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Monisha Pasupathi
Stanford University
University of Utah
Ulrich Mayr
John R. Nesselroade
University of Oregon
University of Virginia
Age differences in emotional experience over the adult life span were explored, focusing on the
frequency, intensity, complexity, and consistency of emotional experience in everyday life. One hundred
eighty-four people, age 18 to 94 years, participated in an experience-sampling procedure in which
emotions were recorded across a 1-week period. Age was unrelated to frequency of positive emotional
experience. A curvilinear relationship best characterized negative emotional experience. Negative emotions declined in frequency until approximately age 60, at which point the decline ceased. Individual
factor analyses computed for each participant revealed thai age was associated with more differentiated
emotional experience. In addition, periods of highly positive emotional experience were more likely to
endure among older people and periods of highly negative emotional experience were less stable.
Findings are interpreted within the theoretical framework of socioemotional selectivity theory.
645
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Method
Sample
One hundred eighty-four African American and European American
research participants, ranging in age from 18 to 94 years of age, (M 55,
SD = 20.4), were recruited by a survey research firm from the San
646
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Measures
Although our principal aim was to sample emotional experiences in
everyday life, we also assessed health, personality, and verbal fluency
because each of these factors may influence at least some features of
emotional experience or performance on the sampling task (see, e.g.,
McCrae & Costa, 1991; Watson & Pennebaker, 1989).
Emotion sampling booklet. On a 7-point scale that ranged from 1 (not
at all) to 7 (extremely), participants indicated the degree to which they were
feeling each of 19 emotions or feeling states. Ratings greater than 1, thus,
indicated that the emotion was present and, consequently, both frequency
and intensity are captured in a single rating. The list of emotions included
anger, guilt, pride, sadness, happiness, fear, accomplishment, shame,
amusement, anxiety/worry, joy, contentment, irritation, frustration, disgust,
interest, embarrassment, boredom, and excitement. An other blank was
also provided on the response sheet to allow participants to record additional emotions not included on the sampler. A week's supply of emotion
response sheets were bound in a 5 in. by 5 in. pad for easy transport during
the week of data collection.
Cornell Medical Index Health Questionnaire (CMI). The CMI (Brodman, Erdmann, & Wolff, 1949) is a widely used 195-item index of physical
and mental health problems that allows the computation of a general health
index as well as subscales that represent functioning in specific organ
subsystems and symptoms associated with specific psychological syndromes. Participants report whether they experience each of the 195
symptoms. We computed two broad indexes from the CMI, one representing the total number of recent symptoms of physical illness and the other
representing the total number of recent symptoms of mental illness. An
example of a physical illness symptom item is "Are you troubled by
constant coughing?" A sample mental illness symptom item is "Do you
have to be on your guard even with your friends?"
Category instance fluency (Undenberger, Mayr, & Kliegl, 1993). As a
measure of verbal fluency, participants were asked to name as many
different kinds of animals as possible in 90 s. This test shows a strong
relationship to general intellectual ability and has been extensively used
with older adults.
Adjective checklist (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991). This is a list
of 54 adjectives presented in the form of self-descriptive sentences. Ad-
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
Characteristic
Sample description
Number of children
jectives representing all of the Big Five factors of personality are represented. Participants indicate whether a given statement describes them by
placing a check next to it. Example items include "I am talkative" and "I
can be somewhat careless." We computed summary scores for each of the
Big Five factors: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience,
Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness.
Procedure
Following initial screening by the survey research firm to ensure that
participants met recruitment criteria for the project, participants were
scheduled at their convenience for an initial interview at Stanford University or at the offices of the San Francisco-based survey research firm that
did the initial recruiting. Participants were informed that the purpose of the
study was to examine feelings in everyday life. After obtaining informed
consent and obtaining background information, such as education level, the
following measures were administered: Category Instance Fluency, CMI,
and the Adjective Checklist.
