Electricity CPUs Ethics Refresher

Electrical; Computers; Ethics
Refresher Notes
Spring 2013
FE Electrical General Notes

Electrical Circuits, Computers,
and Ethics
Introduction
I. Electromagnetics
Electrostatics/Magnetostatics
II. DC Circuits
KCL, KVL
Series/Parallel Equivalent Circuits
Node and Loop Analysis
Thevenin/Norton Theorems
Transient Response
Sampling Theorem
Instrumentation
III. AC Circuits
Average and RMS Values of Waveforms

Impedance and Admittance
Complex Power
Resonance
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Transformers
Rotating Machines
IV. Computers
Terminology
Spreadsheets
Structured Programming
V. Ethics and Business Practices

2
I. Electromagnetics
Electrostatics/Magnetostatics
Introduction
Equivalent Units
Amperes
Charge
Capacitance
Inductance
Energy
Force
Flux Density
Voltage
Power
Flux
A
C
F
H
J
N
T
V
W
Wb
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
W/V
J/V
C/V
Vs/A
Nm
J/m
Ns/Cm
W/a
J/s
Vs
= N/Tm
= Nm/V
= C/J
= Tm/A
= VC
= VC/m
= N/Am
= C/F
= VA
= HA
C/Nm
= S/ = J/V
=
=
=
=
=
=
C/F
= (Kgm)/s
(Kgm)/s
Wb/m
J/C
V/
Tm
Electrostatics
Charges
Page 193 from Supplied Reference Handbook
F
E = F/Q
+Q
Coulombs Force Law
r
F1 = -Q1E2
F2 = Q2E1
+Q1
E1
E2
+Q2
Electrostatics
Permittivity
Note: On the FE exam, assume the permittivity is 0 = 8.85 x 10 F/m unless another value is provided.
Coulomb' s Law
Q
a
4SH r 2
+Q
E1
F1
F2
E2
F1 = (-Q1)(-E2)
F1 = Q1E2
F2 = (+Q2)(-E1)
Q1
+Q2
F2 = -Q2E1
Electrostatics
Electric Field Intensity

(V/m or N/C)
EL
L = Q/d = C/m
-Q
+Q
Es
Es
s
s = Q/A = C/m
Electrostatics
Example
A point charge of 0.001 C is placed 10 m from a sheet charge of 0.001 C/m, and a 10 m diameter
sphere of charge 0.001 C is placed half-way in between on a straight line, all in a vacuum. What is
the Qp force on the point charge?
F = Fsheet + Fsphere = Qpoint (Esheet + Esphere)
Qsphere
U
Q po int sheet
2
4SHr
2H
0.001C 2
C
0
.
001
m 0.001C
4S (5m) 2
-12 F
8
.
85
x
10
S = - 0.001 C/m
Qs = 0.001 C
QP = 0.001 C
Q po int
U sheet Qsphere

2
4Sr
2
5.61 x 10 4 N
QS
QP
Esph
(-)
ESH
+
S
+
5m
10m
Electrostatics
Electric Flux
Gauss Law
R = radius of the charge

distribution
r = radius of the sphere
dS
Surface of
Integration
Asphere = 4r = d
Electrostatics
The Concept of Work
Work (W) done by an external agent in moving a charge Q in an electric field from a
point p1 to a point p2:
d V
p2
Q Ed l (Joules)
p1
F d
Q'V
QEd
For a uniform field, the work done by moving a charge Q a distance d parallel to the
uniform field:
ES
+Q
(Nm or Joules)
+W
+QS
+Q
-W
+Q
W=0
Note that equation, W = - QV, is always true for all fields. (V may not be easy to compute.)
10
Electrostatics
Voltage
V = -W/Q
Q
E
V
(V/m or N/C)
Gradient points in the direction where the E-field increases or decreases most with voltage potential.
E
+
d
V
11
Electrostatics
Example
A source at zero potential emits electrons (mass: 9.11 x 10 -31 Kg ) at negligible velocity.
An open grid at 18 V is located 0.003 m from the source. An electron has a charge of
1.6022 x 10 -19 C. At what velocity will the electrons pass through the grid?
18V
QP
0.003m
0V
12
Electrostatics
Example/Contd.
Kinetic Energy Equation in Pg. 59 of FE Handbook, T
1 2
mv
2
13
Electrostatics
Current
(C/s) or Amps
( = Amps/m)
J
(Current direction matters) (Amps/m)
Electric current i(t) through a surface is defined as the rate of charge transport through that surface or
i(t) = dq(t)/dt, which is a function of time t, since q(t) denotes instantaneous charge.
A constant current i(t) is written as I, and the vector current density in amperes/m is defined as J.
14
Magnetostatics
Magnetism
(A/m)
(Wb/m or Teslas)
Right Hand Rule Generators
Left Hand Rule Motors
15
Magnetostatics
Example
|B|Sin
1 m (L)
30
B
16
Magnetostatics
Example
What is the magnitude of the force on an electron moving at 0.1c in a uniform magnetic
-5
field of 5.0 x 10 T ?
1 T = 1 Ns/Cm
Q vB
(1.6022 x 10 -19 C)(0.3 x 10 8 m/s)(5.0 x 10 -5 T )
2.4 x 10 -16 N
B
velocity
magnetic field flux density
(-) electron
17
Magnetostatics
Induced Voltage
v = the induced voltage

