Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Module 6
Developed by
Andreas P. SAVVA
and
Karen FRENKEN
Water Resources Development and Management Officers
FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa
Harare, 2002
Irrigation manual
ii
Module 6
Contents
List of figures
List of tables
iv
iv
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
DRAWING EQUIPMENT
3.
4.
7
7
7
5.
LAYOUT OF DRAWINGS
5.1. Outline
5.2. Plan, cross-section, scheme layout, longitudinal profile and contour map
5.2.1. Plans and cross-sections of structures
5.2.2. Layout of a sprinkler irrigation scheme
5.2.3. Layout of a surface irrigation scheme
5.2.4. Longitudinal profiles
5.2.5. Contour map
5.3. Heading
5.4. Legend
5.5. Notes and amendments
9
10
10
10
10
14
15
17
17
17
17
6.
21
Module 6
iii
List of figures
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
5
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
19
22
List of tables
1.
2.
3.
4.
iv
Module 6
3
5
6
21
Chapter 1
Introduction
Technical drawings should be prepared for every design,
whether it refers to a scheme layout, a structure or a
longitudinal profile of a canal. They are essential for
completing the engineering design, for estimating the
quantities of materials and relative costs and for
implementing the project.
Technical drawings also communicate to the contractor all
the information that the designer or client has developed.
Contractors, on their part, are always required to provide
the client with so-called Working drawings and As built or
Record drawings (see Module 12). These drawings should
incorporate any modifications made to the originals
provided by the client during construction.
Technical drawings also serve as future reference for anyone
who wants to obtain information about the scheme, for
example for operation, maintenance, repairs and
rehabilitation purposes.
Simple freehand sketches are convenient forerunners to the
final working, and are frequently used for preliminary
studies or to illustrate an explanation during a discussion.
They are also a logical way for the designer to convey their
ideas to the draftsperson. Freehand sketches may be used
Module 6
Irrigation manual
Module 6
Chapter 2
Drawing equipment
It is important to have a permanent workplace, a drawing
office, for the preparation of drawings. The layout of the
drawing office should provide an efficient and comfortable
environment for the draftsperson. This includes a good
chair (stool) of convenient height, a good tiltable drawing
board, sufficient light and sufficient space for the drawing
equipment (Table 1).
A good drawing board should be large enough to hold the
size of the paper selected (see Chapter 3). While a sheet of
Table 1
Minimum equipment requirements for a reasonable drawing office
Furniture
Curves
Table
Chair
Light
Drawing board
Cutting board
Circles template
Ellipse template
Lettering template or stencil
French curve
Flexible curve
Compass plus bar
Fixing
Drawing tape
Masking tape
Drawing pins
Weights
Erasing
Rubber (vinyl)
Ink rubber
Razor blade
Erasing shield
Lines
T-square
Set squares
Adjustable set square
Scale rule
Protractor
Hangers
Metal ruler
Filing
Files
Fling cabinet or drawer
Pens/pencils :
Cedarwood pencil
Clutch pencil 2mm
Clutch pencil 0.3-0.9mm
Leads (2H, HB, 2B)
Ink-pen 0.25, 0.35, 0.50, 0.70
Fibre-tip pens
Sharpeners
Pen knife
Mechanical sharpeners
Sand paper
Cutting
Scissors
Knife
Scalpel
Paper
Sketching A4 transparent
Tracing A1 transparent
Scratch pad A4
Card board
Sketch book
Grid paper
Handling
Storage shelf
Tubes
Case for instruments
Other
Cleaning cloth
Module 6
Irrigation manual
Module 6
Chapter 3
Sizes and scales of drawings
For technical drawings normal A-size papers are usually
used, for which there is a fixed relation of 2:1 between the
length and width of the paper (Figure 1 and Table 2). In
simple terms, this relation means that the length is 1.41
times the width. The width of one paper size is equal to the
length of the next smaller size and the length of one size is
equal to two times the width of the next smaller size (Table
2). This means that the area of the next smaller size is half
the area of the preceding size. The fixed relation between
length and width allows reductions and enlargements of
drawings to be made.