At this point, participants were provided with detailed instructions about
the experimental procedures, familiarized with the operations of the electronic pager (e.g., how to set it for motion or sound, how to indicate that
they received the page by pushing a button, etc.), and instructed to
complete the emotion response sheets each time they were signaled. Next,
two practice trials were administered while participants were still in the
laboratory so that responses could be reviewed with the experimenter prior
to beginning the study. The participant was left alone; the interviewer
activated the pager from another room; the participant completed the
questionnaire; and, on returning to die room, the interviewer reviewed the
participant's responses, clarified any apparent mistakes, and answered
questions.
During the ensuing week, participants were paged five times each day.
Paging times were determined by random selections from all possible
10-min intervals between 9 a.m. and 9 p.m. The only constraint on
sampling times was that participants were not sampled more than once
within a single 20-min period. At the end of each day, participants returned
the day's completed response sheets by mail in pre-addressed, stamped
envelopes, allowing us to monitor responses during the data collection
period and assuring at least rough adherence to the experimental protocol.
Participants were encouraged to telephone the laboratory if procedural
questions or problems arose and periodic calls were made to participants as
well to ensure that the highest quality data were obtained.
After participants completed the week-long experience-sampling data
collection, they returned to the laboratory for a follow-up interview, at
which time they returned the pagers and were debriefed. Participants were
paid $125 for their participation.
Results
We organize our results into four sections. The first section
describes data reduction and preliminary analyses. The second
section of the results reports findings from analyses that examine
age differences in the frequency and intensity of emotional experience, controlling for individual differences that may influence
emotional experience (Hypotheses 1 and 2). In this section we also
examine the consistency of age differences across ethnic, gender,
and socioeconomic lines.
The third section of the results addresses emotion regulation
(Hypothesis 3), and the fourth section concerns the complexity of
emotional experience (Hypothesis 4). In these latter two sections,
hypotheses are tested on the basis of within-individual variability
that allowed us to examine emotional complexity and the temporal
experience of emotional experiences. Here, too, we examined the
consistency of effects across ethnicity, gender, and class. Because
our measure of differentiation was novel, we explored its relationship to other measures, such as personality, mental health, and
intelligence.
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Table 2
Means and Standard Deviations of Frequency and intensity
of Experiencing Specific Emotions for the Entire Sample
Frequency"
Emotion
SD
647
Intensity
M
SD
3.31
3.31
3.13
3.46
2.99
3.23
2.93
3.28
3.39
3.40
3.38
0.91
1.05
1.04
1.09
0.90
1.09
0.93
0.93
0.90
0.86
0.95
147
159
138
157
128
131
112
176
177
176
149
4.35
4.10
4.40
3.98
4.09
4.40
4.55
3.95
0.97
1.02
1.00
0.94
1.10
1.00
0.99
0.86
184
181
1S4
181
180
184
184
182
We hypothesized that the frequency of negative, but not positive, emotional experience decreases across age cohorts, and we
hypothesized that intensity of emotion would not distinguish age,
Negative
Anger
Sadness
Fear
Disgust
Guilt
Embarrassment
Shame
Anxiety
Irritation
Frustration
Boredom
.20
.28
.20
.21
.17
.17
.14
.44
.39
.39
.30
Happiness
Joy
Contentment
Excitement
Pride
Accomplish
Interest
Amusement
.89
.78
.90
.69
.70
.74
.88
.73
.24
.30
.28
.25
.27
.27
.25
.32
.28
.28
.32
Positive
*n = 184.
.17
.27
.16
.32
.34
.27
.19
.27
Findings remain essentially unchanged when very high and very low
scorers are eliminated.
2
Oblique rotations suggested some relationships between the factors,
with the factors for intensity of positive and intensity of negative emotions
correlated at .34, and the factors for intensity and frequency of positive
emotions also correlated (r = .30). Frequency of experiencing negative
emotions and frequency of experiencing positive emotions were also
correlated, though less strongly (r = .21). No other interfactor correlations
were above .17. Relationships between the aggregate scores (not factor
scores) used in our analyses mirrored these oblique factor correlations, and
were somewhat stronger. Intensity of negative emotion and intensity of
positive emotion showed a moderate relationship (r = .40, p < .01).
