Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Institute of Engineering
Pulchowk Campus
Prepared by:
Contents
1.
2.
3.
13.3
1. Airport Engineering
Airport engineers design and construct airports. Airport engineers must account for the impacts and demands of aircraft in
their design of airport facilities. These engineers must use the analysis of predominant wind direction to determine runway
orientation, determine the size of runway border and safety areas, different wing tip to wing tip clearances for all gates and
must designate the clear zones in the entire port.
Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft.
2. Role of Air transportation:
Improves accessibility to otherwise inaccessible areas
Provides continuous connectivity over land and water (no change of equipment)
Saves productive time, spent on journey
Increase the demand of specialized technical skill workforce
Adds to the foreign reserve through tourism
Speed: Modern jet can travel at 1000 km/h
Promotion of trade and commerce
Military use
Relief and rescue operations
Aerial photography
Agricultural spraying
Safety: safe mode of transport.
Disadvantages of air transport
1. Heavy funds are required, not only initially but also during operation
2. Operations are highly dependent up on weather conditions.
3. It needs highly sophisticated machinery:
4. Adds to the outward flow of foreign reserve
5. Noise pollution
6. Safety provisions are not adequate
7. Specific demarcation of flight paths and territories is essential.
8. High energy consumption
3. Air Transport in Nepal
3.1. Aviation Chronicles
1949: The date heralded the formal beginning of aviation in Nepal with the landing of a 4 seater lone powered
vintage Beach-craft Bonanza aircraft of Indian Ambassador Mr. Sarjit Singh Mahathia at Gauchar.
1950: The first charter flight By Himalayan Aviation Dakota from Gauchar to Kolkata.
1955: King Mahendra inaugurated Gauchar Airport and renamed it as Tribhuvan Airport.
1957: Grassy runway transformed into a concrete one.
1957: Department of Civil Aviation founded.
1958: Royal Nepal Airlines started scheduled services domestically and externally.
1959: RNAC fully owned by HMG/N as a public undertaking.
Nepal has so far reached air service agreement and MoUs with more than 35 countries. Austria, Bahrain, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, Brunei, China, Croatia, Egypt, France, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kuwait,
Luxembourg, Macau, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Russian
federation, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, The Netherlands, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom.
In domestic service the airlines in the table are mainly functioning in different airports of Nepal. Civil Aviation Authority of
Nepal has granted Air Operation Certificates more than thirty airline companies for scheduled/chartered operation, helicopter
services and paragliding.
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Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes
Encourage the development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities for international civil
aviation
Meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient and economical air transport.
o Strategic objectives for the period of 2005-2010:
Safety
Security
Environmental protection
Efficiency
Continuity
Rule of law
Federal Aviation Agency-FAA
Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal-CAAN
Airport Authority of India
5. Classification of Airports:
There are different classifications by the related organizations such as ICAO, FAA etc.
5.1. Based on take-off and landing
o Conventional take-off and landing airport (runway length > 1500 m.
o Reduced take-off and landing airport (runway length 1000 to 1500m)
o Short take-off and landing airport (runway length 500 to 1000m)
o Vertical take-off and landing airport (operational area 25 to 50 sq. m.)
5.2. Based on the Geometric design (ICAO)
o It employs aerodrome reference code, it consists of length of runway available
Classified using code number 1 through 4
o Aircraft wing span and outer main gear wheel span
Classified using letters A through E
o ICAO classification based on wing span and outer main gear wheel span
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13
7.
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8.1 Engine
Engine is required to provide the force for propelling the aircraft through the air. According to the method of propulsion
aircraft engine can be classified as:
1. Piston engine: It is powered by gasoline fed reciprocating engine and is driven by propeller or airscrew. Engine
rotates a shaft with a considerable amount of torque. Propeller is mounted on the shaft to absorb the torque.
Rotating propeller attains its rated speed, huge masses of air is hurled rearwards thereby pulling the aircraft forward
and creating lift on the wing. They are suitable to operate at low altitudes and moderate speed. They have cooling
problem also.
2. Jet engine: advantages of jet engine
a. they are free from vibration
b. Simplicity of operation (no transmission or conversion mechanism is required)
c. No radiators required
d. No spark plugs are required
e. No carburetors
f.
i)
Turbo Jet: to start the machine, the compressor is rotated with motor. As the compressor gains its rated speed,
it sucks in air through the air intake and compresses it in the compression chamber. The air is ignited here by
fuel. The expanding gasses pass through the fan like blades of turbine. The hot gasses escape through the tail
pipe which becomes smaller in diameter and this hot gas having velocity, give a forward thrust to the engine.
ii)
Turbo Prop: It is similar to the turbo jet engine except that propeller is provided in it. Turbine extracts enough
power to drive both the compressor and propeller.
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iii)
Ram Jet: It has no moving parts. It must be operated at high speed It requires the assistance of other types of
power plant to reach the operating speed. The heated air expands and rushes out of the exhaust nozzle at
high velocity creating jet thrust.
3. Rocket engine: It produces thrust in the same way as the ram jet engine except it does not depen upon the
atmospheric oxygen. There is no limit on altitude.