= the average flux (Weber) enclosed by each turn
N = number of loops
L = distance
B dA
ds/dt = velocity
s = distance that conductor travels.
ds/dt
B
Area
B
18
Magnetostatics
Voltage
The potential difference V between two points is the work per unit charge required to
move the charge between points. For two parallel plates with potential difference V,
separated by distance d, the strength of the E field between the plates is E = V/d
directed from the + plate to the - plate.
19
DC Circuits
Circuit Analysis
20
DC Circuits
Kirchhoffs Laws (KCL, KVL)
The basic tools for solving DC circuit problems are Kirchhoffs laws: the current law and the voltage
law, Ohms law, and the power relationship. The following configurations are typical:
I1
I2
I1 = I 2 + I 3
Kirchhoff' s Laws
I3
KCL
IN
OUT
KVL
RISES
DROPS
Ohm' s Law
V
IR
R V
Resistive Power
P VI
I R
V2
R
Voltage
Drop
(- V)
Voltage
Rise
(+V)
Voltage
Drop
(- V)
+
_
Voltage
Rise
(+V)
21
DC Circuits
KCL
This law is also called Kirchhoff's first rule or Kirchhoff's nodal rule.
The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that at any node (junction) in an electrical
circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that
node or the algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero. (Assuming
that current entering the junction is taken as positive and current leaving the junction is taken as
negative).
Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction towards or away
from a node, this principle can be stated as:
n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.
The current entering any junction is equal to the current leaving that junction: i1 + i4 = i2 + i3
The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby the charge (measured in coulombs) is the
product of the current (in amperes) and the time (which is measured in seconds).
22
DC Circuits (KCL)
Example
Consider the following circuit with the following parameters:
V1 = 15V
V2 = 7V
R1 = 20
R2 = 5
R3 = 10
Find current through R3 using Kirchhoff's Current Law.
The circuit above shows voltages at nodes a, b, c and d. We use node a as common node (ground if
you like). Thus, Va = 0V.
From Node b we get:
Vb = V1 = 15V
From Node d we get:
Vd = V2 = 7V
23
DC Circuits (KCL)
Example/Contd.
Thus, we must solve Vc, in order to complete voltage definitions at all nodes. Vc will be found by
applying KCL at node c and solving resulting equations follows:
i1 = i2 + i3
Vc Vb
R1
Vd Vc Va Vc

R2
R3
? Va
Substituting values we get
7
VC
20:
0.65 A
Thus, VC
1.857 V
24
DC Circuits (KCL)
Example/Contd.
Thus, now we can calculate current through R3 as follows:
I R3
I R3
I R3
VC
R3
1.857
10
0.186 A
IR3
25
DC Circuits
KVL
This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, or Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule.
The principle of conservation of energy implies that the directed sum of the electrical potential
differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is zero.
Here, n is the total number of voltages measured. The voltages may also be complex:
The sum of all the voltages around the loop is equal to zero. v4 - v1 - v2 - v3 = 0
26
DC Circuits (KVL)
Example
Consider the following circuit with the following parameters:
V1 = 15V
V2 = 7V
R1 = 20
R2 = 5
R3 = 10
Find current through R3 using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law.
We can see that there are two closed paths (loops) where we can apply KVL in, Loop 1 and 2 as
shown in the circuit above.
From Loop 1 we get:

V1 VR3 VR1 = 0
From Loop 2 we get:
V2 VR2 VR3 = 0
27
DC Circuits (KVL)
Example/Contd.
The above results can further be simplified as follows:
V1 (I1 I2) * R3 I1 * R1 = 0
(1)
and
V2 I2 * R2 (I2 I1) * R3 = 0
I2
V2 I 1 R3
R2 R3
(2)
By equating above (1) and (2) we can eliminate I2 and hence get the following:
I1
V1 ( R2 R3 ) V2 R3
( R3 R1 )( R2 R3 ) R3
(3)
We end up with the above three equations and now substitute the values given in the
above equations and solve the variables. Only after we have arrived at a simplified
equation then that we can substitute in values of Resistors, Voltages and Current.
28
DC Circuits (KVL)
Example/Contd.
I1
I1
I2
I2
(15V ) (5: 10:) (7V ) (10:)

(10: 20:) * (5: 10:) (10:) 2
295V
0.84 A
350:
7V (0.84 A x 10:)
(10: 5:)
15.4V
| 1.03 A
15:
The positive sign for I2 tells us that current I2 flows in the same direction to our initial assumed
direction. Thus, now we can calculate current through R3 as follows:
I R3
I1 I 2
IR3
I R3
0.84 A 1.03 A
I R3
0.19 A
The negative sign for IR3 only tells us that current IR3 flows in the same direction as I2.
29
DC Circuits
Series/Parallel Equivalent Circuits
Resistors in Series
If R1
R2
If R1
R2
R eq
R3
R
2
Req
R
n
Resistors in Parallel
30
DC Circuits
Example
What is the resistance, as seen from the battery, of the parallel and series resistors in this circuit?
(A) 4
(B) 5
(C) 6
(D) 8
Two 8 resistors in parallel are 4 . Two 10 resistors in parallel are 5 . Thus, we have two 10
resistors in parallel are 5 . Therefore, the correct answer is (B).
31
DC Circuits
Example
32
DC Circuits
Node Voltage Circuit Analysis:
1. Convert all current sources to voltage sources.
2. Choose one node as reference (usually ground).
3. Identify unknown voltages at other nodes compared to reference.
4. Write Kirchhoffs current equation for all unknown nodes except reference node.
5. Write all currents in terms of voltage drops.
6. Write all voltage drops in terms of the node voltages.
33
DC Circuits
Example
Find the voltage potential at point A and the current i1.
i1 i2
i3
50V V A 20V V A

2:
4:
V A 35.3V
i1
50V V A
2:
7.35 A
VA 0
10:
50V 35.3V
2:
34
DC Circuits
Loop Current Circuit Analysis
1.
2.
3.
Select one less than the total number of loops.