Frequency and intensity of positive emotion were also correlated (r .42,
p < .01), as were frequency of positive and frequency of negative emotions
(r .29, p < .01). All other correlations were much lower (maximum
absolute value r = .16). Both interfactor correlations and correlations
between our variables imply the existence of individual differences in
emotional intensity and in the general frequency with which emotions are
experienced. These relationships (between the frequency and intensity of
positive and negative emotion) did not vary as a function of age at this, the
between-subjects, level.
648
Table 3
Varimax Rotated Factor Loadings for Frequency and Intensity
of Positive and Negative Affect
Emotion
NE
frequency
PE
intensity
PE
frequency
NE
intensity
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Frequencies
Anger
Sadness
Fear
Disgust
Guilt
Embarassment
Shame
Irritation
Frustration
Anxiety
Boredom
Happiness
Joy
Contentment
Excitement
Pride
Accomplishment
Amusement
Interest
Eigenvalues
% of Variance
.16
.26
.07
.79
.77
.76
,85
.80
.79
.03
-.03
.03
.03
.00
-.08
.01
-.04
-.03
-.05
-.17
-.12
-.02
.00
-.11
-.13
-.11
-.18
-.14
8.35
22
5.60
15
2.00
5
-.05
-.02
-.13
-.08
-.15
-.02
.01
-.07
-.07
-.03
-.08
.34
.04
.07
.18
.33
.14
.32
.66
.67
.66
.64
.56
.64
.53
.72
.83
.84
.45
.18
.16
.15
.22
.16
.27
.30
.22
5.60
2.00
15
.86
.85
.87
.88
.90
.88
.92
.86
.85
.78
.65
.06
.13
.02
.27
.24
.14
.19
.09
-.04
-.04
-.01
.02
-.04
.14
.06
-.09
-.14
-.14
-.17
.16
.32
.02
.30
9.34
25
.22
.09
.11
.08
.01
.11
.09
.10
.06
.09
.13
.22
.85
.79
Intensities
Anger
Sadness
Fear
Disgust
Guilt
Embarassment
Shame
Anxiety
Irritation
Frustration
Boredom
Happiness
Joy
Contentment
Excitement
Pride
Accomplishment
Amusement
Interest
Eigenvalues
% of Variance
-.09
.03
-.05
-.15
-.01
-.11
-.07
.17
.06
.14
-.04
-.07
.03
-.24
-.01
-.02
-.07
-.05
-.07
.18
.20
.07
.08
.12
.12
.07
.19
.10
9.34
25
8,35
22
.03
.15
.84
.92
.76
.84
.75
.78
.81
.72
.21
Note. NE = negative emotions; PE - positive emotions. Boldface indicates factor loadings above .40.
3
We chose 60 as an illustrative point because it represents approximately the bottom of the line depicted in Figure 1. Choosing other age
cutoffs, such as 40,50, or 65, results in differences in the magnitude but not
the pattern of relationships. To be concrete, the correlations for the younger
portion of the sample are .46, .24, .29, and .24, respectively, for
ages 40, 50, 60, and 65 years. The same correlations for the older portion
of the sample are .04, .17, .14, and .19. In no case is the age relationship
near zero for the younger portion of the samplea decline is always seen.
What happens after the selected cutoff is somewhat more variable, ranging
from zero relationships to small positive correlations with negative emotion. However, again, these are meant only to illustrate the pattern detected
in the regression analyses.
