,
Protein, coagulation of, 349.
digestion of, 262.
preparation of, 345.
test for, 344.

390

INDEX

Proteins, 114, 252.


digestibilityof, 272.
of rye, 270.
of wheat, 270.

coats, 188.

hard, 189.

Protoplasm, 238.
Prussian
blue, 174.
Prussic acid, 123.
Ptomaines, 114.
Ptyalin, 259.
Puddling, 210.
164.
Puddling process,
277.
Pulses,
Putrescine, 114.
Putty, 130.
Pyrethrum, 310.
Pyrite, 166.
Pyrogallic acid, 104.
Pyrogallol, 104.
Pyroligneous acid, 98.

Q
Quartz, 79.
Quartz glass, 77.
Quicksilver, 152.
Quinine, 115.

Rain,

10.

earths, 146.
Reaction
of soil,357.
Red
ocher, 161, 174.
Rennet, 300.
'

Renovated

260.

butter, 300.

Reverted

phosphate, 22.
Rhigolene, 91.
147.
Rhodium,
Rice, 272, 276.
Rochelle
salt, 108.
Rock, weathering of, 192.
Rock
candy, 109.
Rock
phosphate, 207.
Root, action of, 242.
Root
hairs, 242.
Root
nodules, 206.
Roots, 277.
Roquefort cheese, 302.
Rosin, 173.
186.
Rubber,

186.

plantations, 186.
preparations, 187.
red, 188.
solubilityof, 354.
substitutes, 189.
synthetic, 189.
vulcanized, 188.
white, 188.
Rubies, 140.
Rum, 101, 112.
Rutabaga, 278.
147.
Ruthenium,
S

Saleratus, 127, 274.


Sal soda, 125.
123.
Salt, common,
definition of, 49.
preparation of, 336.
Saltpeter, 121.
Salts, examples of, 50.
Epsom, 66.
in

soil,358.

Jose scale, 311.


Sand, 192, 198.
Sand
dunes, 195.

138.

Rare

Rennin,

Para,

San

Radish, 278.
Radium,

Rubber, black, 188.


blue, 188.

Sand

paper,

77.

Sapphires, 140.
of, 244.
Sap, movement
Science, definition of, 1.
Seeds, air for, 365.
behavior
of, 241.
mutilation

of, 365.

phosphorus in, 366.


Serpentine, 79.
Shellac varnish, 176.
Ship's biscuit,274.
Shoddy, 182.
Shot, 72.
"Shredded

wheat,"

276.

Siderite, 161.
Silage, 252, 288.
acids in, 290.
Silica,76.
Silicates, insolubilityof, 340.
Silicon, 76.

dioxide, 76.

391

INDEX

Soil,transported, 194.

Silk, 180.

water, 209.

Silt, 198.
Silver, 148.

bromide, 148.
chloride, 148.
iodide, 149.

nitrate, 148.
plating, 150.
sterling,148.
Skim
milk, 297, 299.
Skim

milk

cheese,

302.

Slag, 163.
Sleet, 32.
Smalt
glass, 161.
Smokeless
powder, 36.
Snow, 32.
Soap, 92.
calcium, 102.
hard, 102.
making, 251.
soft, 102.

Soapstone, 79.
Soda, 125.
Soda

water, 88.
Sodium, acetate, 100.
action

on

water, 331.

benzoate, 104.
bicarbonate, 274.
carbonate, 125.
chloride, 123.

hydroxide,

125.

iodate, 128.
metallic, 123.
nitrate, 127.
silicate,77, 128, 340.
sulphate, 128.
sulphite, 128.
test for, 347.

thiosulphate,128.
Soft coal, 84.
process,

126.

Soil, 191.
acids in, 207.
classes of, 198.
color of, 212.

composition

of, 200.

drainage, 359.
fertility
of, 202.
formation, 192.

liming, 207.
sedentary, 194.
temperature

action

of, 212, 359.

of saliva on, 368.


370.
on,

effect of heat

grains, 370.
in seeds, 245.

paste, 107, 248.

preparation of, 345.


solution
test

of, 368.

for, 346.

