CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Stress and Strain Transformation

(Part 2)
by
Assoc Professor T. H. Wee
Department of Civil Engineering
Email: cveweeth@nus.edu.sg

Plane Strain Problems

As mentioned earlier, the plane problem in which the out-of-plane components of the
strains, that is the strains in the direction perpendicular to the plane in consideration, is
zero is known as PLANE STRAIN PROBLEMS.
i.e. for a xy-plane strain problem, z = xz = yz = 0.
Examples of plane strain problems includes dams, tunnels and retaining walls. As
conditions can be assumed to be the same at all cross sections for these structures, it is
only required to consider a slice between two sections, a unit distance apart with two
fixed supports at the ends. Note that strain between the fixed support would be zero.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Element subjected to Plane Strain

Let us assume that a state of plane strain exists at point Q (with z = zx = zy = 0),
and that it is defined by the strain components x, y and xy associated with the x
and y axes. If the point Q is represented by an element of side s parallel to the x
and y axes, it would deform into a parallelogram with sides of length s(1+x) and
s(1+y), forming angles of /2 - xy and /2 + xy with each other.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Hookes Law for Plane Stress

Consider an element of material in plane stress (z = xz = yz = 0) subjected to
biaxial stress in the x and y direction.

Due to the effect of Poissons ratio, the strain will be present in all the three
directions. The strains can be obtained by substituting z = 0 into the
generalized Hookes law equations to obtain:

x =

1
( x y)
E

y =

1
( y x)
E

z = ( x + y)
E

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Hookes Law for Plane Stress

Beside direct strains () induced by normal stress, elements can also be subjected
to shear strains, induced by shear stresses. The deformation due to shear strain
is illustrated below. Applying Hookes law, the stress and strain relationship for
shear can be expressed as

xy = G xy
Where G is the shear modulus. The stress
and strain in a pure shear loading condition
is given by

x = y =z = 0
x = y = z = 0
xy
xy =
G

Note that, so far, three material parameters, the Youngs modulus, E, the Poissons
ratio, and shear modulus, G have been introduced. However, only two of these
parameters, E and are independent as G can be deduced from them:
E

G=

2(1 + )

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Transformation of Plane Strain

Our purpose is to determine the strain components x1, y1 and x1y1 associated with
the rotated axes x1 and y1 obtained by rotating the x and y axes through the angle
in terms of x, y, xy and . These new strain components define the parallelogram
into which a square with sides respectively parallel to the x1 and y1 axes is
deformed.

x1y1
y1

y1
y1
x1y1
x1

x1
x1

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Transformation of Plane Strain

We shall first derive an expression for the normal strain () along a line AB
forming an arbitrary angle with the x axis. Consider a right triangle ABC which
deforms into an oblique triangle ABC. Denoting by s the length of AB, we
express the length AB as s[1+ ()]. Similarly, denoting by x and y the
lengths of sides AC and CB, we express the lengths of AC and CB as x(1+ x)
and y(1+ y), respectively. Also the right angle at C would deform into an angle
equal to /2 + xy and applying the law of cosines to triangle ABC, we obtain:

(A'B')2 = (A'C')2 + (C'B')2 2(A'C')(C'B')cos( 2 + xy )

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Transformation of Plane Strain

Now, substituting into the equation

(A'B')2 = (A'C')2 + (C'B')2 2(A'C')(C'B')cos(2 + xy )

the following:

A'B'= s[1+ ()]

A'C' = x(1+ x )

x = ( s)cos

y = ( s)sin

B'C' = y(1+ y )

cos( 2 + xy ) = sin xy xy since xy is very small for a small strain

problem,

and neglecting second-order terms in (), x, y and xy, we obtain

() = x cos2 + ysin2 + xysin cos

This equation enables us to determine the normal strain () in any direction AB in
terms of the strain components x, y and xy and the angle that AB forms with the
x-axis.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Transformation of Plane Strain

