VIBRATION PROBLEMS OF ROTATING MACHINERY

DUE TO COUPLING MISALIGNMENTS

by
FREDERICK LEE BARBER
B.S.

DTIC

Elect. Eng.,

University of Kansas

(1979)
Submitted to the Department of

OCEAN ENGINEERING

NOV 25

in Partial Fulfillment of the

i

Requirements for the Degrees of

NAVAL ENGINEER

and

00
MASTER OF SCIENCE

0)

IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

at the

0MASSACHUSETTS

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

May 1988

Frederick Lee Barber

The author hereby grant& to M.I.T. and to the U.S.

Government permission to reproduce and to distribute
copies of this thesis document in whole or in part.

Signature of Author:

Jbof!V

Departme t of Ocean Engi j

ring,

May

198

Certified by:/
7,7
ProfesasrVStephen H. Crandall
Kechanical Engineering Dept., Thesis Supervisor

Certified by:_____
Professor J. KimVandiver
Ocean Engineering Dept., Thesis Reader

Accepted by:.__

A. Douglas Carmichael, Chairman

DI rRr ....
m
Appre,

..
',-Department

I ,:

Departmental Graduate Committee

of Ocean Engineering

---

.., i...i

mmmm

U' 9

Li

L iat: it88n11i
I

U..

"

|S

ABSTRACT

Vibrational
analysis
of
rotating machinery
is
able
to
identify a large number of system ills.
Shaft
bow,
shaft
unbalance and
coupling
misalignments
make
up the
major
of
frequency
spectra
vibrational
portion of the observed
rotating machinery. These vibrational spectra can be used to
determine the
type
of
rotating system
abnormality,
the
degree of
misalignment
and
the
rate
of
alignment
degradation.
6

The proper joining of rotating machinery is a critical issue

with high power and high speed equipments. Couplings used to
Join machinery have a broad spectrum of characteristics
and
specific purposes. Couplings are
used to
compensate for
axial, lateral
and
angular
misalignments.
In addition,
couplings may exhibit constant or non-constant input versus
output speed relationships.
The
importance
of
mating a
driving and driven piece of equipment
with
the
properly
designed coupling is paramount.
In the following report the author discusses numerous types
of couplings, the behavioral
characteristics
of
couplings

and the considerations which must be taken into account when

selecting a coupling for a rotating system. The analysis
which follows lists the various alignment discrepancies
which can be detected by vibrational analysis and the
requirements for
non-constant
and
constant
velocity
characteristics of couplings. In addition, numerous types
of couplings are catalogued and discussed.
,
,
Acceio;) For
NTIS
DTIC

D2
2;

_____

CRA.
TAEj

Z ,,.

_______________

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

article

Title Page...........................................1I
Abstract.......................... ................... 2
Table of Contents............. ...................... 3
List of Illustrations ........................... 4
List of Tables....................................... 6
Chapter One
1.0 Introduction.................................... 7
Chapter Two

42.2

2.0 Single Shaft Vibrations........................ 11

2.1 Rotating Machinery on a Moving Platform .......16
Bowed Rotors................................... 20
Chapter Three
3.0 Constant and Non-Constant
Velocity Couplings .................... 29
3.1 Close-Coupled Rotors ......................... 29
3.2 Non-Constant Velocity Couplings................ 33
46
3.3 Constant Velocity Couplings .......... '.......
Chapter Four
4.0 Rubber Couplings.............................. 59
4.1 Non-Constant Velocity Rubber Couplings....... .60
4.2 Constant Velocity Couplings.................... 63
Chapter Five
65
s
5.0 Splines and Axial Motion Device ...........
5.1 Damping Due to Spline Coupled Shafts ......... 75

Chapter Six
6 .e

Shafts and Rotors ...................

.......
6.1 Shaft Construction ...............

...

.92

6.2 Rotating Machinery Alignment............... 99

47.0

Chapter Seven
118
Couplings ................................ ....
124
7.1 Coupling Alignment.................... . ......
7.2 Disk Coupling Analysis................... .. .128
List of References............................. 139

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE

PAGE

TITLE

1-1

Generic Frequency Spectra for Rotating

Machinery......................................i10

2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4

Shaft Placed in Misaligned Bearings .............12

Vessels in Various Loading Positions ............17
Spectra Showing One Times RPM Vibrational
Spike.......................................... 21
Bent Rotor Behavior Placed in Axially Aligned

2-6

22
o..............
Journal Bearings............
Test Set Up for Determining Phase Relationships of a Bowed or Unbalanced Rotor.......... 24
Bowed Rotor in Axially Aligned Bearings......... 26

*2-5

3-1
3-2

3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6

Close Coupled Motor Generator Set................ 3

Close Coupled Shaft Misalignment...........32
Mon-constant Velocity Universal Joint........... 34

3-8
3-9

Mon-constant Velocity Universal Joint Coupling.37

Simplified Constant Velocity Coupling ......... . 47
Three Shaft Double Universal Joint Constant
Velocity Coupling............................. 50
Constant Velocity Universal Joint
Configurations................................. 52
Coupling Shaft Yoke Arrangement................. 54
Multiple Shaft-coupling Arrangements .......... 5

4-1

Universal Joint With Rubber Disk in Place of a

3-7

. .61
.
...
..
.............
Rigid Cross Pin. . .. . ...
Constant Velocity Rubber Coupling ..............64

*4-2

5-3
5-4

67
.68
Parallel Spline Teeth Contact ....... 0.0 ........ 69
Spline Coupled Shaft with Lateral Misalignment.71

5-5
5-6

Spline Coupled Shaft with Angular Misalignment.73

Spline Coupled Shaft Model........... oo.....7

5-7

Rotating Disks with Spin and Whirl.. .......... s

5-8

Disk End View with Whirl.................. .....