Write Kirchhoffs voltage equation for each loop.
Use the simultaneous equations to solve for the current you want.
35
DC Circuits
Example
Find the current through the 0.5 resistor.
The voltage sources around the left loop are equal to the voltage drops across the resistances.
20 V 19 V = 0.25 i1 + 0.4 (i1 i2)
The same is true for the right loop.
19 V = 0.4 (i2 i1) + 0.5 i2
Solvetwo equations and two unknowns.
0.65 i1 0.4 i2 = 1 V
0.4 i1 + 0.9 i2 = 19 V
i1 = 20 A
i2 = 30 A
The current through the 0.5 resistor is 30 A.
36
DC Circuits
Voltage Divider
The voltage across a resistor R in a loop with equivalent resistance Req with a voltage source V is
VR
R
V
Req
In the general case, the voltage on impedance Zi in a loop with equivalent impedance Zeq with a
Voltage source v is
Vi
Zi
V
Z eq
NOTE: Each symbol is a complex number in the general case.

37
DC Circuits
Example
What is the voltage across the 6 resistor?
(A) 5 V
(B) 6 V
(C) 8 V
(D) 10 V
Two 8 resistors in parallel equal 4 . The voltage across the 6 resistor is 6V.
6:
10V
6: 4:
6V
Therefore, the answer is (B).

38
DC Circuits
Current Divider
The current through a resistor R in parallel with another resistance Rparallel and a current into the
node of I is:
(Resistance R does not appear explicitly. The denominator
RPARALLEL
IR
I
is the sum of the resistances in parallel.)
( R RPARALLEL )
In the general case, the current through impedance Z connected to a node in parallel with equivalent
Impedance Zparallel with a current i into the node is:
IZ
Z PARALLEL
I
( Z Z PARALLEL )
(The denominator is the sum of the impedances in parallel.)
NOTE: Each symbol is a complex number in the general case.

Procedure:
1. Identify the component you want the current through.
2. Simplify the circuit.
3. Determine the current into the node that is connected to the
component of interest.
4. Allocate current in proportion to the reciprocal of resistance.
39
DC Circuits
Example
What is the current through the 6 resistor?
(A) 1/10 A
(B) 1/3 A
(C) 1/2 A
(D) 1 A
i = i1 + i2
Simplify the circuit.

3 in parallel with 6 = 2
2 in series with 4 = 6
6V
6:
1A
Rparallel = 3 and Req = 3 + 6 = 9
i2
3:
3: 6:
1A
1
A
3
Therefore, the answer is (B).

40
DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
The net current/voltage is the sum of the current/voltage caused by each current/voltage source.
Procedure:
1. Short all voltage sources, and open all current sources, then turn
on only one source at a time.
2. Simplify the circuit to get the current/voltage of interest.
3. Repeat until all sources have been used.
4. Add the results for the answer.
41
DC Circuits
Example
Using the Superposition Theorem, determine the current through the center leg of the circuit.
Short the 20 V source.
50V
2:
25 A
20V
4:
5A
Short the 50 V source.
I
Ieq = 25 A + 5 A = 30 A
42
DC Circuits
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Req
VOC
I SC
RTH
RN
43
DC Circuits
Example
Find the Thevenin equivalent voltage and resistance of the circuit as seen by the 10 resistor.
The Thevenin resistance is the same as the Norton resistance in the previous example, which is 1.33
with the 10 resistor open-circuited, apply the Kirchhoff voltage law around the loop and find VTH =
40V.
RTH
2: x 4:
1.33:
2: 4:
44
DC Circuits
Example/Contd.
( 50 V 20 V) = I(2 + 4 )
I=5A
V = 50 V I(2 )
= 50 V (5 A)(2 )
= 40 V
45
DC Circuits
Norton Equivalent
46
DC Circuits
Example
Find the Norton equivalent current and resistance of the circuit as seen by the 10 resistor.
With the 10 resistor open circuited, and the voltage sources shorted, the circuit is 4.0 and 2.0
in parallel.
RN
2: x 4:
1.33:
2: 4:
With the 10 resistor shorted, the circuit looks just like the previous superposition example.
IN = 30A
47
DC Circuits
Maximum Power Transfer
DC Circuit
Maximum power is transferred when the load resistance is the same as the Thevenin
Equivalent circuit resistance, Rs = RL
AC Circuit
Maximum power is transferred when the load impedance is the complex conjugate of the
Thevenin equivalent circuit impedance, Zs = x + jy and ZL = x jy = Zs*
48
DC Circuits
Example
A load resistance is to be connected to the circuit below. (a) What value of load resistance will
provide maximum power transfer to the load? (b) what is the value of that maximum power?
(a)
The maximum power theorem tells us that the load resistance should be, RL = RTH = 0.8
Ohms.
(b)
We can find the maximum power by finding the current through the load. Essentially the
11.2V source is across two 0.8 ohm resistors in series. Thus, the current is, I = 11.2V/1.6 ohm
= 7.0 A. Thus, the power is P (7 A) 2 (1.6 ohms) 78.4 W
49
DC Circuits
Capacitors
Pages 194, 195 from Supplied Reference Handbook
qC (t )
CvC (t )
energy
Cv C
2
[varying v(t)]
2
qC
2C
q C vC
2
(Joules)
Q = CV
C = Q/V
V = Q/C
50
DC Circuits
Example
51
DC Circuits
Example
52
DC Circuits
Inductors
L = Inductance
N = # of loops
= Flux
I = Current
Energy
(initial current)
LiL
2
(current value from 0 to t)
For 2 inductors in parallel :

