1.

1 Plant, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to model

natural selection:
Natural Selection: A process where the best suited to the environment survives and
produces offspring that survive.
Plan:
Stick-bird': Within a hypothetical population of 'worms' (toothpicks) that inhabit a
predominantly green-coloured environment (green grass), there are two colour variations;
cream and green. The worms are food for a predator known as a 'stick-bird' (students).
Possible hypothesis: In a predominantly green coloured environment, green worms have a
greater chance of survival and therefore reproduction due to their ability to blend in with
the background.
Toothpicks are mixed and scattered randomly over a measured grassed area. Stick birds
(students) are later brought to that area and remain outside a 'fence'. They are told to prey
on the 'worms' in the field (collect as many toothpicks as they can) in a given time. After 3
minutes, the 'stick-birds' are driven from the field by the 'farmer' (teacher). They escape
back to the classroom.
Tally and compare the numbers of green and cream toothpicks recovered. Calculate
percentages recovered of each colour.
Equipment:
1000 toothpicks (500 coloured green with food dye and 500 left natural.
Conclusion:
It would be expected that fewer green worms would be collected as they would have a
selective advantage over the cream worms due to camouflage effect. Thus the
environment has selected the better adapted worms who will go on to reproduce in
greater numbers, over time the green worms will become the more prevalent phenotype
within the 'worm' population.
1.2 Outline the impact on the environment on the evolution of plants and animals of:
Changes in physical conditions in the environment
Earth has continually changed since life first evolved.
Changes in the environment (temp, rainfall, landforms) force species to either die out, or
survive and diversify.
An Example - The Peppered Moth:
o Prior to the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th Century, most Peppered moths were
light coloured (there was also a dark form). They survived better as they could
camouflage against the white lichen on the trees.
o During the revolution, the pollution caused the trees to blacken with soot. The trees
could no longer hide the white moths. The darker variant of the moth was better
able to hide, and so the population of the Peppered moth shifted from mainly white
to mainly dark.
o This is how a change in the environment can affect the evolution of an organism by
selecting those more suitable to survive.
Changes in chemical conditions in the environment
Chemical changes (salinity, pH) in the environment impact on the evolution of organisms
by acting as a selection pressure that decides which organisms are the fittest.
An Example - Mosquitoes and DDT:
o When DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) was first used as an insecticide to kill
malarial mosquitoes, low concentrations were effective.
o In subsequent doses, higher concentrations were needed and the sprayings
became less effective.
o The few DDT-resistant mosquitoes that had survived passed on their genes to their
offspring, and now the mosquito population is mainly resistant.
o Thus the gene pool had changed.

 Competition for resources

Competition for resources affects evolution because the survival of a species relies heavily
on its ability to obtain the resources needed for life (food, water, nesting sites).
For example, when the dinosaurs were the dominant life form on Earth, mammals were
very scarce
The dinosaurs had access to most of the resources and so mammals were unable to
proliferate into different niches.
When the mass extinction of the dinosaurs occurred, the mammals that so scarcely
populated the planet quickly diversified to take advantage of all the available resources,
such as plants, or other organisms.
1.3 Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an
environmental change can lead to changes in a species:
The Peppered Moth:
o The population consisted of 2 variations: the light and dark moth.
o Originally population was mainly composed of lighter moths
o They camouflaged on lichen covered trees to hide from birds
o During Industrial Revolution, trees covered in soot and lichen die off
o Light moths can no longer camouflage, become easier prey. Darker moths can hide
better now, on soot covered trees.
o Population shifts from mainly light to mainly dark.
1.4 Describe, using specific examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the following
areas of study:
Palaeontology
Palaeontology is the study of fossils and extinct life forms.
The fossil record shows the history of life on Earth.
E.g. oldest fossil of cyanobacteria at 3.5mya, earliest reptile 350mya.
Transitional forms
Show characteristics of two different groups
E.g. Archaeopteryx is a transitional form that shows the missing link from reptiles to birds. It
had typical mammalian teeth, claws and a long tail, but feathers and wishbone like a
bird.
Biogeography
A study of biogeography and the worldwide distribution of different species shows that
isolation has led to species evolving independently on different continents
E.g. emus and koalas are unique to Australia and turkeys are unique to North America.
Comparative Embryology
The study of embryo development of different species.
Shows relationships between different groups and suggests evolutionary tree
configurations.
E.g. early stages vertebrate embryos are similar as they have gill slits.
Comparative anatomy
Comparing the anatomy of different organisms shows that there are homologous
structures, i.e. anatomical structures with the same basic plan found on different organisms
but perform different functions.
The pentadactyl limb is found in amphibians, reptiles and birds. Shows that these groups
have a common ancestor and indicates evolutionary relationships between the group.
In plants the structural similarities of xylem between different groups, e.g. ferns, conifers
and flowering plants, suggest a common ancestor for these groups.