Starter, 301.
Stassfurt fertilizers,
222.
salt beds, 121.
Steel, 165.
hardening of, 165.
tempering of, 165.
Steinholz, 137.
Stomach, of cow, 260.
of horse, 260.
Stomachic
poisons, 308.
Storage battery, 155.
Straws, 288.
Strontium
nitrate, 130.
Strychnine, 115.
Styptic cotton, 167.
Sublimate, corrosive, 153.
Sucrose, 108.
Sugars, 108, 249.
Sugar beet, 278.
Sugar, in plants, 245.
Sugar of lead, 156.
Sugar, manufacturing of, 110.
test

Solder, 154.

Solvay

Spices, 283.
Spirits of hartshorn, 38.
Spirits of wine, 98.
Springs, sulphur, 66.
Stannic
chloride, 154.
Stannous
chloride, 154.
Starch, 88, 107, 247.

for, 346.

Sulphates, 62.
Sulphate of potash, 222.
Sulphites, 63.
Sulphur, cycle, 66.
dioxide, 59, 338.
disinfectant, 317, 318.
ethers, 103.
flowers of, 59.
in animals, 64.
in plants, 65.
in soils,208.
of, 59.
occurrence
properties of, 338.

392

INDEX

Sulphur, roll,59.

Vermilion, 153, 174.


Vinegar, 41, 99, 283.
Vitriol,green, 166.

springs, 66.
trioxide,61.
Sulphuric acid, 338.
contact

lead

process,

chamber

Nordhausen,

oil of, 61.

62.

process,
63.

white,
62.

159.

Vulcanite, 189.

properties of, 62.


preparation of, 61.

Sunlight as disinfectant,
319.
Superphosphate, 68, 207, 220.
Swiss

cheese, 302.

Sylvite,119.
of elements, 43.
Synthesis,48.
Symbols

Washing soda, 126, 343.


Water, chlorides in, 337.
cleansers,16.
composition and
10.
distilled,
drinking, 14.
electrolysis
of, 8,

uses,

8.

327.

for plants, 202.

Talc, 137.
Tannin, 167, 183.
Tartaric
acid, 274.
Tea, 282.
stains, 356.

86.

gas,

in, 17.
germs
glass, 77.
hard, 15, 102, 329.
in animals, 13.
in

Theories, definition of, 2.


Thermite, 142.
Thorium, 146.

plants,328.
in plants and animals, 11.
mineral
matter
in, 15.

Tilth, 208.
Tin, foil,153.
plate, 153.

of, 328.
pollution of, 18.
purification of, 19.
saline matters
in, 9.
soft, 329.
spring, 14.
well, 14.
occurrence

stone, 153.
Tobacco
decoctions,313.

Trypsin,
Tubers,

262.

277.

Tungsten,

157.

electric lamps, 157.


Turnbull's blue, 167.

Turnip, 278.
Turpentine,
Type

Waterhouse

test, 374.

Well

salts in, 327.

Welsbach

Wheat,
174.

White

metal, 71.
U

Ultramarine, 146.
Ultramarine
blue, 174.
Urea, 206.
acid, 206.

Vacuum

pans,

lamp,

111.

Varnish, 175.
Vaseline,91.
Vegetables, fresh, 269.
Verdigris,152.

White

87.

270.

Whisky, 101,
White

Uric

water,

112.

arsenic, 71, 309.


lead, 156.
vitriol,159.

Whitewash, 317.
Whiting, 130.
Wide

ratio, 264.
Wind, action of, 159.
Wines, 101.
Wintergreen oil,101.
Wolff-Lehmann
standard, 264, 265.
Wood
alcohol, 98.
Wood
ashes, 222.
Wood's
metal, 72.
Wool, 180.
burning of, 353.
Wool

waste., 217.

393

INDEX

of,

needs

Working

animals,

Wounds,

cauterizing

Wrought

iron,

of,

266.

148.
318.

Zenoleum,
164.

Zinc,

157.
159.

chloride,
oxide,
Yeast,

oxide

371.

in

food,

273.

in

fruit,

279,

Yellow

ocher,

159.

ointment,

sulphate,
white,

280.

161,

174.

159.
159.

159.

Elements

Warren's
G.

By

F.

Farm

of

Professor

WARREN,
York

New

Crops,

Agriculture
of

Farm

and

Management

nell
College of Agriculture at Cor-

State

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Cloth,
Written
Farm

Professor

by

G.

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Farm

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4.56pages, $/./o

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