Leq
L1 L2
L1 L2
53
DC Circuits
Example
54
DC Circuits
Transient Response
RC Transients
RC
Circuit Time Constant
VR
Capacitor Voltage
(V is battery voltage if present)
(t = t = t2 t1)
(If V
100V, 100V o 36.8V in W seconds)
55
DC Circuits
Example
56
DC Circuits
Example/Contd.
i (t)
actual
57
DC Circuits
Example/Contd.
t 6 s
1s
01 e
(c) vC (t ) 34.58Ve
10V
Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation

t 6 s
1s
t -6s
ln 34.58Ve 1s
ln 35.58 ln e
t 6 s
1s
ln 10V
ln 10
t 6s
ln 10
1s
3.57 s t 6 s 2.30 s
ln 35.58
t | 4.73s
58
DC Circuits
RL Transients
VR(t)
L
R
Circuit Time Constant
VL(t)
59
DC Circuits
Example
Find the voltage at point A at the instant the switch is closed. The switch has been open for a long
time, and there is no initial current in the inductor.
(Inductor behaves like a short at t >> 0)
60
DC Circuits
Example
Consider the following circuit with R1= 3 , R2= 4 , R3= 2 , C = 1 F, and E = 12 volts. Assume
that the switch has been in the close position for a long time and at t = 0 the switch is open. Write the
equation for vc(t) and ic(t) for t > 0. Calculate vc(t) and ic(t) at t = 3 sec and at t = 6 sec.
RC

v C (0 )
( R2 R3 )C
6: 1 PF
R2 R3
E

R
R
R
2
3
1

t
RC
6:
12 V
:
9
vC (t )
vc e
iC (t )
vC (t ) RCt
e

amps

R
R
3
2
6 P sec
8V
volts
6 P sec
vC (t )
8e t / 6 Ps volts
iC (t )
1.33e t / 6 Ps amps
vC (t
3P sec)
4.85 volts
iC (t
3P sec)
0.81 amp
vC (t
6P sec)
2.94 volts
iC (t
6 P sec)
0.49 amp
Ic(t)
61
DC Circuits
Example
Consider the following circuit with R1= 6 k, R2= 12 k, L = 2 H, and E = 12 volts. Assume that the
switch has been in the close position for a long time and at t = 0 the switch is opened. Write the
equation for iL(t) and vL(t) for t > 0. Calculate iL(t) and vL(t) at t = 100 sec and at t = 200 sec.
L
R
iE
L
R1 R2
E
R1 || R2
i L (0 )
i L t i L (0 )e
v L (t )
12V
4k:
R1
R1 R2

2H
18k:
i E
0.11 m sec
3 mA
v L (t )
6k:
3 mA 1 mA
18k:
mA
i L (0 )( R1 R2 )e
0.11 msec 110 P sec
i L (t ) 1e t / 110Ps mA
18e t / 110Ps volts
i L (t
100 P sec)
0.41 mA
v L (t
100 P sec)
0.73 volts
i L (t
200 P sec)
0.16 mA
v L (t
200 P sec)
2.97 volts
volts
62
DC Circuits (Sampling Theorem)

Sampling is the process of converting a signal (for example, a function of continuous time or space)
into a numeric sequence (a function of discrete time or space). A sample refers to a value or set of
values at a point in time and/or space. If a function x(t) contains no frequencies higher than B Hertz, it
is completely determined by giving its ordinates at a series of points spaced 1/(2B) seconds apart.
The theorem shows that a band-limited analog signal that has been sampled can be perfectly
reconstructed from an infinite sequence of samples if the sampling rate exceeds 2B samples per
second, where B is the highest frequency in the original signal. If a signal contains a component at
exactly B hertz, then samples spaced at exactly 1/(2B) seconds do not completely determine the
signal.
A signal or function is band-limited if it contains no energy at frequencies higher than some band-limit
or bandwidth B. A signal that is band-limited is constrained in how rapidly it changes in time, and
therefore how much detail it can convey in an interval of time. The sampling theorem asserts that the
uniformly spaced discrete samples are a complete representation of the signal if this bandwidth is
less than half the sampling rate.
63
DC Circuits
Sampling Frequency
Determines the sampling rate to reproduce accurately in the discrete time system.
Sampling Rate or Frequency: f S
fS t 2 fN
1
TS
{where fN is the maximum frequency component of g(t)

and fN is the Nyquist frequency}
Sampling Frequency: f S t 2 f N
(Sample rate to recover signal g(t) exactly from samples)
g(t)
TS = 1/2fN
Spectrum of band-limited signal g(t)
64
DC Circuits
Sampled Messages
A low-pass message m(t) can be exactly reconstructed from uniformly spaced samples taken at a
sampling frequency of fs = 1/Ts
fs 2fN
where M(f ) = 0 for f > fN
The frequency fN is called the Nyquist frequency. Sampled messages are typically transmitted by
some form of pulse modulation. The minimum bandwidth B required for transmission of the
modulated message is inversely proportional to the pulse length .
B 1/
Frequently, for approximate analysis
B1/
is used as the minimum bandwidth of a pulse of length .
65
DC Circuits
Therefore, a band-limited signal can be reconstructed exactly if it is sampled at a rate at
least twice the maximum frequency component in it.
Original Signal
Spectrum G()
T(t) is the sampling signal with fs = 1/Ts > 2fN
Spectrum T()
66
DC Circuits
Sampled Signal
Sampled Signal gs(t)
Spectrum Gs()
s = 2N
Ts = 1/2fN
67
DC Circuits
Aliasing
What happens if we sample the signal at a frequency that is lower that the Nyquist rate?
When the signal is converted back into a continuous time signal, it will exhibit a phenomenon called
aliasing. Aliasing is the presence of unwanted components in the reconstructed signal. These
components were not present when the original signal was sampled. In addition, some of the
frequencies in the original signal may be lost in the reconstructed signal.
Aliasing occurs because signal frequencies can overlap if the sampling frequency is too low.
Frequencies "fold" around half the sampling frequency - which is why this frequency is often referred
to as the folding frequency.
68
DC Circuits
Aliasing
Aliasing is a phenomenon where the high frequency components of the sampled signal
interfere with each other because of inadequate sampling s < 2m.
Aliasing leads to distortion in recovered signal. This is the reason why sampling
frequency should be at least twice the bandwidth of the signal.
69
DC Circuits
Oversampling
In practice, signals are oversampled, where fs is significantly higher than Nyquist rate to
avoid aliasing.
Oversampled signal avoids aliasing
fs >> 2fN
70
DC Circuits
Example
or fs = 1/Ts
71
DC Circuits
Example/Contd.
The sampling frequency must be greater than the Nyquist rate for accurate reproduction.
fs 2fN
The greatest frequency that can be reproduced at this sampling rate is
f
fN d S
2
33 x 10 6 Hz
2
16.7 x 10 6 Hz | 16 x 10 6 Hz
Therefore, the correct is (C).
72
DC Circuits
Example
What is the minimum sampling frequency that can be used to avoid aliasing with the
following analog signal?
x(t) = Cos 100t + Sin 200t + Sin 60t
= 2f
f = /2
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
30Hz
60Hz
200Hz
400Hz
f = 200/2 Hz
= 100 Hz
Solution:
To avoid aliasing, the analog signal must be sampled at least at the Nyquist rate, which
must be at least twice the highest frequency contained in the signal. The highest
frequency contained in the given signal is 200 rad/s or 100 Hz. Therefore, the minimum
frequency that can be used to avoid aliasing is 200 Hz.
73
DC Circuits
Instrumentation Transducers
Transducer sensitivity the ratio of change in electrical signal magnitude to the change in
magnitude of the physical parameter being measured.
74
DC Circuits
Instrumentation
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) a device used to relate change in resistance