 Biochemistry
The study of molecules and how they react.
Recent technological developments, e.g. DNA-DNA hybridisation and the analysis of
amino acid sequences have increased our ability to compare the molecular structure of
different organisms.
Biochemical analysis has led to a modification of evolutionary relationships, e.g. a study of
the amino acid sequence in haemoglobin, shows human differ from rhesus monkey in
eight amino acid sequences but differ in 125 amino acid sequences from lampreys. This
shows that humans are more closely related to rhesus monkeys than lampreys.
1.5 Perform a first-hand investigation or gather information form secondary sources to observe,
analyse and compare the structure of a range of vertebrate forelimbs:

1.6 Use available evidence to analyse, using named example, how advances in technology
have changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships:
Previously they classified orang-utans, gorillas and chimpanzees in one family and place
humans in a separate family. This was based on evidence of structural anatomy.
Studies showed that gorillas and chimpanzees were more closely related to each other
than to humans or orang-utans.
Amino Acid sequencing was then used. It revealed identical sequences in chimpanzees
and humans but one amino acid difference between humans and gorillas.
Newer technologies such as DNA-DNA Hybridisation led scientists to compare hundreds of
base pairs by sequencing entire genes for comparison.
DNA sequencing and Hybridisation confirmed the results.
African apes are more closely related to humans than orang-utans. Humans and
chimpanzees have the smallest difference between the base sequences in their DNA,
whereas DNA between humans and gorillas shows more variation.
Data used is to establish a new phylogenetic tree that represents humans and
chimpanzees as the two groups to have diverged most recently from a common ancestor

1.7 Explain how Darwin/Wallaces theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation
accounts for divergent evolution and convergent evolution:
Divergent Evolution is the change in the population over time so that
different groups arise from a common ancestor due to adaptive
radiation (evolutionary variation in species that evolved from a common
ancestor).
Convergent Evolution is changes in populations that lead to superficial
similarities due to organisms living in the same habitat or having the same
lifestyle although they are not closely related.
Darwin/Wallace theory of evolution provides a mechanism to explain
how populations can change overtime.
Those with favourable characteristics for a particular environment will
survive, reproduce and their offspring will inherit the favourable
characteristics.
Overtime the population will change and the favourable
characteristics will become more common.
If the population is isolated, then natural selection will lead to changes
that can cause either divergence from a common ancestor or
convergence so that different species have superficial similarities.
1.8 Analyse information from secondary sources on the historical development of theories of
evolution and use available evidence to assess social and political influences on these
developments:
Historical Development:
Leonardo do Vinci (1452-1519) found fossil shells high up on mountains and decided
they were once living organisms that had been buried before the mountains were raised.
Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802) suggested that the strongest and most active individuals
would survive and continue a species.
Jean-Baptist Lamarck (1744-1829) suggested that features acquired during the life of an
organism could be passed on to its offspring. E.g. a giraffe stretching its neck to get food
from a higher branch will develop a longer neck over the course of a lifetime and pass this
characteristic on to its offspring. This theory, although later discredited, continued the
thought that led to the modern theory of evolution.
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) independently came up with the theory of natural
selection and wrote to Darwin to discuss it. This prompted Darwin to publish his theory.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) developed his theory of evolution based on observations he
made on a journey to South America on HMS Beagle. By the early 1840s he had
documented the main points of his theory but was reluctant to publish his work because of
the political and religious upheaval it would cause.
Social and political influences:
Influences Prior To Publishing of Evolutionary Theory:
o Christianity was a very dominant force during the time of Charles Darwin.
o Creationism was widely accepted, as a religious and a scientific concept.
o Darwin knew what a huge impact his knowledge would make on the world when he
released it, so he withheld his theory for 25 years.
o It was only when he felt the social and political climate was right, did he publish his
information.
o He chose to publish it during a time of great societal change; i.e. the Industrial
Revolution, and a time when the power of the Church was weaning.
o Also, Wallaces willingness to propose his own version of evolution prompted Darwin
to finally publish his papers

