Land Degradation in South Asia Its Severity, Causes and Effeeffects Upon The People

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Land degradation in south Asia: Its severity,

causes and effects upon the people
Table of Contents
World Soil Resources Reports
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 1994
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression
of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, of
the United Nations Development Programme or of the United Nations Environment Programme
concerning the legal statue of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
M-51
ISBN 92-5-103595-4
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the
prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose
and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
(c) FAO, UNDP and UNEP 1994
Contents
Acknowledgements
Summary
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Origin, objectives and constraints
Background to the South Asia region
Arrangement of the report
Chapter 2 - Types of land degradation

Definitions
Types of land degradation assessed
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Other types of degradation included

Types of degradation excluded from the study
Problems of the natural environment
Reversible degradation and land reclamation
Chapter 3 - Sources of data

Global assessment of soil degradation (GLASOD)
Other sources of data
Variations in data and the need for definition of degrees of severity
Chapter 4 - Status of degradation. I. Erosion and fertility decline

Water erosion
Wind erosion
Soil fertility decline
Chapter 5 - Status of degradation. II. Other types of degradation and summary

Waterlogging
Salinization
Lowering of the water table
Other types of degradation
Watershed degradation and management
Summary: the severity and extent of land degradation
Discussion
Chapter 6 - Causes of land degradation

Natural degradation hazards
Direct causes of degradation
Underlying causes of degradation
Land, population, poverty and degradation: the causal nexus
Chapter 7 - Economic consequences of land degradation

Introduction: economic and social consequences
Economic valuation of natural resources and degradation
Land degradation in South Asia: the orders of magnitude of the economic costs
Macroeconomic impact of land degradation
Chapter 8 - Effects upon the people

Effects upon production
Consequences for the people
Land degradation and the poor
Chapter 9 - Institutions and programmes to combat degradation

National institutions
National institutions: discussion
Environmental legislation
International institutions in the region
Regional collaborative programmes
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Chapter 10 - Conclusions and proposals

Conclusions from the study
Proposals: introduction
Proposals for strengthening efforts to combat land degradation
References
World soil resources reports
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Chapter 1 - Introduction
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Origin of the study
This study originated in Resolution Number 1991/97 of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, passed at its 32nd
plenary meeting on 26th July 1991, entitled:
Combating aridity, soil erosion, salinity, water-logging, desertification and the effects of drought in South Asia.
This begins by recalling a General Assembly resolution of 1989 which stressed the imperative need to address the problem of
desertification. It notes that South Asia is one of the most populous regions of the world, and that it contains significant areas subject
to soil erosion, salinity and other kind of degradation, "which affect the rives of millions of peoples and the entire environment of the
region".
The Resolution then:
"Requests the Secretary-General, in close collaboration with the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment
Programme... [and other organizations]...to undertake a study...to assess the extent of this problem and its effects on the peoples of
the region, and to provide a framework for national and international cooperative efforts...to tackle this problem in its physical and
human dimensions, and to submit the study to the Economic and Social Council in 1992."
Consultations were held between UNEP, UNDP, FAO and ESCAP, leading to the preparation of draft outline and work plan for
the study. This latter made clear that the focus was to be on the problem of land de gradation, and the human impacts on natural
resources which reduce their productive capacity.
FAO was selected as the Executing Agency. A Project Document was drawn up as Project Number RAS/92/560/A/01/12, with a
duration of four months, entitled Study of land degradation in South Asia. This defines South Asia for the purpose of the study as
including eight countries of the ESCAP region: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Data
was to be made available from sources of UNDP, UNEP, FAO, ESCAP, the World Bank, UNCED, and by means of limited visits
to selected countries of the region. The project document further sets out the outputs and objectives.
Objectives
The immediate objective of the project is to undertake a comprehensive study on combating aridity, soil erosion, salinity,
waterlogging, desertification and the effects of drought in South Asia, for submission to the Secretary General of the United Nations
in response to ECOSOC Resolution 1991/97.
The contents specified for the report constitute the objectives of the study. These are to review, analyse and summarize:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The statue of land degradation in South Asia.

The causes of land degradation, and its effects on the people of the region.
Existing institutions and current national and international cooperative programmes to combat land degradation.
To suggest a framework for strengthening national and international cooperative efforts to tackle land degradation in its
physical and human dimensions, at national, regional and international levers.
In carrying out the study, an attempt has been made to give equal attention to the first two of these objectives: the statue, meaning
the nature, extent and severity, of land degradation; and its effects, social and economic, upon the people.
Constraints
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The range of material to be covered is vast and the time available short, less than six person-months. It was therefore necessary to
base the study entirely on existing publications and reports, supplemented by discussions with staff members of national and
international institutions.
Over 200 publications and reports based on the region were consulted. Two were of fundamental importance. Extensive use was
made of a recent comprehensive and primary study, the Global assessment of land degradation (GLASOD) (Oldeman et al., 1990;
UNEP, 1992a). Besides the published maps and data, the organizations responsible, UNEP and ISRIC, made available primary data
for the region. The second starting point was the report of the FAO/RAPA consultation, Environmental issues in land and water
development (FAO/RAPA, 1992). This includes a regional review (Dent, 1992) and country papers on Bangladesh, India, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
The study was based on the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), Bangkok. Time shortage and political
conditions placed constraints on field visits. Short visits were made to five countries of the region: Bangladesh, India, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka, to conduct interviews with staff of organizations engaged in research into land degradation and efforts to
combat its effects. Discussions were also held with staff of the World Bank and the World Resources Institute, Washington DC.
Publications were consulted in the FAO Library, Rome, and the FAO and United Nations Libraries, Bangkok.
It should be emphasized that the time and human resources available to carry out this study were extremely limited in comparison
with the magnitude of the task to be carried out. Consequently, the results should be regarded as provisional and subject to
modification. A call for further and more detailed studies is made in the recommendations.

Land and population
Eight countries are included in the region (Figure 1):
Short title
Full title
Afghanistan
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
Bangladesh
People's Republic of Bangladesh
Bhutan
Kingdom of Bhutan
India
Republic of India
Iran
Islamic Republic of Iran
Nepal
Kingdom of Nepal
Pakistan
Islamic Republic of Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
Throughout this study, these eight countries are called the South Asian region or, in short, the region.
The region has a land area of 641 M ha and a population (1990) of 1200 million (Tables 1 and 2). The agricultural population is
768 million, 61 % of the total. The area of cropland is 227 M ha, of pasture 94 M ha, and thus of cropland and pasture together,
here called agricultural land, 321 M ha.
These bare statistics indicate three basic characteristics of the region: the large total population, high density in relation to land
resources, and large proportion of total land under agricultural use. Over 22% of the world's agricultural population live on just
under 5% of its land area; whilst almost exactly 50% of the total land is under agricultural use, a far higher proportion than for the
world as a whole.
India has 46% of the land area of the region but 71% of its population. Iran is the next largest country in terms of area, but Pakistan
and Bangladesh have the second and third largest populations.
These high agricultural population densities result in low availability of land. On average, there are 0.31 ha of cropland per capita,
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0.13 ha of pasture, or a total of 0.44 ha of agricultural land per capita. With the possible exception of Bhutan, for which data are
uncertain, Bangladesh has the highest agricultural population density, with 0.12 ha of agricultural land per capita.
The problems which arise from this situation are becoming more severe through population increase, which for the region as a
whole averages 2.39% per year. The 1990 population of 1200 million will have become some 1265 million by 1993. Despite a
growth of urbanization in relative terms, the agricultural population is increasing at some 1.7% per year.
Little or no expansion of cropland is taking place, and opportunities for expansion of the irrigated area are limited. Thus, the area of
cropland will have fallen from 0.31 to about 0.29 ha per capita agricultural population in the three years 1990-1993.
Figure 1 - South Asia region. 90-day LGP = 90-day length of growing period {FAO, 1982)
TABLE 1
Land use in South Asia, 1990
Country
Total Land
Arable and
permanent crops
Permanent pasture
Forests and
woodlands
Other land
(Mha)
(Mha)
(Mha)
(Mha)
(Mha)
Afghanistan*
65.21
8.05
12
30.00
46
1.90
25.26
39
Bangladesh
13.02
9.13
70
0.60
1.86
14
1.42
11
Bhutan
4.70
0.13
0.27
2.61
56
1.69
35
India
297.32
169.08
57
12.05
66.70
22
49.49
17
Iran
163.60
15.05
44.00
27
18.02
11
86.53
53
Nepal
13.68
2.65
19
2.00
15
2.48
18
6.55
48
Pakistan
77.09
20.75
27
5.00
3.55
47.79
62
Sri Lanka
6.46
1.90
29
0.44
2.08
32
2.04
32
Region
641.08
226.74
35
94.36
15
99.20
15
220.78
35
Asia-Pacific
3 001.46
453.32
15
1036.83
23
660.20
22
851.12
28
World
13079.15
1444.22
11
3402.08
26
4027.57
31
4205.29
32
Source: RAPA (1992).

* FAO Production Yearbook, Vol. 45, 1991.
TABLE 2
Land and population in South Asia, 1990
Country
Total
land area
(Mha)
Total
population
rate
(million)
Population
density
(per km)
Population
growth
(1980-90)
(% per year)
Agricultural
population
(million)
Land per capita
Agricul
tural
land
(ha)
Crop
Land
(ha)
Permanent
pasture
(ha)
Afghanistan
65.21
16.56
30
2.6
9.07
4.20
0.89
3.31
Bangladesh
13.02
115.59
888
2.3
79.22
0.12
0.12
0.01
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Bhutan
4.70
1.52
32
2.1
1.38
0.29
0.10
0.20
India
297.32
853.09
287
2.1
535.60
0.34
0.32
0.02
Iran
163.60
54.61
33
3.6
14.64
4.03
1.03
3.01
Nepal
13.68
19.14
139
2.6
17.56
0.26
0.15
0.11
Pakistan
77.09
122.63
159
3.1
64.94
0.40
0.32
0.08
Sri Lanka
6.46
17.22
267
1.4
8.90
0.26
0.21
0.05
Region
641.08
1200.36
187
2.39
731.31
0.44
0.31
0.13
Asia-Pacific
3 001.46
2 980.23
99
1.84
1 738.81
0.86
0.26
0.60
World
13
079.15
5 314.75
41
1.75
2 389.91
2.03
0.60
1.42
Source: RAPA (1992); FAO Production Yearbook, Vol. 45, 1991.

Agricultural land = Cropland plus permanent pasture.
Cropland = Arable and permanent crops.
Results from the FAO study of population supporting capacities serve to emphasize the special position of the region (FAO, 1982).
Even in 1975, the actual populations exceeded the capacity of land to support them at a low lever of inputs for six of the eight
countries, whilst Pakistan was close to this limit. Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Iran were close to the limits for population
supporting capacity at an intermediate input lever, and were projected to exceed these at their estimated population levers in the
year 2000.
This is the basic situation in the region: a large and growing population pressing upon an area of land which offers little opportunity
for further expansion. As will be shown, the problems which arise from this position are now being aggravated by a decline in the
land resource base through degradation.
Environment
A brief summary of some major features of the physical environment of the region serves two purposes. First, it indicates some
climatic, landform and soil features which give rise to natural hazards of degradation, such as steep slopes and rainfall of high
intensity. Secondly, it is the basis for the major contrasts in the types of land degradation found in different parts of the region.
Only an outline is given. Further details will be found in reports of the agro-ecological zones study (FAO, 1978-80), and in
publications for individual countries listed in the references. Additional sources are given in an annotated bibliography, 1993
Directory of Country Environmental Studies (World Resources Institute, 1992).
Climate Four of the eight countries - Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka - have predominantly humid climates, whilst three,
Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran, have predominantly dry climates. India lies across this major climatic divide, humid or subhumid
over some 75% of its area, semi-arid to aria in the north-western quarter. The fine of the 90-day growing period serves to demarcate
the boundary between these two zones (FAO, 1982).
This broad climatic grouping is here used as the basis for summarizing land degradation on a regional scale. India is divided into
"India, dry region" and "India, humid region", separated by the fine marking a 90-day growing period. Two climatic zones are
employed (Figure 1):
Dry zone
Humid zone
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
India, dry region
Bhutan
Iran
India, humid region
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Pakistan
Nepal
Sri Lanka
Two climatic features lead to high natural hazards of degradation. First, the rainfall of the humid zone is monsoonal in character,
falling in limited periods of the year and often with high intensity, giving a high liability to water erosion. Secondly, rainfall in the
dry zone is not only low but highly variable, leading to recurrent droughts and the consequences for wind erosion and desertification.
Landform Major contrasts in the statue of land degradation also originate from the three major physiographic regions which occupy
the region:
The mountain belt of the Himalayas, Hindu Kush and associated mountain area of Iran. This belt stretches along the whole
northern border of the region, including parts of all countries except Sri Lanka.
The alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganges river systems of India and Pakistan, with which may be grouped the interior
basins of Iran.
The uplands of the Deccan of India, together with the central hill massif of Sri Lanka.
The nature of the river systems in the northern part of the region is of special significance. These originate in the snows and high
rainfall areas of the mountain belt, from which they flow across the alluvial plains. This offers a major resource for agriculture, but
at the same time, presents specific problems of water management.
The steep slopes of the mountain belt lead to high hazard of soil erosion by water, whilst in association with the monsoonal rainfall,
this hazard is also considerable in the uplands. The alluvial plains give rise to special problems associated with management of their
rivers and groundwater resources.
Soils Because of the range of climatic, geological and physiographic conditions, virtually all of the major soil types of tropical areas
occur in the region, together with some characteristic of subtropical and mountain zones. Strongly leached ferralsols and acrisols are
widespread in the humid zone, whilst the volcanic lavas of the western Deccan carry an extensive area of vertisols (black, cracking
clays). In the more humid parts of the alluvial plains, cambisols and fluvisols (alluvial soils) are extensive. The dry zone includes
large areas of calcisols and fluvisols, and in Iran, naturally occurring solonchaks (saline soils).
Of special relevance is the large extent of what have been termed problem soils, those which present special problems for
agricultural use. In a recent review, eleven types of problems soils were identified, with a combined extent of over 80% of the land
area of the region (Dent, 1990). Areas of problem soils are also called 'fragile lands', meaning that they have a high degradation
hazard if not carefully managed. Parts of them have also been called 'marginal lands', meaning that they lie close to the margin for
sustainable agricultural use.
Each type of problem soil leads to specific hazards for degradation. In terms of area covered, the most widespread problems are
steeply sloping land, dry land, and land with severe fertility limitations (Dent, 1990, p. 67).
Vegetation A high proportion of the humid zone was once covered with forest, but because of the long period of habitation by the
ancient civilizations of the region, large areas of this would already have been cleared at least a thousand years ego. The forest
which remains is concentrated in the mountain and hill areas, where it constitutes a major natural resource, protecting the slopes
from erosion and stabilizing the flow of rivers. Deforestation of these areas is now widespread, being at the same time a form of land
degradation in itself and a cause of other types of degradation.
The dry zone is occupied by various types of open woodland and grassland. Because of the limited opportunities for cultivation,
these vegetation formations constitute a major resource for land use in the zone. As discussed below, this resource has been greatly
reduced by degradation, both of the woody and herbaceous components of the vegetation.
Irrigation systems
Although not forming part of the natural environment, irrigation systems have been widely developed in the region, such that they
now make a major contribution to its land resources. Four types of systems may be distinguished, each presenting different problems
of management and hazards of de gradation :
1. The large reservoir-and-canal based systems of the alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganges.
2. Areas of groundwater irrigation on these same plains, originally from shallow hand-constructed wells, now mainly from
power-driven tubewells.
3. The varied systems of the Deccan uplands and Sri Lanka, including those based on major reservoirs, small earth dams
('tanks'), and wells. In Sri Lanka, some of these systems are of ancient origin, now rehabilitated.
4. The complex systems found in Iran and Afghanistan, including the ancient method using underground charnels ('qanats').
Management of the surface and groundwater resources of these irrigation systems has led to extensive problems, particularly
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waterlogging and salinization.

Following this introduction, the Report can be grouped into four parts, corresponding to the objectives of the study.
Objective 1:
The statue of land degradation: Chapters 2-5
Objective 2:The causes and consequences of land de gradation: Chapters 6-8
Objective 3:
Institutions to combat degradation: Chapter 9
Objective 4:
Conclusions, and proposals for strengthening efforts to combat land de gradation: Chapter 10
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Chapter 2 - Types of land degradation

Definitions
Definitions
The term land, as employed in land evaluation, land use planning, etc., has a wider meaning than just soil.
It refers to all natural resources which contribute to agricultural production, including livestock production
and forestry. Land thus covers climate and water resources, landform, soils and vegetation, including both
grassland resources and forests (FAO, 1976; UNEP, 1992b).
Land degradation is the temporary or permanent lowering of the productive capacity of land (UNEP,
1992b). It thus covers the various forms of soil degradation, adverse human impacts on water resources,
deforestation, and lowering of the productive capacity of rangelands.
This study takes the degradation of soil resources as its focus. This includes soil erosion by water and
wind, deterioration in soil physical, chemical and biological properties, waterlogging, and the build-up of
toxicities, particularly salts, in the soil. Since soil productivity is intimately connected with water
availability, lowering of the groundwater table is also noted. Since deforestation is being treated in detail in
a current FAO study, it is here considered primarily as a cause of soil degradation, particularly erosion.
Land degradation has both on-site and off-site effects. On-site effects are the lowering of the productive
capacity of the land, causing either reduced outputs (crop yields, livestock yields) or the need for increased
inputs. Off-site effects of water erosion occur through changes in the water regime, including decline in
river water quality, and sedimentation of river beds and reservoirs. The main off-site effect of wind erosion
is overblowing, or sand deposition.
Desertification The term desertification originated with a specific meaning, as for exemple in the 1977
World map of desertification (UNEP, 1977). It was subsequently widely used and misused in a broader
sense. These wider meanings have sometimes been extended to almost all forms of land degradation, for
exemple soil erosion in the humid tropics (Young, 1985). The recent World atlas of desertification (UNEP,
1992a) includes all the six groups of land degradation covered in the present study thus implicitly, from its
title, using the term in the broader sense.
Following agreement at a recent UNEP conference, the term has been defined with a more restricted
meaning:
Desertification is land degradation in aria, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas resulting from adverse human
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impact (UNEP, 1992b).

This is the meaning in which the term is employed in the ESCAP network on desertification (ESCAP,
1983, 1991b). In this study, therefore, desertification is equivalent to land degradation in the dry zone, and
need not be separately assessed as a type of degradation.

For the purpose of this study, the many and varied processes of land degradation have been grouped into
six classes: water erosion, wind erosion, soil fertility decline, salinization, waterlogging, and lowering of
the water table.
Water erosion covers all forms of soil erosion by water, including sheet and rill erosion and gullying.
Human-induced intensification of landsliding, caused by vegetation clearance, road construction, etc., is
also included.
Wind erosion refers to loss of soil by wind, occurring primarily in dry regions.
Soil fertility decline is used as a short term to refer to what is more precisely described as deterioration in
soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Whilst decline in fertility is indeed a major effect of
erosion, the term is used here of cover effects of processes other than erosion. The main processes
involved are:
lowering of soil organic master, with associated decline in soil biological activity;
degradation of soil physical properties (structure, aeration, water holding capacity), as brought about
by reduced organic master;
adverse changes in soil nutrient resources, including reduction in availability of the major nutrients
(nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), onset of micronutrient deficiencies, and development of nutrient
imbalances.
buildup of toxicities, primarily acidification through incorrect fertilizer use.
Waterlogging is the lowering in land productivity through the rise in groundwater close to the soil surface.
Also included under this heading is the severe form, termed ponding, where the water table rises above the
surface. Waterlogging is linked with salinization, both being brought about by incorrect irrigation
management.
Salinization is used in its broad sense, to refer to all types of soil degradation brought about by the
increase of salts in the soil. It thus covers both salinization in its strict sense, the buildup of free salts; and
codification (also called alkalization), the development of dominance of the exchange complex by sodium.
As human-induced processes, these occur mainly through incorrect planning and management of irrigation
schemes. Also covered is saline intrusion, the incursion of sea water into coastal soils arising from
over-abstraction of groundwater.
Lowering of the water table is a self-explanatory form of land degradation, brought about through
tubewell pumping of groundwater for irrigation exceeding the natural recharge capacity. This occurs in
areas of non-saline ('sweet') groundwater. Pumping for urban and industrial use is a further cause.
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Other types of land degradation are treated briefly, treated as causes, or excluded from this review. This is
because they are localized or of small extent on a regional scale, or because they are more fully treated
elsewhere.
Four further classes are recognized as types of land degradation, and as having considerable importance in
the region. One case, deforestation, has been treated by reference to an external review. The two other
types are considered in more generalized terms.
Deforestation The occurrence of deforestation is widespread and extremely serious in the region. It is not
independently assessed here, in view of more detailed treatment in the current FAO Forest resources
assessment 1990 project. Deforestation is also discussed as a cause of erosion.
Forest degradation This is the reduction of biotic resources and lowering of productive capacity of
forests through human activities. It is under review in a current survey (Banerjee and Grimes, in
preparation).
Rangeland degradation This is the lowering of the productive capacity of rangelands. It is considered in
generalized terms, but no quantitative data have been identified.