to change in temperature. Typically made from platinum, the controlling equation for an
RTD is given by:
RT
R0 >1 D (T T0 )@
where:
RT is the resistance of the RTD at temperature T (measured in C)
R0 is the resistance of the RTD at the reference temperature T0 (usually 0 C)
is the temperature coefficient of the RTD
75
DC Circuits
Example
76
DC Circuits
Example/Contd.
The error in the measurement is:

Error = 383.1 C - 400 C = -16.9 C
77
DC Circuits
Resistance
UL
A
(:)
Example
A cube with an edge length of 0.01 m has resistivity of 0.01 m. What is the resistance
from one side to the opposite side?
(A) 0.0001
(B) 0.001
(C) 0.1
(D) 1
UL
A
(0.01: m)(0.01m)
(0.01m) 2
1:
= 0.01 m
0.01m
0.01m
A = (0.01) m
Therefore, the answer is (D).
0.01m
78
DC Circuits
Strain Gauges
Metal or semiconductor foils that change resistance linearly with the strain.
Strain Gauge a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the amount
of strain in the device.
Gauge Factor (GF) the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to the
fractional change in length (strain):
GF
'R / R
'L / L
'R / R
Where:
R is the nominal resistance of the strain gauge at nominal length L.

R is the change in resistance due to the change in length L.
is the normal strain sensed by the gauge.
The gauge factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.
79
DC Circuits
Example
80
DC Circuits
Wheatstone Bridges/Instrumentation
If R1 R4
R2 R3
V0
0V and the bridge is balanced
81
DC Circuits
Example
R1 = 10.00k + 0.24k = 10.24k
82
DC Circuits
Measurement Uncertainty/Instrumentation
Kline-McClintock Equation:
A method for estimating the uncertainty in a function that depends on more than one
measurement.
Suppose that a calculated result R depends on measurements whose value are x1 w1,
x2 w2, x3 w3, etc, where R = f(x1, x2, x3,xn), xi is the measured value, and wi is the
uncertainty in that value. The uncertainty in R, wR, can be estimated using the KlineMcClintock equation:
2
wR
wf
wf
wf
w1
w2
... wn
wx2
wx n
wx1
83
DC Circuits
Example
84
III. AC Circuits
Circuit Analysis
85
AC Circuits
Frequency and Period of a Sinusoidal Waveform
Frequency (Linear and Angular)
1
T
Z
2S
2Sf
2S
T
Period = T
86
AC Circuits
Average Value
Average and Effective Values
XMAX
For Triangular or Sawtooth :

X RMS
1
3
X MAX
X AVE
X MAX
2
87
AC Circuits
Average Value
Example
VMAX = 170V
(q)
i (t )
I
dq
dt
q C
t s
Amps
Faraday's Constant :
A s
(Pg. 19 in Handbook)
F
Capacitance x Faraday's Constant
96,485
q
1 Faraday M agnitude of charge of one mole of

electrons | 96,485
A s
F
88
AC Circuits
Effective or Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Value
T=1/f
*
1
VRMS
2
VRMS
0.707
* Not in Handbook
0.707VMAX (| 70%)
89
AC Circuits
Example
= 3610 W 3.61kW
120.2V
= 170V
90
AC Circuits
Example
91
AC Circuits
Example
92
AC Circuits
Example
VRMS
VRMS = VDC
= steady-state voltage
93
AC Circuits
Phasor Transforms
Phase Angle =
as the angle between the reference and voltage
as the angle between the reference and current
If the phase angle is positive, the signal is called lagging or inductive.
If the phase angle is negative, the signal is called leading of capacitive.
If the phase angle is zero, the signal is called in phase.
Ref
ELI the ICE man

v
If = + Lagging (Inductive)
(+)
(-)
If = -
Leading (Capacitive)
94
AC Circuits
Impedance Definitions
Capacitor :
1
j 1 90 0
j
Inductor :
j 190 0
XL
90
R
-90
XC
95
AC Circuits
Example
ZT = |Z|
Z = R jX
i(t) = V/Z = |i|

VL
= Tan (x/y)
VL
VMAXSin (wt + )
jwL
1/jwC
An Element
ZE = RCos + jRSin
160V0
w = 400 rads/sec
ZT
ZT = ZR + ZL + ZC + ZE
96
AC Circuits
Example/Contd.
Z = R + jwL j/wC + 940
x 10 6 F)
R = RCos + jRSin
97
AC Circuits
Example/Contd.
(Voltage Across Inductor)
98
AC Circuits
Example
i1
- j4
1800
i2
1800
- j0.25 = 0.25-90
- j = 1- 90
i1 =
i2 =
99
AC Circuits
Complex Power

Lagging (Inductive) Complex Power Triangle
S = P + jQ
= kW/kVA
Cos = P/S
KW = p.f. x KVA
I = a + jb
I* = a - jb
100
AC Circuits
Complex Power
Example
P VI
1440W j3600Var
V2
R
I 2R
387768.2 0
p. f . Cos 68.2 0 # 0.3714

101
AC Circuits
Complex Power
P = 1440 W
Inductive
S = P + jQ = I* V
ELI
Q = - 3600 VAR
If S were
Capacitive
ICE
S = 3877 VA
102
AC Circuits
Resonance
Z0
Z0 L
2Sf 0
1
LC
(Resonance)
QSERIES
1
QPARALLEL
1
Z0C
RC
L
R
Z
Resistance = Reactance
= w0 (R/2L)
Z
R
= w0 (RC/2)
X = XL + XC
103
AC Circuits
Example
At Resonance:
XL = - XC
Therefore, Z = R
104
AC Circuits
Example/Contd.
= W 0 (R/L)
Peak Voltage across

each component.
VL
At Resonance VC = - VL
+90
- 90
VC
105
AC Circuits
Example
(ROLD)
(RNEW)
10kHz 20 kHz
BW 1
RNEW
10:
2
5:
BW 2
BW 2
2 BW1
1
RC
1
2
RC
1
R NEW
ROLD
R NEW
1
2
ROLD
2 R NEW
ROLD
2
106
AC Circuits
Voltage Resolution
The range from a high voltage, VH, and a low voltage, VL, is divided up into the 2 ranges
Typical values for n:

Voltage Resolution =
4, 8, 10, 12, 16 bits

number of bits
Key Design Parameter
For example, if all the bits are 1 then the discrete value is somewhere between VH and VH v. To
calculate the discrete value from the digital value use
N: { 0, 2 - 1 }
Discrete Value =
VH
digital value
Highest measurable voltage = VH - VL
VL
107
AC Circuits
Example
VH VL
2n
VH VL 2 n H V
HV
VL
VH
1
VH
2
2VL
108
AC Circuits
Transformer
Equivalent Circuit with Secondary Impedance

IS
VS
PPRI
PSEC
VP I P
VS I S
VP
VS
PPRI
IS
IP
PSEC
Zeq
109
AC Circuits
Transformer
Example
V2
110
AC Circuits
Transformer
Example
a
3 + j1
N1
N2
50
100
(50/100)(12 + j4)
Ideal Transformer has no losses
= 6 + j2
111
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
Synchronous Speed (RPM):

= 120w/2p = 9.5 x
120
p = # of poles
n = rotor operating speed
Angular Velocity = = 2w/p = 4f/p
w = (p)/2
ABC = BCA = CAB
112
AC Circuits
Example
f = p/4
p = 4f
1 pair = 2 poles
= 125.67 rads/s
2SnS
60
2Z
p
Armature: The structure (rotor or stator) where a voltage is induced by a magnetic field.
(Motor armature: rotor; Generator armature: stator.)
113
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
n
nS
operating speed
synchronous speed
s 1
n
nS
n
nS
1 s
nS
n
1 s
114
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
Example
p = 4 poles
5%
60 Hz = 1800 RPM
50 Hz = 1500 RPM
115
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
(Kf is a design constant)

(Webers)
Motor
If
Stator
Lf
Vf
Rf
Rotor
116
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
DC Generators
A device that produces DC potential
Vpeak
VRMS
or VMAX
VOUT
VRMS
V AVG
VMAX
2
2VMAX
0.707VMAX (70%)
0.6366VMAX (64%)
117
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
DC Generators

Pa = IaRa + IaEg = PHEAT + Pm
Va = K a n
(Heat Loss)
Flux
Operating Speed
Ka
:
Design Constant
Angular Speed
T Torque
Pm
T x
M echanical Power
118
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
Example
I1
I2
n1
n2
12
10
1800
n2
n2
1800 x 5
6
V1
V2
12
10
K a n1I
K a n 2I
n1
n2
6
5
1500 RPM
12 A o 10 A
1800 RPM o 1500 RPM
119
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
Example/Contd.
I1
I2
n1
n2
12
10
1800
n2
n2
1800 x 5
6
12
10
6
5
1500 RPM
120
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
Ph = Heat Loss
Va = Kan
(Pg. 198 in Handbook)