Influences of Evolutionary Theory on Society:

o Darwins theory caused great furor in the society at the time. Great debates were
fought out by evolutionists and creationists (a famous one being between Thomas
Huxley and Bishop Samuel Wilberforce).
o Darwin was also blamed for many catastrophes in history, as people continued to
wrongly apply the Survival of the Fittest to normal life.
o Darwin has been blamed for the destruction of religion and the rise of atheism,
fascism, communism and even the Second World War, as people like Karl Marx base
their philosophies on The Origin of Species.

2.1 Outline the experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel:

Gregor Mendel experimented with peas.
Mendel first chose 7 pairs of characteristics that he wanted to study:

Before he began his experiment, he selectively bred plants for each characteristic for 2
years to produce ONLY pure breeding offspring.
Firstly he crossed two pure breeding plants
Then crossed their off-spring.
Mendels conclusions about organisms that he made his results are summed up in his Law
of Segregation:
o An organisms characteristics are determined by factors (we call them genes), that
occur in pairs.
o In a sex cell (gamete) only one factor is present.
o During fertilisation, the factors pair up again; they dont blend, but match up with
each other.

2.2 Describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel that led to his success:
He studied a large number of CHARACTERISTICS increased accuracy.
He performed a large number of CROSSES; this produced very reliable results
He made sure he used PURE BREEDING plants to produce accurate results.
He made exact counts of the characteristics, producing QUANTITATIVE DATA that could be
easily analysed.
He studied separate, easily identifiable characteristics, one at a time
He chose a plant (the pea plant) that shows easily identifiable, alternative forms.
He strictly controlled fertilisation (hand-pollination) to ensure accurate results.
2.3 Describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving dominance using Mendels
explanation:
Mendel was able to explain his observed
ratios, i.e.:
F1 - all tall
F2 - 3 tall : 1 short

2.4 Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendels work was not recognised until some
time after it was published:
His work was discovered 30 years after his death because...
Only presented his paper to a small group of scientists.
Experiments were dealing with a totally new concept and his audience knew nothing
about genetics.
Had no outstanding reputation as a scientist.
He published his work in German and the scientific languages are French and English.
Published work in a small botanical article.
Was very shy.
2.5 Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous:
Genotype: the actual allele present that control a characteristic.
Phenotype: the outward appearance of the organism.
When both alleles are the same in an organism the organism is homozygous for the trait.
E.g. TT or tt.
If the alleles are different the organism is heterozygous for the trait. E.g. Tt
2.6 Distinguish between the terms allele and gene, using examples:
An allele is an alternative for a particular inheritable characteristic.
o E.g. tall (T) and short (t) are two alleles for the characteristic of height in some plants.
o E.g. In humans, straight (S) and widow's peak (s) are two alleles for hairline.
A gene is a section of DNA coding for proteins that expresses itself as the phenotype for
that trait.
In the case of Mendels peas, flower colour was the gene, with white or purple the
alternative form of the allele.
2.7 Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype using
examples:
For every characteristic there are 2 alleles.
They are always present in pairs in body cells.
One of the alleles are Dominant and one of them is recessive.
Taking a characteristic, e.g. Pea Plant height. We represent its genotype with 2 letters,
each letter representing a gene. T is the dominant tall allele, t is the recessive, short allele
A tall pea plant can be either TT or Tt, as the dominant gene is always expressed
A short plant is always tt.
2.8 Perform an investigation to construct pedigrees or family trees, trace the inheritance of
selected characteristics and discuss their current use:
Use of Pedigrees:
Allow easy scientific analysis of the inheritance of genetic traits within families and are
useful for studying heredity patterns in humans and other animals.
In humans they are analysed to identify and trace genetic disorders.
In animals they are useful for selecting individuals with desirable traits for breeding purpose.
Determine if particular family traits are genetically inherited.
Trace the occurrence of a genetic disorder or disease within a family over several
generations.
Determine the probability that future parents are carriers of a particular defective allele.
Predicting the likelihood of a family member inheriting a trait or developing a disorder.

Limitations of Pedigrees:
Only useful when studying animals that do not produce too many offspring (mammals).
Usefulness relies on accurate and reliable record keeping within families.
If a family is too small or has too few affected members conclusions may be uncertain.
Constructing a Pedigree:

2.9 Solve problems involving monohybrid crosses using punnet squares or other appropriate
techniques:

2.10 Process information from secondary sources to describe an example of hybridisation within
a species and explain the purpose of this hybridisation:
Hybridisation: breeding 2 different types of animals or plants. This results in offspring with
desirable characteristics.
Examples:
Labradoodle:
o Produced by crossing a labradore and a poodle.
o Hybrid produced does not shed hair.
o Advantage to people who have asthma or allergies.
o Also have no body odour.
o Doesnt need constant bathing and are easily trained.
Mule:
o Produced by crossing a male donkey and female horse.
o Hybrid produced is large.
o Advantage as it can carry larger loads.
o Also steadier and smarter.
o But, are infertile.

3.1 Outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of chromosomes:
Walter Sutton:
American geneticist.
He observed grasshopper chromosomes during meiosis as well as researching patterns and
observations. (Sutton sat on the grass).
Proposed the Chromosomal Theory of inheritance.
Observations of grasshopper cells:
o During meiosis, chromosomes line up in pairs, same size and shape
o Homologous pairs segregate randomly so that each gamete receives one
chromosome from each pair.
o After fertilisation, the resulting zygote had a full set of chromosomes
Suggested Mendels inheritance factors are carried on chromosomes
Recognized that chromosomes provided a mechanism for the operation of Mendels laws
Theodor Boveri:
German Zoologist.
Studied sea urchins obtained eggs without nuclei (with no female chromosomes) and
fertilized them with sperm (just male chromosomes).
The larvae born showed none of the characteristics of the female (mother)
o This proved the nucleus carried the information for inheritance.
o Suggested that chromosomes (observed in the nucleus) might be the means of
inheritance
o At this time, he knew nothing of Mendels factors.
Showed that chromosomes were transferred from one generation to the next by the
process of cell division.
Argued that chromosomes could exchange factors with each other during meiosis
(crossing over).
3.2 Describe the chemical nature of chromosomes and genes:
Each chromosome is made up of about 60% protein and 40% DNA.
The DNA is coiled tightly around a protein core (histone proteins).
A gene is a section of DNA on a chromosome.
The DNA is made of sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases.
It is made up of a particular sequence of bases.
Different genes are different lengths.
3.3 Identify that DNA is a double-stranded molecule twisted into a helix with each strand
comprised of a sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases Adenine (A), thymine (T),
cytosine (C) and guanine (G) connected to a complementary strand by pairing the bases, A-T
and G-C:
DNA is a double-stranded molecule twisted into a helix.
The sides of the twister ladder are the sugars and
phosphates.
The rungs of the twisted ladder are the complementary
base pairs.
There are 4 nitrogenous bases in DNA. Adenine,
Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine. Adenine Thymine.
Guanine Cytosine.
This is because A & T have space to form 2 hydrogen
bonds and G & C have space to form 3 hydrogen
bonds.
A & G are larger molecules so if they tried to pair the helix would bulge out.
T & C are smaller molecules and it would shrink inwards if they attempted to pair. This
means the 2 strands are complements of each other.