An airplane can be single engine or multi engined. Single engine usually mounted at the nose of the fuselage. In two or four
engined aircraft they usually housed in the leading edge of the aircraft.
8.2 Fuselage:
It is main body of the aircraft and provides space for the power plant, fuel, cockpit, passenger, cargo etc.
8.3 Wings:
Wings are required to support the machine in the air, when the engine has given forward speed.
PCos
PSin
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i)
Elevator: elevator consists of two flaps capable of moving up and down through an angle of 50-60 degree. They
are hinged to a fixed horizontal surface at the extreme rear end of fuselage. It controls the pitch of the aircraft.
ii)
Rudder: It consists of a flap hinged to a vertical line provided at the tail end of fuselage. It is utilized for turning
(or yawing) movement of the aircraft. It works just a boat is steered in water.
iii)
Aileron: it is hinged flap in the trailing edge of the wing. It is for rolling movement control.
Types:
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9.
Aircraft Characteristics:
1. Engine type and propulsion
2. Size of aircraft
3. Minimum turning radius
4. Minimum circling radius
5. Speed of aircraft
6. Capacity of the aircraft
7. Aircraft weight & wheel configuration
8. Jet Blast
9. Fuel spillage
10. Noise
9.1 Size:
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Aircraft type
Wing
span, m
Length,
m
Maximum
weight at
take off, kg
Wheel
track, m
Wheel base,
m
Height,
m
Cruising
speed,
km/ph
Boeing 747
59.6
70.5
351500
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25.6
19.3
940
Boeing 737
28.3
30.5
45600
5.3
11.4
11.3
850
44.8
53.8
152000
9.6
18.6
16.6
900
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Factors affecting: gradient of runway, direction and intensity of wind, temperature, altitude, weight of aircraft etc.
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi
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WL =
Grossweight of aircraft
where, WL is wing loading
wing area
PL =
Grossweight of aircraft
Where, PL is power loading
Total HP
of engine
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Level of planning:
Strategic planning examines long-term structures and determines how well various structures fit with indentified
goals and objectives. A strategic plan sets out procedure to follow which will lead to an optimal long term structure.
Tactical Planning: determines short-term and medium term courses of action which best fit into overall strategic
plans and goals. Furthermore, tactical plans identify the best manner of carrying out these short and medium term
courses of action.
Levels
Strategic planning Level
Activities
Sets goals and objectives
Inventory of existing strategic system
Demand analysis
Postulate options or scenarios
Evaluation
Selection of future strategic system
Inventory of existing system
Scenario and demand analysis
Postulate options for the system development
Evaluation
Select optimal airport system
Planning
Airport master
planning
Inventory of facilities
Demand analysis
Airport development options
Option evaluations
Select preferred option
Select individual project
Propose different project planning options
Select preferred project plan
Optimize execution of project
(aviation systems
planning)
Airport system
Planning
Project planning
Traffic data:
o Route and city pair specific data, including origin/destination flows.
o Airport specific data
o Traffic by other modes especially in short haul situations.
Demand characteristics
o Origin destination demand
o Trip purpose distributions for cargo demands
o Commodity classifications for cargo demands
o General aviation activity demand
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Airport data
o Financial results
o Facilities inventories
o Capacity
o Temporal traffic patterns, including hourly distributions
o Airlines served
o Access traffic conditions
o Safety records
o Weather conditions
o Traffic operation patterns
Supply data
o City pair available capacity
o Schedule and fares for passengers and cargo
o Load factor prevailing
o Airline operating cost data
Socio economic data
o Economic studies for regional economic plans if available
o Population and demographic characteristics and forecasts, if available
o Income characteristics and consumption patterns
o Foreign and tourism trade patterns
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Justifying the plan technically and procedurally through a thorough investigation of concepts and
options of a technical, economic, or environmental nature.
5. Presenting for public consideration in a convincing candid manner, a plan which adequately addresses
the issues and satisfies local and national regulations.
6. Documenting policies and future aeronautical demand and reference in municipal deliberations on
spending, debt incurrence and land use controls.
7. Setting the stage and establishing the framework for a continuing planning process. Such process
would monitor key conditions and adjust plan recommendations if required by changed circumstances.
10.4 Elements of Master Plan:
The FAA specifies a number of elements which are generally to be included in any master planning exercise:
1. Organization and preplanning
2. Inventory of existing conditions and issues
3. Aviation demand forecasting
4. Requirement analysis and concept development
5. Airport site selection
6. Environmental procedure and analysis
7. Simulation
8. Airport plans
9. Plan implementation
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from overinvestment and poor economic performance. In spite of the difficulties associated with making forecasts of air
transport demand, such estimates are necessary, for the following reasons:
a) To assist manufacturers in industry to anticipate levels of aircraft orders and to develop new aircraft.
b) To aid airlines in their long-run planning for both equipment and personnel.
c) To assist governments to facilitate the orderly development of the national and international airways system, and to
aid all levels of government in the planning o f infrastructure facilities, runways, taxiways, aprons and technical air
traffic control.
Accurate forecast of air passenger and freight demand proved to be extraordinary difficult in the past, when over an extended
period rapid advances in technology continued to lower the real costs of air transport to consumer. During the period 19721987, as shown in the figure, the overall world growth of scheduled passenger kilometer was at an average rate of 7.6%.
Asia and the Pacific demonstrate higher than average rates, and Africa lower than average rate.
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Surveys of expectation: It is not very widely used in the survey of expectation, directed to individuals in the air transport
industry who might be said to be in a position to judge future trends. By selection of broad range of interests in the selection
of those surveyed, the forecaster hopes for a balanced view. A refined procedure, which has become more widely used in
general transportation planning, is Delphi analysis-approaching the estimate of future by applying an iterative procedure to
survey of expectation. In this procedure, experts make forecasts and then receive a feedback of results from the entire from
the entire group of forecasters. After each iteration, the range of responses tends to narrow and consensus is ultimately
reached. In general, however, surveys of expectation are more suitable to aggregate forecasts at the regional or national
levels than to disaggregate estimates at the airport level.
Trend forecasting: extensive use has been made of trend forecasting, in which the planner simply extrapolates, basing
judgment on past growth figures. In short term, this technique is reasonably reliable, especially when the extrapolation
procedure is carried out with modified growth rates to account for short term disturbances in secular trends. In long term, this
type of extrapolation is likely to be most unreliable and is theoretically difficult to substantiate. Early trends forecasts were
straight line extrapolations that were almost always too low in the rapid growth years of 1950s and early 1960s. Forecasts
over the next 10 years, that is, 1960-1970 were of an exponential nature, but opinion is now more conservative, reflecting an
industry consensus that curve of growth is more likely to be logistic as in the figure below.
Base forecasts on ratios of National forecasts: In USA, a technique for air traffic forecasting widely used at the local level is
the base forecast method, which assumes that a city's percentage of annual national passenger volumes remain relatively
constant over time. Airport forecasts are obtained by step down percentages of national forecasts. However, it has serious
limitations:
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi
36
r=
4) Obtain the national forecast of air passenger volumes per 1000 population for the design year.
5) From the ratio computed in step 3 and the national forecasts of step 4, calculate the local passenger volume per
1000 population.
12.2 Analytical methods of air travel demand forecasting
Analytical methods endeavor to overcome the grosser errors of trend analysis in trip generation by attempting to relate the
level of traffic to change in the level of a variety of causal or closely associated factors. In the case of air traffic demand, it
has been found that the number of trips made by the individual traveler depends not only on a number of socioeconomic
variables outside the air transport system, such as income, employment type, and family structure, but also on system based
variables, including frequency and level of service. Conventional analysis of traffic demand divides the modeling procedure
into four distinct consecutive steps:
Generation
Distribution
Modal choice
Assignment
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Generation models indicate how many trips originate or terminate in a specific area; these models are often based on the
socioeconomic characteristics of the area and nature of the transportation system. In the distribution phase, the trips are
modeled as trip interchanges between specific pairs of origin and destinations, usually using some form of equilibrium model,
with time or distance as the parametric impedance to travel.
Modal choice models split the interchanges into those specific to individual modes; choice normally is a function of structure
and nature of the transport system and the socioeconomic status of the trip maker. Assignment models indicate which route
is taken by the individual traveler from a choice of all available routes.
In case of air transport, the model chain has frequently been simplified to a mode specific chain of the following from:
Air trip generation
This simplified chain is inadequate insofar as it assumes that air traffic generations are peculiar to the mode itself and are not
subject to modal choice dependent on the nature of the competing modes.
Variables for passenger demand modeling:
Travel can be recognized as the product of four basic factors that must be accounted for in any realistic analysis that
attempting to predict demand over time. These basic factors are as follows:
A supply of people
A motivation to travel
Resources available for expenditure on travel in terms of time and money
A transport infrastructure capable of supporting travel demand
The procedure should consist the following steps for complete demand analysis:
1) Observation of past trends
2) Identification of exogenous variables that act as surrogate for basic factors causing changes in level of air transport
demand.
3) A base survey collecting the socioeconomic data that describe the status of the population, nature of the area, and
the technological status of the system.
4) Establishment of relationships between the predictive variables and both levels and changes in levels of air
transport demand.
5) Prediction of the anticipated level of the exogenous variables in the design year
6) Prediction from the design year levels of the exogenous variables and predictive relationships of the future demand
levels.
The simplistic methods of prediction, such as trend forecasting, take explicit account of the first step only, and steps 2 and 6
are mixed with subjective judgment, with varying degrees of success.
In the past, variables in the following areas have been used:
1) Demographic variables. Including city size and population density
2) Proximity to the largest city
3) Economic character of the city
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi
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trips between city pairs according to measures of the attractiveness of cities, allowing for the impedance effects of cost, time
and other facts.
Tij =
Where,
kPi Pj
d ijx
Using as the measure of the impedance, it was found that the value of x appeared to vary from 1.3 to 1.8. using the travel
cost, the following model was calibrated:
Tij =
kTiT j
Cijx
Tij = k (TiT j ) p
A modified gravity model was used in Canada:
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A predictive equation of a similar form was developed by former British Airport Authority for the Western European Airports
Association was:
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The generalized cost of any mode is the total of direct and indirect costs incurred in traveling. If there are only two alternative
modes p and q then above equation is reduced as:
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Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
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1. Airport Layout
The design for each airport layout is site specific, and whereas general concepts can be moved between sites, the individual
aspects of each site will almost certainly result in slightly different layouts. Layout of an airport is dependent upon a number
of factors the most important are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Runways
Taxiways
Passenger terminal and aprons
Cargo terminal and apron
Rescue and firefighting services
Air traffic control tower
Aircraft maintenance
Long-term and short-term parking
Access roads
Public transport access
Airport maintenance and engineering base
Navaids
Lighting
Flight kitchens
Fuel farm
General aviation terminal and apron
Sewage treatment and pumping station
Electric sub-station
Security fence and control gates
Hotels
Industrial uses
2. Runway Orientation:
Because of obvious advantages of landing and taking off into the wind, runways are oriented in the direction of prevailing wind. Aircraft
may not maneuver safely on a runway when wind contains large component at right angle to the direction of travel. The point at which this
component (cross wind component) becomes excessive will depend upon the size and operating characteristics of the aircraft.
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi
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Factors affecting the determination of the siting, orientation and number of runways:
weather, in particular the runway/aerodrome usability factor, as determined by wind distribution, and the occurrence of localized
fogs;
topography of the aerodrome site and its surroundings;
type and amount of air traffic to be served, including air traffic control aspects;
aeroplane performance considerations; and
environmental considerations, particularly noise.
The primary runway, to the extent other factors permit, should be oriented in the direction of the prevailing wind. All runways should be
oriented so that approach and departure areas are free of obstacles and, preferably, so that aircraft are not directed over populated
areas.
Head wind: direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and takeoff
Takeoff: head wind provides greater lift on the wings, thus shorter length of runway is enough
Landing: Headway provides a braking effect and aircraft comes to stop in a smaller length of runway.
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If landing and takeoff are done along the wind direction, it may require longer runway length.
Cross wind Component: it is not always possible to obtain the direction of wind along the direction of the center line of
runway, this Normal wind component is called cross wind component. And it may interrupt the safe landing and takeoff of
the aircraft. VSin is the Cross wind Component.
Wind Coverage: The percentage of time in a year during which the CWC remains within the limit is called Wind Coverage.
FAA standards for mixed air traffic wind coverage should be 95 % with the limit of 25 kmph. CWC.
For busy airport, WC may be 98 -100 %
Wind direction
Duration, %
6.4 -25 kmph
25 40 kmph
40 60 kmph
Total in each
direction, %
7.4
2.7
0.2
10.3
NNE
5.7
2.1
0.3
8,1
NE
2.4
0.9
0.6
3.9
ENE
1.2
0.4
0.2
1.8
0.8
0.2
0.0
1.0
ESE
0.3
0.1
0.0
0.4
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SE
4.3
2.8
0.0
7.1
SSE
5.5
3.2
0.0
8.7
9.7
4.6
0.0
14.3
SSW
6.3
3.2
0.5
10.0
SW
3.6
1.8
0.3
5.7
WSW
1.0
0.5
0.1
1.6
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.5
WNW
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.3
NW
5.3
1.9
0.0
7.2
NNW
4.0
1.3
0.3
5.6
Total % = 86.5
(100 - 86.5 ) = 13.5 % of time wind intensity is less than 6.4 kmph. This period is called Calm Period.
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Figure 6 Wind rose diagram for an allowable cross wind of 15 miles per hour
Following steps are necessary to determine the best runway orientation and to determine the percentage of time that
orientation conforms to the cross wind standards.
a) Place the template on the rose so that the middle line passes through the center of the wind rose.
b) Using the center of wind rose as a pivot, rotate the template until the sum of the percentage between the outside
lines is a maximum.
c) Read the true bearing for the runway on the outer scale of the wind rose beneath the centre line of the template.
d) The sum of percentage between the outside lines indicates the percentage of time that a runway with the proposed
orientation will conform to crosswind standards.
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Length
Width
Sight distance
Gradient & Change in Gradient
Transverse Gradient Runway Intersection
Runway Clearance
Selecting design runway length is one of the most important decisions an airport designer. The runway length determines the
size and cost of the airport, and controls the types of air craft it will serve. Furthermore, it may limit the payload of the critical
aircraft and length of journey it can fly. The runway must be long enough to allow safe landing and takeoff by current
equipment and by future aircraft expected to use the airport. It must accommodate differences in pilot skill and variety of
aircraft types and operational requirements.
The following factors most strongly influence required runway length.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Note:
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should be less than the longest determined by applying the corrections for local conditions to the operations and performance
characteristics of the relevant aeroplanes.
Both takeoff and landing requirements need to be considered when determining the length of runway to be provided and
need for operations to be conducted in both directions of runway. Local conditions that may need to be considered include
elevation, temperature, runway slope, and the runway surface characteristics.
Secondary runways:
The length of secondary runway should be determined similarly to primary runways except that it needs only to be adequate
for those aeroplanes which require using that secondary runway in addition to the other runway or runways in order to obtain
a usability factor of at least 95 percent.
Runways with stopways and/or clearways:
When runway is associated with a stoway or clearway, an actual runway length less than that resulting from application of
(primary and secondary runways) as appropriate, may be considered satisfactory, but in such a case any combination of
runway, stopways or clearway provided.
Declared distances
The introduction of stopways and clearways and the use of displaced thresholds on runways has created a need for accurate
information regarding the various physical distances available and suitable for the landing and takeoff of airplanes.
a) Take-off run available (TORA): the length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run off an aero
plane taking off.
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the length of takeoff run available plus the length of the clearway, if
c) Accelerate stop distance available (ASDA): the length of the take-off run available plus the length of the stopway,
if provided.
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d) Landing distance available (LDA): the length of runway which is declared available and suitable for ground run of
an airoplane landing.
1. When a runway is not provided with stopway or clearway and threshold is located at the extremity of the runway, the
four declared distances should be equal to the length of the runway as in figure A.
2. Where runway is provided with clearway, then the TODA will include the length of clearway as in figure B.
3. When runway is provided with a stopway, then the ASDA will include the length of stopway as in figure C.
4. Where a runway has a displaced threshold, then the LDA will be reduced by the distance the threshold is displaced
as in figure D.
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Tr = Ta +
Tm Ta
3
ICAO recommends that the basic length of the runway after having been corrected for elevation should be further increased
at the rate of 1 % for every 1o rise of airport reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature (Ts) at the
elevation. The temperature gradient of the standard atmospheric from the mean sea level to the altitude at which temperature
becomes 15 o C is -0.0065 o C per meter.
Check for total correction for elevation and temperature:
It the total correction (elevation and temperature) exceeds 35% the basic runway length, these corrections should then be
checked up by conducting specific studies.
b) Correction for Gradient
Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of energy, and longer the runway length is required for attaining the ground
speed.
ICAO does not recommend on this correction. FAA recommends that the runway length after having been corrected for
elevation and temperature should be further increased at the rate of 20% for every 1% of effective gradient.
Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points of runway divided
by the total length of runway.
ii) Width of Runway
The width of a runway should not be less than the approximate dimension specified in the table below. The factors affecting
the width of runway are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
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Longitudinal slopes:
The slopes computed by dividing the differences between the maximum and minimum elevation along the runway centerline
by the runway length should not exceed:
1 % where the code number is 3 or 4
2% where the code number is 1 or 2
Along no portion of a runway should the longitudinal slope exceed:
1.25% where the code number is 4, except that for the first and last quarter of the length of the runway the
longitudinal slope should not exceed 0.8%.
1.5 % where the code number is 3, except that the first and last quarter of the length of a precision approach runway
II or III the longitudinal slope should not exceed 0.8%.
2 % where the code number is 1 or 2.
Longitudinal slope changes
Where slope changes cannot be avoided, a slope change between two consecutive slopes should not exceed:
1.5 % where code number is 3 or 4;
2% where code number is 1 or 2
The transition from one slope to another should be accomplished by a curved surface with a rate of change not exceeding:
Sight distance
Where slope changes cannot be avoided, they should be such that there will be an unobstructed line of sight from:
Any three m above a runway to all other points 3 m above the runway within a distance of atleast half the length of
the runway where the code letter is C, D or E;
Any point 2 m above a runway to all other points 2 m above the runway within a distance at least half the length of
runway where code letter is B; and
Any point 1.5 m above a runway to all other points 1.5 m above the runway within a distance of at least half the
length of runway where the code letter is A.
Distance between slope changes
Undulation or appreciable change in slopes located together along the runway should be avoided. The distance between the
points of intersection of two successive curves should not be less than:
a) The sum of the absolute numerical values of the corresponding slope changes multiplied by the appropriate values
as below:
30 000 m where the code number is 4
15 000 m where the code number is 3 and
5 000 m where the code number is 1 or 2
b) 45 m;
Whichever is greater?
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi
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Transverse slope
To promote the rapid drainage of water, the runway surface should, if practicable, be cambered except where a single cross
fall from high to low in the direction of the wind most frequently associated with rain would ensure rapid drainage. The
transverse slope should ideally be:
1.5 % where the code letter is C, D, E or F
2% where the code letter is A or B
But in any event should not be exceed 1.5 % or 2 %. As applicable, nor be less than 1 % except at runway or taxiway
intersections where flatter slopes be necessary.
Runway shoulder
Runway shoulder must be provided to ensure a transition from the full strength pavement to the unpaved strip of runway. The
paved shoulder protects the edge of the runway pavement, contribute to the prevention of soil erosion by jet blast and
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi
61
mitigate foreign object damage to jet engines. Runways shoulder should be provided for a runway where the code letter is D
or E and the runway width is less than 60m. Runway shoulders should be provided where the code letter is F.
The runway shoulders should extend symmetrically on each side of the runway so that the overall width of the runway and its
shoulders is not less than 60 m for letter E and 75 m fir code letter F.
Slopes:
The surface of the shoulder that abuts the runway should be flush with the surface of the runway and its transverse
downward slope should not exceed 2.5 %.