Other types of degradation are excluded from this study, either because they are of small extent on a
regional scale, or they are more fully treated elsewhere. These are:
Acid sulphate formation, a serious but localized form of degradation, which may occur on drainage
of coastal swamps.
Soil pollution, from industrial or mining effluents, to the atmosphere, rivers or groundwater. This is
an important concern in the region, but is strongly localized.
Soil destruction through mining and quarrying activities, the failure to restore soil after
extraction. The same remarks apply as for soil pollution.
Urban and industrial encroachment onto agricultural land. With the projected increase in
urbanization, this will continue to be a substantial cause of loss of agricultural land, but it is a
different problem from land degradation.
Effects of war. Land degradation on a substantial scale through effects of war has been reported
from Iran (western borderlands) and Afghanistan, in the latter case including the destruction of
irrigation schemes.
Potential effects of global climatic change. It is beyond question that the composition of the
world's atmosphere is being substantially altered as a result of human activities. A small but
significant global warming has already been observed and is projected to continue. It is possible that
this may lead to modifications to the general atmospheric circulation with consequent changes in
rainfall.
These changes could be beneficial or adverse to land productivity or human welfare: specifically, in
semi-arid regions, rainfall might become higher or longer, more reliable or less, or with longer or higher
incidence of droughts. There is, however, no firm evidence of what such changes may tee.
If adverse changes occur in some areas, then these will certainly constitute a most serious form of
human-induced degradation of natural resources. It is accepted that, for a range of reasons, action should
be taken to reduce emissions of 'greenhouse gases'. However, until there is clearer evidence, its potential
effects upon climate must remain a master of research, and these will not be further considered.
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Aridity and drought 'Aridity' and 'drought' are referred to in the ECOSOC resolution on which this study
is based. These, however, are problems of the natural environment in semi-arid and aria areas. In the
subsequent amplifications of the terms of reference it is clear that degradation, namely human-induced
adverse environmental changes, is the intended focus. Therefore aridity and drought would only properly
be included if it could be shown that rainfall had been reduced, or drought spells made more frequent, as a
result of man's activities. This has not been established.
Problem soils. Soils which present special difficulties for agriculture may be called problem soils. They
include saline soils, sandy soils, cracking clays, strongly acid soils, shallow soils, and soils on steeply
sloping or poorly drained land. A comprehensive review for Asia and the Pacific is given in FAO/RAPA
(1990) and a map of problem soils is in preparation.
To the extent that these are problems of the natural environment, problem soils do not constitute land
degradation. However, land degradation frequently leads to an increase in the extent or severity of problem
soils, for example, erosion causes shallow soils. A clear case is that of saline soils: these occur naturally, in
which case they are problem soils, but their extent has been greatly increased by human-induced
salinization.

The effects of water and wind erosion are largely irreversible. Although plant nutrients and soil organic
master may be replaced, to replace the actual loss of soil material would require taking the soil out of use
for many thousands of years, an impractical course of action.
In other cases, land degradation is reversible: soils with reduced organic master can be restored by
additions of plant residues, degraded pastures may recover under improved range management. Salinized
soils can be restored to productive use, although at a high cost, through salinity control and reclamation
projects.
Land reclamation frequently requires inputs which are costly, labour-demanding or both. The reclamation
projects in salinized and waterlogged irrigated areas demonstrate this fact clearly. In other cases, the land
can only be restored by taking it out of productive use for some years, as in reclamation forestry. The cost
of reclamation, or restoration to productive use, of degraded soils is invariably less than the cost of
preventing degradation before it occurs.
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Protection
More details
Chapter 3 - Sources of data


Under an international project, Global assessment of soil degradation (GLASOD), an attempt has been
made for the first time to map the severity of degradation on a world scale, as the World map of the statue of
human-induced soil degradation (Oldeman et al., 1990). The scale at the Equator is 1:15 000 000, becoming
1:13 000 000 at 30 latitude. The project was conducted by the International Soils Research and
Information Centre (ISRIC) under the aegis of UNEP.
A standardized methodology, including definitions, was developed through international consultation. Data
for individual countries was provided by the leading experts available, moderated by ISRIC with the aim of
standardization. The GLASOD assessment (as it will be called) includes all the types of land degradation
covered in the present study, somewhat differently subdivided but in ways that are compatible with the
classification adopted here. This lest feature is of the highest value for filling what would otherwise be gaps
in data from other sources.
At the same time, the authors of GLASOD acknowledge that there are certainly deficiencies in this first
output, and that the World Map should be regarded as a first approximation. For some countries of South
Asia, there exist other estimates, mainly governmental, of the extent of degradation, derived by somewhat
different means. This range of sources provides the opportunity to compare data with the objectives first, of
seeing how consistent these are, and secondly, to obtain best estimates.
For these reasons, it was decided in the present study:
1. To take the GLASOD classification of types of degradation as the basis for development of that used
here, which is simplified and partly regrouped. The equivalence between GLASOD types and those
of the present survey is given in Table 3.
2. To adopt the GLASOD definitions for degrees of severity of degradation (see below).
3. To treat the GLASOD assessments of the extent of degradation as a starting point or standard, against
which other estimates can be compared; but not necessarily to adopt them as the best estimates where
evidence suggests otherwise.
TABLE 3 - Correspondence between GLASOD types of degradation and those of the present study
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Wd
Terrain deformation/mass movement
Et
Loss of topsoil
Ed
Terrain deformation
Eo
Overblowing
Cn
Loss of nutrients and/or organic master
Ca
Acidification
Pc
Compaction, sealing and crusting
Salinization
Cs
Salinization
Waterlogging
Pw
Waterlogging
Lowering of the groundwater table
Pa
Aridification
Wind erosion
* The GLASOD classes of Eo overblowing, Cp pollution, and Fs subsidence of organic soils were not
reported for map units of South Asia. The class Pa aridification was included Guidelines for the GLASOD
study and reported on South Asia Data sheets, but is not included in GLASOD maps.
TABLE 4 - GLASOD definitions of degrees of degradation
The degree to which the soil is presently degraded is estimated in relation to changes in agricultural
suitability, in relation to declined productivity and in some cases in relation to its biotic functions. Four
levers are recognized:
1. Light:
The terrain has somewhat reduced agricultural suitability, but is suitable for use in local
farming systems. Restoration to full productivity is possible by modifications of the
management system. Original biotic functions are still largely intact.
2. Moderate:
The terrain has greatly reduced agricultural productivity, but is still suitable for use in local
farming systems. Major improvements are required to restore productivity. Original biotic
functions are partially destroyed.
3. Strong:
The terrain is non reclaimable at farm lever. Major engineering works are required for terrain
restoration. Original biotic functions are largely destroyed.
The terrain is unreclaimable and beyond restoration. Original biotic functions are
4. Extreme:
fully destroyed.
In the present study these same definitions are employed, but are referred to as "degree", "degree of severity"
or "severity of degradation", all with the same meaning.
Degrees of severity of degradation
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As will be made clear in later discussion, the definition of the degree, or severity, of degradation is of the
highest importance. The definitions used in the present study are the same as those of degrees of
degradation in GLASOD. In the present state of knowledge they are necessarily nonquantitative, although
they contain guidelines for quantification.
In view of the importance of these definitions, they are given in full in Table 4. In abbreviated form the
degrees of degradation are:
Light: somewhat reduced agricultural productivity.
Moderate: greatly reduced agricultural productivity.
Strong: unreclaimable at farm lever.
Extreme: unreclaimable and impossible to restore (with present technology).
The class 'Extreme' was not reported for any map unit in South Asia (one data sheet contained it originally,
reduced on moderation to 'Strong').
In terms of their effects, the farmer is still using land with light and moderate degrees of degradation, but
the boundary with strong degradation is the point at which land use has to be abandoned. Light degradation
may not be clearly visible, but the farmer knows that yields (or other production) are longer than they might
otherwise have been, or that additional inputs are necessary. Moderate degradation will often be visibly
apparent, including stunted crops or sparsely vegetated rangeland, and yields are clearly and substantially
longer. By definition, strong degradation means that the land has been abandoned , and no longer has
potential for production.
Data for South Asia
For reason of cartographic necessity, the GLASOD World Map shows only the dominant form of
degradation (as severity times extent) as coloured mapped areas, with the secondary form shown in the map
symbol. Where, as happened widely, three or more forms of degradation were reported for the same map
unit, only the first two appear on the map. This results in gaps when an attempt is made to abstract one form
of degradation, say wind erosion, for all areas. This situation has recently been improved by the printing of
maps of individual kinds of degradation, at a smaller scale, in the World atlas of desertification (UNEP,
1992a).
As part of the collaborative input to the present project, however, the complete original data sheets were
made available, together with associated country maps and correspondence. These contain substantially
more information than the published maps. Each data sheet (known as matrix tables) refers to a delineated
map unit. For the unit, it gives:
background information: physiography, soils, geology, climate, population, land use, vegetation;
area of the map unit (square kilometres);
a list of all types of land degradation identified, giving for each its type, degree (severity), extent (as
percentage of the map unit affected), present rate, and principal causes;
remarks, on each type and on the unit as whole.
Data on extent are given as five classes on a quasi-geometric scale, with bounds of S. 10, 25 and 50%. For
the present study these were converted to a central value (using the geometric mean) and multiplied by the
area of the unit to give a best estimate of the area affected by the type of degradation.
Treating one map unit with, say, 3 types of degradation as 3 records, and omitting units with no
degradation, available data is as follows:
Country
Afghanistan
Number of map units
Number of records
17
26
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Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
26
33
Iran
59
103
Nepal
Pakistan
28
46
Sri Lanka
27
The records were put into a relational database, reviewed to remove errors, and analysed.
ISRIC/UNEP provided specially prepared maps showing the extent and severity of each type of degradation
for the eight countries of South Asia.
Treatment of Bhutan
There are no GLASOD data sheets for Bhutan. The world map appears to treat this by extrapolation of
conditions reported from adjacent countries to west and east, and the first procedure tried was to abstract
this information and construct data sheets. However, this gave an estimate of area affected by water erosion
over twice that of the FAO figure for total area under crops and pasture.
Whilst extrapolation is applicable to the physiographic zones, Bhutan has a much longer population
density. It is reported that whilst there is a high hazard of erosion, including landsliding, "environmental
planning precedes, and thereby hopefully prevents, environmental degradation" (Bhutan National
Environmental Secretariat, 1992). It would be possible to assign zero degradation to the country, but this
might give a false impression that no problem existed.
After discussion with FAO staff who have visited the country, a working assumption was made. This is that
10% of the reported area under crops and pasture is affected by water erosion, of which 9% is light and 1%
strong, the latter representing landslides and gullies. This is intended to convert into figures the reported
situation that the problem is not presently severe, but exists and should be guarded against in the future.
The total area is so small that this assumption does not appreciably affect regional totals. No other type of
degradation has been reported for Bhutan.
The GLASOD assessment: results
In the presentation of results, for the purpose of broad regional comparison the countries have been grouped
into a dry zone, with predominantly semi-arid and aria climates, and humid zone countries. Using the
database, India was divided into dry and humid regions, the dry region being taken as all map units with
rainfall not exceeding 750 mm per year (mainly the State of Rajasthan and western parts of Harayana,
Gujerat and Punjab). Thus dry zone refers to Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and the dry region of India, humid
zone to Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and the humid region of India.
In the tables, areas are given in units of 1000 hectares. For discussion in the text, values are for the most
part rounded to millions of hectares.
It should be noted that whilst "severity" is used in a specialized sense on the GLASOD map legend, in the
present study, "degree", "degree of severity" and "severity" of degradation are all used with the same
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meaning.

The starting point for estimates of the type, severity and extent of degradation is the report of the regional
expert consultation Environmental issues in land and water development (FAO/RAPA, 1992). This includes
a regional overview, and country reports for Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Other recent
reviews containing data for more than one type of degradation are FAO/RAPA (1990) and ESCAP (1990a).
Data for Afghanistan and Bhutan are qualitative only, and were obtained mainly from the respective
UNCED reports (Afghanistan, Ministry of Planning, 1992; Bhutan, National Environmental Secretariat,
1992). Data sources for specific types of degradation are cited in context below. A valuable recent guide to
sources of environrnental data is the annotated bibliography 1992 Directory of country environmental
studies (World Resources Institute, 1992).
Most of these data ultimately derive from surveys or estimates by Government institutions: soil survey, soil
conservation and irrigation management departments. Most of these estimates were initially obtained with
care and effort, either from surveys or by assembly of estimates submitted by state and district branches and
officers. They suffer, however, from a failure properly to define the degree of severity of the degradation for
which an area is reported. As a consequence, different estimates may vary by a factor of two, or sometimes
more.
The same data may be copied many times. Secondary publications sometimes do not make clear their
sources (or even, in a few instances, units!). For all these other sources the data are highly non-uniform,
both in availability and nature, as between the countries of the region.
For these reasons, the decision was made to take the GLASOD survey as a standard, which is then
compared with other estimates. Only where there appears to be clear evidence of a data bias in the
GLASOD survey have its results been modified from other sources to obtain best estimates as used in the
present study.

A major finding of the present comparative review is that large variations exist between different estimates
of areas affected by degradation. A lack of surveys, and different methods used, is a contributory factor to
this problem. The major cause, however, is believed to be the lack of precision in defining what is being
surveyed.
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Protection
More details
Chapter 4 - Status of degradation. I. Erosion and fertility decline

Water erosion
Wind erosion
Water erosion
(Tables 5 and 6, Figures 2 and 3)
According to the GLASOD assessment, a total of 83 M ha is assessed as affected by water erosion in the
region, or 25 % of the total area under crops and pasture. This is made up of 33 M ha with light erosion, 36
M ha moderate and 13 M ha strong erosion. The dry zone is most affected with 39% of the area under crops
and pasture, compared with 18% for the humid zone.
The countries most seriously affected are in absolute area India and Iran, and relative to crops and pasture,
Iran, Sri Lanka and Nepal. Examples where erosion has reached the severe degree, leading to abandonment
of land, include parts of the hill areas of Sri Lanka (Stocking, 1992; Sri Lanka, Natural Resources, Energy
and Science Authority, 1991, p.120), and the Pothwar Plateau of the Punjab region of Pakistan (Nizami and
Shafiq, 1990). For current erosion under inappropriate land use, there are many estimates in excess of 100
t/ha per year, including for parts of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka (e.g. Das et al., 1991; Stocking, 1992).
The map shows a clear relation to physiographic units. Most affected are the populated mountain regions of
the Himalaya-Hindu Kush, the mountainous rim of Iran, and the areas of predominantly rainfed agriculture
of the Deccan of India (with the Western Ghats most seriously affected) and Sri Lanka. Also affected are
strips where the Gangetic river system has cut into terraces, whilst ravines are widespread along the rivers
Jumna and Chambal.
Table 6 shows some estimates of areas affected by water erosion, giving the words used to define the areas
stated. For India, the earlier estimates are in the range 69-127 M ha, which is 2-4 times the GLASOD
estimate. The figure of 4 M ha under gullies or ravines has frequently been quoted, and is one third that of
the GLASOD value for strong degradation. The estimate of Sehgal and Abrol (1992) is a new assessment by
the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning "following the criteria and guidelines of the
GLASOD methodology". The value is over twice the original GLASOD estimate. For Pakistan, the totals
are of the same magnitude, 11.2 as compared with 7.2 M ha.
These comparisons illustrate what will be found repeatedly, that estimates of areas affected by land
degradation show a wide range of values.
TABLE 5 - GLASOD assessment: areas affected by water erosion (Unit: 1000 ha)
Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
Total as percent of
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land
Afghanistan
8 560
2 597
11 156
29%
Bangladesh
1 504
1 504
15%
Bhutan
36
40
10%
India
2 936
17 217
12 620
32 773
18%
Iran
14 504
11 896
26 400
45%
Nepal
520
1 072
1 592
34%
Pakistan
6 080
1 124
7 204
28%
Sri Lanka
72
157
845
1 074
46%
India, dry region
1 177
1676
2 853
India, humid region
1 759
17 217
10 944
29 920
Dry zone
30 320
15 617
1 676
47 613
32%
Humid zone
2 387
19 951
11 791
34 130
20%
Region
32 707
35 568
13 468
81 743
25%
TABLE 6 - Country estimates of areas affected by water erosion
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Affected by water erosion
111
Severely eroded and
Pakistan
RAPA (1992, p. 195)

106
At critical stage of degradation

(water & wind erosion)
69
Das (1977)
Eroded
74
Society for Promotion of Wastelands

Development (1984)
Gullies
Das (1977); India, National Land Use and

Conservation Board (1988)
Water erosion
87
Sehgal and Abrol (1992)
Slightly eroded
0.4
Mian and Javed 11989)
Moderately eroded
3.6
RAPA (1990, p. 229)
Severely eroded
3.7
Very severely eroded
3.4
Total eroded
11.2
In terms of total area affected, water erosion is the most serious problem of land degradation in the region. It
is the only degradation type which is widely found both in the dry and humid zones.
As the basis for discussion in the remainder of this report, the GLASOD estimates for water erosion are
accepted, whilst noting that for India, it is possible that they are 2-3 times higher.
Figure 2 - Water erosion severity (GLASOD estimate)
Figure 3 - Erosion and fertility decline: GLASOD assessment
Wind erosion
In the GLASOD estimate, a total of 59 M ha is assessed as affected by wind erosion in the region, Iying
entirely within the dry zone. Within this zone, 48% of land under crops and pasture is affected. This is
predominantly, 34 M ha, of moderate degree. It is very unevenly represented by countries, affecting 60% of
agricultural land in Iran and 42% in Pakistan, whilst the dry region of India has the same total area affected,
11 M ha, as Pakistan.
The map illustrates this clear and expected localization in the dry belt stretching from central Iran to the
Thar Desert of Pakistan and India. The irrigated belt of the Indus system cuts a swathe through the affected
zone, with wind erosion occurring along the unirrigated belts between river systems.
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The relatively low proportion of Afghanistan mapped as affected by wind erosion is surprising, although the
high altitude and consequent longer evapotranspiration of its low-rainfall areas may be partly responsible.
The national report to the UNCED conference stases, "desertification and erosion continue unabated"
(Afghanistan, Ministry of Planning, 1992). This situation requires clarification when political conditions
permit.
Table 8 shows country estimates. For India, one estimate is similar to the GLASOD total, the others three
times higher. For Pakistan, the country estimate is about half that of GLASOD. However, a recent land use
survey of the whole country includes the mapping units, "range land, non-degraded" and "range land,
degraded"; by inspection, it appears that over 90%, possibly 95%, of range land is considered to be
degraded (Asian Development Bank, 1992b).
TABLE 7 - GLASOD assessment: areas affected by wind erosion (Unit: 1000 ha)
Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
Total as percent
of land
Afghanistan
1 873
209
2 082
5%
Bangladesh
0%
Bhutan
0%
India
1 754
9 042
10 796
6%
Iran
6 559
25 730
3 085
35 374
60%
Nepal
0%
Pakistan
3 998
6 742
10 740
42%
Sri Lanka
0%
India, dry region
1 754
9 042
10 796
India humid region
Dry zone
12 430
34 225
12 337
58 992
39%
Humid zone
0%
Region
12 430
34 225
12 337
58 992
18%
TABLE 8 - Country estimates of areas affected by wind erosion
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Pakistan
Subject to wind erosion
38.7
RAPA (1992, p. 195)
32.0
Das (1977)
17.7
Slightly eroded
2.6
Mian and Javed (1989)
Moderately eroded
0.5
RAPA (1992, p. 363)
Severely eroded
1.6
Total eroded
4.8
As the basis for discussion in the remainder of this report, the GLASOD estimates for wind erosion are
accepted.
Figure 4 - Wind erosion severity (GLASOD estimate)

(Tables 9 and 10, Figure 3)
The GLASOD estimate
GLASOD defines this form of degradation as "loss of nutrients and/or organic master. The GLASOD
assessment shows 65% of agricultural land in Bangladesh and 61% in Sri Lanka affected by this type of
degradation. No other areas are reported apart from three map units in India, described on the data sheets as
having "heavy leaching with lateritic crust formation". However, a recent country analysis of the GLASOD
results gives a much larger value of 26 200 ha (Sehgal and Abrol, 1992).
It is clear that there is a reporting bias here. The respondents for Bangladesh and Sri Lanka recognize this
form of degradation as being widespread on cropland, both rainfed and irrigated, whilst those for other
countries of the humid zone initially did not (but see below). Evidence of the existence of this form of
degradation calls for discussion.
Evidence for soil fertility decline
Over the past 30 years there has been a large increase in fertilizer consumption in the region, associated
with the introduction of high-yielding crop varieties. Bangladesh, India, Iran, Pakistan and Sri Lanka all
now apply on average more than 70 kg/ha nutrients. This has been a major factor in the increase in crop
yields over the period.
However, an inter-related set of soil fertility problems has been reported, directly or indirectly associated
with fertilizer application. An early report is from 1981 (Bowonder, 1981) and evidence is accumulating.
These problems are as follows.
Organic master depletion Crop residues are widely used as fuel and fodder, and not returned to the soil.
This results in a decrease in soil organic master content. In Bangladesh, the average organic master
(presumably of topsoils) is said to have declined by 50%, from 2% to 1 %, over the past 20 years
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(Bangladesh, 1992). For the Indian State of Harayana, soil test reports over 15 years show a decrease in soil
carbon (Chaudhary and Aneja, 1991). Decreased organic master leads to:
degradation of soil physical properties, including water holding capacity, as has developed in India
(Indian Council of Agricultural Research, persona! communication);
reduced nutrient retention capacity;
longer release of nutrients, including micronutrients, from mineralization of organic master.
As a consequence of all these effects, there may be longer response to fertilizer.
A continuing negative soil nutrient balance. Removal of nutrients from the soil in crop harvest appears
substantially to exceed inputs as natural replacement and fertilizers. Negative soil nutrient balances have
been reported for all three major nutrients in Bangladesh and Nepal; for phosphorus and potassium in Sri
Lanka, and a large deficit for potassium in Pakistan (FAO, 1986b). Nutrient depletion has been reported for
each of the 15 agro-climatic regions of India (Biswas and Tewatia, 1991; Tandon, 1992, citing other
sources). For India, a deficiency between nutrient removal and addition of 60 kg/ha per year, or 9 Mt for the
whole country, has been estimated (Tandon, 1992).
TABLE 9 - GLASOD assessment: areas affected by soil fertility decline*. (Unit: 1000 ha)
Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
Total as percent
of agricultural
land
Afghanistan
0%
Bangladesh
6 367
6 367
65%
Bhutan
0%
India
3 183
3 183
2%
Iran
0%
Nepal
0%
Pakistan
0%
Sri Lanka
693
731
1 425
61 %
India, dry region
India humid
region
3 183
3 183
Dry zone
0%
Humid zone
7 060
731
3 183
10 974
6%
Region
7 060
731
3 183
10 974
3%
* Described in GLASOD as "Loss of nutrients and/or organic matter".
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TABLE 10 - Soil fertility decline: revised estimates (Unit: 1000 ha)

Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
Total as
percent of
land
India
26 200*
3 183
29 383
16%
Pakistan
5 200
5 200
20%
* Of which 2 200 are attributed to the dry region.

Imbalance in fertilizer application Fertilizer use in the region is dominated by nitrogen; N:P and N:K
ratios are higher than in the other parts of the world. For example, the N:P:K ratio for India is 1.00: 0.33:
0.17 compared with 1.00: 0.52: 0.40 for the world (FAO data; Pradhan, 1992). This trend originated in the
early years of the 'green revolution'. When fertilizers are first applied to a soil, a high response is frequently
obtained from nitrogen. The improved crop growth depletes the soil of other nutrients; "In such systems,
nitrogen is simply used as a shovel to mine the soil of other nutrients" (Tandon, 1992). Long-term
experiments in India show depletion of soil P and K are higher for plots with N fertilizer, and depletion of K
still higher with N+P fertilizer (Tandon, 1992). In Pakistan, use of nitrogen (mainly as urea) is still
increasing, whereas use of phosphorus has levelled off in the lest 5 years, and very little potassium or
micronutrient fertilizers are applied (Twyford, 1994).
FIGURE 5 - Pakistan: kilogrammes of wheat produced per kilogramme of nitrogen supplied as fertilizer
(Twyford, 1994)
Secondary and micronutrient deficiencies An increasing incidence of sulphur and zinc deficiency is
occurring in the region. Sulphur deficiency has been reported for India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, and zinc
deficiency for India and Pakistan (FAO/RAPA, 1992, p.65; Bowonder, 1981; Chaudhary and Aneja, 1991;
Abrol, 1990). For Bangladesh, 3.9 M ha are reported deficient in sulphur and 1.75 M ha in zinc, including
areas of continuous swamp rice cultivation (Bangladesh, 1992; Shaheed, 1992). Pakistan, because of its
generally alkaline soils, is particularly liable to micronutrient deficiencies, which are being increasingly
reported (Twyford, 1994).
Failure of increases in fertilizer use to be matched by increases in crop yield A levelling off, or plateau,
in the crop yield increases which took place in the 1960s and 1970s is found in many countries of the
region. The situation is clearly illustrated by data for Pakistan, where more or less linear increases in
fertilizer nutrient use have not been equalled by rates of yield increase for wheat, rice and sugar cane
(Figure 5). There may be several reasons for this serious effect, but a major contributory factor is
undoubtedly decline in soil productivity (Chaudhary and Aneja, 1991).
Lower responses to fertilizers Long-term experiments in India have shown low or zero response to N
fertilizer under severe P deficiency, and a low (and uneconomic) response to N-P-K fertilizer where there is
zinc deficiency (Tandon, 1992). A striking exemple is a 33-year fertilizer experiment at Ranchi, Bihar;
despite changes to improved varieties, wheat yields have declined substantially over the period with N. NP
and NPK fertilization, whereas they have risen with farmyard manure (Goswami and Rattan, 1992).
Despite the reports cited above, a statement has recently been made with respect to Bangladesh that, "On
present evidence, it is difficult to establish any significant trends in soil fertility. That is mainly because of
the lack of long-term monitoring studies" (World Bank, 1991).
The existence of such a view highlights the urgent need for study of these problems. Two methods are
available:
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1. Long-term experiments These should be maintained or, where necessary, established at a limited
number of representative sites in countries of the region. Difficulties are sometimes experienced in
justifying funding for long-term experiments, but they are of immense value, and consideration
should be given to international support for a network.
2. Soil monitoring This is the monitoring of changes in soil properties over time, on a
statistically-based selection of sites on farmland. A high degree of standardization of analytical
methods is essential. Soil monitoring should become a major element in the work of national soil
survey organizations (Young, 1991).
The above evidence does not indicate the areal extent of soil fertility decline, other than that it is extensive
in the region. It is the objective of this study, however, to obtain best estimates, and for this purpose, an
adjustment will be made to what is considered a reporting bias in the GLASOD estimates. Given the large
areas (60-65 % of agricultural land) reported as having nutrient deficiency in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, and
the existence of reports as outlined above, it is tentatively, and conservatively, estimated that an additional
20% of the agricultural land of both India and Pakistan are affected by soil fertility decline, at least to a light
degree.
Revised country estimates Whilst soil fertility decline was shown for India only for a small area, as the
above evidence has accumulated its greater extent has been accepted. A recent estimate gives 26.2 M ha as
affected by loss of nutrients. There is no corresponding estimate for Pakistan, but evidence of the
widespread occurrence of fertility decline is equally strong.
Consequently, as the basis for the rest of this report, the GLASOD estimates for soil fertility decline are
revised for India and Pakistan, as in Table 10.
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Protection
More details
Chapter 5 - Status of degradation. II. Other types of degradation and

summary
Waterlogging
Salinization
Discussion
Waterlogging
(Tables 11 and 12, Figure 6)
Waterlogging is the rise of the water table into the root zone of the soil profile, such that plant growth is
adversely affected by deficiency of oxygen. The critical depth depends on the kind of crop, but waterlogging is
commonly defined as light for a soil profile depth of 3 m for substantial parts of the year, and moderate for less
than 1.5 m. The severe degree occurs with a water table at 0-30 cm depth, and also included in this study is
ponding, where it rises above the surface.
Waterlogging as a form of land degradation should be distinguished from naturally occurring poorly drained
areas, and also from the different problem of flooding, which is noted below.
In the GLASOD estimate, waterlogging affects 4.6 M ha, largely in the irrigated areas of India and Pakistan. It is
closely linked with salinization. In Iran it occurs in the coastal zone. The progressive rise in the water table
beneath the Indo-Gangetic plains since the commencement of large scale irrigation schemes in the 1930s has
been monitored (e. g. Ahmad and Kutcher, 1992).
TABLE 11 - GLASOD assessment: areas affected by waterlogging (Unit: 1000 ha)
Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
Total as
percent of
agricultural
land
Afghanistan
0%
Bangladesh
0%
Bhutan
0%
India
3 083
3 083
2%
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Iran
551
551
1%
Nepal
0%
Pakistan
965
965
4%
Sri Lanka
0%
India, dry region
3 083
3 083
India, humid region
Dry zone
1 516
3 083
4 599
3%
Humid zone
0%
Region
1 516
3 083
4 599
1%
TABLE 12A - Country estimates of areas affected by waterlogging

Country
W.T. Depth (cm)
Area
(100 ha)
Source
India
Waterlogging
8 530
RAPA 11992, p. 195)
India
Waterlogging
7 000
Pakistan
200-100
2 507
Ahmad and Kutcher (1992, p. 42)
100-0
1 170
Total
3 676
100- 150
318
Mian and Javed (1989) quoting
50-100
293
data of Soil Survey of Pakistan
0 50
816
0-150 (saline soil)
127
Total
1 554
Pakistan
0-150
2 120
Ibid., quoting data of WAPDA
Pakistan
0-150
2 068
Ibid., quoting detailed survey of 1978
Pakistan
TABLE 12B - Revised estimates of areas affected by waterlogging

Country
Degree
Area (1000 ha)
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Light
800
Moderate
400
Severe
800
Total
2 000
Pakistan
Figure 6 - Waterlogging, salinity and lowering of the water table: GLASOD assessment
Country estimates are given in Table 12A. For India, the figure given is more than twice the GLASOD estimate.
For Pakistan, four sources quoted give total areas affected of 3.7, 1.6, 2.1 and 2.1 M ha, compared with the
GLASOD value of 0.96 M ha. Since the Pakistan country data come from at least two independent surveys, show
good agreement (relative to the standards found for other types of degradation!) and are believed to result from
detailed field surveys, the country estimates are preferred.
For the purpose of subsequent discussion, the GLASOD estimates of areas affected by waterlogging are
accepted for all countries except Pakistan, for which they are modified as in Table 12B.
Salinization
The generalized term salinization is employed here to cover all changes to soils involving the increase of salt,
including both salinization in the narrow sense, the increase of free salts, and codification, the saturation of the
exchange complex with sodium. The following definitions are in common use:
ECe (mS/cm)
pH
ESP (%)
Saline soils
>2
< 8.2
< 15
Sodic (or non-saline sodic)
<2
> 8.2
> 15
Saline-sodic
>2
variable
> 15
ECe = electrical conductivity of the saturation extract

ESP = exchangeable sodium percentage
Note: limiting values of ECe 4mS/cm and pH 8.5 were formerly used.
In the GLASOD estimate, the region is estimated to have 42 M ha affected by salinization, nearly all in the dry
zone. Of this, 33 M ha are in Iran, where more than half of all agricultural land is shown as being affected. There
are approximately 4 M ha in both India and Pakistan. In relation to irrigated land, the percentage affected appears
as 10% for India, 23% for Pakistan and 9% for Sri Lanka, although these values should be reduced since some of
the salinization results from saline intrusion into unirrigated land.
The values for strong salinization are important, for this by definition refers to land abandoned from cultivation.
The area affected is 10 M ha of which 8 M ha are in Iran and 2 M ha in India. The absence of strong salinization
from areas of Pakistan under similar irrigation and land management systems to those of India suggests a
reporting bias.
The map shows a clear localization in two situations, irrigated land and coastal zones. A dry coastal strip along
much of Iran through Pakistan to Gujarat in India is affected, in part by saline intrusion. The other areas heavily
affected are the Central basin areas of Iran and the irrigation systems of the Indo-Gangetic plains.
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TABLE 13 - GLASOD assessment: areas affected by salinization (Unit: 1000 ha)

Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
Total as percent
of agricultural
land
Afghanistan
1 271
1271
3%
Bangladesh
0%
Bhutan
0%
India
2 111
2 033
4 144
2%
Iran
10 099
14 272
8 301
32 672
55%
Nepal
0%
Pakistan
3 457
377
3 834
15%
Sri Lanka
47
47
2%
India, dry region
2 111
1 695
3 806
India, humid region
338
338
Dry zone
14 828
16 759
9 996
41 583
28%
Humid zone
48
338
386
0.2%
Region
14 828
16 759
10 335
41 969
13%
TABLE 14A - Country estimates of areas affected by salinization

Country
Szabolcs
(1979)
RAPA
(1988)
Dent et al.
(1992)
Massoud
(1977)
Pannamperuma and
Bandyopadhyay
(1980)
Afghanistan
3.10
NA
NA
3.1
NA
Bangladesh
3.02
NA
1.30
3.0
3.70
India*
23.80
7.00
7.04
23.8
26.10
Iran
27.08
NA
21.10
27.1
NA
Pakistan
10.46
10.50
12.00
10.50
10.50
Sri Lanka
0.20
0.16
0.70
NA
NA
NA: Not assessed.
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* For India, a further estimate of 6Mha is given by Sehgal and Abrol (1992).
TABLE 14B - Estimates of areas affected by salinization, Pakistan
Country
Description
Area (Mha)
India
Surface/patchy salinity and sodicity
0.6
Gypsiferous saline/saline-sodic soils
0.7
Mian and Javed (1989) quoting
Porous saline-sodic soils
1.8
data of Soil Survey of Pakistan
Dense saline-sodic soils
1.2
Total
5.3
Slightly saline
1.9
Mian and Javed 11989) quoting
Moderately saline
1.0
data of Water and Power
Strongly saline
1.3
Development Authority
Total
4.2
Pakistan
Source
Figure 7 - Salinization severity (GLASOD estimate)
TABLE 14C - Revised estimates of areas affected by salinization

Country
Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
India
3 500
3 500
7 000
Iran
5 000
7 000
4 000
16 000
Pakistan
1 900
1 000
1 300
4 200
Despite the existence of relatively clear definitions of salinity, country estimates show wide ranges of values
(Table 14A and 14B). It should be noted that some of these include naturally occurring saline soils. For India all
are higher than the GLASOD value of 4 M ha, ranging between 7 and 26 M ha. For Pakistan, there is better
agreement; leaving aside three estimates of 9-16 M ha, the GLASOD and six country estimates lie in the range
4-8 M ha. Two apparently independent surveys, by the Soil Survey of Pakistan and the Water and Power
Development Authority, show relative agreement at 5.3 and 4.2 M ha respectively.
Some of the large areas mapped for Iran consist in part of soils may have been naturally saline to some degree.
Some also became salinized at earlier periods, before the modem era; there are records of people living in areas
which are now unpopulated due to saline soils (A. Farshad, persona! communication). Since the present report is
concerned with the modem era, the GLASOD estimate of area of salinization has been reduced.
In Bangladesh, an extension inland of coastal soil salinity has been noted in recent years, where the reduced river
flows, consequent upon irrigation, is not sufficient to dilute and displace sea water. In Sri Lanka, small areas of
light salinization have appeared on irrigated lands of the Mahaweli scheme; the problem has not yet reached
serious proportions, but should be monitored.
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Estimates of the extent of saline soils need to be associated with the dates of survey. Through successful
reclamation, the extent of saline soils has been reduced in some areas, particularly as a consequence of the series
of Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARP) in Pakistan. For example in the Pakistan Punjab the area
of waterlogged and saline soils, which had risen from 61 000 ha in 1960 to 68 000 in 1966, had been reduced to
23 000 ha by 1985 (Chopra, 1989).
On the basis of this information, the GLASOD estimates for India, Iran and Pakistan are revised as in
Table 14C.

(Table 15, Figure 6)
In areas of deep alluvial deposits and where the groundwater has not become saline, tubewell irrigation has
become widespread, and has led to substantial increases in crop production. Its very success has, however, led to
over-extraction of water, in excess of the rates of recharge. A consequence is that the groundwater table has been
progressively lowered.
TABLE 15 - GLASOD assessment: areas affected by lowering of the groundwater table (Unit: 1000 ha)
Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
Total as percent
of agricultural land
Afghanistan
0%
Bangladesh
0%
Bhutan
0%
India
0%
Iran
12 067
7 434
19 502
33%
Nepal
0%
Pakistan
121
121
0.5%
Sri Lanka
0%
India, dry region
India, humid region
Dry zone
12 067
7 555
19 622
13%
Humid zone
0%
Region
12 067
7555
19 622
6%
In the GLASOD estimate, nearly all of the 20 M ha reported are in Iran, where there is much irrigation from
wells and abstraction beyond the capacity for recharge is widespread. An area of 0.1 M ha is reported for
Pakistan. The absence of a reported area for India suggests that lowering of the water table was not recognized
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by the responding organization as a form of "land" degradation.

This form of degradation has certainly occurred in India. In parts of the Punjab, the water table has fallen by
between 0.5 and 4.0 m in the eight year period 1978-86, and is receding at 0.3-0.5 m per year (Singh, 1992). In
the Sudhar block of Ludhiana district, it has fallen between 1965 and 1989 from 3 m to 11 m, and in Haryana
between 1974 and 1989 from 4.8 m to 7.7 m (Joshi and Tyagi, 1991).
Data on the extent of such lowering in India have not been identified, and the definitions of degrees of severity
are not fully applicable to this type of degradation. However, on the basis of these reports, nominal additions to
the GLASOD estimates of 100 000 ha light and 100 000 ha moderate degradation are made.

Deforestation and forest degradation
Deforestation is a widespread and serious type of land degradation in the region. At the same time, it is a major
cause of other types of degradation, particularly water and wind erosion.
The extent of forest cover in 1980 and 1990, and the annual rate of deforestation, is the subject of a current FAO
project, Forest resources assessment 1990. As the most reliable recent estimate, the data given by this project are
adopted in the present study. It should be noted, however, that like the estirnates for other forms of degradation,
these data are by no means fully agreed. Other estimates exist both for total forest area and rate of deforestation,
which differ by as much as 50% in some cases.
TABLE 16 - Estimates of forest are and rate of deforestation
Country
Total land
area (Mha)
Forest area
1980
(Mha)
Forest area
1990
(Mha)
Forest
cover
1990
(%)
Annual,
Deforestation
(1000 ha)
Rate of
Change (%)
Bangladesh
13.0
1.1
0.8
5.9
38
-3.28
Bhutan
4.7
3.0
2.8
59.8
16
-0.55
India
297.3
55.1
51.7
17.4
339
-0.62
Nepal
13.7
5.6
5.0
36.7
54
-0.98
Pakistan
17.1
2.6
1.9
2.4
77
-2.92
Sri Lanka
6.5
2.0
1.7
7.0
27
-1.34
Total, 6
countries
412.3
69.4
63.9
15.5
551
-0.79
Data for Afghanistan and Iran are not currently available.

Source: FAO forest resources assessment 1990 project.
The FAO data are shown in Table 16. In absolute terms, the annual rate of deforestation has been highest for
India, at 339 000 ha per year, whilst clearance rates of over 50 000 ha per year occur in Nepal and Pakistan.
Even the small country of Bhutan has been losing 16 000 ha of forest each year. In instances these clearances are
reducing what are already very small total forest areas, under 6% of the country for Bangladesh and under 3
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percent for Pakistan. Both these countries are losing 3% of their small remaining forest areas annually.
Quantitative data from the FAO assessment are not currently available for Afghanistan and Iran, but rates of
deforestation there are known to be high. Further information on deforestation for countries of the region is given
in ESCAP (1986).
A related form of land degradation is forest degradation, the reduction of the standing biomass and, in extreme
cases, potential for regrowth of areas which still remain as forest or woodland (Banerjee and Grimes, in press).
Forest degradation results from the cutting of woody formations in excess of their capacity for regrowth. Most
involve cutting of natural forests, but illegal clearances of forest plantations are also found. The problem is
particularly serious, for example, in Nepal and Pakistan, but occurs widely in the region.
Rangeland degradation
Rangeland degradation is reduction in the capacity of natural rangelands to support livestock. It occurs as a result
of excessive livestock populations, inadequate pasture management, or both..
It has not been possible to obtain quantitative estimates of the extent and severity of rangeland degradation,
although these may exist in some of the grassland research institutes of countries of the region. There is no doubt,
however, that the problem is widespread in all countries of the dry zone.
In Pakistan, the productivity of most of the large area of rangelands is estimated to be 1050% of its potential
(Asian Development Bank, 1992a); however, there may still be the capacity for quite rapid recovery where
appropriate pasture management measures are taken (N. Martin, persona! communication). In India, with some
200 M cattle, grazing pressures have caused widespread exhaustion of the stored food reserves of perennial
grasses and their replacement by coarse grasses (Singh, 1988). Rangeland degradation is reported to be severe
and widespread in Afghanistan (ESCAP, 1983).
As defined above, desertification refers to all types of land degradation in the dry zone of the region. It is
therefore not separately assessed. Accounts, with some quantitative data, are given in reports of the
Desertification Control Network for Asia and the Pacific (DESCONAP) (ESCAP, 1983, 1987, 1991b) and in
country reports for Iran (Kholdebarin, 1992; Noohi, 1992) and Pakistan (Hutchinson and Webb, 1987).
Desertification, described as the transformation of savanna to steppe and desert, is reported to have affected large
areas of India (Singh, 1988). It is also widespread and serious in Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan.
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http://www.fao.org/docrep/V4360E/V4360E07.htm#Watershed%20d...

Protection
More details

In mountain and hill regions, land development is frequently and appropriately conducted in terms of watershed
management planning. It is correspondingly possible to assess land degradation on a watershed basis, classifying
watersheds on a range from non-degraded to severely degraded, as a basis for selecting priority areas for action. An
estimate of this kind has been made, for example, for 100 watersheds in Nepal (FAO, 1988, p.9). Watershed
degradation comprises elements of:
deforestation;
soil erosion (water and/or wind);
adverse changes to river flow regime and sediment content.
Data obtained from watershed surveys have been included in the above estimates of degradation. The watershed is a
suitable basis for planning the control of land degradation in upland areas, particularly steeply sloping lands.
Questions of watershed management are discussed in a number of reports for the Asian region (FAO, 1986a, 1988;
FAO/RAPA, 1986; Doolette and Magrath, 1990; Magrath and Doolette, 1990; Castro, 1991).

Table 17 and Figure 8 show total degradation according to the GLASOD data. This table and map exclude double
counting, that is, areas affected by more than one kind of degradation are included only once in the totals. A total of
43% of the agricultural land of the region is assessed as affected by some type and degree of de gradation . A higher
proportion of the dry zone is affected than the humid zone. Most areas of non-degraded land occur either in rainfed
lands of the humid zone or irrigated alluvial areas of both zones. All countries except Bhutan are assessed as having
over 25% of agricultural land degraded.
Figure 8 - Total degradation severity (GLASOD estimate}
TABLE 17 - GLASOD assessment: total areas by degree of degradation (Unit: 1000 ha)
Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
Total as percent
of agricultural land
Afghanistan
9 811
2 597
209
12 617
33%
Bangladesh
6 187
1 080
7 267
75%
Bhutan
36
40
10%
India
2 935
20 128
21 941
45 005
25%
Iran
17 721
29 574
8 301
55 596
94%
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Nepal
429
759
1 188
26%
Pakistan
7 530
8 243
15 773
61 %
Sri Lanka
35
158
838
1 030
44%
India, dry region
1 176
3 083
10 899
15 158
India, humid region
1 759
17 045
11 042
29 846
Dry zone
36 238
43 497
19 409
99 144
66%
Humid zone
9 338
19 042
11 883
40 263
24%
Region
45 576
62 538
31 293
139 408
43%
Note: For areas with more than one type of degradation the most severe type is used for summation.
Table 18 and 19 show the best estimates from the present study, based initially upon GLASOD data but modified for
certain types of degradation and particular countries as given above. The totals include 'double counting', i.e. areas
affected by more than one type of degradation. Water erosion is the most widespread form of degradation, affecting
both humid and dry zones. Nearly 40% of the dry zone is affected by wind erosion. Soil fertility decline is certainly
widespread, but its extent is not know quantitatively; the values shown are tentative estimates, and may be longer or
higher. Waterlogging, salinization and lowering of the water table are of smaller total extent, but their effect is
proportionally more serious in that they affect mainly irrigated lands, which when undegraded have high productive
potential.
Areas with the most severe and extensive land degradation include:
the cultivated Himalayan mountain belt stretching through northern India and Nepal (water erosion);
the Western Ghats of the Indian Deccan (water erosion);
highland watershed areas of Sri Lanka (water erosion);
semi-desert areas of I ran, Afghanistan, and the Thar desert of India (wind erosion and salinization);
areas of irrigated land on the Indo-Gangetic plains of Pakistan and India (salinization).
These are among the priority areas for action to prevent further degradation. In addition, however, evidence suggests
that the problem of soil fertility decline is more widespread, at least to the degree defined as light, and is of increasing
severity; besides the large areas of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka given by the GLASOD survey, the problem affects
substantial areas of both India and Pakistan.
TABLE 18 - Best estimates of areas affected by land degradation (Unit: 1000 ha)
Light
Moderate
Strong
Total
Total as percent
of agricultural
land
Afghanistan
8.6
2.6
0.0
11.2
29%
Bangladesh
0.0
1.5
0.0
1.5
15%
Bhutan
<0.1
0.0
<0.1
<0.1
10%
India*
2.9
17.2
12.6
32.8
18%
WATER EROSION
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Iran
14.5
11.9
0.0
26.4
45%
Nepal
0.5
1.1
0.0
1.6
34%
Pakistan
6.1
1.1
0.0
7.2
28%
Sri Lanka
0.1
0.2
0.8
1.1
46%
India, dry region
1.2
0.0
1.7
2.9
India, humid region
1.8
17.2
10.9
29.9
Region
32.7
35.6
13.5
81.7
25%
Afghanistan
1.9
0.0
0.2
2.1
5%
Bangladesh
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Bhutan
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
India
0.0
1.8
9.0
10.8
6%
Iran
6.6
25.7
3.1
35.4
60%
Nepal
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Pakistan
4.0
6.7
0.0
10.7
42%
Sri Lanka
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
India, dry region
0.0
1.8
9.0
10.8
India, humid region
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Dry zone
12.4
34.2
12.3
59.0
39%
Humid zone
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Region
12.4
34.2
12.3
59.0
18%
WIND EROSION
SOIL FERTILITY DECLINE

Afghanistan
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Bangladesh
6.4
0.0
0.0
6.4
65%
Bhutan
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
India
26.2
0.0
3.2
29.4
16%
Iran
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
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Nepal
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Pakistan
5.2
0.0
0.0
5.2
20%
Sri Lanka
0.7
0.7
0.0
1.4
61 %
India. dry region
2.2
0.0
0.0
2.2
India. humid region
24.0
0.0
3.2
27.2
Dry zone
7.4
0.0
0.0
7.4
5%
Humid zone
31.1
0.7
3.2
35.0
20%
Region
38.5
0.7
3.2
42.4
13%
Afghanistan
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Bangladesh
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Bhutan
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
India
0.0
3.1
0.0
3.1
2%
Iran
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.5
1%
Nepal
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Pakistan
0.8
0.4
0.8
2.0
8%
Sri Lanka
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
India, dry region
0.0
3.1
0.0
3.1
India, humid region
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Dry zone
1.4
3.5
0.8
5.7
4%
Humid zone
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Region
1.4
3.5
0.8
5.7
2%
Afghanistan
1.3
0.0
0.0
1.3
3%
Bangladesh
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Bhutan
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
India
0.0
3.5
3.5
7.0
4%
WATERLOGGING
SALINIZATION
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Iran
5.0
7.0
4.0
16.0
27%
Nepal
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Pakistan
1.9
1.0
1.3
4.2
16%
Sri Lanka
<0.1
0.0
0.0
<0.1
2%
India, dry region
0.0
3.5
3.5
7.0
India, humid region
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.3
Dry zone
8.2
11.5
8.5
28.1
19%
Humid zone
<0.1
<0.1
0.3
0.4
<1%
Region
8.2
11.5
38.8
28.5
9%
LOWERING OF THE WATER TABLE

Afghanistan
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Bangladesh
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Bhutan
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
India
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.2
< 1%
Iran
12.1
7.4
0.0
19.5
33%
Nepal
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Pakistan
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.1
<1%
Sri Lanka
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
India, dry region
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.2
India, humid region
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Dry zone
12.2
7.7
0.0
19.8
13%
Humid zone
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0%
Region
12.2
7.7
0.0
19.8
6%
Values of water erosion for India may be substantially higher.

TABLE 19 - Percentages of agricultural land affected by degradation: summary
Percent of agricultural land affected
Type of land degradation
Dry zone
Humid zone
Region
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Water erosion
32
20
25
Wind erosion
39
18
20
13
Waterlogging
Salinization
19
<1
13
Discussion
The wide range of estimates for the nature and extent of many types of land degradation has been repeatedly noted.
Estimates frequently differ by as much as 100%, in some cases more. Reasons for this variation are:
1. Failure to define sufficiently precisely the degree of degradation that is being assessed, and thus to define
working rules for surveying its severity in the field.
2. The absence, over most areas, of reliable surveys of degradation.
3. The repeated copying of estimates from one source to another, which can give a specious appearance of
authority, whilst making it difficult to trace the original source and its basis.
Two recommendations arise from this. First, further efforts should be made to define degrees of severity of land
degradation; these should be in terms that permit objective surveys and monitoring. Secondly, field surveys of
existing soil degradation and, most importantly, monitoring of soil changes, should be conducted, in order to improve
the state of knowledge.
This overall situation raises an important question: should greater efforts, including investment, immediately be made
to combat land degradation, or should these await the acquisition of better data? A 'contrary' view exists, which may
be expressed as follows:
"Estimates of the extent of land degradation, and/or of their effects on production, may be considerably exaggerated.
They may have been magnified by sectional interests in conservation, or by governments. Because the data are so
uncertain, we do not know whether degradation is as serious as it is claimed to tee. Unless and until there is a better
foundation of evidence, we cannot justify the expenditure of scarce development funds on measures to combat
degradation."
This view serves one important purpose, in that it places emphasis on what are, indeed, large uncertainties in
estimates of the extent of degradation and its effects.
Whilst it is certainly true that some of the estimates are based on questionable foundations, this view is rejected.
Reports from all countries of the region (supported for sample areas by the authors of this study) point to the certain
existence of two types of situation:
1. Severe degradation in certain areas; e.g. gullying, total removal of topsoil by sheet erosion, complete
salinization.
2. Light to moderate degradation over extensive areas; e. g. the evidence for soil fertility decline and reduced
productivity of rangelands.
It is therefore concluded that, although more precise data should be obtained, the total evidence is sufficient to call for
immediate action to prevent further land degradation and, where still possible, to reverse the effects of past
degradation.
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Chapter 6 - Causes of land degradation

The causes of land degradation can be divided into natural hazards, direct causes, and underlying causes. Natural
hazards are the conditions of the physical environment which lead to the existence of a high degradation hazard, for
example steep slopes as a hazard for water erosion. Direct causes are unsuitable land use and inappropriate land
management practices, for example the cultivation of steep slopes without measures for soil conservation. Underlying
causes are the reasons why these inappropriate types of land use and management are practised; for example, the
slopes may be cultivated because the landless poor need food, and conservation measures not adopted because these
farmers lack security of tenure.
There is a distinction, although with overlap, between unsuitable land use and inappropriate land management
practices.
Unsuitable land use is the use of land for purposes for which it is environmentally unsuited for sustainable use. An
example is forest clearance and arable use of steeply sloping upper watershed areas which would have more value to
the community as water sources, managed under a protective forest cover.
Inappropriate land management practices refer to the use of land in ways which could be sustainable if properly
managed, but where the necessary practices are not adopted. An example is the failure to adopt soil conservation
measures where these are needed. It can also refer to land use which is ecologically sustainable under low intensity of
use but in which the management becomes inappropriate at higher intensifies. Examples are shifting cultivation and
the grazing of semi-arid rangelands.
The GLASOD assessment gives one or two causes for each map unit and type of degradation. In this assessment,
only four causes were recognized, defined as:
de fore station and removal of natural vegetation;
overgrazing;
agricultural activities;
over-exploitation of vegetation for domestic use.
This survey did not recognize a separate class of problems arising in the planning and management of irrigation, but
it is clear from the results that such problems are included under agricultural activities.
The results from the GLASOD assessment of causes is summarized in Table 20. Other information on causes is from
publications and persona! information.
TABLE 20 - Causes of degradation as given in the GLASOD assessment
Type of degradation
Percentage area of degradation type caused by
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Deforestation
Overgrazing
Agricultural
activities
Overcutting of
vegetation
Water erosion
61
67
44
Wind erosion
21
46
98
25
75
Salinization
34
30
14
87
Waterlogging
85
33
Lowering of water table
12
22
65
34
All types of degradation
37
46
15
63
NB: Up to two causes are given for each type of degradation, therefore percentages sum to more than 100.

The major natural hazards in the region, environmental conditions which act as predisposing factors for land
degradation, are:
For water erosion:
monsoonal rains of high intensity;
steep slopes of the mountain and hill lands;
soils with low resistance to water erosion (e.g. silty soils, vertisols).
For wind erosion:
semi-arid to aria climates;
high rainfall variability, with liability to drought spells;
soils with low resistance to wind erosion (e.g. sandy soils).
an open cover of natural vegetation.
For soil fertility decline:
strong leaching in humid climates;
soils which are strongly acid, and/or with low natural fertility.
For waterlogging:
alluvial plains or interior basins which restrict outward drainage of groundwater.
For salinization:
semi-arid to aria climates with low leaching intensity;
plains and interior basins which restrict outward drainage of groundwater;
soils which are naturally slightly saline.
For lowering of the water table:
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semi-arid to aria climates with low rates of groundwater recharge.

In some cases, these natural hazards are of sufficient intensity to give rise to unproductive land without human
interference. Examples are the naturally saline soils which occur in some interior basins of dry regions, or areas of
natural gullying ('badlands'). Such conditions have been referred to as problem soils. Percentages of land covered by
problem soils are given in Dent (1990).
With respect to land degradation, the key feature is that land shortage in the region has led to the widespread
agricultural use of areas with natural hazards. These are the passive, or predisposing, conditions for land
degradation. Problem soils require special care in management, and failure to give such care leads to land
degradation.

Deforestation of unsuitable land Deforestation is both a type of degradation as such, and also a cause of other
types, principally water erosion. Deforestation in itself is not necessarily degrading without it, most productive
agricultural lands (in the temperate zone as well as the tropics) would not be available. Deforestation becomes a
cause of degradation first, when the land that is cleared is steeply sloping, or has shallow or easily erodible soils; and
secondly, where the clearance is not followed by good management.
The extent of deforestation considered as a type of degradation has been summarized in Chapter 5, Section
Deforestation and forest degradation. It is the leading cause of water erosion in steeply sloping humid environments.
It is also a contributory cause of wind erosion, soil fertility decline and salinization.
Overcutting of vegetation Rural people cut natural forests, woodlands and shrublands to obtain timber, fuelwood
and other forest products. Such cutting becomes unsustainable where it exceeds the rate of natural regrowth. This has
happened widely in semi-arid environments, where fuelwood shortages are often severe. Impoverishment of the
natural woody cover of trees and shrubs is a major factor in causing both water erosion and wind erosion. In the
GLASOD assessment it is cited as a cause for 98% of the area affected by wind erosion. This assessment also cites it
as a contributory cause to salinization.
Shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods In the past, shifting cultivation was a sustainable form of land
use, at a time when low population densities allowed forest fallow periods of sufficient length to restore soil
properties. Population increase and enforced shortening of fallow periods has led to it becoming non-sustainable.
Shifting cultivation is found in the hill areas of northeast India, where it is a cause of water erosion and soil fertility
decline.
Overgrazing. Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensifies above the livestock carrying
capacity. It leads directly to decreases in the quantity and quality of the vegetation cover. This is a leading cause not
only of wind erosion, but also of water erosion in dry lands. Both degradation of the vegetation cover and erosion lead
to a decline in soil organic master and physical properties, and hence in resistance to erosion.
Intense grazing at the end of the annual dry season, and during periods of drought, does not necessarily lead to
degradation; the vegetation may recover during the succeeding rains. Degradation occurs when the recovery of
vegetation and soil properties during periods of normal rainfall does not reach its previous statue.
Non-adoption of soil-conservation management practices Under arable use, management practices are needed to
check water erosion on all sloping lands. In dry lands, measures to check wind erosion are necessary also on lever
land. Soil conserving management practices may be grouped into:
Biological methods: maintenance of a "round surface cover, of living plants or plant litter; vegetative barriers,
including both contour hedgerows and grass strips; and windbreaks and shelterbelts.
Earth structures: terraces, and the various forms of bank-and ditch structures (bunds, storm drains, etc.).
Maintaining soil resistance to erosion: primarily, maintenance of soil organic master and thereby aggregation
and structure.
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Great efforts have been made by soil conservation services in the countries of the region to promote the adoption of
such management practices. In some areas, these efforts have achieved a considerable measure of success. In others,
staff and resources have been greatly deficient, or adoption of recommended methods poor. The recent change of
emphasis in soil conservation with more use of biological methods, including agroforestry, and greater stress on
farmers' participation and economic incentives, has not yet been fully taken up by extension services.
Often, it is not the environment nor the type of land use which necessarily leads to degradation, but the standard of
management. A clear example is seen in tee production in the hill lands of Sri Lanka. Well-managed farms maintain a
complete vegetation cover, which checks erosion even on steep slopes; on poorly-managed farms, rainfall strikes bare
soil between plants, leading in places to very severe degradation.
Extension of cultivation onto lands of longer potentiel and/or high natural hazards These are also called 'fragile'
or marginal lands. Historically the more fertile, or high-potential, agricultural lands were the first to be occupied.
Population increase has led to the widespread use of lands of longer potential, those which are less fertile or have
greater degradation hazards. Such marginal lands include:
steeply sloping land;
areas of shallow or sandy soils, or with laterite crusts;
cultivation of semi-arid lands, and grazing of the crier semi-arid areas, marginal to deserts.
Such land is of great extent in the region, and makes a large contribution to its agricultural production. Except in
areas of highest environmental hazards, e.g. upper watersheds, it is neither desirable nor practicable that they should
be taken out of production. What must be recognized is that such lands require higher standards of management if
their resources are to be conserved. Unfortunately, they are often utilized by poorer farmers.
Improper crop rotations As a result of population growth, land shortage and economic pressures, farmers in some
areas have adopted cereal-based, intensive crop rotations, based particularly on rice and wheat, in place of the more
balanced cereal-legume rotations that were formerly found. This is a contributory cause of soil fertility decline.
Unbalanced fertilizer use Where soil fertility has declined, as a result of prolonged cultivation or erosion, farmers
attempt to maintain crop yields. The primary method available for doing so is application of fertilizer. In the short
term, a yield response is most readily and cheaply obtained from nitrogenous fertilizer. There has been a steady
increase in the ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus, and nitrogen to all other nutrients, in the region. Where phosphate
deficiencies have been recognized and counteracted by phosphatic fertilizer, deficiencies of other nutrients, including
sulphur and zinc, have been reported.
The short-term measure of combatting fertility decline by application only of macronutrients, and particularly
nitrogenous fertilizer, is leading to a greater problem of nutrient imbalance in the medium term. Among the
consequences is likely to be longer yield responses to fertilizers.
Problems arising from planning and management of canal irrigation The development of salinization and
waterlogging on the large-scale canal irrigation schemes of the Indo-Gangetic plains has been frequently described.
Application of water in excess of natural rainfall led to a progressive rise in the water table from the 1930s onward.
Where the water table has reached close to the surface, waterlogging occurs leading, through evaporation of water
containing salts, to salinization. Sodification follows where sodium replaces other bases in the soil exchange complex.
The problem could have been avoided, or reduced, if deep drains had been included in the initial implementation of
irrigation schemes. More detailed accounts of the complex processes involved will be found in development planning
studies of Pakistan and Indian irrigated areas.
Overpumping of groundwater In areas of non-saline ('sweet') groundwater, the technology of tubewells has led to
abstraction of water in excess of natural recharge by rainfall and river seepage. This has progressively lowered the
water table, as in Iran, India and Pakistan.
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There are more basic reasons underlying the reasons for land degradation outlined above. They apply to all direct
causes, other than the problems of large-scale irrigation schemes which arose from lack of foresight in planning and
management.
Land shortage It has always been recognized that land is a finite resource, but only recently has the full impact of
this fact occurred. In earlier times, food shortage or poverty could be combatted by taking new, unused, land into
cultivation. Over most of South Asia, this solution is no longer available. The percentage change in agricultural land
over the ten years 1980-1990 is under 2.5% for India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Afghanistan, whilst for Bangladesh
there has been a small absolute decrease. The increase recorded for Nepal has certainly been obtained by
deforestation and taking into agricultural use sloping land which is difficult to farm on a sustainable basis.
When combined with increases in rural population, land shortage has led to decreases in the already small areas of
agricultural land per person in six of the eight countries, including all in the humid zone. The relative decrease in land
per person over 1980-90 was 14% for India and 22% for Pakistan. In Iran, with a smaller rural population increase,
the land/people ratio has remained virtually constant.
There is almost no unused but usable land in South Asia. All of the best land is already taken up, and that which is
not, cannot be used agriculturally on a sustainable basis.
Land tenure: tenancy and open access resources Farmers will be reluctant to invest in measures to conserve land
resources if their future rights to use these resources are not secure. Two kinds of property rights lead to this
situation, tenancy and open access resources.
Despite efforts by legislation and land reform programmes over many years, tenant occupation of farmland is still
very widespread. The landowner is now frequently from the cities, and the land is farmed by tenants paying some
form of rental. Relations between landlord and tenant are often good, and the tenant in fact remains on the same farm
for many years. However, such tenants lack the incentive to maintain the land in good condition, being interested
mainly in the immediate harvest.
Open access land resources are those which anyone, in practice the poor and otherwise landless, can use, without
rights of continuing usufruct or tenure. This applies mainly to forest lands, nominally under government ownership
but which are settled on a squatter basis.
There is a distinction between common property and open access resources. In common property resources, use is
restricted to members of a community, village or clan, and is subject to constraints, socially applied. For example,
pastoralists often have customs for when certain areas must be rested from grazing, villages restrict the cutting of
communal woodland. On open access land there are no such constraints. With no legal basis to their use, incentive to
farm the land other than for immediate needs is completely lacking. This is a serious cause of deforestation followed
by water erosion.
Economic pressures and attitudes Small land holdings lead to severe economic pressures on farmers, to obtain
sufficient food and income to meet immediate needs. Because of such pressure in the short term, labour, land and
capital resources cannot be spared to care for the land, for example green manuring or soil conservation structures.
This is also the underlying reason for two other direct causes noted above, improper crop rotations and unbalanced
fertilizer use.
A contributory factor, not always appreciated by outside observers, is a change in economic attitudes. In former
times, most farmers accepted the situation into which they were bore, even if it was one of relative poverty. Modem
communications and influence have led to greater aspirations and consequent requirements for income, thus
increasing economic pressures.
Poverty Countries of the region have made great progress in economic development, achieving increases in gross
domestic product per capita. It is questionable whether there have been corresponding improvements in the real
welfare of the rural poor. The majority of farmers remain close to, or below, the margin of poverty, defined as access
to basic necessities of life.
Poverty leads to land degradation. It could almost certainly be shown that richer farmers maintain their soils in better
state than poorer. Research based on sample studies to confirm this is desirable.
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Population increase Together with land shortage, the second basic cause of degradation is the continuing increase in
rural, agricultural, population. Growth rates for total population 19801990 for six countries range from 2.1-3.6% per
year (for Afghanistan the figure is affected by migration and war). Only in Sri Lanka have attempts to reduce the rate
of population increase made substantial progress, with a growth rate of 1.4%.
Urban populations are increasing faster than rural. The trend towards urbanization, however, is not sufficient to
reverse the key that absolute levers of rural population have increased and are increasing. In Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Nepal and Pakistan, rural populations were 17-32% higher in 1990 than in 1980. In absolute terms, the scale is
greatest in India, where already densely populated rural areas contained 79 million more people in 1990 than 10 years
earlier.

The direct and indirect causes of degradation are linked by a chain of cause and effect, or causal nexus (Figure 9).
The two external, or driving, forces are limited land resources and increase in rural population. Expressed another
way, there are no longer substantial areas of usable, unused land in the region; but the number of people to be
supported from this finite land resource is increasing every year.
These two primary forces combine to produce land shortage. This refers to increasing pressure of population on land,
resulting in small farms, low production per person and increasing landlessness. A consequence of land shortage is
the next element, poverty.
Land shortage and poverty, taken together, lead to non-sustainable land management practices, meaning the direct
causes of degradation. For reasons outlined above, poor farmers are led to clear forest, cultivate steep slopes without
conservation, overgraze rangelands, make unbalanced fertilizer applications, and the other causes noted above.
FIGURE 9 - Causal nexus between land, population, poverty and degradation
The non-sustainable management practices lead to land degradation. This leads to reduced land productivity: a lower
response to the same inputs or, where farmers possess the resources, a need for higher inputs to maintain crop yields
and farm incomes. This has the effect of increasing land shortage, thus completing the cycle.
Case studies illustrating the interconnections of this cycle are given in Asian Development Bank (1991).
There are two ways to check this cycle, improved technology and reduction in population increase. Improved
technology could be added as a third external force in Figure 1, divided into three elements:
land improvements (e.g. irrigation), which can reduce land shortage;
increases in productive technology, which can reduce poverty and pressure upon land;
better land resource conservation, which can reduce land degradation and, to a limited degree, reverse
degradation.
Vast efforts have been made, by individual farmers, national governments and through international development
assistance, to counteract the cycle of poverty and land degradation by research and development of improved
technology. Much success has been achieved, as in the spread of high-yielding crop varieties and use of fertilizers
which was (optimistically) called the 'green revolution'.
All of this effort will be nullified, and in places reversed, if it is not accompanied by a reduction in rate of growth of
population. The existence of limited land resources cannot be substantially changed. The other external force,
increase in population, constantly drives the cycle that leads to poverty and land degradation.
Governments of the region, as well as international agencies, recognize the priority of limiting increase in population,
as evidenced by reports. There is also the beginning of an awareness that population questions cannot be treated in
isolation, but must be linked with sustainable land development. What is significant is that recognition of the nexus is
found not just among land resource institutions or Ministries of Agriculture, but widely within Asian development
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agencies, as illustrated by the following quotations:

"It is population growth working in conjunction with other factors that is bringing about widespread environmental
deterioration" (FAO/RAPA, 1990, p.10).
"Population issues currently encompass areas of concern such as poverty alleviation, environmental
degradation...which are much broader than population size and growth alone" (ESCAP, 1991a, para. 529).
"Few institutions have developed a response strategy to the implications of population pressure on natural resource
management" (Asian Development Bank, 1991, p.21).
"A significant reduction in population growth rates is absolutely essential for visible improvements in human
development levers " (Asia Development Bank, 1990, p.48).
"Hypothetical village-lever consequences of rapid population growth...1. Environmental degradation: soil
erosion/exhaustion, reduced fallow periods, movement to marginal farmlands, deforestation" (ESCAP, 1989, p.90).
Two views from outside the region may be added, from the most recent FAO and World Bank reviews:
"A lack of control over resources; population growth; a lack of alternative avenues of livelihood; and inequity are all
contributing to the degradation of the regions's [Asia] resources. In turn, environmental degradation perpetuates
poverty, as the poorest attempt to survive on a diminishing resource base" (FAO, 1992, p. 106).
"The close link between poverty and environmental problems makes a compelling case for increasing assistance to
reduce poverty and [to] slow population growth...Rapid population growth can exacerbate the mutually reinforcing
effects of poverty and environmental damage. The poor are both victims and agents of environmental damage"
(World Bank, 1992, pp. 3 and 7).
Statements recognizing the need to reduce population for the welfare of their people have been made by all
governments of the region (e . g. ESCAP, 1987a) . In a regional study of natural disasters and protection of the
environment, a summary table gives among causes of environmental problems, "population" for five of the six South
Asian countries and "poverty" for four countries (SAARC, 1992, pp. 190-197).
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Chapter 7 - Economic consequences of land degradation


Chapters 7 and 8 are concerned with the economic and social consequences of land degradation: its implications for
the community as a whole, and thus for governments, and its effects upon the people, the rural population of the areas
affected. One of the main social consequences is, in fact, also an economic one, namely reduced income for the
farmers; whilst analysis at the macroeconomic lever is ultimately based upon aggregating the effects of degradation
upon individual farmers.
This chapter covers the economic consequences of land degradation considered at the national and regional lever: its
cost to the countries and their people. The effects on the rural population, including reduced incomes, are discussed in
Chapter 8.

Concepts and approaches in natural resource accounting
Natural resource accounting is a relatively new concept. Its implications for land degradation are so great that an
introductory outline of the concept and methods is called for.
The basis is simple: that natural resources, such as minerals, soils and forests, have an economic value. This is called
natural capital, to be distinguished from manufactured capital such as roads, factories and machinery. Changes in
manufactured capital - construction and depreciation - have always been considered in both financial and economic
analysis. Until recently, changes in natural capital have not been given money values, nor included in cost-benefit and
other forms of economic analysis. Changes in natural capital are not currently included in systems of national
accounting, although there is pressure for their inclusion.
Natural resources have formerly been priced only in terms of their cost of use: minerals were priced only at the costs
of extracting them, forests at the logging costs. In the case of soils, these were treated as the 'land' factor in classical
economics, priced at the market value of farmland. In effect, the capital value of the resources themselves was priced
as zero. It was assumed that they were so abundant as to have no scarcity value.
This led to some gross distortions in the apparent creation of wealth. Minerals are extracted, or forests cut clown, and
the money received from their sale is treated as national income. The decrease in the reserves of minerals or area of
forest does not appear in the accounts. Wealth appears to have been created, based on the 'free' natural resources.
The example of minerals refers to a non-renewable natural resource, that of forest to a renewable one. The situation
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for soil and water resources is more complex. The milder forms of land degradation, for example soil nutrient
depletion, can be reversed by changes in management; the resource is renewable, and the degradation reversible. In
the case of two severe forms of degradation, salinization and waterlogging, land productivity can be restored by
reclamation, even where degradation has progressed to the point of total loss of production; the degradation is
reversible, although at high costs, as shown by the SCARP projects of Pakistan. Soil degradation may be reversible
or irreversible, as discussed below.
In the case of soil erosion, some of the effects may appear to be reversible, through checking further erosion by soil
conservation programmes and restoring lost nutrients and organic master. Where land has been lost by gullying, or
severe sheet erosion has removed the soil clown to a gravelly residue, degradation is clearly irreversible. It should be
noted, however, that this applies also to any actual loss of soil material, or reduced profile depth, since the rate of
natural soil formation is extremely slow on a human time scale.
Two recent case studies, in the Philippines and Indonesia, illustrate the orders of magnitude which may be involved.
In the Philippines it has been estimated that there is an annual rate of natural resource depletion equivalent to 4% of
the gross domestic product (World Bank, 1989; Cruz and Repetto, 1992). For Indonesia, inclusion of the loss of
timber, oil and soil resources had the effect of reducing gross domestic produce by about 20%, whilst gross domestic
investment was reduced to low, and in one year negative, values. The annual depletion of soil fertility was calculated
as 4% of the value of crop production, or as large as the annual increase in production (Repetto et al., 1989; Magrath
and Arens, 1989).
Discussions of methods of natural resource accounting, drawn upon as the basis for the present discussion, include
Ahmad et al., (1989), Chisholm and Dumsday (1987), Lutz and El Serafy (1988), Pearce and Turner (1990), Peskin
(1989), Pezzey (1992) and Southgate (1989). A report of a seminar specific to Asia is given in Sun (1989), and a
consideration of natural resource accounting for India by Parikh et al. (1992).
Methods for the valuation of soil resources
Soil resources have been valued chiefly as the basis for analyzing the economics of soil conservation projects (Boj,
1992; Magrath, 1989). There has also been extensive cost-benefit analysis of reclamation projects to counter
salinization and waterlogging. Five methods are found:
1. Defensive expenditure This is the cost of preventing the land degradation by soil conservation works, drainage
systems on irrigation schemes, and similar preventative measures. These have both capital and recurrent
elements of expenditure.
2. Lost production This method is widely used, and has the advantage of being applicable to all types of land
degradation. Crop yields, or other output, are estimated for the non-degraded and degraded soil, and then
priced. The difference measures the value of lost production. The two situations, with and without degradation,
are assessed by normal methods of farm economics.
3. Replacement cost Of necessity, farmers go to much effort to avoid losses in production. The principal means
open to them is to increase fertilizer inputs in order to maintain yields. For the same yield lever, the additional
fertilizer needed is a measure of the cost of degradation. This can be treated by estimating the quantity of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium removed in eroded soil. The cost of degradation is valued at the cost of
replacing these nutrients by fertilizer. An estimate on this basis has been made for Zambia (Stocking, 1986).
4. User cost This refers to the proportion of profits which need to be reinvested in some other way, if the same
income is to be maintained after the resource has been exhausted (Lutz and El Seraphy, 1988). For example,
some of the profits from extracting oil could be invested in construction of wind power generators. Applied to
soils, it would mean that a proportion of the profits made from some exploitative, degrading, land use were
reinvested in some other way, say in reclaiming coastal marshland.
5. Restoration or reclamation This is the cost of restoring the soil to its former productive state. In the case of
salinization and waterlogging practical means are known, such as drainage, leaching and gypsum application,
and have been costed. For lowering of the water table, it would refer to the production foregone by not
abstracting water until its former lever had been restored, but this is not a realistic proposition.
For the case of soil erosion, restoration costs have been incompletely assessed in previous analyses. Suppose that
land has lost 5 cm topsoil. It is not sufficient to value the cost of installing soil conservation measures, followed by
improved land management, for one is still working with the depleted, shallower, soil. If the soil is to be restored to
its former conditions then it is necessary to:
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Replace nutrients, as in method 2 above.

Replace soil organic master, and thereby restore structure; this could be done, for example, by allotting part of
the land to a green manure crop, foregoing production.
Replace the soil.
One way to replace lost soil would be to buy it, as can be clone from a horticultural supplier. This solution succeeds
in putting a market money value on soil volume, but is environmentally unacceptable, since it is robbing one area to
restore another. The only true way to restore lost soil is by taking land out of production until it is restored by the
natural process of weathering. The rate of this process varies by orders of magnitude for different rock types, but for
consolidated strata it has been estimated as a maximum of 500 mm per thousand years (Saunders and Young, 1983).
In soil conservation circles a top rate of "one inch in 30-300 years", or about 0.1-1.0 mm per year, has been quoted
(Schertz, 1983). Assuming natural erosion to be very slow, then even at the fastest of these rates, it would mean
putting land under fallow for 50 years to restore the lost 5 cm. This again is unrealistic as a practical proposition, but
it gives a measure of the true resource loss incurred.
Provisional nature of these estimates
The natural resource accounting studies noted above, of the Philippines and Java, required a large input of effort,
which it is out of the question to attempt here for the whole of South Asia. Nevertheless, a major objective of this
study would be missing if some attempt were not made to estimate the economic cost of land degradation.
It should be stated at the outset that such estimates are highly approximate. They are made with the intention of
indicating the orders of magnitude of the costs involved, with the objective of stimulating more detailed studies on a
national and local scale.
The best researched cases are the impact of salinization and waterlogging in India and Pakistan (for example Ahmad
and Kutcher, 1992; ESCAP, 1990b). A small number of local case studies have been identified, covering impacts of
salinization, lowering of the water table, erosion, and soil fertility decline (Vittal et al., 1990; Joshi and Tyagi, 1991;
Joshi and Jha, 1992; Chaudhary and Aneja, 1991). It is likely that other such studies exist.
For comparative purposes, the main approaches used here will be those of lost production, nutrient replacement, and
reclamation or restoration. The starting point is the estimates for the extent and degree of each type of land
degradation obtained in Chapters 4 and 5. Some extremely broad assumptions as to typical yields, yield reductions
and farm production economics are necessary. To reduce the problems of differences between prices, types of land
use, etc. between countries, in some cases calculations are clone first for India (as having more than half the
population and agricultural production of the region) and then extended, still more approximately, to the region.
Best estimates for extent of land degradation are given in Table 18. Data on land use, fertilizer use, agricultural
production and prices are taken from FAO statistics.
Assumptions
The term production loss refers to the production lost as a result of land degradation, that is:
Production loss = production from non-degraded land - production from degraded land, with the same inputs and
management
Relative production loss is production loss as a percentage of production from non-degraded land. It should be noted
that in many cases, farmers do not accept reduced production but instead, counteract decreased soil productivity by
increasing inputs.
The following assumptions are made with respect to the effect of degrees of degradation on agricultural production:
Degree of degradation
Relative production loss
Light
5%
Moderate
20%
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Strong
75%
These are relatively low, or modest, assumptions; that is to say, the true figures may well be higher. In particular, by
definition, strong degradation should mean that the land has been abandoned, with 100% loss of production; however,
it has been assumed that 25% has been saved in some way by the ingenuity, backed by need, of the local population.
The above assumptions are critical: that is, results for the economic effects of degradation show a high degree of
sensitivity, in many cases pro rata, to the values assumed.
Generalized prices in the region (1992), taken as the basis for calculations, were taken as:
Cereals
US$ 150 per tonne
Fertilizer
US$ 300 per tonne nutrients
Water erosion
Production loss basis An estimate will first be made for India. Approximately 61 % of India's agricultural land is
under cereals, with an average yield of 1.9 t/ha. It is assumed that erosion affects cereal-growing land in the same
way as total land. On this basis, and with the above assumptions on proportional losses of production, the loss in
cereal production is as follows:
Light degradation
168 000 t
Moderate degradation
3 980 000 t
Strong degradation
10 935 000 t
Total cereal production loss
15 083 000 t
A production loss of 15 Mt cereals is equivalent to 8% of India's total cereal production.

Assuming similar proportional losses to other forms of production, the 8% loss may be scaled up to 25 Mt cereal
equivalent, representative of the loss to total agricultural production.
At an approximate price of US$150 per tonne for cereals or cereal equivalent, the value of lost production is US$2
260 M per year.
For the region as a whole, it would be possible to carry out country by country calculations for land use, production,
prices, etc., such as were clone in the study of Java by Magrath and Arens (1989). Such detail, however, would not
be justified in view of the uncertainty of, and sensitivity to, the production losses. An approximation in terms of
reduced production as cereal equivalent is:
Light degradation
3 107 000 t
13 528 000 t
Strong degradation
19 237 000 t
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Total production loss
35 872 000 t
A cereal equivalent production loss of 36 Mt is about 9% of the total agricultural production of the region. At a price
of US$150 per tonne cereal equivalent, the value of lost production due to water erosion is US$5 400 M per year.
This approximate result may be expressed in another way. If all land in the region were non-degraded, that is, in the
condition it was in prior to recent population pressure, then with today's lever of inputs and methods of management,
an additional production of 36 Mt cereal equivalent could be expected in the region.
Nutrient replacement basis For the calculation of nutrient replacement it is necessary to estimate current annual
rates of erosion associated with degrees of land degradation (the GLASOD survey includes estimates of the extent to
which rates of degradation have recently accelerated). The following rates are assumed:
Current rate of erosion
Light
10t/ha per year
Moderate
20t/ha per year
Strong
50t/ha per year
It is assumed that eroded soil contains 0.2% nutrients. On this basis, for India, the annual loss of nutrients through
water erosion is:
Light degradation
58 000 t nutrients per year
688 00.0 t nutrients per year
Strong degradation
1 260 000 t nutrients per year
Total nutrient loss
2 006 000 t nutrients per year
Total mineral fertilizer use in India is 12.5 Mt of nutrients per year. The loss through erosion of 2 Mt is 16% of this.
Expressed in another way, India would have to increase its fertilizer use by this amount each year just to replace
nutrients lost through erosion.
At a representative fertilizer cost of US$300 per tonne nutrients, the loss through erosion is US$600 M per year.
A similar approximate calculation for the region as a whole gives a loss through water erosion of 3.4 Mt nutrients per
year. This is equivalent 20% of total fertilizer use in the region. Its value is approximately US$1 020 M per year.
The two estimates obtained for the effect of water erosion are not directly comparable. That obtained for production
reflects the cumulative effect of past erosion, whereas the longer estimate based on nutrient replacement is an annual
value. However, in replacing the lost nutrients, the farmer is counteracting only of the effects of erosion. These also
include loss of soil organic master and reduction in soil profile depth, leading to degradation of soil physical
properties and, in particular, water holding capacity. Nutrient loss, and thus nutrient replacement, is only one element
in the effects of erosion.
Restoration or reclamation The reclamation of land subject to gully (ravine) erosion is often undertaken, but with
the aim of preventing further extension of gullying. Such attempts meet with variable success, and it is rarely possible
to restore productivity to anything like its former state.
For land with moderate degradation, a specimen calculation for restoring lost soil is as follows. As above, moderate
degradation is assumed to correspond to a current rate of erosion (in excess of replaceable) of 20t/ha per year
(equivalent to an horizon thickness of 1.33 mm).
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Let it be assumed that replacement of soil by natural processes is at a rate ranging from 0.1-1.0 mm per year,
equivalent to 1.5-15.0 t/ha.
To replace the soil lost in one year of erosion at 20t/ha would require following for between 1 and 13 years, and
hence a loss of production between 50% and 93%. This is clearly unrealistic as a practical proposition. It indicates,
however, that the full cost of erosion is substantially higher than the estimates obtained above, which are on a
medium-term basis only. In practical terms, loss of soil material is largely irreversible. To achieve long-term
sustainability, erosion must be limited to the rate of soil formation.
Off-site costs of erosion Deforestation and erosion lead to greatly increased sediment load in rivers, causing
problems of poorer water quality, river bed sedimentation and reservoir sedimentation. A review of the effects of soil
conservation measures upon sediment yield is given by Doolette and Magrath (1990, p.203ff.). Reductions in
sediment yield through conservation measures are frequently as high as 95 %. The economic effect is most clearly
seen in sedimentation of reservoirs. For eight Indian reservoirs, the presently assessed life as a percentage of that
anticipated on design ranges from 23-79%, with four below 40% (FAO/RAPA, 1992, p.216). In developed countries,
off-site costs of erosion are often assessed as substantially higher than on-site costs, although in less developed
countries, the reverse may be the case (P. Faeth, D. Knowler, persona! communications).
Off-site costs have not been assessed in this study but their existence, and certainly appreciable magnitude, should be
taken into account.
Wind erosion
It is difficult to obtain even the most approximate estimate of the economic cost of wind erosion. The land affected is
partly under arable use and partly used for livestock production, and there is virtually no basis for estimating the
effects of erosion upon production. Yet if its seriousness is to be appreciated, some value must be given.
If the degree and extent of wind erosion is compared with that of water erosion, the total impact of the two is
comparable. Areas affected by moderate and strong wind erosion are similar to those of water erosion, around 35 and
12 M ha respectively. The area for light wind erosion is only 40% of that for water erosion, but on the assumptions
used above, this has a relatively small effect on production.
Being confined to dry climates, the average productivity of land affected by wind erosion will be less than that
affected by water erosion. Suppose that on average it is one third as productive. The production loss from water
erosion was assessed at US$5 400 M per year. For an impact of similar severity, the production loss from wind
erosion is of the order of US$1800 M per year.
This impact is very unevenly distributed in the region, being entirely for the countries of the dry zone: Afghanistan,
Iran, Pakistan and the dry region of India.
Production loss basis There is no doubt that soil fertility decline is occurring over large parts of the region. Data for
assessing its effects are, however, tentative in two respects: the area covered, and the magnitude of the depression of
crop yields.
The estimates of area are (as a conservative assumption) dominated by the light degree of degradation, at 38.5 M ha
compared with 3.9 M ha affected to moderate or strong degrees. As a further simplifying assumption, the total figure
only will be taken, that of 42.4 M ha affected, to at least a light degree, by soil fertility decline.
Two alternative assumptions are then made, which can be justified by the available experimental data. These are that
the average effect of fertility to decline is to reduce crop yields, in the absence of additional inputs, by 5% or 10%.
Using the same basis as for water erosion, an average cereal equivalent yield of 1.9 t per hectare, gives a production
loss of:
For a 5% yield loss: 4 028 000 t
For a 10% yield loss: 8 056 000 t
At a price of US$150 per tonne, the loss to the region from soil fertility decline is tentatively estimated at US$600 M
- 1200 M per year.
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Replacement cost basis As already noted, farmers with soils of declining fertility frequently attempt to maintain
yields by additional inputs, primarily fertilizers. Some research results have shown that quite high rates of fertilizer
application are necessary where the soil has been degraded by prolonged cropping. However, let it be assumed that on
average, yields on the 42.4 Mha of degraded soils can be maintained by an average input of either 50 or 100 kg
nutrients per hectare. The cost is taken as US$300 per tonne of nutrients. Additional inputs and their cost are then:
Fertilizers
Cost
At 50 kg ha:
2.12 Mt
US$636 M
At 100 kg ha:
4.24 Mt
US$1 272 M
This is of the same order of magnitude, US$0.6 - 1.3 billion, as the estimate on a production loss basis.
This reasoning, however, applies only to the short term. The additional of unbalanced fertilizers, without other
measures to improve the soil, is a cause of fertility decline. Fertilizer rates needed to maintain crop yields can
therefore be expected to increase with time, raisin" the cost.
More fundamental measures are needed to restore soil fertility, particularly through the improvement of organic
master statue. These management measures also have a cost, for example the opportunity cost as lost fodder or fuel
of returning crop residues to the soil. The combination of such methods for soil improvement with continued, and
more balanced, use of fertilizers is necessary for sustained land use in the medium and long term.
Waterlogging
Percentage yields obtained under four crops at different water table depths are given in Ahmad and Kutcher (1992,
p.42). Taking their own data for areas with shallow water tables, and yield reductions for wheat as representative,
this gives a yield loss for Pakistan of 1.57 Mt, or about US$240 M per year. On the basis of comparative areas
affected, the loss for India would be substantially higher. This gives a total loss from waterlogging in excess of
US$500 m per year.
Salinization
There have been more attempts to asses the impact of salinization than is the case for other forms of degradation.
This is partly because its effects are substantial and visibly apparent, partly because the degree of degradation can be
readily quantified, and also because it occurs on irrigated areas which have received large financial investments.
Estimates will first be compared for Pakistan. Experimental work on percentage yield losses for different values of
salinity is summarized in Ahmad and Kutcher (1992, p.45). The impact differs between crops, with cotton tolerant,
rice intolerant of salinity. Taking the data for wheat, and matching values of soil conductivity to degrees of
degradation, the following production losses will be assumed:
Relative production loss
Light
15%
Moderate
65 %
Strong
100 %
Estimating in terms of wheat equivalent, using the average Pakistan wheat yield of 1.84t/ha, production losses are as
follows:
Light degradation
524 000 t
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1 196 000 t
Strong degradation
2 392 000 t
Total wheat equivalent loss
4 112 000 t
Valued at US$1501t wheat this equals a loss of US$617 M per year. These values would be altered by taking the
crop mix into account, but the order of magnitude would remain the same.
This may be compared with other estimates. ESCAP (1990b) state, "A 20 per cent reduction in yield of, say, wheat in
Pakistan on about 3 M hectares of salt-affected land would result in a loss of about 1.2 M tonnes of grain on a very
conservative estimate. This would amount to some US$150 M." Ahmad and Kutcher (1992) assess salinity levers,
areas affected and yield decreases for Pakistan, concluding, "If these numbers are anywhere near correct, soil salinity
is "robbing" Pakistan of about 25% of its potential production of cotton and rice, or about US$2.5 billion per year!".
It is not possible to obtain comparable estimates for the region as a whole. The problem is of the same order of
magnitude in India, therefore the above estimates may first be doubled, to US$1234 M per year. In areal extent,
salinization is dominated by Iran, and the salinized area exceeds that of total arable land. It is therefore difficult to
make broad assumptions on which to base an estimate. Taking as a very minimal value a loss of some US$300 M,
the total loss to the region from salinization is not less than US$1 500 M per year.
Cost of reclamation Salinization and waterlogging can be reversed, and the land productivity partly restored, by
reclamation. This has been clone most notably in the case of the series of Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects
(SCARPs) in Pakistan continuing from 1959 to the present. The main elements in the technology involved are:
installation of deep drains, to longer the water table;
leaching of salinized areas, requiring the application of non-saline water in amounts considerably in excess of
the irrigation requirement;
treatment of sodic soils with gypsum.
From 1969-85, SCARP projects covered 3.5 M ha, and a further 2.8 M ha are at present being reclaimed. It is stated
that as a result of SCARPs, soil salinity has been reduced from 40% to 28%, and 80 000 ha of land are being
restored to production each year (ESCAP, 1989b; 1990b, p. 26).
The cost of such reclamation measures is huge. The opportunity cost of the water used for leaching is that of the
production it could have given if used for irrigation. Reclamation costs are currently about US$500/ha (Ahmad and
Kutcher, 1992). For Pakistan, the cost of reclaiming 3.3 M hectares of affected land has been estimated at US$9
billion (Ahmad and Kutcher, 1992). With an area affected of the same magnitude, the cost to India would be similar.
The cost of reclaiming salinized and waterlogged areas is considerably higher than that of prevention by good design
and management of irrigation schemes.
The consequence of lowering of the water table, where it has developed in areas of non-saline groundwater, could be
expressed in economic terms as the added cost of tubewell pumping from greater depth. The true shadow price of
electricity, and not its subsidized price, should be used. It is likely that large farmers can afford this added cost, and
that the more serious effect is upon small farmers with holdings, and capital resources, too small to justify deep
tubewells.
A production loss basis would underestimate the cost of lowering the water table, since this is a clear case of
non-sustainable use of a resource. Restoration of water table levers would require reduction in water use to less than
the rate of natural recharge, with consequent loss of production, for long periods. This is an unrealistic scenario, and
the economic cost would be vast. Because of these complexities, coupled with inadequate data, the cost of lowering
the water table has not been assessed in this study.
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Summary
The difficulties and uncertainties that arise in assessing the economic effects of land de gradation must again be
emphasized. Sources of error arise at all stages of assessment:
1. Estimates of the extent and severity of degradation.
2. Assessment of the physical effects, primarily upon land productivity, of a given severity of degradation.
3. Conversion of the physical effects into economic terms.
These sources of error are cumulative: an over- or under-assessment at one stage is multiplied by errors at successive
stages. For stages 1 and 2, the sensitivity of the total estimate is almost pro rata with errors of estimate. If the area
affected by a given extent and severity of degradation is over- or underestimated by 50%, the deduced economic
impact will be underestimated by the same amount. For the physical effects the relation is somewhat less simple, for
example, total loss of land reduces inputs as well as production, but the sensitivity of the final economic result to the
proportional loss of production is still high.
It would be possible to argue that the overall degree or uncertainty is such that no total figure should be quoted. To
do this would be to miss the objective of this analysis, which is to signal that the problem of land degradation
appears, on present evidence, to be of a magnitude that is significant in relation to the total wealth of the countries
concerned.
Using the incomplete data above, and basing a summary on the method of lost production, the estimates are given in
Table 21.
Summing these estimates for the direct, on-site, costs gives a total of US$9.8 - US$11 billion per year. Thus, in
round figures, the cumulative effect of human-induced land degradation is estimated to cost countries of the region a
sum of the order of US$10 billion per year.
TABLE 21 - Provisional estimates of the cost of land degradation in the region
Type of degradation
Cost, billion US$ per year
Notes
Water erosion
5.4
On-site effects only
Wind erosion
1.8
Assessed relative to water erosion
Fertility decline
0.6-1.2
Tentative estimate
Waterlogging
0.5
Salinization
1.5
Lowering of water table
Not assessed
The gross domestic product of the eight countries (1989) is US$488B, and their combined agricultural domestic
product US$145 billion. The estimate obtained for the on-site effects of land degradation upon productivity is
equivalent to 2 % of the gross domestic product of the region, or 7% of its agricultural gross domestic product. The
inclusion of off-site effects of water erosion would increase this value substantially.
The value of resources
The above discussion has been conducted largely on the basis of the user value of land resources, their value for
agricultural production. There are, in addition, values which are not directly quantifiable but which are known. For
example, a soil cover is needed to stabilize runoff and provide base flow; where there is no such cover, runoff is
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immediate as floods. There are also user values which are not yet known; for example, a century ego, the resource
potential of bauxitic soils was not appreciated.
However, natural resources also possess a primary value over and above the sum of their user, or secondary, values.
In the case of soils, the primary value represents the outcome of processes of soil formation - rock weathering,
pedogenesis, biological activity - which have taken of the order of 10 000 - 100 000 years. Within the human time
span, soil cannot be created (other than in extremely small amounts). The primary value represents the difference
between land without soil and land with soil. For plant resources, the primary value includes the processes of
evolution.
The primary value of soils is not only to the present generation, nor to the 20-50 years commonly included in
obtaining net present values by the procedure of cash flow discounting. Soils have been a resource for the past 2000
and more years. There is no reason to support that the population will not be dependent upon them for a least the
same length of time into the future. Moreover, if there is continued population increase, land resources will certainly
increase in relative value in the future.
Complex questions of economic analysis are involved in assessing primary values, which it is inappropriate to
discuss here. One simple means of obtaining a minimum figure is to estimate the sum of today's user values and
multiply this by, say, 2 000 without discounting. This represents the value to future generations of today's soil
resources. Whilst not attempting such an assessment here, the essential point is that land resources have a value, for
future generations, over and above the sum of either their current user values, or their discounted net present value.
Discussion
The existence of a 'contrary' view has already been noted. Expressed in terms of investment appraisal, this stases that
reports of land degradation may be greatly exaggerated; and that unless and until better data are obtained, the
problem does not meet the criteria for development investment.
For reasons given in Chapter 5, Section Discussion, this view is rejected. The present study does not seek to magnify
the seriousness of the problem. It is an attempt to obtain the best objective estimates on the basis of available data.
The assumptions made in calculation of economic values err on the side of caution. On this basis, the best estimate
that can be obtained is that land degradation is costing countries of the region an economic loss of the order no
less than US$10 billion, equivalent to 7% of their combined agricultural gross domestic product.
Efforts should certainly be made to improve the quality of the data, not only on the degree of degradation but also its
effects upon production. However, action to check degradation should not be withheld until such improved data are
available. The loss of productive resources is already considerable and is becoming more serious year by year.
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Chapter 8 - Effects upon the people

In Chapter 6, an attempt was made at a costing of the effects of land degradation considered on a
macroeconomic basis, at the national and regional levers. This chapter considers the effects upon the
people. These can be called social effects but, since an adequate income is a primary concern of farmers,
they are also economic effects, at the microeconomic or farm economics lever.
The effect will be considered at two stages: effects upon production, and consequences for the people.

Land degradation affects crop production, livestock production, and forest production. The consequences
differ according to the type and degree of degradation.
Total abandonment of land Where degradation reaches the severe degree, formerly productive land must
be abandoned. Examples where this is clearly seen are:
Salinization patches, e.g. in India and Pakistan, where the outlines of fields can still be seen in areas
where whole farms have been abandoned. Large tracts of land have totally gone out of production.
Gullies, e.g. in the Pothwar Plateau of Pakistan, where former cropland is literally carried away,
leaving a wilderness of ravines.
Total removal of the soil from steep slopes, e.g. in parts of the hill country of Sri Lanka, where
former tee cultivation has been abandoned and the land colonized by grassland of low productive
potential.
The initial abandonment of land takes place when, although some growth of crops is still possible, yields
are so low.
Reduced crop yields Where land has been subject to light or moderate degradation, the same lever of
inputs will give longer outputs. These may be reduced crop yields or longer livestock production.
Relatively little precise data is yet available on lowering of production as a result of water and wind
erosion. The question is being studied in a FAO research network, although this does not at present include
countries of the region (FAO, 1991b). For Andhra Pradesh, India, a study based on artificial removal of
topsoil showed clear and strong relations between topsoil depth and crop yields, the slope of the loss curve
being greater for high-rainfall than low-rainfall years (Vittal et al., 1990). Data for yield losses consequent
upon soil fertility decline have been given in Chapter 3. Reductions in crop yield due to salinity has been
well researched, with percentage losses differing as between salt sensitive and tolerant crops (e.g. Ahmad
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and Kutchler, 1992; Joshi and Jha, 1992).

For rangelands, a reduction in livestock productivity to 10-50 percent of its potential is estimated for
desertified rangelands of Pakistan (Asian Development Bank, 1992a). Other countries of the dry zone
report similar effects.
Forest productivity is also reduced on degraded land, although this is mitigated by the capacity of some
tree species to tolerate poor soils, and the recuperative effects upon soil of appropriate reforestation.
Increased inputs and greater costs The level of poverty of many farmers is such that they cannot accept
the consequence of reduced yields. Instead, they must attempt to maintain their food supplies from the
degraded land, by means of increased inputs. This is now widely the case where attempts are made to
combat soil fertility decline by increased inputs of fertilizers. Another response is to attempt to maintain
livestock numbers despite a reduced carrying capacity of pastures, thus leading to a vicious circle of further
degradation.
Reduced responses to inputs It is now accepted that fertilizers are best utilized by application of low to
moderate amounts, whilst seeking to obtain high responses. Land de gradation , particularly the lowering
of soil organic matter , has the opposite effect, that of lowering fertilizer responses.
Reduced productivity on irrigated land A specific case of lower crop yields and reduced responses to
inputs occurs on the irrigated lands which are widespread in the region. These irrigation systems have been
established at high cost, whether of capital, as in tubewells and the large reservoir and canal schemes, or
labour, as in the cases of hand-dug wells and earth dams. Lowered productivity, as a result of soil fertility
decline, waterlogging and salinization, reduces the benefits from irrigation, leading to less efficient use of
capital and labour inputs.
Loss of flexibility in land management Reduced crop yields can force farmers to grow only basic food
crops, particularly cereals (Joshi and Jha, 1992). Again there is a feedback effect, since continuous cereal
production causes further decline in soil fertility.
Greater risk Degraded land is less resilient, less able to recover from recurrent disasters, such as drought.
One of the major effects of erosion is reduced water-holding capacity of the soil. Increase in risk places
constraints on land management, making farmers reluctant to use up scarce capital on fertilizers.
Loss of water for irrigation An off-site effect of deforestation and erosion of watershed areas is
destabilization of river flow regimes, causing flooding after rains and reduced flows in subsequent dry
periods. Where there are downstream irrigation systems, this reduces water availability at times when it is
most needed.
Lowering of the water table increases irrigation costs, and can make groundwater totally unavailable to
farmers with small landholding, who cannot afford deep tubewells.
Diversion of resources to reclamation As already noted with respect to fertilizer inputs, pressure of need
forces farmers to make great efforts in an attempt to maintain production. Thus they may construct gabions
across gullies, or build terraces with fines of stores, requiring large amounts of labour, or construct deeper
tubewells. This has been called 'defensive expenditure'. All such inputs, whether of labour or capital, carry
an opportunity cost, that of the alternative, productive, uses to which the resources could have been
applied.
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The effects of land degradation upon production have impacts upon agricultural population, whether
engaged in crop production, livestock production, or dependent upon forest products.
Increased landlessness. Landlessness among the rural population is a problem of vast scale in parts of the
region (Sinha, 1984). The causes are many, among which abandonment of degraded land is only one. It is
probably a minor cause in statistical terms - but does not seem so to the farmers who have lost their land!
Lower and less reliable food supplies Lowering of crop yields means reduced production of food crops;
increased risk means lowered food security.
Increased labour requirements Reduced crop yields and increased inputs both have the effect of
reducing the farmers' returns from labour. Labour used in reclamation and rehabilitation of land is labour
lost from production.
A direct consequence is the effect of deforestation on labour needed to collect fuelwood. In parts of the
Himalayan mountain belt, deforestation has forced farmers (often women) to walk great distances to
collect fuelwood. The drying up of rivers caused by destabilized flow, and the lowering of groundwater,
similarly increase labour needed for water collection.
Lower incomes Out of all the consequences of land degradation, the most serious for the rural population
of the region is longer incomes. These result from either or both of the factors noted above: increased
inputs or reduced outputs.
In classical economic theory, 'land' was considered as a fixed resource, to which the factors of labour and
capital were applied. With land degradation occurring it becomes a declining resource, and as a
consequence, labour and capital are less efficiently applied and productivity is lowered.
If most farmers do not know about economic theory, they are very well aware of it in practice! Land
degradation means that they must either accept a lowered productivity, of food and other requirements, or
else put in greater effort and resources to maintain production.

Whenever adverse changes occur in the less developed world, it is usually the poor who suffer most. This
situation arises from the very definition of the poor, those who lack adequate access to the basic necessities
of life and the resources needed to obtain them.
This is certainly the case with land degradation. In the past rural population, however low their incomes
may seem in modern terms, had access to adequate land to meet their needs. When a disaster, such as
flood, drought, attack by pests, or war, destroyed their normal means of livelihood, there were spare land
resources to fall back upon. They could take new land into cultivation, kill the few livestock they possessed
which fed upon natural pastures, or go into the forest and extract roots or hunt wildlife.
Because of land shortage, accentuated by degradation, these options are no longer available. Farmers with
less than one hectare are dependent on that small area for all of their agricultural income. They are
surrounded by other farms, such common rangeland or woodland as there may be is degraded and of low
productivity, and over large areas there is no forest left at all. The only alternatives open are to work on
the land for others, nonagricultural occupations, migration to the cities, or ultimately, dependence on
famine relief.
It is in these tightly constrained circumstances that land degradation hurts most. Production begins to fall.
Because production is close to the limit for supplying basic needs, a response must be made to secure these
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needs in the short term. This may be clearance of fragile lands, for the sustainable management of which,
poor farmers lack the resources. It may be increased inputs, particularly the attempt to maintain yields by
nitrogen fertilizers. The non-sustainable land management leads to further degradation.
Larger farmers are less likely to degrade land. Certainly, cases are known where irresponsible rich farmers
exploit the land, but by and large they will conserve their resources. When disasters occur, they can tighten
their belts, turn to alternative sources of income, or borrow and repay in better years. These options are
not open to the poor.
It is they who, through force of circumstances, play the greatest part in the causal nexus of land,
population, poverty, and degradation (Figure 9, p. 57). It is the poor who suffer most from land
degradation.
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Chapter 9 - Institutions and programmes to combat degradation

Whilst problems of the environment do not recognize international frontiers, efforts to combat land
degradation must be based largely upon national institutions. This applies not only to work undertaken at
the national lever, for example soil conservation programmes, but to regional and international efforts,
which must be largely applied through national institutions.
A short review can consist only of brief indications of the major institutions, their mandate and work. In
many cases where the functions are implicit, the name only is given. Institutions are divided broadly into
research and implementation. Research institutions are those of which the primary function is the
acquisition of knowledge, implementation institutions those changed with putting into practice measures to
combat degradation.
Most national institutions are known in their respective countries by acronyms, but these are given here
only for international organizations.
The constraint of time has meant that these summaries have not been reviewed by governments of the
countries concerned. Whilst every effort has been made, they doubtless contain omissions. They should
therefore be treated as indicative, not comprehensive.
Afghanistan
For 14 years, Afghanistan has been torn by war and political instability. Besides destruction of resources,
this has made the task of institutions extremely difficult. Whilst some efforts are being made in the present
difficult circumstances, most land rehabilitation must await restoration of stable political conditions.
The present limited institutional structure includes:
Ministry of Planning
Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform
International institutions which provide constrained but active support include ADB, ESCAP, FAO, IMF
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and the World Bank. A report was made to the UNCED conference (Afghanistan, Ministry of Planning,
1992).
Bangladesh
Five ministries are concerned, directly or indirectly, with affairs of land, the Ministries of Agriculture,
Environment and Forests, Rural Development and Cooperatives, Planning, and Food.
The Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council coordinates work of the Bangladesh Agricultural Institute,
four crop-based institutes (for rice, jute, sugar cane and tee) and an institute for nuclear research.
The Soil Resource Development Institute is a separate institute concerned with inventory and evaluation of
soil resources; it also transfers knowledge for extension purposes. With international cooperation, the
Institute has acquired a considerable amount of detailed information, and is the main repository of
knowledge on land resources of the country.
The Bangladesh Water Development Board manages flood protection, drainage and irrigation projects, and
is concerned with land and water use. The Land Reclamation Directorate functions under this Board. The
Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies conducts research in economics, demography and social
sciences, including in relation to agriculture and land. The Hill Tract Development Board is concerned with
most aspects of development specific to the hill areas. Other relevant research institutes include the
Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, the Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, and agricultural
universities.
Extension and implementation are conducted by the Department of Agricultural Extension, the Forest
Department, the Department of Environment, the Bangladesh Rural Development Board, the Bangladesh
Water Development Board, the Land and Water Use Directorate, and the Department of Irrigation Water
Development and Flood Control.
The Department of Environment was strengthened in 1985, and is responsible for environmental impact
assessments.
During this short review, the impression was gained that there is some overlap of responsibilities within the
area of land resources.
Bhutan
Because of its small population, the institutional structure of Bhutan is simple. The National Planning
Agency formulates policy guidelines. The Department of Agriculture includes a Research and Extension
Division, within which there is a Soil Fertility Unit.
India
Because of its population and size, federal structure, and for historical reasons, there are a large number of
institutions active in the area of land resources in India, and the following account is selective.
At national lever the relevant ministries are the Ministries of Agriculture, Rural Development, and
Environment and Forests, and Water Resources, together with the Planning Commission, a body of cabinet
lever.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is the apex body for research and education in all aspects of
the agricultural sciences. It has 43 institutes, 4 national bureaux, 21 national research centers, 9 project
directorates, and currently operates over 70 All India Coordinated Research Projects. The Indian Council
of Forestry Research and Education performs corresponding functions in the field of forestry.
Research institutes of particular relevance to land resources, conservation and degradation include, at the
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national lever:
Indian Agricultural Research
Institute National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning
Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture
Central Arid Zone Research Institute
ICAR Research Complex for the North-Eastern Hills Region
Indian Institute of Soil Science Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute
Directorate of Water Management
National Research Centre for Agroforestry
The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning is the primary institute for basic knowledge of
land resources and their management at the national lever. Applied knowledge is found within the
respective institutes listed above, for example, soil salinization within the Central Soil Salinity Research
Institute.
At the state lever, some stases have Water and Land Management Institutes, Forest Research Institutes,
Irrigation Research Institutes, and Agricultural Universities.
Some of the All India Coordinated Research Projects having particular relevance to land degradation are:
Management of salt affected soils and use of saline water in agriculture
Micro and secondary nutrients and pollutants in soils and plants
Microbial decomposition and recycling of organic wastes
Soil physical conditions to increase agricultural production in problem areas
Soil test crop response correlation Agroforestry Forage crops Agricultural drainage
In development, the National Wastelands Development Board has the aim of bringing wastelands (in large
part, degraded lands) into productive use, through afforestation and other measures. A National Land Use
and Conservation Board formulates policy papers for the apex body, the National Land Use and Wasteland
Development Council.
The Soil and Water Conservation Division in the Ministry of Agriculture plays a key role in the
implementation of integrated watershed management programmes. These are planned to cover 86 M/ha, of
which 26 M ha of highly critical areas have been taken up on a priority basis. These priority watersheds
were identified by the All India Soil and Land Use Survey.
The first fine in agricultural extension is implementation through 109 Krishi Vigyan Kendras ('Agricultural
Knowledge Centres'), supported by National Demonstration Projects and Operational Research Projects.
The Central Water Commission, under the Ministry of Water Resources, is concerned with the
development and utilization of water resources. Implementation is further carried out through State
Departments of Agriculture, Soil Conservation, Forestry, and Animal Husbandry.
Among numerous non-governmental organizations, of particular relevance to land degradation is the
Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development.
Whilst this may appear to be a complex institutional structure, it must be remembered that it serves over
one fifth of the world's agricultural population. In many cases, responsibilities are relatively well defined,
although cases of overlap will be apparent.
Iran
The principal institution concerned with land degradation is the Bureau of Sand Dune Fixation and
Combating Desertification, a unit of the Forestry and Range Organization within the Ministry of
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Jihad-e-Sazandegi. Other relevant bodies include the Department of the Environment, the Research
Institute of Forest and Rangeland, and a Working Group on Agricultural Meteorology within the
Meteorological Organization.
Nepal
At the lever of strategic planning, an Environment Protection Council has been established to coordinate
efforts. Relevant ministries are the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, the Ministry of Agriculture,
and the Ministry of Water Supply.
Research is coordinated by the Nepal Agricultural Research Council. Relevant bodies and activities include
the Central Soil Science Division, the Integrated Soil Survey Project, the National Pasture and Fodder
Research Division, and the Soil and Plant Nutrition Improvement Project.
In development, the nodal institution is the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management,
under the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation. Other relevant bodies include the Department of
Agriculture, Department of Irrigation, Department of Forests, and the Soil Fertility Advisory Unit.
Pakistan
Strategic planning is undertaken by the National Conservation Strategy Unit of the Environment and Urban
Affairs Division (an independent Ministry, currently with one division). This unit works in collaboration
with the World Conservation Union.
Research is coordinated by the Pakistan Agriculture Research Council. Key institutes involved in land
degradation and conservation research include:
Land Resources Section of the National Agricultural Research Centre Soil Survey of Pakistan
Soil and Water Conservation Research Institution, Punjab National Fertilizer Development Centre
Arid Zone Research Institute
International Waterlogging and Salinity Research Institute, part of the Water and Power Development
Authority
Soil Salinity Research Institute, Punjab
Drainage and Reclamation Institute of Pakistan Pakistan Forest Institute
Irrigation Research Institute
Range Research Stations (provincial)
Within the irrigated lands, planning and development are controlled by the Water and Power Development
Authority. Of major importance are the Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects. Other implementation is
carried out at provincial lever, by provincial Directorates and Departments of Soil Conservation, Forestry,
and Irrigation. Forestry is coordinated at the national lever by the Inspector General of Forests.
Sri Lanka
Ministerial responsibility is divided between the Ministry of Environment and Parliamentary Affairs, which
has a coordinating role; the Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli Development; and the Ministry of
Agricultural Development and Research. The Government obtains information and cooperation on
environmental planning from the Geography Department, University of Peredeniya.
The key research institution is the Land and Water Management Centre of the Central Agricultural
Research Institute. Other research is conducted by commodity institutes, for example the Tea Research
Institute is active in soil conservation and agroforestry research.
Development institutes include the Land Use Policy and Planning Division and the Upper Mahaweli
Environment and Forest Conservation Division of the Mahaweli Authority. Environmental impact
assessments are the responsibility of the Central Environmental Authority. Agricultural extension has
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recently been decentralized.

This is by no means a full list. It is recognized within Sri Lanka that the institutional structure within the
area of land resources is complex, and with some overlapping responsibilities. The position has been
contrasted with that in coastal conservation where one body, the Coast Conservation Department, has
responsibility, legal powers, and is able to take effective action.

The institutional structures of the various countries have developed differently with time, for a variety of
reasons. It is difficult to comment on them as a whole, but some generalizations may be made.
There is a tendency towards unduly complex structures, with overlapping responsibilities. Problems arise in
linking activities of the 'fine divisions', Departments of Agriculture, Forestry, and Livestock Production,
with the various bodies concerned with environment, conservation, and land use planning.
Research and, especially, planning are often more advanced and active than actual implementation in the
field. It is so much easier to make a watershed management plan, for example, than to implement it. There
would be benefits if those engaged in research in land degradation and conservation were on occasion to
take some active part in implementation; and conversely, for feedback from field extension staff to be more
fully incorporated into planning.
The area of environmental considerations is now so wide that at the lever of central environmental
authorities, it would be useful to recognize divisions, or areas of responsibility, within it. Land resources is
one such major area. Other divisions might cover, for example, environmental pollution, the marine
environment, and the urban environment. Land resources covers the sustainable use of the resources of
climate, water, soils, landform and vegetation, combining productive use in agriculture, including livestock
production, and forestry, with conservation.
Countries should seek to clarify institutional responsibilities in the area of land resources.
It is recognized that environmental legislation has an important role to play in combatting land degradation.
It has not been possible in this study to cover the state of legislation in different countries. A review is
given in ESCAP (1990a, pp.185-200). This includes a summary table, "Statue of land use and resource
conservation legislation" in which the countries of the present study are classified as follows:
Extensive coverage: None
Moderate coverage: Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka
Minimal coverage: Nepal, Pakistan
Not included in the assessment: Afghanistan, Bhutan, Iran.
Two features are widely found in environmental legislation. First, the provisions of environmental laws
(e.g. of soil conservation, forestry) often require revision to take account of changing circumstances.
Secondly, difficulties are invariably experienced in enforcement of the legal requirements.
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Most of the major international institutions are active within the region, notably FAO, ESCAP, UNEP,
UNDP, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Asian Development Bank.
Many of the research institutions with headquarters in other parts of the world have stations, networks or
cooperative programmes there. Note may be taken of those major international institutions which have
headquarters in the region and which therefore, although their primary responsibilities are international,
make particular contributions regionally, including through country collaborative programmes. These are:
International Centre for Research in the Semi-Arid Tropics (Hyderabad, India) International Irrigation
Management Institute (Kandy, Sri Lanka) International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
(Kathmandu, Nepal)
The World Conservation Union collaborates in the planning of environmental conservation in several
countries of the region.

Two regional collaborative programmes, both ongoing, have made considerable contributions to the
coordination of knowledge on land resources, degradation and conservation, and to providing policy
guidelines of action.
Asian Network on Problem Soils This is organized by FAO through its Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific (RAPA), located in Bangkok. Formed in 1989, this covers the FAO Asia and Pacific region, which
includes six of the eight countries of the South Asian region covered in this report (excluding Afghanistan
and Iran).
The network holds meetings every two years. Reports have been produced on the 1989 meeting, Problem
soils of Asia and the Pacific (FAO/RAPA, 1990), and the 1991 meeting, Environmental issues in land and
water development (FAO/RAPA, 1992). A third meeting will take place in 1993 on Collection and analysis
of land degradation data, as recommended by the 21st FAO Regional Conference for Asia and the Pacific.
Desertification Control in Asia and the Pacific (DESCONAP) This is organized by the Economic and
Social Council for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). It includes all countries of the present South Asia region.
Outputs from its meetings include Problems and prospects of desertification control in the ESCAP region
(ESCAP, 1983) and Desertification through wind erosion and its control in Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP,
1991b).
ESCAP issues a newsletter, ESCAP Environment News.
Fertilizer and Development Network for Asia and the Pacific (FADINAP) This network is concerned
with fertilizer production, trace and use. Of special relevance to land degradation is its 1992 meeting,
Fertilization and the Environment (Pradhan, 1992; Tandon, 1992).
Forestry Research Support Programme for Asia and the Pacific (FORSPA) This is organized by FAO
through its RAPA office. Its work is summarized in Forestry Research in the Asia-Pacific (FAO/FORSPA,
1992). Aspects of its work of particular relevance to land degradation are tropical deforestation, forestry's
role in sustaining agricultural productivity, management of fragile tropical soils, fuelwood, and forestry and
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the environment. A newsletter is issued, Info FOPSPA.

Asian Bio and Organic Fertilizer Network Organized by FAO through RAPA, this led to the production
of Organic recycling in Asia and the Pacific (FAO/RAPA, 1991).
These networks continue to play an important role in exchange of scientific knowledge and formulation of
policy and programmes.
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Chapter 10 - Conclusions and proposals


Some major conclusions reached in this study are:
1. Land degradation has taken place within the context of a high density of population in relation to available land.
Very little land capable of sustainable agricultural production remains which is not already under use. The
continuing population increase means that this situation is becoming more severe every year.
2. Different estimates of the extent and severity of degradation differ widely, often by factors of two or more. The
basic reasons are:
Failure to define what is meant by the degrees of degradation described, in quantitative terms which
can be objectively determined and mapped.
The absence of surveys of the extent of degradation, and lack of monitoring of changes in land
resources.
An exception to the se generalizations are the definitions of degrees of salinization , and the surveys and
monitoring of its changes carried out in some areas.
3. Despite these problems with data, the view that evidence for land degradation is insufficient to justify immediate
action is rejected. Although quantitative estimates differ, the weight of evidence is clear that land degradation in
the region is widespread, and has reached a severe degree in many areas. Environmental 'disaster areas' have
occurred already, for example areas of severe and extensive salinization in parts of the irrigated Indus and Ganges
plains. Others are predicted, most notably the severe deforestation and water erosion in the mountain and hill
areas of Nepal.
4. Best estimates of the areas affected by light, moderate and severe degrees of degradation have been given in
Tables 18 and 19. The relative severity of different types of land degradation in the region in the countries of the
region is summarized in Table 22.
5. The countries of the dry zone - Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and the western part or India - are severely affected by
water and wind erosion, soil fertility decline, deforestation, range land degradation and desertification . Their
alluvial plain and basin areas are affected by waterlogging, salinization and lowering of the water table.
TABLE 22 - Severity of land degradation in the countries of the region
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Dry
region
Iran
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri
Lanka
Humid
region
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Water erosion
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
Wind erosion
XX
XX
XX
Soil fertility
decline
XX
XX
XX
XX
Waterlogging
XX
Salinization
XX
XX
XX
Lowering of
the water
table
XX
Deforestation
XX
XX
XX
XX
Rangeland
degradation
XX
XX
XX
XX
X = Moderately severe.
XX = Very severe.
Four countries of the humid zone - Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and the greater part of India - are severely
affected by water erosion on their rainfed lands, by soil fertility decline, and by deforestation. In parts of the
hill and mountain areas of Nepal, deforestation and water erosion have reached an extreme degree. Bhutan,
because of its longer population density, has not yet suffered severe land degradation, but deforestation,
often the initial cause of degradation, is taking place.
6. The problem of soil fertility decline has not previously received sufficient attention. A fundamental cause is the
attempt to maintain crop yields through application of fertilizers, without also taking other fundamental measures
of soil management, principally maintenance of soil organic master statue. This form of degradation is found in
both the humid and dry zones.
7. The direct causes of land degradation are inappropriate methods of land management. The underlying causes stem
from the interaction of land resources with economic and social conditions. There is a causal nexus between land
shortage, population increase, poverty, and land degradation (Figure 9, p. 62).
8. In very broad, order of magnitude, terms, the economic cost of land degradation can be estimated, mainly on a
production loss basis. For the region as a whole, the cost is put at US$ 10 billion per year, or 7% of agricultural
gross domestic product (Table 21, p. 75).
9. The effects of land degradation upon the people of the region are widespread and, in some cases, severe. Some
farmers have totally lost their land. On croplands, a far larger number have experienced longer crop yields or, in
the attempt to maintain yields on an impoverished land base, increased costs of inputs. On rangelands, livestock
production levers have been very severely reduced. The combined effect has been to cause longer incomes. The
impact of land degradation is greatest on the poor.
10. Land degradation is not simply a problem of environment, but also one of production. It affects the ability of
people of the region to obtain food and other basis necessities. Degradation is thus a problem of sustainability,
the combination of production with conservation of the natural resources on which maintenance of production in
the future natural depends.
11. Institutional structures to combat land degradation exist in all countries of the region. These offer much potential,
both for research and implementation. Some countries possess an unduly complex structure, sometimes with
poorly defined or overlapping responsibilities. There is a need to recognize land resources, productivity and
degradation as a distinctive field, and clarify responsibilities for research, survey, monitoring and implementation.
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The proposals arise from the above conclusions. They are confined to the main fines of approach and action. Many of
the proposed actions will initially require discussion on a regional, and in some cases international, basis, in order to
secure uniformity of methods. They will subsequently require modifications in detail to meet the circumstances of
different countries.
If integrated action is not taken, to combat both the direct and the indirect causes of land degradation:
resources will be destroyed, in some cases irreversibly;
there will be further considerable economic losses at the national lever;
the people, mainly the poor, will suffer.
A prerequisite for effective action is recognition, by national governments, of the severity of land degradation and its
effects upon the people and the national economies. It is not sufficient to pay lip service to 'environment' nor to write
reports. There must be allocation of staff, budget and resources.
The proposals fall into two groups:
Assessment of the severity and extent of the problem, and its effects (Proposals 1-4).
Action to check and reverse land degradation (Proposals 5-7).
Problems of land degradation have already been considered within the FAO/RAPA Asian Problem Soils Network and
the ESCAP Desertification Control Network. Following the two recent conferences of the former, a position paper was
produced which includes detailed recommendations for action. Whilst written with respect to the whole of Asia and the
Pacific, it is certainly applicable to the present South Asian Region. The recommendations in that paper are given under
the heading, "A framework for action" (Dent et al., 1992, pp.20-26). They are fully in agreement with the proposals of
the present study. They amplify and expand these with respect to development of national institutions and improved
methods of land use management (training and implementation), and contain additional material on people's
participation.