5-1
5-2

Involute Spline Tooth Designo...... ... .......

Parallel Sided Spline...............

....

.....

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-8
*6-9
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6

TITLE

(continued)
PAGE

Shaft Geometries........................
.......
94
Fatigue Cycle for Shaft in Forward Whirl.........96,
Fatigue Cycle for Shaft in Backward Whirl .......98
Alignment Configurations......................... 100
Dial Indicator Arrangement.......................103
Recorded Dial Indicator Readings................. 104
Dial Indicator Geometries for Mathematical
Calculations ................................. 109
Laser Optical Alignment System................... 112
Allowable Alignment Tolerances................... 114
Grid Coupling...................................... 121
Disk Type Flexible Coupling...................... 123
Flexible Disk Coupling With Angular
Misalignment................................. . .. .129
Misaligned Disk Coupling......................... 132
Cross Section of Curved Clamped Beam ........
13
Semi-circular Curved Beam Loaded at the
Center........................................... 135

[9-

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE

TITLE

2-1

Cyclic Loading
Operating at
Cyclic Loading
Operating at

2-2

;0

Rates for a Misaligned Shaft

1800 RPM ........................ 14
Rates for a Misaligned Shaft
200 RPM ......................... 18

3-1

Driven Shaft Angular Velocities as a Function

of Driving Shaft Angular Displacement and
Driven Shaft Misalignment .................... 43

7-1

Renbrandt Flexible Coupling No. B55C55c

Specification Sheet .......................... 125

06

Page

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Misalignment

is an important cause of vibration problems

rotating machinery.
thesis

Misalignment

in

the

context

includes any deviation from the ideal case in

straight

shaft

Misalignment

rotates

in

perfectly

aligned

apply

to

piece

can

single

equipment with a bent shaft or a straight

rotate

in three or more bearings

aligned.

It can apply to two

thesis

survey

is

made

which

or

machinery whose shafts are not

of

the vibrational

the

misalignments are examined.

In

function of flexible
discussion
systems,

will

couplings and axial

of

of

In

this

types

of

machinery

and

due

to

these

lateral,

axial

be

vibrational

coupled

studied
behavior.

as

This

include bent or bowed rotors, close-coupled

constant

coupling

coupling

will

to

coaxially

various

particular

and angular coupling misalignments

forced

aligned.

arise

which a

rotating

not

rotating

characteristics which

of

pieces

properly

this

bearings.

shaft
are

more

misalignments often encountered in

The

of

in

and

non-constant

velocity

flexible

motion couplings.

driving

to

driven

pieces

of

rotating

machinery has historically been a problem in turbo-machinery

engineering.

Once the idea of segregating

the

coupling

driving mechanisms onto separate shafts developed,

have

shafts

Joining

Numerous techniques for

issues have arisen.

evolved.

methods

These

can

these
be

briefly

1) close-coupled

generalized into three catagories:

and

driven

shafts

which includes all mechanisms which directly fasten (usually

bolted) axially aligned driving to driven shafts;
chain

or

gear

driven

in

couplings

which

2)

belt,

parallel

but

radially offset shafts are Joined, quite often through speed

increasing or decreasing wheel ratios; 3)

shafts engulf all fastening mechanisms in which

is

inserted

purposes

of

between

the
the

easing

and

driving
Joining

coupled

flexible
a

driven

coupling
shaft

procedure.

intentional or unintentional)

later

The

category of couplings can accommodate misalignments

for

(either

in

angular,

lateral

coupling

malady

and/or

axial directions.

on

This paper will focus

how

detected through vibrational analysis. The

larger and

higher

speed

trend

mechanisms

drive

to

has

incidences of coupling problems. In addition to

can

be

build

increased
higher

the

speed and horsepower requirements, the operating environment

places

premium

vibration to reduce

on

quietness

personnel

and

and

minimal

equipment

Quietly operating machinery operating in a work

improve worker productivity. In Naval

mechanical
degradation.
place

applications

will

quietly

operating machinery translates into

reduced

detectability.

Most coupling abnormalities cause vibrational

are easily detected
analyzers

and

shaft

by

current
orbit

problems which

state-of-the-art

detectors.

wisdom states that coupling problems

Current

tend

to

vibrations with frequencies corresponding to

times the operating angular

velocity

spectrum
coupling

show
1/2,

(Maxwell,

up
1

as

or

1980).