Runway strip:
A runway strip extends laterally to a specified distance from the runway center line, longitudinally, before the threshold, and
beyond the runway end. It provides an area clear of objects which may endanger aeroplanes. The strip includes a graded
portion which should be so prepared as to not cause the collapse of the nose gear if an aircraft should leave the runway.
There are certain limitations on the slopes permissible on graded portion of the strip.
A strip should before the threshold and before the end of the runway or stopway for a distance of at least:
60 m where the code number is 2, 3, or 4.
60 m where the code number is 1 and the runway is an instrument one;
30 m where the code number is 1 and runway is a non-instrument one.
Width:
A strip including a precision approach runway shall, wherever practicable, extend laterally for a distance of at least:
150 m where the code number is 3 or 4 and;
75 m where the code number is 1 or 2.
A strip including non-precision approach should extend laterally to a distance of at least:
150 m where the code number is 3 or 4;
75 m where the cod number is 1 and 2
On each side of the centerline of the runway and its extended centerline through the length of the strip
A strip including a non-instrument runway should extend, on each side of the centre line of the runway and its extended centre line
throughout the length of the strip, for a distance of at least:
Objects
An object, other than equipment or installation required for air navigation purposes, situated on a runway strip which may endanger
aeroplanes should be regarded as an obstacle and should, as far as practicable, be removed. Any equipment or installation required for
air navigation purposes which must be
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi
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located on the runway strip should be of minimum practicable mass and height, frangibly designed and mounted, and sited in such a
manner as to reduce the hazard to aircraft to a minimum.
No fixed object, other than visual aids required for air navigation purposes, shall be permitted on a runway strip:
within 77.5 m of the runway centre line of a precision approach runway category I, II or III where the code number is 3 or 4 and
the code letter is F; or
within 60 m of the runway centre line of a precision approach runway category I, II or III where the code number is 3 or 4; or
within 45 m of the runway centre line of a precision approach runway category I where the code number is 1 or 2.
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Taxiway Curve:
Changes in direction of taxiways should be as few and small as possible. The design of the curve should be such that when
the cockpit of the aeroplane remains over the taxiway centre line markings, the clearance distance between the outer main
wheels of the aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway should not be less than those specified in the table below:
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A rapid exit taxiway is a taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to allow landing aeroplanes to turn
off at higher speeds than those achieved on other exit taxiways, thereby minimizing runway occupancy time.
A decision to design and construct a rapid exit taxiway is based upon analyses of existing and contemplated traffic. The main
purpose of these taxiways is to minimize aircraft runway occupancy and thus increase aerodrome capacity. When the design
peak hour traffic density is approximately less than 25 operations (landings and take-offs), the right angle exit taxiway may
suffice. The construction of this right angle exit taxiway is less expensive, and when properly located along the runway,
achieves an efficient flow of traffic.
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b) Dual taxiways. A second taxiway or a taxiway bypass to the normal parallel taxiway. Figure shows some examples.
c) Dual runway entrances. A duplication of the taxiway entrance to the runway.
Figure 11 by-pass
8. Apron
An apron is a defined area intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading and unloading passengers, mail or
cargo, fuelling and parking or maintenance. The apron is generally paved but may occasionally be unpaved; for example, in
some instances, a turf parking apron may be adequate for small aircraft
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Types:
1. Passenger apron: The passenger terminal apron is an area designed for aircraft manoeuvring and parking that is
adjacent or readily accessible to passenger terminal facilities. This area is where passengers board the aircraft from
the passenger terminal. In addition to facilitating passenger movement, the passenger terminal apron is used for
aircraft fuelling and maintenance as well as loading and unloading cargo, mail and baggage. Individual aircraft
parking positions on the passenger terminal apron are referred to as aircraft stands.
2. Cargo terminal apron: Aircraft that carry only freight and mail may be provided a separate cargo terminal apron
adjacent to a cargo terminal building. The separation of cargo and passenger aircraft is desirable because of the
different types of facilities each requires both on the apron and at the terminal
3. Remote parking apron: In addition to the terminal apron, airports may require a separate parking apron where
aircraft can park for extended periods.
4. Service hanger apron: A service apron is an uncovered area adjacent to an aircraft hangar on which aircraft
maintenance can be performed, while a hangar apron is an area on which aircraft move into and out of a storage
hangar.
5. General aviation aircraft, used for business or personal flying, require several categories of aprons to support
different general aviation activities.
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The amount of area required for a particular apron layout depends upon the following factors:
the size and manoeuvrability characteristics of the aircraft using the apron;
the volume of traffic using the apron;
clearance requirements;
type of ingress and egress to the aircraft stand;
basic terminal layout or other airport use (see 3.3);
aircraft ground activity requirements; and
taxiways and service roads.
