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Further Mechanics
Momentum
Momentum is a measure of how hard it is to stop something
=mv
In any collision total momentum is constant provided no external forces act.
There are two types of collision; elastic and inelastic. In an elastic collision kinetic
energy is conserved. In an inelastic collision kinetic energy is not conserved.
Force is the rate of change of momentum.
F=
(mv)
t
Circular Motion
Linear velocity is the speed an object moves in a straight line and is given by:
v =2 rf
or
v=
2 r
t
Angular speed is the angle an object rotates through per second and is given by:
=2 f
or
2
t
By combining the above equations we can see that linear speed and angular
speed are linked by the equation
v =r
F=
mv 2
r
The body is also undergoing constant acceleration because velocity changes with
direction and the body is constantly changing direction. Centripetal acceleration
is given by the equations
a=
v
r
or
a=2 r
a=( 2 f 2 ) x
A is the acceleration, f is the frequency of the oscillation, and x is the
displacement from the equilibrium position. The negative sign ensures the
acceleration is always directed towards the equilibrium position.
The position of an object moving in simple harmonic motion at time, t, is given
by:
x= Acos ( 2 ft )
The velocity of an object moving in SHM at any point is:
v = A2x 2
The maximum acceleration of the body is given by:
2
a=( 2 f ) A
The maximum speed is given by:
v =2 fA
The graph below demonstrates how the energy of a simple harmonic system
change with displacement
This shows that the kinetic energy of the system is at a maximum at the
equilibrium position and the potential energy of the system is at a maximum at
the maximum amplitude.
In a simple pendulum the time period of each oscillation is affected only by the
length of the string and the gravitational field strength (usually 9.81Nkg -1). It
does not vary with amplitude. It is given by:
T =2
l
g
The time period for a spring is dependent upon the mass attached to the spring
and the spring constant. From this we get the equation
T =2
m
k
Gravitation
Newtons Law
Newtons law of gravitation states that the attractive force between two point
masses is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
This is also written as:
F=
The arrows point in the direction of the force that a unit test object would
experience if placed into the field. The lines spread out the further you get from
the earth as the force become weaker. The red lines are equipotentials which will
be discussed under gravitational potential. All masses have their own
gravitational fields.
Gravitational field strength, g, is the force per unit mass.
g=
F
m
g=
GM
r2
Gravitational potential
Gravitational potential is the work done in bringing a unit mass from infinity to
that point. Gravitational potential is zero at infinity. In a radial field like the earths
the equation for gravitational potential is:
V =
Gravitational potential is negative on the surface of the mass (in this case the
earth) and increases with distance from the mass. The above mass demonstrates
how gravitational potential varies with distance.
At any point on the curve the gradient gives the value of g.
g=
V
r
When you move an object you do work against the force of gravity. The work
done in moving a mass is given by
W =m V
If you move the object around a line of equal gravitational potential then no work
is done. This line of equal gravitational potential is known as an equipotential.
Electric Fields
Coulombs Law
An electrostatic field is the volume of space where a suitable test object (+1C
charge) experiences a force
Coulombs law gives the force between two point charges in a vacuum.
F=
Qq
2
4 r
If the charges are opposite then the force will be attractive and if the charges are
the same then the force is repulsive.
E=
F
q
E=
Q
4 r 2
The direction of the field is always from the positive plate to the negative plate.
As the field is uniform the field lines are equal distances apart. The dotted lines
are equipotentials, or lines of equal electric potential.
The magnitude of E in a uniform field is given by
E=
V
d
Electric potential
The electric potential, V, at a point in an electric field is the work done in bringing
a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
The equation for electric potential at a point in a radial field is
V=
Q
4 r
W =Q V
Electric fields
Electric field strength, E, is the force
per unit charge
Coulombs law for the electrostatic
force between two point charges is an
inverse square law
Field lines for a point charge are radial
Electric potential, V, is potential energy
per unit positive charge and it is zero
at infinity
Can be repulsive
Objects can be shielded from electric
fields
Capacitance
Capacitance
Capacitance is the charge stored in a capacitor per volt. It is given by the
equation
C=
Q
V
It can also be written as Q=VC (the Queen gives the Victoria Cross)
1
E= QV
2
The others equations for the energy stored by a capacitor are
1
E= C V 2 and
2
E=
1Q
2 C
Charging a capacitor
The current is high initially but as charge builds on the plate electrostatic
repulsion makes it harder for current to flow
Discharging a capacitor
Q=Q o e
t
RC
Time constant
The time constant, , is the time it takes for the charge to fall to
1
e
(roughly
=RC
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic flux density
Magnetic flux density is the force per unit current per unit length acting on a
current carrying conductor. This is shown by the equation
F=BIl
This equation is only true if the wire, the force and the magnetic field are all at
right angles to each other. The unit of B is the tesla, T, equal to 1NA -1m-1
The force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field is given by
F=Bqv
To find the direction of the force in either of the above situations you use
Flemings left hand rule
A beam of charged particles going into a magnetic field is will go into circular
motion because the force is always perpendicular to the direction of motion
To find the direction of the magnetic field around a current carrying conductor
you use the right hand grip rule where the right hand is put into a fist with the
thumbs sticking up. The thumb then points in the direction of the current and the
fingers curl round in the direction of the field.
=BA
The units of are Wieber, Wb.
When you move a coil of wire in a magnetic field the size of the emf induced is
dependent on the magnetic flux passing through the coil and the number of
turns on the coil. This is the magnetic flux linkage, N. This can also be written
as
N=BAN
In magnetic flux is not perpendicular to B then magnetic flux is given by
=BAcos
The same is true for magnetic flux linkage
N=BANcos
Electromagnetic induction
When there is relative motion between a conductor and a magnet then there is
an emf induced.
Flux cutting always induces an emf but only induces a current when the circuit is
complete.
This is summed up by faradays law: the induced emf is directly proportional to
the rate of change of flux linkage. This can also be written as
emf =N
This is also dependant on Lenzs law: The induced emf is always in such a
direction that it will oppose the change that caused it.
An emf can also be induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field. This is given by
the following equation where is the angular speed of the coil.
When the coil is parallel to the magnetic field the emf induced is zero and the
emf induced is at its greatest when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic
field.
Transformers
Transformers make use of electromagnetic induction to change the size of the
voltage for an alternating current.
Np
Ns
Vp
Vs
Transformers lose power due to heat in the coils (dealt with using high-grade
copper) and eddy currents in the iron core (dealt with by laminating the iron
core)
The efficiency of a transformer is the ration of power out to power in so
Efficiency = IsVs/IpVp
Transformers are used by the national grid to control power loss whilst the
electricity is travelling through the wires. Because power loss is proportional to I 2
the electricity travels at the minimum possible current, meaning the voltages are
very large. At the power station the voltage is stepped up to 400000 V for
transmission and then it is stepped down to 230 V for domestic use.