() = x cos2 + ysin2 + xysin cos

Next, substituting into the equation

the following trigonometric identities

1
sin cos = sin 2
2
1
1
2
cos = (1+ cos 2 ) sin2 = (1 cos 2 )
2
2
and noting that x1 = () since x1-axis is obtained by rotating x-axis by angle , we
obtain
x + y x y
xy
x1 =
+
cos2 +
sin2
2
2
2
replacing by + 90o as before for the case of plane stress, we obtain the normal
strain (y1) along the y1-axis. Since cos(2 + 180o) = cos2 and sin(2 + 180o) =
sin2, we have
+

y1 =

cos2

xy

sin2

Also as before, adding the above two Strain Transformation Equations, we

obtain
x1 + y1 = x + y
Therefore, the sum of the normal strain is also independent of the orientation of the
element.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Transformation of Plane Strain

Recall that when an element is rotated by an angle , the strain along the x1-axis
would be given by
x + y x y
xy
x1 =
+
cos2 +
sin2
2
2
2
If the element is now rotated by +45, the strain along the x1-axis can be found by
replacing with +45 in the above equation. Since cos(2+90) = -sin2 and
sin(2+90) = cos2, we have
x + y x y
xy
x1( + 45o ) =

sin2 +
cos2
2
2
2
Next, we also know that the strain in any arbitrary direction, can be obtained from

() = x cos2 + ysin2 + xysin cos

Therefore, the strain in the direction 45o from x1 would be

x1(45o ) = 12 ( x1 + y1 + x1y1)
or

x1(45o ) = 12 ( x + y + x1y1)

since

x1 + y1 = x + y

Equating x1(+45) and x1(45), the Strain Transformation Equation for shear
strain can be obtained as
= ( )sin2 + cos2
x1y1

xy

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Comparison of Transformation Equations of

Plane Stress and Plane Strain
The transformation equations of plane strain closely resemble the transformation
equations of plane stress. The former may be obtained from the latter by replacing
the normal stresses by the corresponding normal strains and the shear stresses
replaced by half of the corresponding shear strains. To visualize:
Component in Plane Stress
Transformation Equation
x

To be replaced by for Plane

Strain Transformation
Equation
x

x1

x1

y1

y1

xy

xy

x1y1

x1y1

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Comparison of Transformation Equations of

Plane Stress and Plane Strain
PLANE STRESS

x1 =
y1 =

x + y x y
+

x + y x y

x1y1 =

x y
2

PLANE STRAIN

cos 2 + xy sin 2

x1 =

cos 2 xy sin 2

y1 =

sin 2 + xy cos 2

x + y
2
x + y
2

x y
2
x y
2

cos2 +

cos2

xy
2
xy
2

sin2

sin2

x1y1 = ( x y )sin2 + xycos2

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Summary
The plain strain transformation equations are given by

() = x cos2 + ysin2 + xysin cos

x1 =

y1 =

x + y
2

x + y
2

x y
2

x y
2

cos2 +

cos2

xy
2

xy
2

sin2

sin2

x1y1 = ( x y )sin2 + xycos2

It is also noteworthy that

x1 + y1 = x + y

The plain strain transformation equations may be obtained from the plane stress
transformation equations by replacing the normal stresses by the corresponding
normal strains and replacing the shear stresses by half of the corresponding shear
strains.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Comparison of Plane Stress and Plane Strain

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Mohrs Circle for Plane Strain

Since the equations for the transformation of plane strain are of the same form as
the equations for the transformation of plane stress, the use of Mohrs circle can be
extended to the analysis of plane strain. Given the strain components x, y and xy
defining the deformation we plot the points X(x, xy ) and Y (y, +xy ) on the
plot with abscissa equal to the normal strain, x and ordinate equal to half the shear
strain, xy. Drawing the diameter XY, we define the center C of Mohrs circle for
plane strain. The abscissa of C, the radius R of the circle and the equation of the
circle are respectively equal to:

ave =

x + y
2
2

x + y xy
+
R =
2 2
2

x + y x y xy

+ =
+
2 2 2 2

Note that in the case of plane strain, if the shear deformation causes a given side to
rotate clockwise, the shear strain is plotted on the positive side. On the other hand,
if the shear deformation causes a given side to rotate counter clockwise, the shear
strain is plotted on the negative side.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Mohrs Circle for Principal Strain