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Airport terminal constituents one of the principle elements of infrastructure cost at the airport. The passenger terminal
performs mainly three functions:
a) Change of mode: few air trips are made direct from origin to destination. By their nature, air trips are mixed
mode trips, with surface access trips linked at either end to the line haul air trips. These movement
patterns are accommodated by passenger circulation areas.
b) Processing: the terminal is a convenient point to carry out certain processes associated with air trip. These
may include ticketing and checking in the passengers. This function of the terminal requires passenger
processing space.
c) Change of movement type: although aircraft move passengers in discrete groups in what is termed "batch
movements", the same passengers access the airport on an almost continuous basis, arriving and
departing in small groups mainly by bus, auto, taxi and etc. the terminal therefore functions on the
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departure side as a reservoir that collects passengers continuously and processes them in batches. On
the arrivals side, the pattern is reverse. To perform this function, the terminal must provide passenger
holding apace.
The terminal acts as the transfer point between the land and air side portions of the mixed mode 'air trip' made by air
passenger. The facilities can be categorized as follows:
1. Access including the land side interface
The facilities include curbside loading and unloading, curbside baggage check in, shuttle services to parking lots another
terminal, and loading and unloading area.
Passenger lounges
Passenger service areas: wash rooms, public telephone, post office, information desk, first aid, valet service, barber
beauty parlours etc.
Concessions: bars, restaurants,
Observation desk and visitors lobbies: including VIP facilities
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1. Airline offices, passenger and baggage processing stations, telecommunications, flight planning documentation,
crew rest facilities, air line station administration, staff and crew toilets, rest and refreshment areas.
2. Storage for wheel chairs,
3. Airport management offices
4. Governmental office and support area for staff working in customs, immigration, health, and air ssenger and
traffic control,
5. Public address system, sign indicators and support areas flight information
6. Maintenance personnel offices and support areas, maintenance equipment storage.
6. Passenger and baggage flow
An adequately designed airport terminal is the work of a designer who understands the various flows of passengers and
baggage at a terminal. The figure below shows the typical flow of passenger and baggage.
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The design of terminal depends upon the nature of the sir traffic to be handled at an airport. The design concepts chosen is a
function of a number of factors, including the size and nature of traffic demand, number of participating airlines, the traffic
split between international and domestic, scheduled, and charter flights, access modes etc.
The most fundamental choice is that of centralized or decentralized processing. There are different terminal configurations.
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10.
The general objective of ATM is to enable aircraft operators to meet their planned times of departure and arrival and adhere
to their preferred flight profiles with minimum constraints and without compromising agreed levels of safety.
The ATM comprises the functions of air traffic services (ATS), airspace management (ASM) and air traffic flow management
(ATFM). The air traffic services are the primary components of ATM.
Control of air traffic was almost unknown in 1944. Today, air traffic control, flight information and alerting services, which
together comprise air traffic services, rank high among the indispensable ground support facilities which ensure the safety
and efficient operation of air traffic throughout the world.
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Annex 11 to the Chicago Convention defines air traffic services and specifies the worldwide Standards and Recommended
Practices applicable in the provision of these services.
The world's airspace is divided into a series of contiguous flight information regions (FIRs) within which air traffic services are
provided.
In some cases, the flight information regions cover large oceanic areas with relatively low air traffic density, within which only
flight information service and alerting service are provided.
In other flight information regions, large portions of the airspace are controlled airspace within which air traffic control service
is provided in addition to flight information and alerting services.
Air travel must be safe and efficient; this requires, among other things, a set of internationally agreed rules of the air.
The rules which consist of general rules, visual flight rules and instrument flight rules apply without exception over the high
seas and over national territories to the extent that they do not conflict with the rules of the State being overflown. The pilot-in
command of an aircraft is responsible for compliance with the rules of the air.
All aircraft fly in accordance with either instrument flight rules (IFR) or visual flight rules (VFR). Under IFR, the aircraft fly from
one radio aid to the next or by reference to self-contained airborne navigation equipment from which the pilot can determine
the aircraft's position at all times. Aircraft flying under VFR must remain clear of cloud and operate in visibility conditions
which will permit the pilot to see and avoid other aircraft.
When operating under air traffic control the aircraft must maintain precisely the route and altitude that have been assigned to
it and keep air traffic control informed about its position.
A flight plan must be filed with air traffic services units for all flights that will cross international borders, and for most other
flights that are engaged in commercial operations. The flight plan provides information on the aircraft's identity and
equipment, the point and time of departure, the route and altitude to be flown, the destination and estimated time of arrival,
and the alternate airport to be used should landing at destination be impossible. The flight plan must also specify whether the
flight will be carried out under visual or instrument flight rules.
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The Area Chart ICAO provides pilots with information to facilitate the transition from en-route phase to final approach
phase, as well as from take-off to en-route phases of the flight. The charts are designed to enable pilots to comply with
departure and arrival procedures and holding pattern procedures, all of which are coordinated with the information on the
instrument approach charts.
The Instrument Approach Chart ICAO provides the pilot with a graphic presentation of instrument approach procedures,
and missed approach procedures to be followed should the crew be unable to carry out a landing. This chart type contains a
plan and profile view of the approach with full details of associated radio navigation aids and necessary aerodrome and
topographical information.
FUNCTIONS OF AERODROME CONTROL TOWERS
Aerodrome control towers shall issue information and clearances to aircraft under their control to achieve a safe, orderly and
expeditious flow of air traffic on and in the vicinity of an aerodrome with the object of preventing collisions between:
- Aircraft flying within the designated area of responsibility of
the control tower, including the aerodrome traffic circuits:
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Selection of runway
ATC will nominate that runway for landing or take off which appears to be most suitable.
ATC may specific circuit direction or turn for traffic separation requirement.
ATC, whenever practicable, advise the aircraft about the wake turbulence and its hazard.
priority shall be given to:
an aircraft which anticipates being compelled to land because of factors affecting the safe operation of the aircraft (
engine failure, shortage of fuel, etc.)
hospital aircraft or aircraft carrying any sick or seriously injured persons requiring urgent medical attention;
aircraft engaged in search and rescue operations; and
Other aircraft as may be determined by the appropriate authority.
The sky m ay be lim itless but not for air traffic. A s m ore aircraft fill the crow ded air routes, air traffic
control concepts, procedures, equipment and rules w ill continue to evolve.
Concept of Communication, Navigation and Surveillance:The process of getting an air craft safely and efficiently to its destination has been classified by ICAO into three functions :
Communication:- is the exchange of voice and data information between the aircraft and air traffic controllers or flight
information centers.
Contd.
Navigation:- Navigation pinpoints the location of aircraft for the crew.
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Surveillance:Surveillance pinpoints the location of the aircraft for Traffic Controller. It includes the
communication of navigation information form Aircraft to Air traffic controllers, which facilitates the continuous mapping of the
relative position of Aircraft.
Present CNS Facilities In Nepal
A) Communications :i) HF Communications :
- Domestic point-to-point communication
-Domestic Air/Ground Communication.
- International Air/Ground Communication.
ii) VHF Communication:
- VHF A/G Communication
- ATIS
- VHF RCAG Communication
ii) UHF Communication:
- UHF link between TIA and Phulchoki Station.
- UHF link between Nepalgunj and Chamire Station.
iv) Satellite Communication:
- VSAT Link Between Kathmandu and Beijing.
a) KTM-Beijing (data communication)
b) KTM-Lhasa (voice communication)
V) Others:
- N.T. lease line for AMSS.
- N.T. lease line for ATM direct speech.
B) Navigation:i)
ii)
VOR (6 nos.)
iii)
DME (7 nos.)
iv)
Marker beacon
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V)
C) Surveillance :i)
ii)
ASR/SSR System
i)
HF Noisy and Uncertain
ii)
VHF Poor Coverage
iii)
Lack of Air Ground Data Link.
In Navigation:
i)
Limited coverage and accuracy of NDB/VOR/DME.
ii)
Difficult to install in remote areas- mountain, desert, jungle.
iii)
FM interference, limited channel capacity of ILS.
iv)
Site problem of ILS.
In Surveillance:
i)
Difficult to site RADAR
ii)
No surveillance in oceans
iii)
No adequate PSR/SSR to cover entire airspace.
iv) Reduced separation where no RADAR coverage
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10th Air Navigation Conference in September 1994 accepted the recommendation of FANS committee.
The annual DGCA conference of Asia/Pacific Region endorsed the plan and encouraged early implementation.
What are the Main Features of CNS/ATM System ?
Mix of satellite - and - ground based systems.
Global coverage
Seamless
Interoperable system
Use of air/ground data link
Employ digital and satellite technologies
Various levels of automation
CNS Components
CNS/ATM System Elements
Benefits of CNS/ATM System
1) Maintain or enhance the existing level of SAFETY.
2) More effective use of AIRSPACE and AIRPORT capacity.
3) The provision of communication, Navigation and Surveillance in a more cost effective manner: and
4) The global provision of CNS in a more uniform manner.
Communication Benefits:
i)
ii)
iii)
Benefits in Navigation:
i)
ii)
iii)
Air crafts can obtain highly precise position information on a global basis.
Four dimensional navigation is possible.
Investment on ground-based navigation
equipment and maintenance cost will
not be necessary.
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iv)
Concept of RNP and Area Navigation
Benefit in Surveillance:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
will be materialized.
Air traffic control is improved in the airspace where radar surveillance has not been possible.
Air craft separation is reduced in the airspace
without radar coverage.
The freedom in selecting optimum flight route
is enhanced.
More efficient surveillance of aircraft and airspace will be possible.
Globally unified surveillance service becomes
possible allowing more effective aircraft operation.
ATM Benefits:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
i)
ii)
iii)
12. References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Norman Ashford, Paul H. Wright; Airport Engineering Third edition, John Wiley & Sons inc. 1992
Aerodrome Design Manual. Part 1 Runways; third edition 2006, International Civil Aviation Organization
Aerodrome Design Manual. Part 2 Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays; fourth edition 2005, International Civil
Aviation Organization
International Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 14 to the convention on International Civil Aviation;
Volume I Aerodrome Design and Operation fifth edition 2009.
S. K Khanna, M. G. Arora, S. S. Jain, Airport Planning and Design. Sixth edition 1999. New Chand & Bros,
Roorkee.
Civil Aviation Report, 2009-2011, Civil Aviation Authority Nepal Dec. 2010.
Presentation slide by Dr. Punya raj Shakya
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8.
9.
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