2
A

frequency spectrum similar to figure 1-1 may result

from

poorly

aligned

coupled

rotating

system.

coupling would exhibit none

of

these

perfectly
spikes

where

vibrational problem may be characterized by a

single

or combination of spikes. The following pages

will

as

through

superposition

principles,

discuss

It should be noted here

above spectra has not

been

that

Vibrations could be either axial,

direction.

specific

directionality

specified

radial

coupling

specified.

follow

The organization which

or

will

in

yield
In

the

will

be

take

chronology

simple to complex geometric shaft arrangements.

the

lumped.

could

directionality

shaft coupling problem through an evolving

figure

torsional

directions.

follows

of

of

rather

problem

vibrations in one or all of the above

specific discussions which

but

show

number

misalignment conditions can yield spectra similar to

1-1.

spike

causes for each of these spikes independently and then

how

the

from

-J

1/2W

1W

2W 3WL
frequency

4W

5WJ

Generic frequency spectra for

rota~ting machnery.

FIGURE 1-1

01

9.

2.0 SINGLE SHAFT VIBRATIONS

A single uncoupled rotor

a variety

reasons.

of

Sources

these

of

vibrations

include shaft

bearing misalignments, bowed rotors

unbalance.

Bearing-shaft
analysis

vibrational

A shaft-bearing

may

misalignments
be the

point of view

an extreme case of a shaft distorted by

aligned.

The

exerted

forces

by

foundations cause the shaft to

bent shaft

remain constant

as

the

transmitted

bend.

shaft

to

the

readily

shaft
depicts

the

of
As

this

by

the
at

bearing
forcefully

foundations

its

operating

energy

foundations

detectable

Journal

bearings not axially

rotates

receivers at the sensing transducer

not

the

straight

angular velocity. Consequently, vibrational

Although

from

Figure 2-1

each

rotates, the forces exerted

cyclically

mass

hardest to detect.

placements are not axially concentric and a

into the bearings.

may

and

misalignment occurs when the bearing

is forcefully fitted

for

may exhibit vibration problems

or

(accelerometers)
with

is
to

not
the

sites.

accelerometer

and

spectrum analyzer techniques, the misaligned bearing case is

worth examining

in some detail

prior

to

proceeding

on

to

other cases.

When

the shaft

in

misaligned

11

Journal

set

rotates

one

Shaf t pltacedi in misaisgned~ bearings.

FIGURE 2-1

12

revolution, the shaft

bends with

the

displacement

shaft

at point B being equal to the

2-i.

This is similar to an ordinary beam

that

the bending action

the rotation

of

the

offset

is angularly

"b"

the

of

figure

in bending

except

throughout

continuous

Consequently,

shaft.

of

as

the

shaft

rotates through say one revolution the shaft outer fibers go

through

tension-compression

cycle.

These

tension to compression cycles give rise to

In

loadings on the shaft.

the

case

lateral
a

of

laterally loaded fatigue fracture can

alternating

take

fatigue

simple
place

beam,

after

specific number of cycles providing the applied stresses are

above the fatigue endurance limit

of

the

Fracture mechanics theory holds and the

stress the

greater

the

number

withstood prior to fracture.

can be

broken

into

down

In
two

"high-cycle

lower

cycles

the

fatigue"

applied
can

which

In

categories.

usually

is

material.

fatigue

general,

cycles

fatigue, fracture after 103

where as in

of

shaft

loading
low-cycle

considered

after

fracture

be

several

For a motor

million cycles is considered (Masabuchi, 1980).

driven shaft operating at 1800 revolutions per minute cyclic

loading of the misaligned shaft occurs at a rate equal to 30
cycles per second.
various periods
continuously

of

Table 2-1
time.

operated

shows
As

machinery

can
we

the

load

be

readily

are

1) crack

13

for

seen

for

concerned

with

takes

place

2)

crack

"high-cycle" fatigue loading. Fatigue fracture

primarily in three stages:

cycles

initiation,

CYCLES

TIMF

108X103
2.6X lea
18. 1X10O
77X100
933X 10&

1 hour
1 day
I week.
1 month
1 year

Cyclic

loading

rates

for, a misaligned
1800 rpm.

TABLE

0i
14

2-

shaft

operating at

slow

growth

and

3)

unstable

fracture.

Fatigue

crack

initiation is generally started at the surface at some

Hence,

of manufacture or fabrication imperfection.

polished surfaces will

resist

crack is initiated crack growth is slow

continuous

a
as

propagates

crack

the

As

the cyclic loading is continued.

but

highly
Once

initiation.

crack

site

laterally through the shaft the residual stress on the shaft

cross section increases since the effective cross

sectional

area of the shaft is decreasing. Similar to repeated bending

of a piece of stiff wire, as the number of bending cycles is
increased the resistance to bending becomes

less.

As

the

crack propagates with each cycle, the crack growth rate also
increases

with

each

loading

cycle.

This

crack

continues until the remaining effective shaft cross

is unable to

support

bearings and the

shaft

the

load

fractures

failure.

15

onset

by

causing

the
a

growth
section

misaligned

catastrophic

2.1 ROTATING MACHINERY ON A MOVING PLATFORM

A great deal

of

effort

is

extended

ensure

rotating

machinery shafts and bearings are axially aligned.

However,

with machinery placed on moving

to

platforms

such

as

ships,

aircraft or automobile& this alignment may be distorted

to motion of the vehicle.

For example a Naval ship may have

drive shafts extending for 150 feet

engine to a propeller.

due

or

more

from

The ship when at sea may

main

experience

bending motions brought on by various sea states and loading

conditions.

In these cases, as the ship

moves

across

waves a repeated bending of the shaft may occur

2-2).

As the ship moves through the

waves,

thus the shafting is subjected to repeated

lateral direction.

In

propulsion

than the lateral loading cycles.

case of the ship much the same
bearing case just discussed.

the

is

figure

ship

and

in

the

bending

equipment

angular velocity of the machinery

(See

the

usually

rotating

much

faster

This in essence makes

as

Once

the

misaligned

again

looking

For a ship operating at

the

journal
at

cycle fatigue, we are concerned with fracture after

million loading cycles.

the

high

several

200

shaft

revolutions per minute table 2-2 indicates the time required

to accumulate relatively large numbers of cycles.
ensuring

shaft

sufficient.

In

bearing
cases

alignment
of

may

machinery

16

not
mounted

Therefore
always
on

be

mobile

(ah)

vessel in caLlm water

(b) vessel in sagging condition

(c) vessel In hogging condition

FIGURE 2-2

17

TIME

CYCLES

1 hour
1 day
1 week.

1aX 10
288X 10
:X 10

1 ri n th

8.6X106

1 year
30 years

103XI1O
3110X10O

0
Cyclic 1:ading rates for a misaligned shaft operating at
-00 rpr.

TABLE 2-'

18

platforms the strength of the shaft

or

may need to

withstand

be

over

designed

fatigue instigated by

forces

to

extcrnal

bearing

to

the

the

While bearing-shaft alignment problems may not

vibrational
ignored.
alignment

It

is

important

is essential

shaft-bearing

in

to

note

that

preventing

alignment

cannot

placement on moving platforms

be

shaft

19

mm

mmlm

'm

up

in

cannot

be

bearing

damage,

In cases

maintained
strength

should be utilized to prevent failures.

show

axial

bearing

failures due to fatigue.

loading

equipment.

analysis techniques their importance

also in preventing

placements

over

but

where

due

to

design

2.2 BOWED ROTORS

For varieties of reasons single shafts

which when unsupported

are

not

are

axially

shafts or rotors are said to be bowed.

often
in

operated

line.

These

A bowed rotor may be

the result of incorrect manufacturing, incorrect

installation or improper operation. However,

in

all

the bowed rotor phenomenon shows up in vibrational

cases

analysis

as a one times rotating speed spike. (see figure 2-3). These

one times rotational operating speed spikes
of two types of bowed rotor phenomena.

rotor is forcefully aligned in

indicative

The first case being

a bowed rotor supported by axially in

second type of bowed rotor phenomena

are

line

bearings.

occurs

axially

when

concentric

The
bowed

Journal

bearings.

For a shaft bent such that the centroid of mass of the rotor
does not lie on the axis of

rotation

same as an unbalanced rotating

is

disk.

analytically

These

the

configurations

can be seen in figures 2-4a and 2-4b. A rotor can

be

bowed

for a variety of reasons. In steam turbines Improper heating

or cooling of the rotor will

leave

residual

bow,

poor

fitting of rotating elements could cause permanent offset or

20

iJ

92

frequency
Spec tra showing one times rpm
vibrational spike.

FIGURE 2-3

21

Bent shaft in atIgned bearings

Bent rotor ptaced in

aX10al algned bearings
is sl~dlar In
analytic characteristics as
an unbalanced rotating cisk

q)7
Unbalanced rotmtlng disk
(b)
BENT R13T13 BEHAVIOR V'HEN PLACED IN
AXIALLY ALIGNED BEARINGS.

FIGURE 2-4

22

rotating

all cases the unbalanced shaft can be modeled as a

coincide

disk with an element whose centroid does not

is

This unbalance

the shaft axis of rotation.

by a centroid of mass "K" with off-set

In

unsymmetric.

poorly manufactured shafts can be axially

"r"

with

represented

in figure

2-4b.

speeds,

shaft

Therefore, as the shaft rotates at operating

or machinery vibrations exist. Using a FFT spectrum analyzer

and an accelerometer oriented radially

from

the

shaft,

spike coinciding with the machine operating frequency can be

seen. By marking the shaft with

light

reflecting

to

tape

establish the key phasor and using an optical sensor the FFT
spectrum analyzer can be used in such a way to determine the
phase relationship

the

of

shaft

or

bow

with

unbalance

respect to the key phasor. Figure 2-5 shows this simple test
set-up. The transmitted vibrational force which results from
the

shaft

unbalance

has

been

extensively

Dimentberg (1961) and Nichols (1976).

rotating

unbalanced

disk

exhibited a vibrational
mass, radial offset from
angular velocity squared.

on

the
This

supported

dependent

rotating

axis

relationship

on
and
is

by

that

It was shown

simply

magnitude

analyzed

shaft

the

disk

rotating
shown

in

equation one.

F = MC

(1)

It should be noted that the fluctuating vibrational force is

23

ACCELEROMETER

KEY PHASOR
i.|+

FFT ANALYZER
Test set up for determlng phase rtlc~tonships
of Q bowed or unbatanced rotor.

FIGURE 2-5

24

strongly dependent on the angular velocity.

Quite

clearly,

the vibrational force increases rapidly in magnitude as

the

operating angular frequency is increased.

The second type of bowed rotor phenomena is the

case

bowed rotor being forcefully aligned in

of

set

of

axially

concentric Journals. In this case forces sufficient to

bend

the shaft to an axially aligned position are exerted by

bearing Journals.

2-6(a
0

and

b).

This configuration is

Once

bearings physically
aligned

position

unbalanced.

The

forced

hold
the

into

the

shaft

position

shaft

shaft

is

exerts

figures

the

Journal

longer

reaction

into

its

bending force is then

axially

exerted

aligned

radially

In

this

dynamically
force

Journal bearings equivalent to the force needed

the bent shaft

the

in

alignment.

no
a

shown

on

to

the

deflect

position.

outward

shaft onto the Journal bearing. Consequently, as

This

from
the

the
shaft

rotates the force exerted by the shaft rotates

circumferentially around the journal.
0

This

the transmitted vibrational

remains

constant since there is no longer an unbalance and is

to the static deflection force described

*@

force

force

above.

will

be

Therefore,

equal

static deflection force at all angular velocities

not change in magnitude as a function

of

rotating

velocity. Subsequently, for the

of

the

placed

in

axially

aligned

case

Journals

25

there

equal

to
and

bowed
will

the
will

angular
rotor
be

unsupported bowedirotor
(a)
P1

p2P

bent rotor forced Into atigned Journal bearings

(b)

FIGURE 2-6

26

vibrational

force

component

of

constant

amplitude

frequencies corresponding to the system's operating

velocity. It can now be seen that for

the

cases

angular
of

rotors there are two types of vibrational symptoms.

case of the bowed or

unbalanced

rotor

there

component whose magnitude increases as

operating frequency.
aligned bowed rotor

In
has

the

second

vibrational

the

is

the

force

bowed
In

square

case

at

the
force

of

the

physically

components

constant magnitude independent of angular velocity. In

cases the vibrations occur at frequencies

of
both

corresponding

one-times the operating angular frequency. However, the

to
two

types of bowed rotor phenomena are discernible because for a

bowed rotor placed between axially concentric

bearings

resulting vibrational amplitudes increase as a

the angular velocity squared.
forcefully
vibrational
angular

aligned

in

amplitude

frequency

is

function

For the case of a bent

axially
remains
increased

concentric
constant
(i.e.

the

rotor

bearings,

as

the

the

of

the

rotating

vibrational

amplitude is not angular frequency dependent).

Machinery operated with bowed rotors will always exhibit the

one times rpm spike, but the practical consequences
bowed rotor are more severe.

As the

rotor

of

rotates

inside

its Journals uneven or excessive bearing loading occurs.

this unsymmetrical loading is severe

enough

support can break down causing tribologic

27

the

material

the

oil

If
film

failure

on the bearing surfaces, which in turn can lead to equipment

catastrophic failure.
outside its

design

In addition, rotation
orbit

tolerance components as
turbines leading to

can

of

steam

destruction

of

the

the

stator sections. Also, quieting is

the

rotor

of

close

collision

cause
vanes

in

total

of

an

and

gas

rotor

and

parameter

important

and often times the mechanical vibration will exhibit a loud

undesirable noise.

Today many equipments routinely operate at speeds in

excess

of many multiples of their rotors critical speed. As

stated

above a

bowed

vibration

on

the

When this vibration occurs at one

of

the

rotor

rotating system.

causes

forced

resonant frequencies of the rotating shaft, large

amplitude

vibrations could result and lead to severe equipment damage.

Therefore

in

high

conditions due to

speed
a

bent

axially concentric bearings

rotating

unbalance must be minimized.

28

0A

forcefully

rotor
or

machinery,

bent

rotor

rotor

aligned
leading

bow
into
to

3.0 CONSTANT AND NON-CONSTANT VELOCITY COUPLINGS

In the previous sections

problems

rotor systems were discussed.

this paper will
multiple rotor
multiple

rotor

The

associated

with

following

single

sections

of

discuss vibrational problems associated with

configurations.
systems

vibrational energy.

can

The
give

connecting
rise

to

Flexible couplings are

points

in

source

of

used

to

often

join the driving and driven ends of a multiple rotor system.

A flexible coupling
*power

is a device used to

transmit

between two shafts which may or may not

torque

be

co-linear.

Although, gear and gear arrangement couplings fit

definition of flexible couplings, they will not
in this study.

In general couplings

can

be

or

into
be

the

treated

grouped

into

three basic categories; close-coupled, non-constant velocity

couplings and constant velocity couplings.

3.1

CLOSE-COUPLED ROTORS

Close-coupled rotors consist of driving

which are

in theory axially aligned

and

and

rigidly

Figure 3-1 shows an example of a

hard

set.

arrangement

This hard or close-coupled

29

driven

coupled

rotors

fastened.

dual
can

rotor

tolerate

Cm s

uldlotor-

FIGURE 3-1

03

gener

to
a~

very

little

mechanical

misalignment.

angular misalignment will result in

combinations. Figure 3-2 ( a
lateral

and

angular

skewing
b

the

to

lateral

of

shows

misalignments.

misalignments will give rise

frequency of one times

and

Either

the

lateral

rotor

examples

These

or

of

undesirable

vibrations

at

operating

frequency

which

similar to the bowed rotor vibrational

frequency

discussed

earlier in this

the

paper.

In

addition

closed

system must be accurately axially aligned to prevent

to journal and thrust bearings.

Therefore,

close

devices are rarely used in major high-horsepower

and

is

coupled

damage
coupled
high-

velocity industrial equipment but rather are useful for lowpower and low rpm operations or when exact alignments can be
accomplished and maintained.

0-

31

coupling

Lo~~~ter'ihaf

otngir

shf t msltignent

(Ia)E3copln

32

Bh~tmsLgmn

3.2

NON-CONSTANT VELOCITY COUPLINGS

Non-constant velocity couplings are single

which when used to couple rotors can

element

generally

devices

tolerate

significant amount of lateral and/or angular misalignment. A

common type of

flexible

compensate or

allow

coupling

angular

which

can

miaalignments

be
are

Cardan

As can be seen in figure 3-3 (a through c),

drive

yoke

Joints).

universal

or

is

rigidly

fastened to the drive shaft, a driven yoke which is

rigidly

fastened to the driven shaft

and

which is used to connect the

driving

yoke.

an

which

to

universal

joints ( commonly called Hooke's Joints or

Cardan joint consists of

used

orthogonal
yoke

to

cross-pin
the

driven

The cross-pin is an orthogonal cross with each of its

four members extending radially

Opposite ends of

each

outward

cross-pin

driving and driven yokes.

member

from

the

mate

up

center.
to

The ends of each cross-pin extend

through sleeves on the respective yokes. This connection

similar to a

shaft

and

the

journal

junction.

is

mechanical

fastener is then used to prevent the cross-pin from

sliding

free of the yoke.

to

cross-pin,

the

Once
universal

the

yokes

joint

is

assembled position each yoke is free

are

attached

assembled.
to

rotate

axis of the yoke's attached cross-pin member.

33

In
about

Due

to

the
this
the
the

YOKE
SHAF T
'~~YOKESLEEVE
4
UNIVERSAL JOINT YOKE

UNIVERSAL J13INT CROSS-PIN

DRIVEN SHAFT YOKE

NON-CONSTANT VELOCITY UNIVERSAL JO3INT

THE PLANE OF ROTATION O3F THE CROSS-PIN FLUCTUATES BETVEEN
POSITIONS NORMAL TO3 THE DRIVING AND DRIVEN SHAFT
TWO TIMES PER DRIVE SHAFT REVOLUTION. THE ANGLE
IS THE ANGLE SWEPT BY THE CROSS-PIN PLANE OF ROTATION.

FIGURE 3-3

34

orthogonal construction of

the

cross-pin,

rotation of each of the yokes are

ability of

the

croaa-pin

yokes

members

to

which

the

orthogonal.

rotate

about

provides

the

flexibility. The universal

Joint

is

which transmits torque and

angular

transmission ratio equal to unity.

planes
It

their

is

flexible
with

However,

the

not

Joint
coupling

velocity

when not in an axial aligned position does

rotor.

velocity

this

In

addition

asymmetric

vibrations at even

being

configuration

multiples

In the double rotor system

to

of

the

Joined

transmit

of

the

non-constant

in

gives

to

rise

rotating

by

mean

coupling

constant velocity of rotation throughout each cycle

driving

the

respective

universal

of

frequency.

single

universal

Joint, the non-constant velocity terms arise from

the

fact

that the cross-pin does not remain in the constant bisecting

angle plane for the
revolution.

entire

angular

Since the respective

yokes

cross-pin members to compensate for

plane

in

which

the

cross-pin

displacements

one

about

the

misalignment,

the

rotate

the

lies

of

fluctuates

positions normal to the driving and driven shaft

per shaft revolution. In figure 3-3,

angular displacement

times
angular

cross-pin

throughout each revolution of the driving shaft

*by

two

P depicts the

range of positions for planes in which the

Shaft 2, the driven shaft,

between

is displaced from the

(shaft

moves
1).

horizontal

. The relationship of the driving

35

..

. .. .... .. .. 0... . . . . . ... ... . .

. .

" ""Q

K
to driven shaft angular velocities was investigated

by

pC4 J)

(1984a) and explained below. In figure 3-4 the vectors

and

qCe)

Ota

are vectors from the cross pin center through

individual drive

shaft

yoke

sleeves.

The

extends outward from the universal Joint

driving

the yoke sleeve of the

vector

pC)

cross-pin
The

shaft.

the

through
qCO)

vector

extends outward from the coupling cross-pin through the yoke

of the driven yoke. The

of

system

coordinate

3-4

figure

shows that the z axes coincides with the shaft axes,

the

axes are normal to the z axes but in the same plane. On

plane

other hand, the y axes are normal to the

the x and z axes. The position vectors

pC)

represented by equations (1) and (2).

..

here that the yokes of the driving

It

and

x
the

defined

by

and qC9)

are

be

noted

should

shafts

driven

displaced angularly by ninety degrees to properly mate

are
with

the orthogonal cross-pin.

pC4)

= cosCoOcosC')i

qCe)

+ sinC4')j

C1)

+ cosCe) j

-sinCe)i

C2)

Due to the shaft misalignment, the plane of rotation of pCqV)

Is not parallel to the plane of rotation of

qCe).

if the misalignment angle was set

it

apparent that the

pC')

parallel.

pCP) and qCe)

Since

and qCe)

36

+ sinCoOcosC4Ok

lll

..

to

zero

is

rotation planes
are

vectors

However,
readily
would

be

corresponding

Notei The vectors

p and q ex-tendi
radially outward from~
the cross-pin center
througih the driving
and driven yok<es
respetivel~y.

drddvine

COORDlINATE SYSTEM

yoke

T~re)t

driving

driven

NON-CONSTANT VELOCITY UNIVERSAL JOINT COUPLING

FIGURE 3-4

37

two vectors must be

- qC

pC)

to

equal

zero

as

of

product

to orthogonal cross pin members the scaler

the
(3).

equation

in

(3)

Inserting equations (1) and (2) into equation

(3) yields the

following results:

-cosCcO)cosC %)sinCe) + cosCe)sinCIo

sinCe:)/cosC)

= sinCqV '<cosC)cOsCc>)
C4)

tance) = tanC4L)/cosCC )

the

yoke,

shaft

onto the plane of rotation of the driving

yoke

shaft

driven

Projecting the plane of rotation of the

following trigonometric relationships are derived.

since) = sinCt/[l
cosCe)

sin 2 Cc

cosCC)coSC')/[1

cos
C

))I

the

yokes

of

the

driving

C5

))

sin CcOcosC

the

that

conservation of energy requires the moment

C6)

pins
the

shafts,

driven

and

1 2

cross

the

Assuming that there is no friction between

and

drive

shaft yoke impinges on the coupling cross pin is the same as

the moment that the cross pin exerts
yoke.

As

previously

explained

the

on

driven

the

cross

shaft

plane

of

centers

of

pin

rotation continuously alternates between positions

*@

perpendicular to the driving and

38

driven

shaft

rotation

two

times

per

shaft

revolution.

The

moment

transmitted by 'the coupling cross pin remains normal to

plane of rotation of the cross pin. Therefore, as the
pin rotates the plane of rotation

normal to the rotating plane.

The

fluctuates

vector

as

cross

does

the

expressing

the

transmitted moment can then be written as some scaler

the cross product of the position vectors,

the

times

pC%F) and qCe).

as seen in equation (7).

M = MIpC--0

X qCe)

C7)

As mentioned above this moment vector does not

continuously

coincide with the axis of either the driving or driven shaft

but rather oscillates between positions coinciding with

the

shaft axes two times per driving shaft revolution. Inserting

equations (1) and (2) into equation (7) and segregating

the

vector elements yields:

)4z

a M k

- MD

MaC = M.qCe)
M

= M.qCe

C8)

= 0

C93

n /2-)

MsinCoOcosC40.

CIO)

where

C1 - si

D =

2
Ca)coS CI403

/2

Similarly for the driving shaft moments the components

M

Mk
'=

= McosCa)xD

Cii)

39

mnmIw ma

lm u

are:

where k

kcosCoaJ

II

Tr-= T

Equations
moments.
shaft.

H-pC'

mm

(8)
M.

C1 2)

r/i2 )

through

is the

-NsinCaOsinCIO/D.

(1 )

moment

Moment components

components

represent

corresponding

MT,

to

the

a misaligned flexible coupling.

components are eliminated.

To

this

the time derivative of the output

the

MR

driven

which

pin

to

are
yoke

lateral vibrations of
equal to zero, these

determine

velocity of the output shaft in

to be resolved.

and

cross

For

transmitted

along

M,

combinations give rise to the observed

*@

the

transmitted
MK,

C13)

the

non-constant

coupling

arrangement

shaft position

e'

needs

Taking the time derivative of equation

(3)

yields:

CpCV),qCe))'

Substituting

equations

CpCiO*qCe))'

9'cosCat/D
e'D.

(8)

and

= C1-H3['H

(11)

was

assumed

to

time rate of work of the driven shaft

40

(14)

yields:

C15)

time rate of work of the drive shaft

*

into

elH J.

21

Since the coupling

C14)

be

frictionless,

CM I')
CM

').

the

must equal the

This

gives

rise to the following:

C16)

271 = 'm.

Solving

E'

Where

the

for

9'

shaft

drive

+'cosCc)'C1

is the

sin

CCCos

Therefore, equation 17 expresses

*

speed

relationships

of

the

angular misalignments of up to
equation (17)

in some detail

variations

yield

driving

interesting

some

driven

and

velocities are equal and constant with respect to

Therefore,

when

there

coupling arrangement is
coupling

is
said

Ci.e. 9' = 4").

be

couplings

will

When a is

fixed

apparent that

the

no

The

discussed

at

some
driven

-1

be

to

cases

in

constant
angular

function of the driving angular

example if

angular

angular
position.
the

displacements

constant

velocity

of

constant

velocity

sections.

following

value

it

velocity

displacement

degrees and the driving

41

in

Investigating

degrees.

will

the

a = 0

For

results.