Points A and B where Mohrs circle intersects the horizontal axis corresponds to the
principal strains max and min respectively. The value of p defining the direction of
the principal axis, can be obtained from the equation:
The corresponding axes a and b are the
principal axes of strain. The angle p
which defines the direction of the principal
axis Oa corresponding point A, is equal to
half of the angle XCA measured on Mohrs
circle, and the rotation that brings Ox into
Oa has the same sense as the rotation that
brings the diameter XY of Mohrs circle
into the diameter AB.

tan2p =

xy
x y

Note that in the principal axes, xy = 0 and

therefore xy = 0.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Mohrs Circle for Maximum Shear Strain

The maximum in-plane shearing strain is defined by points D and E in the Mohrs
circle. It is equal to the diameter of Mohrs circle which is given by:

max(inplane) = 2R =

y ) + 2xy
2

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

The points X and Y that define the

components of strain corresponding
to a rotation of the coordinate axes
through an angle are obtained by
rotating the diameter XY of Mohrs
circle in the same sense through an
angle 2.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Measurements of Strain; Strain Rosette

The normal strain can be determined in any given direction on the surface of a
structural element or machine component by scribing two gage marks A and B
across a line drawn in the desired direction and measuring the length of the segment
AB before and after the load has been applied. If L is the undeformed length of AB
and its deformation, the normal strain along AB is AB = /L.
A more convenient and more accurate method for
the measurement of normal strains is provided by
electrical strain gages. A typical electrical strain
gage consists of a length of thin wire arranged as
shown and sandwiched between two pieces of
paper. In order to measure the strain AB of a given
material in the direction AB, the gage is cemented
to the surface of the material, with the wire folds
running parallel to AB. As the material elongates,
the wire increases in length and decreases in
diameter, causing the electrical resistance of the
gage to increase. By measuring the current passing
through a properly calibrated gage, the strain AB
can be determined accurately and continuously as
the load is increased.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Measurements of Strain; Strain Rosette

The strain component x and y can be determined at a given point of the surface of
a material by simply measuring the normal strain along x and y axes drawn through
that point. However, shear strain, xy cannot be measured directly. Note that we
had earlier obtained the relationship:
(45o ) = 12 ( x + y + xy )
Therefore, by obtaining the strain in the direction 45o to the x-axis, the shear strain,
xy can be deduced. Once the three strain components, x, y and xy are known, the
strains in any directions can be obtained from the transformation equations or the
Mohrs circle. The corresponding stresses can also be obtained using generalised
Hookes law. The arrangement of strain gages used to measure the three normal
strains x, y and (45) is known as the 45 strain rosette.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Measurements of Strain; Strain Rosette

Recall that when an element is rotated by an angle , the strain along the x1-axis
would be given by
+ y x y

x1 = x
+
cos2 + xy sin2
2
2
2
If the element is now rotated by +45, the strain along the x1-axis can be found by
replacing with +45 in the above equation. Since cos(2+90) = -sin2 and
sin(2+90) = cos2, we have +
x y
xy
x
y
x1 ( + 45o ) =

sin2 +
cos2
2
2
2
Next, we also know that the strain in any arbitrary direction, can be obtained from

() = x cos 2 + ysin 2 + xysin cos

Therefore, the strain in the direction 45o from x1 would be x1(45o ) = 12 ( x1 + y1 + x1y1)
or

x1(45o ) = 12 ( x + y + x1y1)

since

x1 + y1 = x + y

Equating x1(+45) and x1(45), the Strain Transformation Equation for shear
strain can be obtained as

x1y1 = ( x y )sin2 + xycos2

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Measurements of Strain; Strain Rosette

It should be noted that the strain components x, y, and xy at a given point could
also be obtained from normal strain measurements made along any three lines
drawn through that point. Denoting 1, 2 and 3 as the angles each of the three
lines form with the x-axis and 1, 2 and 3 as the corresponding strain
measurements, respectively, the strain x, y and xy can be obtained by solving the
following equations simultaneously:

1 = x cos2 1 + y sin2 1 + xy sin 1 cos1

2 = x cos2 2 + y sin2 2 + xy sin 2 cos2
3 = x cos2 3 + y sin2 3 + xy sin 3 cos3
The above equations were obtained from
the relationship

() = x cos2 + ysin2 + xysin cos

which gives the strain in any arbitrary
direction. The arrangement of strain
gages used to measure the three normal
strains 1, 2 and 3 is generally known
as the strain rosette.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials