Contents

1
1.1
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.4
2
2.1
2.1.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.4
2.5

Foreword by G. S. P. Castle
Acknowledgements
Danger of fire and explosion
Basic considerations
Conditions for ignition
Fuel
Oxygen
Ignition sources
Summary
Minimum ignition energy
Determination of minimum ignition energy
Dependence of MIE on oxygen concentration
Overview
Literature
Origin of static electricity
Double layer charge
Charge separation
Charging of liquids and gases
Charging of flowing liquids
Charging of flowing gases
Reducing the tendency of charging
Decrease the interfacial area of contact
Use of the triboelectric series
Reduce the surface resistivity
Electrostatic induction
Basic concepts and units

ix
xi
1
1
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
11
13
14
15
17
19
19
20
20
20
21
22
24
28

vi

Contents

Charge
2.5.1
Surface charge density
2.5.2
Volume charge density
2.5.3
Potential
2.5.4
Voltage
2.5.5
Field strength
2.5.6
Current intensity (current)
2.5.7
Resistance
2.5.8
Volume resistivity
2.5.9
Surface resistivity
2.5.10
Permittivity (free space)
2.5.11
Capacitance
2.5.12
Static charges on the clothing and the body
2.6
Static discharges from the body
2.6.1
Static discharges from clothing fabrics
2.6.2
Literature
2.7

28
28
28
29
29
29
30
30
30
31
31
31
32
33
36
38

3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5
3.3.6
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.5
3.6

Electrostatic discharges as sources of ignition

Definitions
Mechanisms of gas discharges
Types of gas discharge
Corona discharges
Brush discharges
Super brush discharges
Cone or bulking discharges
Propagating brush discharges
Spark discharges
Incendivity of gas discharges
Assessment of ignition energy
Table of incendivity
Traces left by gas discharges
Literature

39
39
39
40
41
45
47
49
50
52
53
53
54
55
56

Principles of safety

58

Case histories related to brush discharges

Ignition in a heated tank containing diphenyl
Pouring flaked product into an agitator vessel
Filling pipe blocked with sulphur leading to the
ignition of methanol
PE liner slipping out of a paper bag

62
62
64

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

66
67

Contents vi i

5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9

Ignition caused by an antistatic PE bag

Impregnation of a glass fibre fabric
Shaking fine dust out of a PE bag
Ion exchanger resin in toluene
Pumping polluted toluene

68
69
71
72
73

Case histories related to cone or bulking

discharges
Plastic foam released from an autoclave
Dust explosion in a silo

76
76
77

6.1
6.2
7

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8

8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13

Case histories related to propagating brush

discharges
Plastic tube used in the pneumatic conveying of
powder
Plastic pipe used in the pneumatic conveying of
powder
Plastic injector in a jet mill
PE liner in a metal drum
PE liner in a paper drum
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) window pane in
the silo of a granulating plant
PP coated expansion pipe
Plastic tank inside a metal mould
Literature
Case histories related to spark discharges
Dusts
Rotating beater dryer (1)
Explosion of a resin powder in a metal drum
Dust removal from tablets
Filter bag with a supporting framework
Filter fabric containing interwoven steel fibres
Explosion when emptying a metal drum
Filter fabric made partially conducting by a flameproofing agent
Emptying a tumble dryer
Cyclone separator set up on a drum
Fire caused by an antistatic PE bag
Pouring powder into an agitator
vessel
Hybrid-mixtures

79
79
81
82
84
86
87
89
90
91
92
92
92
94
96
97
99
101
103
105
107
108
109
110

viii Contents

8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
8.24
8.25
8.26
8.27
8.28
8.29

Grinding solvent-wet plastic

Rotating beater dryer (2)
Shovelling solvent-wet powder
Liquids
Emptying a drum via a glass pipe
Funnel with a Mucon outlet
Metal valve in a glass apparatus
Spark discharge from an isolated metal flange
Rubber hose with a supporting helix
Isolated steel spacer in a metal pipe
Filling a metal drum on mobile scales
Slicing solvent-wet plastic
Application of rubber adhesive
Valve with a corroded PTFE coating
Fire during a coating process
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) hose partially wetted
with water
Glass vessel containing a mixture of toluene and
water
Person wearing protective gloves
Running off ethylene oxide into a plastic bucket

110
112
113
114
114
116
117
118
119
121
123
125
127
128
130

137
137

9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7

Case histories not related to static electricity

Pouring powder into oleum
Fire produced on draining off residual benzene
into a plastic drum
Shovelling solvent-wet powder
Fire in an agitator vessel
Fire inside a filter casing at the top of a silo
Fire in a solvent cleaning area
Literature

10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6

Shocks to people caused by static electricity

Metal crates containing plastic bottles
Cutting PE foam
Carbon dioxide fire extinguisher
Propagating brush discharge at a PP expansion pipe
Loading parcels into a postal van
Static in motor vehicles

150
150
151
152
154
156
157

Index

161

8.30

8.31
8.32
9

9.1
9.2

131
132
134
135

139
142
143
144
146
149