Proposal 1: Practical definitions of degrees of severity of land degradation
In order to acquire more accurate data, it is first necessary to define the degrees of land degradation, in terms that offer
practical means of observation, monitoring and mapping. An early attempt to do so was made by FAO (1979). The
definitions employed in the GLASOD survey (Table 4, p. 24) provide a valid starting point, but these need to be
converted to quantitative form.
This action is best taken at international lever.
Proposal 2: Establishment of a regional programme and guidelines for survey of land degradation, and
monitoring of change
If surveys are to be conducted nationally, it is first necessary to establish detailed objectives, methods and priorities are
a regional lever. The programme should include:
Survey of the present state of degradation.
Monitoring of soil changes. A discussion, with outline of methods and exemples, is given in Young ( 1991).
An FAO/RAPA meeting is scheduled for 1993 which will give initial consideration to such a programme.
Proposal 3: Study of the economic and social effects upon the people
Very few specific studies of this nature were identified in the course of the present review. Ideally, such work should be
conducted in parallel with physical surveys, and include cooperation in the field between soil scientists and social
scientists.
The methodology for study of economic consequences at the macroeconomic lever, and of economic and social effects
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upon the people, is less well established than that for physical surveys. Initial consideration at international lever would
be preferable.
Proposal 4: Translation of these guidelines (Proposals 3 and 4) into national programmes.
This is clearly a master for action at national lever. Among aspects to be covered are:
Clarify institutional responsibilities It may be necessary to establish a high-level advisory committee on land
degradation policy. This body should then seek, through collaboration with the Ministries and Departments
concerned, to clarify responsibilities in areas of research, planning and implementation.
It is desirable that countries should identify one nodal institution for land degradation affairs as a whole,
together with others with defined responsibilities for particular types of degradation and aspects of
research, planning and implementation.
Identify priorities In all countries there are critical aspects, where land degradation and its consequences have
already reached serious proportions or threaten to do sot In some cases these will be specific land regional areas,
such as those with particularly severe erosion or salinization. In others, a priority may arise in the existence of a
problem of moderate degree but occurring over a large area, such as soil fertility decline.
Plan and carry out national programmes It is at this point that the international, regional and national
activities set out above will be put into practice.
Priority 5: Research into measures to combat degradation.
Practical field implementation needs to be continuously supported by research. Aspects which require particular
attention include:
practical methods of improving and maintaining soil organic master statue;
ways of securing participation of the people in the implementation of improved measures of land management,
for example, soil conservation measures which provide intrinsic incentives for land users;
research into the underlying causes of degradation, and the integration of land resource management with wider
aspects of population policy.
Proposal 6: Implementation of measures to combat the direct causes of degradation.
Much activity of this nature is already being undertaken, but the scale of activity needs to be expanded. Increased
funding will be required. Measures of this type include:
watershed management and soil conservation projects and extension work;
method for improving soil organic master statue;
application of integrated plant nutrition systems;
salinity control and reclamation projects;
reafforestation;
further development of agroforestry, including applications for soil conservation;
control of desertification, including sand dune fixation and improved rangeland management.
Proposal 7: Action directed towards removing the underlying causes of degradation, including integration of
land management measures with population policy.
Attempts to combat land degradation directly, by conservation measures or land reclamation, can have only short-term
effects unless they are accompanied by efforts to tackle the underlying causes. These lie in the causal nexus between
population increase, limited land resources, land shortage, poverty, non-sustainable management practices and land
degradation. In the prevailing situation in which there is no spare land available, population increases of 2-3 percent per
year will largely or entirely counteract the effects of measures for improvement.
Population is a sensitive issue, but all governments of the region are aware of the problems caused by continued
increase at present rates. In the context of land degradation, a much greater integration between population policy,
agriculture and land resource management is needed. For this to occur, new attitudes will be required.
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FAO. 1992. Findings and recommandations for the tropical zone. Forest Resources Assessment 1990
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FAO/RAPA. 1986. Land Use Watersheds, and Planning in the Asia-Pacific Region. FAO/RAPA, Bangkok.
230 pp.
FAO/RAPA. 1990. Problem soils of Asia and the Pacific. RAPA Report 1990/6. FAO/RAPA Bangkok.
283 pp.
FAO/RAPA. 1991. Organic recycling in Asia and the Pacific. RAPA Bulletin 7. FAO/RAPA, Bangkok.
112 pp.
FAO/RAPA. 1992. Environmental Issues in Land and Water Development. FAO/RAPA, Bangkok. 488
pp. (Includes country papers on Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.)
Goswami, N.N. and Rattan, R.K. 1992. Soil health - key to sustained agricultural productivity. Fertilizer
News [India]. pp. 53-60.
Hutchinson C.F. and Webb, A.C. 1987. United States-Pakistan Workshop on Arid Lands Development
and Desertification Control. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad. 235 pp.
Joshi, P.K. and Tyagi, N.K. 1991. Sustainability of existing farming system in Punjab and Harayana some
issues on groundwater use. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 46: 412-21.
Joshi, P.K. and Jha, D. 1992. An economic enquiry into the impact of soil alkalinity and waterlogging.
Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 47: 195-204.
Kholdebarin A. 1992. Desertification and its Control in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Forestry and Range
Organization, Teheran. 48 pp.
Lutz, E. and El Serafy, S. 1988. Environmental and resource accounting: an overview. Environment
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Department Working Paper 6. World Bank, Washington DC. 14 pp.

Magrath, W.B. 1989. Economic analysis of soil conservation technologies. Environment Department,
Division Working Paper 1989-4. World Bank, Washington DC. 28 pp.
Magrath, W.[B.] and Arens, P. 1989. The costs of soil erosion on Java: a natural resource accounting
approach. Environment Department Working Paper 18. World Bank, Washington DC. 67 pp.
Magrath, W. B. and Doolette, J.B. 1990. Strategic issues for watershed development in Asia. Environment
Working Paper 30. World Bank, Washington DC. 34 pp.
Mellink, W., Rao, Y.S. and MacDicken, KG. (eds.). 1991. Agroforestry in Asia and the Pacific. RAPA,
Bangkok. 304 pp.
Mian, A. and Javed. Y. 1989. The Soil Resources of Pakistan - Their Potential, Present State and
Strategies for Conservation. Sector paper of the National Conservation Strategy. Soil Survey of Pakistan,
Lahore. 53 pp.
Nizami, M.I. and Shafiq, M. 1990. Land clearances and soil conservation. A case study of Pothwar
Plateau. Proceedings of the 2nd National Soils Congress of Pakistan (Soil Science Society of Pakistan,
Islamabad). pp. 162-69.
Noohi, K. 1992. Drought and Desertification. Report of Working Group on Agricultural Meteorology.
Paper presented to meeting on elaboration of desertification assessment and mapping methodology,
November 1992, Teheran. Meteorological Organization, Teheran. 43 pp
Oldeman, L.R., Hakkeling, A.T.A. and Sombroek, W.G. 1992. World Map of the Status of Humaninduced
Soil Degradation. ISRIC, Wageningen and UNEP, Nairobi. 26 pp. with map in 3 sheets.
Parikh, K.S., Parikh, J.K., Sharma, V.K. and Painuly, J.P. 1992. Natural Resource Accounting: A
Framework for India. Indira Ghandi Institute of Development Research, Bombay.
Pearce, D.W. and Turner, R.K. 1990. Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment. Johns
Hopkins, Baltimore. 378 pp.
Peskin, H.M. 1990. Accounting for natural resource depletion and degradation in developing countries.
Environment Department Working Paper 13. World Bank, Washington DC. 39 pp.
Pezzey, J. 1992. Sustainable development concepts: an economic analysis. Environment Paper 2. World
Bank, Washington DC. 71 pp.
Pradhan, S.B. 1992. Status of Fertilizer Use in the [Asia-Pacific] Region. Paper presented to FADINAP
seminar, Fertilization and the environment, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Repetto, R., Magrath, W., Wells, M., Beer, C. and Rossini, F. 1989. Wasting Assets: Natural Resources in
the National Income Accounts. World Resources Institute, Washington DC, 68 pp.
SAARC. 1992. Regional Study on the Causes and Consequences of Natural Disasters and the Protection
and Preservation of the Environment. South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation, Kathmandu. 212
pp.
Salleh Modh. Nor. 1992. Forestry research in the Asia-Pacific. FORSPA Publication: 1,
FAO/UNDP/ADB/CAB International, Bangkok. 55 pp.
Saunders, I. and Young, A. 1983. Rates of surface processes on slopes, slope retreat and denudation.
Earth Surface Processes and landform 8: 473-501.
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Schertz, D.L. 1983. The basis for soil loss tolerances. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 38: 1014.
Sehgal, J. and Abrol, I. P. 1992. Land degradation statue: India. Desertification Bulletin 21: 24-31.
Shaheed, S.M. 1992. Environmental issues in land development in Bangladesh. In: Environmental Issues in
Land and Water Development. FAO/RAPA, Bangkok. pp. 105-27.
Singh, B. 1992. Groundwater resources and agricultural development strategy: Punjab experience. Indian
Journal of Agricultural Economics 47: 105-13.
Sing, P. 1988. Indian Rangelands: Status and Improvement. Plenary address, Third International
Rangeland Congress, New Delhi. 40 pp.
Sinha, R. 1984. Landlessness: a growing problem. FAO Economic and Social Development Studies 28.
FAO, Rome. 112 pp.
Southgate, D. 1989. The economics of land degradation in the third world. Environment Department
Working Paper 2. World Bank, Washington DC. 17 pp.
Sri Lanka, Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority. 1991. Natural Resources of Sri Lanka:
Conditions and Trends. Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority, Colombo. 280 pp.
Sri Lanka, Ministry of Environment and Parliamentary Affairs. 1991. National Environmental Action Plan.
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Consultants' Working Paper 3. AGLS, FAO, Rome. 164 pp.
Stocking, M. 1992. Soil erosion in the upper Mahaweli catchment. Technical Report 14, Forests/Landuse
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University Press, Oxford, for World Bank, Washington DC. 308 pp.
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1. Report of the First Meeting of the Advisory Panel on the Soil Map of the World, Rome, 19-23 June
1961.**
2. Report of the First Meeting on Soil Survey, Correlation and Interpretation for Latin America, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, 28-31 May 1962**
3. Report of the First Soil Correlation Seminar for Europe, Moscow, USSR, 16-28 July 1962.**
4. Report of the First Soil Correlation Seminar for South and Central Asia, Tashkent, Uzbekistan,
USSR, 14 September-2 October 1962.**
5. Report of the Fourth Session of the Working Party on Soil Classification and Survey
(Subcommission on Land and Water Use of the European Commission on Agriculture), Lisbon,
Portugal, 6-10 March 1963.**
6. Report of the Second Meeting of the Advisory Panel on the Soil Map of the World, Rome, 9- 11
July 1963.**
7. Report of the Second Soil Correlation Seminar for Europe, Bucharest, Romania, 29 July-6 August
1963.* *
8. Report of the Third Meeting of the Advisory Panel on the Soil Map of the World, Paris, 3 January
1964.* *
9. Adequacy of Soil Studies in Paraguay, Bolivia and Peru, November-December 1963.**
10. Report on the Soils of Bolivia, January 1964.**
11. Report on the Soils of Paraguay, January 1964.**
12. Preliminary Definition, Legend and Correlation Table for the Soil Map of the World, Rome, August
1964.* *
13. Report of the Fourth Meeting of the Advisory Panel on the Soil Map of the World, Rome, 16 21
May 1964.**
14. Report of the Meeting on the Classification and Correlation of Soils from Volcanic Ash, Tokyo,
Japan, 11 -27 June 1964.* *
15. Report of the First Session of the Working Party on Soil Classification, Survey and Soil Resources
of the European Commission on Agriculture, Florence, Italy, 1-3 October 1964.**
16. Detailed Legend for the Third Draft on the Soil Map of South America, June 1965.**
17. Report of the First Meeting on Soil Correlation for North America, Mexico, 1-8 February 1965.**
18. The Soil Resources of Latin America, October 1965.**
19. Report of the Third Correlation Seminar for Europe: Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Turkey,
Yugoslavia, 29 August-22 September 1965.**
20. Report of the Meeting of Rapporteurs, Soil Map of Europe (Scale 1:1000000) (Working Party on
Soil Classification and Survey of the European Commission on Agriculture), Bonn, Federal Republic
of Germany, 29 November-3 December 1965.**
21. Report of the Second Meeting on Soil Survey, Correlation and Interpretation for Latin America, Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil, 13-16 July 1965.**
22. Report of the Soil Resources Expedition in Wastern and Central Brazil, 24 June-9 July 1965.**
23. Bibliography on Soils and Related Sciences for Latin America (1st edition), December 1965.**
24. Report on the Soils of Paraguay (2nd edition), August 1964.**
25. Report of the Soil Correlation Study Tour in Uruguay, Brazil and Argentina, June-August 1964.**
26. Report of the Meeting on Soil Correlation and Soil Resources Appraisal in India, New Delhi , India,
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28.
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43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
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52.
53.
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56.
5-15 April 1965.**

Report of the Sixth Session of the Working Party on Soil Classification and Survey of the European
Commission on Agriculture, Montpellier, France, 7-11 March 1967.**
Report of the Second Meeting on Soil Correlation for North America, Winnipeg-Vancouver,
Canada, 25 July-5 August 1966.**
Report of the Fifth Meeting of the Advisory Panel on the Soil Map of the World, Moscow, USSR,
20-28 August 1966.**
Report of the Meeting of the Soil Correlation Committee for South America, Buenos Aires,
Argentina, 12-19 December 1966.**
Trace Element Problems in Relation to Soil Units in Europe (Working Party on Soil Classification
and Survey of the European Commission on Agriculture), Rome, 1967.**
Approaches to Soil Classification, 1968.**
Definitions of Soil Units for the Soil Map of the World, April 1968.**
Soil Map of South America 1:5000000, Draft Explanatory Text, November 1968.**
Report of a Soil Correlation Study Tour in Sweden and Poland, 27 September-14 October 1968.**
Meeting of Rapporteurs, Soil Map of Europe (Scale 1:1000000) (Working Party on Soil
Classification and Survey of the European Commission on Agriculture), Poitiers, France 21-23 June
1967.**
Supplement to Definition of Soil Units for the Soil Map of the World, July 1969.**
Seventh Session of the Working Party on Soil Classification and Survey of the European
Commission on Agriculture, Varna, Bulgaria, 11-13 September 1969.**
A Correlation Study of Red and Yellow Soils in Areas with a Mediterranean Climate.**
Report of the Regional Seminar of the Evaluation of Soil Resources in West Africa, Kumasi, Ghana,
14-19 December 1970.**
Soil Survey and Soil Fertility Research in Asia and the Far East, New Delhi, 15-20 February 1971.**
Report of the Eighth Session of the Working Party on Soil Classification and Survey of the
European Commission on Agriculture, Helsinki, Finland, 5-7 July 1971.**
Report of the Ninth Session of the Working Party on Soil Classification and Survey of the European
Commission on Agriculture, Ghent, Belgium 28-31 August 1973.**
First Meeting of the West African Sub-Committee on Soil Correlation for Soil Evaluation and
Management, Accra, Ghana, 12-19 June 1972.**
Report of the Ad Hoc Expert Consultation on Land Evaluation, Rome, Italy, 6-8 January 1975.**
First Meeting of the Eastern African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and Land Evaluation,
Nairobi, Kenya, 11-16 March 1974.**
Second Meeting of the Eastern African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and Land Evaluation,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 25-30 October 1976.
Report on the Agro-Ecological Zones Project, Vol. I - Methodology and Results for Africa, 1978.
Vol. 2 - Results for Southwest Asia, 1978.
Report of an Expert Consultation on Land Evaluation Standards for Rainfed Agriculture, Rome,
Italy, 25-28 October 1977.
Report of an Expert Consultation on Land Evaluation Criteria for Irrigation, Rome, Italy, 27
February-2 March 1979.
Third Meeting of the Eastern African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and Land Evaluation,
Lusaka, Zambia, 18-30 April 1978.
Land Evaluation Guidelines for Rainfed Agriculture, Report of an Expert Consultation, 12-14
December 1979.
Fourth Meeting of the West African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and Land Evaluation,
Banjul, The Gambia, 20-27 October 1979.
Fourth Meeting of the Eastem African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and Land Evaluation,
Arusha, Tanzania, 27 October-4 November 1980.
Cinquime reunion du Sous-Comit Ouest et Centre africain de correlation des sols pour la mise en
valeur des terres, Lom, Togo, 7-12 dcembre 1981.
Fifth Meeting of the Eastern African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and Land Evaluation, Wad
Medani, Sudan, 5-10 December 1983.
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57. . Sixime runion du Sous-Comit Ouest et Centre Africain de correlation des sols pour la mise en
valeur des terres, Niamey, Niger, 6-12 fevrier 1984.
58. Sixth Meeting of the Eastern African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and Land Evaluation,
Maseru, Lesotho, 9- 18 October 1985.
59. Septime runion du Sous-Comit Ouest et Centre africain de correlation des sols pour la mise en
valeur des terres, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 10-17 novembre 1985.
60. Revised Legend, Soil Map of the World, FAO-Unesco-lSRIC, 1988. Reprinted 1990.
61. Huitime runion du Sous-Comit Ouest et Centre africain de correlation des sols pour la mise en
valeur des terres, Yaound, Cameroun, 19-28 janvier 1987.
62. Seventh Meeting of the East and Southern African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and
Evaluation, Gaborone, Botswana, 30 March-8 April 1987.
63. Neuvime reunion du Sous-Comit Ouest et Centre africain de correlation des sols pour la mise en
valeur des terres, Cotonou, Benin, 14-23 novembre 1988.
64. FAO-ISRIC Soil Database (SDB), 1989.
65. Eighth Meeting of the East and Southern African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and Land
Evaluation, Harare, Zimbabwe, 9-13 October 1989.
66. World soil resources. An explanatory note on the FAO World Soil Resources Map at 1:25 000 000
scale, 1991. Rev. 1, 1993.
67. Digitized Soil Map of the World, Volume 1: Africa. Volume 2: North and Central America. Volume
3: Central and South America. Volume 4: Europe and West of the Urals. Volume 5: North East
Asia. Volume 6: Near East and Far East. Volume 7: South East Asia and Oceania. Release 1.0,
November 1991.
68. Land Use Planning Applications. Proceedings of the FAO Expert Consultation 1990, Rome, 10 14
December 1990.
69. Dixime runion du Sous-Comit Ouest et Centre africain de correlation des sols pour la mise en
valeur des terres, Bouake, Odienn, Cte d'Ivoire, Cte d'Ivoire, 5-12 november 1990.
70. Ninth Meeting of the East and Southern African Sub-Committee for Soil Correlation and Land
Evaluation, Lilongwe, Malawi, 25 November - 2 December 1991.
71. Agro-ecological land resources assessment for agricultural development planning. A case study of
Kenya. Resources data base and land productivity. Main Report. Technical Annex 1: Land
resources. Technical Annex 2: Soil erosion and productivity. Technical Annex 3: Agro-climatic and
agro-edaphic suitabilities for barley, oat, cowpea, green gram and pigeonpea. Technical Annex 4:
Crop productivity. Technical Annex 5: Livestock productivity. Technical Annex 6: Fuelwood
productivity. Technical Annex 7: Systems documentation guide to computer programs for land
productivity assessments. Technical Annex 8: Crop productivity assessment: results at district lever.
1991. Main Report 71/9: Making land use choices for district planning, 1994.
72. Computerized systems of land resources appraisal for agricultural development, 1993.
73. FESLM: an international framework for evaluating sustainable land management, 1993.
74. Global and national soils and terrain digital databases (SOTER), 1993.
75. AEZ in Asia. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Agro-ecological Zones Methodology and
Applications, Bangkok, Thailand, 17-23 November 1991.
76. Green manuring for soil productivity improvement, 1994.
77. Onzime reunion du Sous-Comit Ouest et Centre africain de correlation des sols pour la mise en
valeur des terres, Sgou, Mali, 18-26 janvier 1993.
78. Land degradation in South Asia: its severity, causes and effects upon the people, 1994.
** Out of print
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