649
.07
-.04
.03
.11
-.01
-.07
.06
-.01
-.03
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Predictors
Demographic variables
Race
Sex
Socio-economic status
Health
Physical
Mental
Personality
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Verbal intelligence
Linear age
Quadratic age
Overall K2
Regression, F(13, 129)
.11
.28**
.20**
.01
.03
-.11
-.18*
-.02
-.08
-.04
.20
2.50**
.00
.17t
.0001
.01
-20t
.17
-.01
.09
.05
-.10
.0004
-.01
.0001
-.01
-.07
.05
-.09
-.03
-1.30*
1.25*
IS
8
.19
.27
.23
.37**
.07
.15*
.002
.02
.04
.03
-.04
.04
-.003
.005
.10
.50
- .24
.15
.06
- .001
.01
- .0001
-.24**
-.09
.20*
.11
.11
.09
-.02
.17
-.21
-.29
.69
.51
.53
.38
-.002
.007
.00
.21*
-.13
.02
.10
-.05
.00
.16*
.18*
.25**
.12
.01
.06
-.06
.06
-.001
.002
.16*
.22**
.02
.08
.11
.70
.90
.18
.19
.05
.001
.004
.00
15t
.17f
.05
.04
.39
-.38
.17*
-.13t
.03
-.11
22**
.12
.16*
.17*
-.04
.07
.06
.14
1.60t
PA Intensity
NA Intensity
PA Frequency
.03
.11
.00
.01
-.02
-.02
-.06
-.06
.17
2.00*
.18*
.15
.17f
.04
.17*
-.06
.04
.02
-.02
.37
-.47
.29**
.14t
.24**
27**
-.10
.06
.05
.28
4.00**
.32**
.05
.12
.62
.09
.22
Note. NA = negative affect; PA = positive affect. Being female, being blue-collar, and being African American are represented by larger values.
tp < .10 (marginally significant). *p < .05. ** p < .01.
feels more positive or less negative affect than usual) and the
cessation of undesirable emotional states (defined as states where
the person is feeling less positive or more negative than usual). The
former reflect adaptive aspects of emotional stability, and the latter
reflect adaptive aspects of emotional lability. To test Hypothesis 3,
we computed four scores that reflect these four aspects of emotion
regulation.
For each sampling occasion, participants were classified as high
on positive affect relative to their own idiosyncratic ally calculated
mean across all sampled situations or as below or equivalent to
their own idiosyncratically calculated mean across situations. A
.341
.32
ft
M .30
S-28
"8
g .26
u.
I
18-34
35-64
Age in Years
Figure 1, Frequency of negative affect across the life span.
65-94
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650
emotion and for negative emotion. This is equivalent to a crosslagged correlation but applied to the categorical states (above or
below one's idiosyncratic mean) that we defined for this analysis.
These correlations arc instructive. For positive emotions, small
age-associated increases in stability (whether of low or high positive states) are evident (r = .17, p < .02). This is not the case for
negative emotions (r = .11, p > .15).
Finally, the curvilinear pattern of results obtained for lability in
highly negative states with age raises the possibility that this kind
of lability accounts for the age differences observed in the frequency of negative emotions. Note that this is not necessarily the
case. Older and younger adults could have different frequencies of
negative emotions without those emotions occurring in temporally
linked ways. However, if older adults are moving out of negative
states more quickly than young adults (at least up to some point in
adulthood), this might mean that older adults' better emotion
regulation, as assessed here, accounts for age differences in the
frequency of negative emotions. We examined this by computing
a hierarchical regression predicting the frequency of negative
emotion (from Hypothesis 1 above). The probability of moving
from highly negative to low-negative states was entered as the first
predictor, after which we examined whether age (linear and quadratic) made any additional significant contribution to the equation. This analysis showed that once lability of highly negative
states was entered, age (both linear and quadratic) contributed an
additional 2% of the variance to predicting the frequency of
negative emotion F(2, 179) = 2.3, p = .10. Thus, changes in the
frequency of negative emotion with age may be interpreted as
stemming from changes in the lability of highly negative states.
4
Again, if these correlations are computed for cutoff points of 40,
50, 60, and 65, the respective correlations in the younger portion of the
sample are .23, .31, .30, and .26. The respective correlations in the older
sample are .14, .15, .15, and .17. Once again, the pattern is clear:
Highly negative states are increasingly labile across adulthood, but at some
point, this increase levels off or becomes negative.
651
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18-34
35-64
65-94
Age in Years
Figure 2. Differentiation of emotional experience over time.
Discussion
To the best of our knowledge, this project represents the first
experience-sampling study of emotion based on a cross-sectional
sample that spans most of the adult age range. Across a 76-year
span, encompassing participants between the ages of 18 and 94, a
pattern of age differences emerged that is notably consistent with
positive reports based on survey data. Older people experience
positive emotions just as often as their younger counterparts and
until the age of roughly 60 yearsexperience fewer negative
emotions in their everyday lives. Of considerable importance is the
652
00
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a -.3"
13
4>
SP
I -.5)
18-34
35-64
65-94
Age in Years
Figure 3. Poignancy with age: The correlation between positive and negative affect across the life span.
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653
ingly smaller at older ages. Although very preliminary, such findings support the utility of applying intraindividual approaches to
the study of emotion.
Regarding the differentiation findings, there are many possible
interpretations of increased factorial complexity in individuals'
emotional experiences. Among Ihem is the idea that older adults'
emotional experience is less coherent, thereby producing more
factors that are essentially meaningless. There are several reasons
that we believe the findings reflect greater differentiation rather
than incoherence. First, the solutions accounted for approximately
the same reasonably high amount of variance across all ages.
Second, the variability in older adults' emotions was, in general,
lesser than younger people, making it doubtful that the amount of
error in the reports somehow increased over the week. For example, if one calculates standard deviations across time for each
emotion, within individuals (since this is the thing at stake for the
within-person factor analyses), and then averages to obtain the
average variability for negative and positive emotions, the resulting variabilities for negative emotion correlated at - . 2 6 with age,
and positive emotions correlated at .29 with age (ps < .01).
These age decreases in variability hold even when controlling for
the average level of endorsement of positive and negative emotions. Third, the negative correlations between the number of
factors obtained and the frequency of endorsing positive emotions
or negative emotions imply a more differentiated and specific
endorsement of emotions on any given occasion.
The overall profile of findings generated in this study are
consistent with the most classic of developmental hypotheses:
Development brings increasing differentiation. We found greater
differentiation in emotional experience in older as compared with
younger people, and we found that emotional differentiation is
related to a positive profile of characteristics, including less neuroticism and better emotional control. Such findings about emotion
are especially important given widely documented decrements
in cognitive and biological aging and conclusions that dedifferentiation better characterizes development in adulthood
(Salthouse, Hancock, Meinz, & Hambrick, 1996). Findings from
this study stand in stark contrast. At the same time in life when
cognitive speed and biological hardiness are on the decline, emotional functioning may continue to improve.
To recapitulate, socioemotional selectivity theory maintains that
boundaries on time imposed by human mortality elicit complex
emotional reactions in later life that are better characterized by
poignancy than happiness. People realize not only what they have
but also that what they have cannot last forever. A good-bye kiss
to a spouse at the age of 85, for example, may elicit far more
differentiated and complex emotional responses than a similar kiss
to a spouse at the age of 20. The theory maintains that emotions are
deeper and more complex as the end of life nears because life's
fragility comes fully into awareness. Some forms of positive
emotions may decline, yet emotional satisfaction does not, nor
does negative affect become predominant. If, as socioemotional
selectivity theory asserts, such effects are related to approaching
the end of life more than chronological age per se, the theory offers
an explanation for the apparent paradox that people suffering from
terminal diseases often describe life as better than ever before
(Taylor & Brown, 1988; Taylor et al., 1992).
Although any and all claims about age change based on crosssectional designs must be tempered accordingly, our findings
654
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