(Nm)
Pm = Ta x = VaIa
T1
T2
I1
I2
= 2ns/60
121
AC Circuits
Rotating Machines
Example
122
IV. Computers
Terminology, Spreadsheets, and
123
Computers
Terminology
CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. This is where all the computer's data processing is handled - all the
data manipulation, calculations and formatting data for output. When you buy a computer you will become
more focused on the CPU and its capabilities.
The execution of the instructions within the computer system is extremely fast and is measured in cycles of
time and referred to as megahertz. For this reason the MHz of a computers processor is sometimes referred
to as its clock speed. This pulsing is expressed as "MHz" e.g. 2400Mhz.
The CPU pulsing is turning electrical current on and off. An electrical circuit can be either open or closed, and
the power is either running through or not; that is, it is either on or off. This two-state situation is called binary,
and the two states are controlled by binary digits or bits. The two bits of a computer are zero and one. For you
to talk to your computer your message must be translated into binary form, a series of ones and zeros.
The CPU is located usually around the center of the motherboard, and under a giant fan employed to keep it
cool. The motherboard is the main piece of circuitry of your computer. It houses the CPU, the ROM and RAM,
a variety of computer cards for receiving signals from other input devices, the power supply, hard drive and so
on.
The term CPU is sometimes used to refer to the case that houses the computers components, but technically
the CPU is only one chip inside the computers case. The case is sometimes described as the "tower" which
means the case stands on the floor on its narrow side. Whereas a "desktop" machine sits on your desk and
generally has the monitor placed on it.
124
Computers
Terminology
RAM
RAM means Random Access Memory" (or sometimes "ready access memory"). It is like a temporary notepad where
your computer sends information it has processed before writing it to disk, or where instructions from other input
devices (keyboard, mouse, floppy drive) are stored. The words "random access" indicate that memory locations in RAM
are accessible in any order unlike sequential access of a data cassette tape, for example.
ROM
ROM means Read Only Memory. Your computers ROM is a chip on the motherboard that stores a permanent set of
start-up instructions for your computer. The familiar term for ROM is "BIOS", short for "basic input output system".
ROM is sometimes referred to as "firmware" (as opposed to software) because it is permanently housed inside the
hardware. Instructions in ROM remain intact when the power is off.
Generally you can not alter the information in ROM; it is fixed at the time of manufacture. Some manufacturers provide
updates to the ROM of their chips. The process of installing these updates is called "flashing the bios". This is only
recommended for advanced users and only after all other avenues of repair are explored.
DRAM
Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is a type of random-access memory that stores each bit of data in a
separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. The capacitor can be either charged or discharged; these two states are
taken to represent the two values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1.
125
Computers
Terminology
Bit, Bytes and Binary
A bit stands for Binary Digit. A byte is 8 bits. A kilobyte (kB) is 1,024 bytes. A megabyte (MB) is approximately
1,024,000 bytes. A gigabyte (GB) 1,024,000,000 bytes - thats a lot of bits!!!
A bit is the smallest information parcel on a computer. A computer file can be made up of many hundreds of bytes
and many thousands of bits. The bits are like switches, they are represented by 0s and 1s. Characters on a
keyboard are therefore represented by 1s and 0s, so a "P" may be 01010000 to a computer - it knows when it sees
those on/off instructions to output a "P".
Hardware
Hardware is the term given to all the physical parts of a computer system. Hardware includes the monitor, the
keyboard, the mouse, the main case which houses the RAM, CPU and the motherboard.
Operating System
Every computer needs a set of programs called the operating system to run the system and make all the other
programs work. The word processor, database or spreadsheet programs can not operate unless the operating system
is present. Programs written for one operating system will not work on a different operating system.
Common operating systems include: Windows 7, Vista, Macintosh OSX, and Linux. There are many versions aimed at
different uses.
126
Computers
Terminology
Hard Drive
A computers hard disk drive is like an audio CD, except the computer can read and write to it. In other words, a
computer can take data off its hard drive (to process it in the CPU or place it in RAM to work with) or it can record the
results of the work it does back to the disk, this is called "writing to disk". The abbreviation HDD means "hard disk
drive".
If the HDD is opened up (not recommended as this usually voids the manufacturer's warranty), a pancake stack would
be found on double sided disks.
Each side of each disk has an arm that holds a "head". The head is responsible for writing data to the disk. When one
handles a disk, carry a computer, or laptop, one should be careful not to bang the case as this can force the heads to
collide with the surface of the disk and potentially damage it.
Hard disks are "formatted" to make them writable. Through this process "clusters", "sectors" and a "file allocation table"
are created. With these mechanisms the computer writes information to the disk and can retrieve it later.
127
Computers
Terminology
access time - The performance of a hard drive or other storage device - how long it takes to locate a file.
application - a program in which you do your work.
ASCII (pronounced ask-key ) - American Standard Code for Information Interchange. a commonly used data
format for exchanging information between computers or programs.
bit - the smallest piece of information used by the computer. Derived from "binary digit". In computer
language, either a one (1) or a zero (0).
backup - a copy of a file or disk you make for archiving purposes.
boot - to start up a computer.
bug - a programming error that causes a program to behave in an unexpected way.
bus - an electronic pathway through which data is transmitted between components in a computer.
byte - a piece of computer information made up of eight bits.
cartridge drive - a storage device, like a hard drive, in which the medium is a cartridge that can be removed.
Chooser - A desk accessory used to select a printer, or other external device, or to log onto a network.
Clock Rate (MHz) - The instruction processing speed of a computer measured in millions of cycles per second
(i.e., 200 MHz).
compiler - a program the converts programming code into a form that can be used by a computer.
compression - a technique that reduces the size of a saved file by elimination or encoding redundancies (i.e.,
JPEG, MPEG, LZW, etc.)
CPU - the Central Processing Unit. The processing chip that is the "brains" of a computer.
crash - a system malfunction in which the computer stops working and has to be restarted.
daisy chaining - the act of stringing devices together in series (such as Small Computer System Interface
(SCSI).
database - an electronic list of information that can be sorted and/or searched.
128
Computers
Terminology
driver - a file on a computer which tells it how to communicate with an add-on piece of equipment (like a
printer).
Ethernet - a protocol for fast communication and file transfer across a network.
expansion slot - a connector inside the computer which allows one to plug in a printed circuit board that
provides new or enhanced features.
file - the generic word for an application, document, control panel or other computer data.
folder - an electronic subdirectory which contains files.
gig - a gigabyte = 1024 megabytes.
hard drive - a large capacity storage device made of multiple disks housed in a rigid case.
head crash - a hard disk crash caused by the heads coming in contact with the spinning disk(s).
high density disk - a 1.4 MB floppy disk.
installer - software used to install a program on a hard drive.
kilobyte - 1024 bytes.
Measurements
*a bit = one binary digit (1 or 0)
* 1 byte (or Octet) = 8 bits
*1024 bytes = one kilobyte
*K = kilobyte
*Kb = kilobit
*MB = megabyte
*Mb = megabit
*MB/s = megabytes per second
*Mb/s = megabits per second
*bps = bits per second
i.e., 155 Mb/s = 19.38 MB/s
megabyte - 1024 kilobytes.
memory - the temporary holding area where data is stored while it is being used or changed; the amount of
RAM a computer has installed.
nibble - a piece of computer information made up of four bits. It is equal to half a byte.
129
Computers
Terminology
operating system - the system software that controls the computer.

RAM - acronym for Random-Access Memory.
RISC - acronym for Reduced Instruction Set Computing; the smaller set of commands used by the PowerPC
and Power Mac.
ROM - acronym for Read Only Memory; memory that can only be read from and not written to.
server - a central computer dedicated to sending and receiving data from other computers (on a network).
software - files on disk that contain instructions for a computer.
32 bit addressing - a feature that allows the Mac to recognize and use more than 8MB of memory.
vaporware - "software" advertised, and sometimes sold, that does not yet exist in a releasable for.
virtual memory - using part of your hard drive as though it were "RAM".
WORM - acronym for Write Once-Read Many; an optical disk that can only be written to once (like a CDROM).
130
Computers
A
Spreadsheets
1
2
3
4
Functions
=SUM(A4:D4), INT(n) = m where m n, SIN(), PMT(rate, nper, pv, fv, n) where
rate = interest, nper = total # of payments for loan, n = 0 (end of period) or 1
(beginning of period).
131
Computers
Spreadsheets
Example
C3 = $A$4 + B$2 + B2
C4 = $A$4 + B$2 + B3
C5 = $A$4 + B$2 + B4
3
4 $A$4
D5 = $A$4 + C$2 + C4
132
Computers
Spreadsheets
Example
Relative Addressing
Absolute Addressing
A
4
A4 + $A$4
12
A5 + $A$4
18
A6 + $A$4
24
133
Computers
Algorithm Flowcharts and Symbols
(Connects to
algorithm or
subroutine)
(To a
different
page)
134
Computers
Algorithm Flowcharts
Example
(= is replaced by)
X=4
T=5
to main program
135
Computers
Operational Hierarchy
1st [ ] ( )
2 nd ^ or * *
3 rd *
4 th /
5 th
6 th -
Sequence of operations from left to right in the following hierarchy:

Brackets and Parentheses, then Exponentiation, then multiplication and division, then
addition and subtraction.
136
Computers
Example
4 6
5-3
24
2
12
137
Computers
Example
4 ! 3
T 2 2 4
X 2
2 2
2 4
X 4 2
4 X
8 ! 4
43
4 X
2
8
138
Computers
Example (Contd.)
139
Computers
Example
return to main program
1st Pass
2 nd Pass
T 8 -1 7
7 -1 6
4 1 5
5 1 6
140
Computers
Example
141
Computers
Example
1st Pass
2 nd Pass
3 rd Pass
Yes
Yes
No
8 - 2
6 - 2
42
62
TX
ENDWHILE
X
142
Computers
Example (Contd.)
143
Computers
Example
144
Computers
Example (Contd.)
145
Computers
Example
DO
If not
What is most nearly Z after structured programming is executed?
146
Computers
Example (Contd.)
1st Pass
2 nd Pass
3 rd Pass
Yes, I d 3
Yes, I d 3
Yes, I d 3
3
I 11 2
0 (5 5)
25 (2 2)
2 1 3
3 1 4
25
4 th Pass
No, I ! 3
p
29
Endwhile
p
Z
Y
I
29
4
7.3
147
V. Ethics and Business

Practices
Professional Engineering Ethics
148
Ethics and Business Practices

Hints for Exam Questions
149

Obligations to Society
150

Obligation to Society
151

Obligations to Employers and Clients
152

153

Example
154

Example
155

156

Obligations to Other Registrants
157

Obligations to Other Registrants
158

Expert Witness
159

Expert Witness
Example
160

Consultants
161

Consultants
Example
162

Electricity CPUs Ethics Refresher

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Electrical; Computers; Ethics

FE Electrical General Notes

Average and RMS Values of Waveforms

V. Ethics and Business Practices

Page 193 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Coulombs Force Law

Page 193 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Page 193 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Page 193 from Supplied Reference Handbook

R = radius of the charge

r = radius of the sphere

Page 193 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Kinetic Energy Equation in Pg. 59 of FE Handbook, T

Page 193 from Supplied Reference Handbook

(Current direction matters) (Amps/m)

Right Hand Rule Generators

Left Hand Rule Motors

(1.6022 x 10 -19 C)(0.3 x 10 8 m/s)(5.0 x 10 -5 T )

magnetic field flux density

Page 193 from Supplied Reference Handbook

v = the induced voltage

Page 194 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Substituting values we get

From Loop 1 we get:

(15V ) (5:  10:)  (7V ) (10:)

Page 194 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Select one less than the total number of loops.

NOTE: Each symbol is a complex number in the general case.

Therefore, the answer is (B).

(The denominator is the sum of the impedances in parallel.)

NOTE: Each symbol is a complex number in the general case.

Simplify the circuit.

Rparallel = 3 and Req = 3 + 6 = 9

Therefore, the answer is (B).

Short the 20 V source.

Short the 50 V source.

Page 194 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Page 194 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Pages 194, 195 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Page 195 from Supplied Reference Handbook

(current value from 0 to t)

For 2 inductors in parallel :

Page 196 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Circuit Time Constant

(V is battery voltage if present)

100V, 100V o 36.8V in W seconds)

Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation

Page 196 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Circuit Time Constant

(Inductor behaves like a short at t >> 0)

0.11 msec 110 P sec

18e t / 110Ps volts

DC Circuits (Sampling Theorem)

Page 110 from Supplied Reference Handbook

{where fN is the maximum frequency component of g(t)

(Sample rate to recover signal g(t) exactly from samples)

where M(f ) = 0 for f > fN

T(t) is the sampling signal with fs = 1/Ts > 2fN

Sampled Signal gs(t)

Oversampled signal avoids aliasing

Page 110 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Therefore, the correct is (C).

Page 110 from Supplied Reference Handbook

Page 110 from Supplied Reference Handbook

(15V ) (5: 10:) (7V ) (10:)

18e t / 110Ps volts