Figure 1
Relationship between the different normal A-size papers
Table 2
Nominal sizes and areas of normal A-size papers
Area (m2)
Format
A0
841 x 1189
1.00
A1
594 x 841
0.50
A2
420 x 594
0.25
A3
297 x 420
0.125
A4
210 x 297
0.0625
A5
148 x 210
0.0312
Module 6
Irrigation manual
Table 3
Nominal sizes and areas of alternative A-size papers
Format
A10
0.70
A20
420 x 1189
0.50
A21
420 x 841
0.35
A31
297 x 841
0.25
A32
297 x 594
0.18
Module 6
Area (m2)
Chapter 4
Drawing lines and characters
4.1. Lines and line work
Principal lines are first sketched by pencil using a number
of short strokes. Once the joining points have been
established and lines are satisfactorily straight, they may be
traced by ink-pen and darkened as needed to give emphasis
and easy reading. All lines should be uniformly black.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890
1234567890
bold
regular
bold
regular
bold
regular
Module 6
Irrigation manual
Figure 2
An example of the different stencils and letter heights used in lettering
Module 6
Chapter 5
Layout of drawings
Figure 3 gives a schematic layout of a technical drawing. The
details (A, B, C and D) will be explained in the next sections,
Figure 3
Schematic layout of a technical drawing
Module 6
Irrigation manual
5.1. Outline
For A0, A1, A2 and A3 size paper, an outline is made by tracing
two lines at the edge of the paper at 1 cm spacing (Figure 4).
Figure 4
Outline of a drawing
10
Module 6
Figure 5
Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of the plan of a diversion structure
Module 6
11
Irrigation manual
Figure 6
Example of lines and numerals used in the drawing of a cross-section (A-A in Figure 5) of a diversion
structure
12
Module 6
Figure 7
Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of the layout of a
sprinkler irrigation scheme
Module 6
13
Irrigation manual
The tracing should be done such that the biggest size pipe
is indicated with a 0.50 mm pen. For smaller size pipes
subsequently smaller size ink-pens are used. As there are
usually more pipe sizes than there are available ink-pen
sizes, it is important to clearly indicate the diameter and the
class of the pipe, as is done in Figure 7. For example, 63
refers to the pipe diameter and the number 6 between
brackets refers to the pipe class. All pipelines should be
indicated with a broken line (see the 25, 32, 40 and 50 mm
pipes) or a mixed broken and dotted line (see the 63, 75,
Figure 8
Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of the layout of a surface irrigation scheme
14
Module 6
The larger canal sizes should be traced with the largest size
ink-pen (0.50 mm). Irrigation canals should be indicated
with continuous lines, drainage channels should be
indicated with broken lines. In Figure 8, some drainage
channels are perpendicular to the direction of the irrigation
water flow over the field (and at the bottom of the field).
The arrows starting from field canals indicate the direction
of the irrigation water flow. Other drains, which are parallel
to the infield roads (shown by dashed lines with long and
short segments), are parallel to the arrows showing flow
direction. Surface irrigation schemes usually have many
different kinds of structures, for example diversion and
Figure 9
Drawing showing the longitudinal profile of a canal
Module 6
15
Irrigation manual
Figure 10
An example of the drawing of a contour map
16
Module 6
5.4. Legend
5.3. Heading
Module 6
17
Irrigation manual
Figure 11
An example of a heading or title block used for drawings of A1 and A0 sizes
18
Module 6
Figure 12
Some of the commonly-used legend symbols in irrigation and drainage layout drawings
Module 6
19
Irrigation manual
20
Module 6
Chapter 6
Registering and filing of drawings
As a rule, the engineers prepare their drawings with
pencil on bond paper. These drawings or sketches are
brought to the drawing office for tracing. Once the
drawing is brought to the drawing office, the entry date,
name of designer and title of drawing should be entered
in a register. The supervisor of the drawing office should
allocate one of the technical officers or draftspersons to
do the tracing. Their name should also be entered in the
register, as shown in Table 4. Once the tracing of the
drawing is completed, the date should be indicated in
the register. Drawings that are completed and returned
Table 4
Example of a register for drawing office
Date in
Designer
Drawing title
Draftsperson
Date completed
17.01.87
Stoutjesdijk
Nabusenga layout
Mabwe
23.01.87
21.02.97
Madyiwa
Mutasa
10.03.97
22.02.97
Chirwa
Maina
28.02.97
Module 6
21
Irrigation manual
Figure 13
Examples of folding of different A-size papers in order to fit in an A4 document
22
Module 6