3.4 Explain the relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during
meiosis and the inheritance of genes:
The stages of meiosis that lead to the creation of gametes and
the inheritance of genes are:
o The chromosomes duplicate. The single stranded
chromosomes become double stranded, linked at the
centre by a centromere
o In the first meiotic division, the homologous
chromosomes separate, but the double-strands of the
chromosomes are still joined.
o In the second division, the chromatids of the
chromosomes separate and form 4 gametes altogether.
o Each gamete has only one copy of the homologous pair
and many different combinations are possible.
3.5 Process information from secondary sources to construct a model that demonstrates meiosis
and the process of crossing over, segregation of chromosomes and the production of haploid
gametes:
Meiosis: cell division to produce haploid daughter cells. It is a reduction division and only
occurs in sexually reproducing organisms.
Crossing Over: the swapping of genetic material
between homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
Crossing over is important as it leads to new
combinations of characteristics that are important for
natural selection in a changing environment.
Segregation of chromosomes: when chromosomes
form, the homologous pairs of chromosomes separate into different gametes so each
gamete only carries one of the homologous pair and thus only one gene for each pair of
genes.
3.6 Explain the role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability:
The events that create variation in sexual reproduction are:
o Random segregation: During meiosis, genes on different chromosomes sort
independently. They can line up in the middle of the cell in many different ways. This
produces many gene combinations, which are different from the parents
o Crossing over: Crossing over of genetic material during meiosis results in the
exchange of genes between chromosome pairs. The combinations of alleles of the
gametes will vary across cells and differ from the parent
o Random fertilisation: When the male and the female mate, the two different
gametes randomly fuse. Many different combinations are possible, and this causes
variation.
3.7 Describe the inheritance of sex-linked genes, and alleles that exhibit co-dominance and
explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian ratios:
Sex-linked genes:
The chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual are called the sex
chromosomes.
In humans, females are XX and males are XY.
Any feature on the X chromosome or Y chromosome is referred to as a sex-linked
inheritance trait.
E.g. colour blindness or haemophilia.

Incomplete dominance:
Incomplete dominance results in a new phenotype, different to the dominant and
recessive traits.
E.g. pure white snapdragons bred with red snapdragons produce pink snapdragons.
Co-dominance:
A type of incomplete dominance where both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous
form.
E.g. roan cattle have both white hair and red hair present to give the roan colour.
Mendelian ratios:
Sex-linkage does not always produce Mendelian ratios.
I.e. 3 dominant:1 recessive in a hybrid cross, as there are traits found on the X chromosome
not found on the Y chromosome and traits found on the Y chromosome not found on the X
chromosome.
This means that only one gene determines the trait in males.
In co-dominance the hybrid showing a different phenotype means there are 3 possible
phenotypes and Mendels 3:1 does not account for a third phenotype.
3.8 Describe the work of Morgan that led to the understanding of sex-linkage:
Morgan studied the breeding of the fruit fly (drosophila).
As he was breeding the flies, he noticed one white-eyed male fly among the offspring of
red-eyed parents.
This was strange as the normal eye colour was red.
He further bred this white male with other males.
His results showed that all the white-eyed flies were male.
He hypothesised that the characteristic was sex-limited, and that it was on the X
chromosome.
3.9 Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the
resulting phenotype in examples of co-dominance:
In simple dominance cases, if an organism is homozygous dominant, the phenotype is
obviously that of the dominant allele. If it was homozygous recessive, then the phenotype
would be that of the recessive allele.
If the organism was heterozygous, then the dominant allele would be the phenotype of the
organism, as the dominant allele would preside over the recessive one.
HOWEVER, if it was a case of co-dominance, heterozygous organisms would have both
phenotypes expressed at the same time, as no allele is totally dominant over the other.
E.g. red and white roan cattle.
3.10 Solve problems involving co-dominance and sex-linkage:

3.11 Outline ways in which the environment may affect the expression of a gene in an
individual:
GENOTYPE + ENVIRONMENT = APPEARANCE (PHENOTYPE)
The phenotype is not only determined by the genes that an individual carries (genotype)
but it may also be affect by the environment.
E.g. Hydrangeas
o Hydrangeas are plants that have different flower colours (pink and blue) depending
on the pH of the soil they are grown in (environment).
o Soils with pH less than 5 (acid) they are blue.
o Soils with pH more than 7 (basic) they are pink.
o PH has an effect on the availability of other ions in the soil and it is these ions that are
responsible for colour change.
E.g. Pea Plants
o A tall variety of pea plant will end up small if it does not receive enough water and
correct minerals.
o Its genes, which could have made it grow tall, are not able to be expressed due to
lack of raw materials required for growth.
E.g. Fruit Flies
o Fruit flies (Drosophila) that are homozygous for the gene for vestigial wings, have
wings that are only tiny stumps where reared at normal temperatures (about 20 oC).
o But their wings grow almost as long as normal wings when reared at temperatures as
high as 31oC.
3.12 Identify data sources and perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of
environment on phenotype:
You can use twins to demonstrate the effect of the environment on phenotype, by placing
one of them in a dark cave and the other in normal sunlight conditions.
However this would be unethical, so we can similarly use plants:
Materials
Seeds from a self pollinated tree
Sunlight
Water
Soil
Method
1) Plant lots of seeds from the same self-pollinated tree.
2) Divide the plants into two groups and place one group in a dark room and the other in
sunlight.
3) Measure the growth of the plants after some time.
4) Keep the exposure time, water, amount and type of soil all the same.
Conclusion
The plants which were exposed to sunlight were taller and grew properly.
The plants which were placed in the dark room didnt have much growth.
4.1 Describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance:
Steps in DNA replication:
1) DNA double helix unwinds.
2) Complementary base pairs separate causing the DNA to unzip to form two single strands.
3) Nucleotides are added to each single strand causing two identical strands of DNA to form.

Significance of DNA replication:

1) Allows large amounts of coded information to be passed from one generation to the next.
2) New variations are possible if the code changes during replication.
3) Enables continuity and survival of the species.
4.2 Outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of
polypeptides:

4.3 Perform a first-hand investigation or process information from secondary sources to develop
a simple model for polypeptide synthesis:

4.4 Explain the relationship between proteins and polypeptides:

A polypeptide is made up of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
A protein is made up of one or more polypeptide chains, folded to fit a specific function,
often into a globular shape.
4.5 Analyse information from secondary sources to outline the evidence that led to Beadle and
Tatums one gene-one protein hypothesis and to explain why this was altered to the one geneone polypeptide hypothesis:
Research conducted by Beadle and Tatum.
They knew that bread mould grows on a base of sugar, salts and vitamin broth.
This nutrient base was called the minimal medium.
They reasoned that these nutrients must be converted into amino acids, and that enzymes
were responsible for this change.
They then exposed the mould to X-rays, to induce mutations.
This mutant mould was then grown on the minimal medium.
If the mould grew, it was discarded.
If the mould didnt grow, it was grown on a different medium, containing different amino
acids.
It was found that if the mould was supplemented with other amino acids, it could grow
healthily.
Beadle and Tatum hypothesised that this mutant mould had lost the ability to make the
enzyme to create this amino acid, because the X-rays had mutated the gene.
Then they hypothesised that one gene was responsible for one enzyme.
This was later changed to one gene one polypeptide, because genes code for many
proteins that are not enzymes.
Many proteins are made up of more than one polypeptide, and a gene only codes for
one polypeptide.

4.6 Explain how mutations in DNA may lead to the generation of new alleles:
Mutations are a permanent change in the genetic information.
Mutations can be caused by exposure to UV or ionising radiation, chemical mutagens,
viruses or copying errors during cell division.
Three things can happen as a result of a mutation:
o Most mutations are lethal and kill the cell the mutation takes place in.
o In some cases, the mutation is not advantageous or lethal to the organism. It is a
neutral mutation.
o VERY RARELY, a mutation will give an organism a phenotypic advantage. These
individuals with the new allele will be at a selective advantage, and be better suited
to their environment.
The mutation causes a change in the code of the DNA (base sequence)
This means that, possibly, new amino acids will be introduced in polypeptide chains; this will
lead to new proteins being produced, and new forms of traits.
This leads to the generation of new alleles.
4.7 Discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation:
Mutagens are environmental factors that increase the rate of mutation
Effect of radiation on DNA strands:
o E.g. UV light, X-rays, radioactive materials
o Can cause bases to be deleted, totally removed from strand
o Can cause thymine bases to link together, affecting protein synthesis.
o This causes a disruption in the normal functions of DNA
o High-energy radiation levels can actually break up the whole chromosome
Evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation:
o UV radiation has been recorded to increase the incidence of skin cancers in
humans. Some regard it as the sole cause of skin cancer
o First generation radiotherapists, who did not now the dangers of radiation, often
died young. Scientists like Marie Curie would carry uranium around in their pockets,
and developed cancers very quickly.
o People who live in areas which have been affected by high-level radiation, such as
Hiroshima, or Chernobyl, still show high incidences of cancers and other mutations in
their offspring.
4.8 Process information to construct a flow chart that shows that changes in DNA sequences can
result in changes in cell activity:

4.9 Explain how an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided support
for Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection:
We know Darwins theory requires variation to be present within a population.
Our knowledge of genetics tells us where this variation comes from:
o The random segregation of chromosome pairs during meiosis
o Crossing over of genetic material during meiosis
o Random fertilisation of sex cells
o Random mutation of the genetic material
The phenotypes that are variable are chosen by the environment.
Over time, some genotypes become more common than others.
4.10 Process and analyse information from secondary sources to explain a modern example of
natural selection:
Peppered Moths:
Black and white moths. Black was rare before industrial revolution.
Since industrial revolution the population of white peppered moths decreased and the
black population increased significantly because of pollution produced by factories.
Pollution darkened the environment and surroundings.
White peppered moths, before could make it easier for prey to see them.
Black peppered moths now help themselves to blend in the dark environment, which
favours their survival.
4.11 Describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs from the
gradual process proposed by Darwin:
Darwins Gradualism:
o He proposed that populations change slowly and gradually over time.
o However, the fossil record only shows rare occasions where this happens.
If an environment remains stable for many years, we would expect there to be no change
in the organisms living there.
It is only when the environment changes that natural selection occurs.
The fossil record in fact shows periods of stability followed by mass extinctions and rapid
change.
Punctuated Equilibrium:
o The fossil record suggests that organisms evolve suddenly, and remain stable for
millions of years
o In 1972, 2 scientists, Gould and Eldridge, put forward a theory to explain this; they
called it punctuated equilibrium.
o Punctuated equilibrium proposes that, instead of gradual change, there have been
periods of rapid evolution followed by long periods of stability, or equilibrium
4.12 Process information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the relative
importance of the work of James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins in
determining the structure of DNA and the impact of the quality of collaboration and
communication on their scientific research:
Francis Crick and James Watson collaborated in their research and proposed the double
helix structure of DNA with complementary nitrogen bases pairs of adenine-thymine and
guanine-cytosine.
Maurice Wilkins extracted some fibres from a gel of DNA. He gave a photograph of these
to Watson and Crick.
Rosalind Franklin used X-ray crystallography to map the location of atoms in the DNA
molecule. Her photograph was used to decipher the structure of DNA.
Watson, Crick and Wilkins shares the Nobel Prize.

Sharing of knowledge and publication of experimental results enables scientists to build

upon the work of other scientists.
The four people in this story worked at two different places.
Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins were from King's College London and James Watson
and Francis Crick were from Cambridge University.
Rosalind Franklin was a woman working in a field that was male dominated. You will see as
the story progresses that she didn't get equal recognition for her contributions.
Her work on X-ray diffraction showed that DNA had the characteristics of a helix.
She wished to gather more evidence of this result but Maurice Wilkins showed her results to
Watson and Crick without her permission or knowledge.

5.1 Identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic
composition of a population:
Artificial Insemination:
Artificial insemination is a simple technique which injects sperm-containing semen into the
females reproductive tract.
It is very important in modern animal husbandry.
Used to produce offspring with favourable characteristics.
E.g. Disease resistant cattle
ADVANTAGES: Can be used to inseminate many females from one male. Transport of
semen is much easier than transporting a whole animal. Semen can be stored for a period
of time.
DISADVANTAGES: Reduced the genetic variations found in populations, making them
susceptible to changes in the environment (e.g. new disease)
Artificial Pollination:
Artificial pollination is a technique which transfers pollen from the anthers of one plant to
the stigma of another plant.
It is very important in modern horticulture.
Used to produce offspring with favourable characteristics.
E.g. producing plant hybrids for flower colour.
ADVANTAGES: Particularly useful and easy way of breeding new varieties of plants. No
expensive equipment required
DISADVANTAGES: Genetic variation reduced.
Cloning:
Cloning is a process that produces genetically identical organisms through non-sexual
means.
Plant cloning, e.g. taking cuttings from a plant, is very common and been used for
centuries.
Animal cloning of mammals is recent and is not used in large-scale commercial agriculture.
ADVANTAGES: In agriculture, cloned plants have identical requirements and grow in similar
ways to produce similar yields at the same time. In plants and animals identical copies of
desirable varieties can be produced
DISADVANTAGES: In crops all plants susceptible to the same diseases. Cloning is
expensive with limited advantages over reproductive techniques. Cloning of animals has
raised ethical questions about the cloning of humans. The health/life expectancy of
cloned animals is questionable, with the death of Dolly the sheep being earlier than
expected.
In a changing environment the lack of diversity could endanger the survival of the species.

5.2 Process information from secondary sources to describe a methodology used in cloning:

5.3 Outline the process used to produce transgenic species and include examples of this
process and reasons for its use:
Transgenic species: organisms which have had genetic material from a different species
transferred into their chromosomes.
Production:
1) A useful gene and the chromosome it is on are identified.
2) Useful gene is isolated or cut off the DNA strand using restriction enzymes.
3) The gene is inserted into the cell of another organism. Done by microinjection, a gene gun
or a vector.
4) The inserted gene needs to become part of the genetic material of that microorganism
and must be able to be expressed. Therefore a promoter sequence needs to be attached
to ensure the gene will function.
Examples:
BT Crops: BT is a bacterium that naturally produces chemicals that kills many insects. The
chemicals are specific to many pests and do not kill other insects. Genetically modified
crops have had the gene of BT pesticide inserted into them. They produce their own BT
chemicals, and no longer need to be sprayed
Cold Strawberries: A gene from a type of salmon that allows it to survive cold temperatures
has been isolated, and inserted into a strain of strawberry. This strawberry can survive and
grow in cold temperatures.

5.4 Analyse information from secondary sources to identify examples of the use of transgenic
species and use available evidence to debate the ethical issues arising from the development
and use of transgenic species:
Genetically engineered salmon:
o The gene coding for the protein, GH (growth hormone), is incorporated into the genes
of salmon.
o Outcome larger, faster growing fish
o Evaluation Possible farmed source of fish as food. However, the fish are kept in ponds
that offer no escape to the wild because there is much concern that they will upset or
destroy natural ecosystems.
Potato plants:
o A pea gene for lectin has been incorporated into potato plants.
o Outcome protection against insect attack. Lectin is a protein which interferes with
digestion in insects. It is termed an antifeedant.
o Evaluation As potatoes are a staple food source for many populations throughout the
world, it is important to maintain and increase production. Protection against insect
attack improves the success of growing potatoes. Concerns exist about controlling the
escape of these transgenic potatoes into the wild as the technology is only recent
and long-term impacts on the environment have yet to be observed or evaluated.
5.5 Discuss the potential impact of the use of reproductive technologies on the genetic diversity
of species using a names plant and animal example that have been genetically altered:
The main fear behind the use of genetic and reproductive breeding techniques on
organisms is that the natural diversity and variation within populations is decreased.
E.g. cotton plants. The main crop being grown all over the world is BT cotton.
As more and more farmers shift from natural cotton to BT cotton, there are many
disadvantages:
o Many natural varieties of cotton will be lost
o The species itself becomes vulnerable to extinction. If all cotton grown all over the
world is BT, and a disease appears, that kills specifically BT cotton, than there is a risk
of cotton becoming an extinct organism
In another case, a population of cattle that have all been fathered by the same bull,
through artificial insemination techniques, is at risk of environmental changes
A lack of variation is a major risk factor in extinction of a species.