45

angular

couplings.

flexible

joints can be constructed to allow

Universal

shaft.

output

input-output

the

misaligned

for

C17)

CP)).

velocity

angular

yields:

velocity

angular

readily

is
( 9' )

is

C % ).

velocity

a
For

is

30

cps equation (17) becomes:

9'

= 29.54(C1

3cosC4)).

Table 3-1 shows the various rotational speeds of the

shaft as a function of angular displacement of
shaft.

Using the reference for

4P

the

driving

in figure 3-3, it

can

41 = n./2 or 3n,/2

and

be seen that velocity is minimum when

maximum when 4P = 0 or n.

driven

Therefore,

an

angular

maximum occurs each time a plane occupied by the

velocity
cross

pin

of the universal joint is perpendicular to the driving rotor

or when the cross pin plane is perpendicular to
rotor. Minimum velocities occur when

plane

swept

angle

( /3 )

of

figure

Consequently, for each driving shaft

two

minimum

and

two

maximum

the

the

driven

connecting

3-3

is

revolution

angular

speed

point

bisected.
there

are

variations.

These two times shaft rpm oscillations of the cross pin also
correspond to the forces and moments generated as the
pin moves alternately from positions

perpendicular

cross
to

the

driving shaft to positions perpendicular to the driven shaft

as shown in equations 8 through
analysis

of

the

single

decomposed the rotor

force

13.

Ota

non-constant
and

listed below:

42

velocity

moment

their respective x and y components.

(1984a)

Ln

coupling

fluctuations

These

his

equations

into
are

4(deq)
00
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360

(cps
30.46
30
29.54
30
30.46
30
29.54
30
30.46

(30cps)
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30

10 deg)

(cps az 30deq)
34.46
29.7
25.98
29.7
34.46
29.7
25.98
29.7
34.46

Driven shaft angular velocities as a function of driving shaft

ang!;lar displacement and driven shaft misalignment.

TABLE 3-1

43

F Xm=C-3sC4a)tanCcoLsinC2wt)1C1
CM

'-

tL=:2

1-

+ cosC2wt))[C1

z
ccoCNwt))

+2

sinCNwt))]

C N/

C19)

aF '3

C20)

-aFx3

C 21)

np

C2NI c

C18)

N/2

6td,

CMb -

d sinCNwtD))

4,d...

C3,C4a)sinCO)C1

2 1--4=2 cs~O
4
4
....

-C6 t

I cN

C22)

and
0 *

C23)

In equations 18 thru 21

Mb

denotes

moment acting on the driven shaft

constant

end

(point

represents the distance from the driving end

B),

aa

moment

(point

A) to the coupling centroid,

6 t corresponds

to

the

torsional

and

coefficient

spring

constant

characteristic of the Joint angle.

these
*

resisting

equations

readily

show

the

is

The

point

force

being
and

components to have even multiples of the driving

These in

turn

give

rise

to

the

even

rotors

that

moments
frequency.

multiple

lateral

vibrations observed when examining a skewed two rotor system

*

coupled by a single universal Joint.

The
*

above

vibrational

phenomenon

used

in

determining rotor axis alignment in rotating machinery.

As

44

is

often

can be seen by equations 18 thru 21,

the fluctuations in the

transmitted forces and moments go to zero as

angle

goes

to

zero.

magnitude increases as

In

addition,

increases.

Use

the

the
of

alignment
vibrational

these

facts

allows one to determine if rotating systems are aligned

also the degree of misalignment can be determined if any
present.

45

and
is

3.3 CONSTANT VELOCITY COUPLINGS

A constant velocity coupling in contrast to the non-constant

velocity coupling discussed in the previous sections
driven shaft speed always equal to

the

driving

number of conditions are required to achieve

velocity.
*

speed.

this

arrangement

of

In figure 3-5 each shaft has an arm bent at

with the
Depending

shaft
on

centerlines
the

actual

by

displaced
coupling

coupling may be constant velocity for

range of angles or all angles.

an

design,

an

the

by

figure
anglet?

angle

0(.

flexible

particular

When shaft 1 in

constant

These conditions or criteria can best be seen

analyzing the simple shaft coupling

3-5.

has

angle,

figure

3-5

is rotated the driving and driven shaft connecting point (A)

rotates in a plane

described

by

the

figure 3-5 the shafts lie in a plane

0

coupling

orbit.

perpendicular

plane defined by the orbit of the shaft coupling.

of intersection of these two planes is

The

represented

line (A-A') of figure 3-5. Unlike the non-constant

-

to

by

In
the
line
the

velocity

coupling connecting plane, this plane of contact between the

driving and driven shafts does not oscillate
defined by the shafts but rather

remains

each shaft revolution. Although, the

46

in

fixed

connection

the

plane

throughout
point

"A"

A'
upling orbit

*
SIMPLIFIED CONSTANT
VELOCITY COUPLING

FIGURE 3-5

47

z
x

9i
moves axially along the shafts as

the

shafts

rotate,

perpendicular line segments from the shaft connecting

(A) to shafts 1 and 2 remain equal

in

length.

the
point

Therefore,

the radii from the rotating shafts to the rotating point "A"
is the same for both shafts. As the
through

each

revolution,

the

driving

shaft

connecting

point

continually lies in the fixed plane defined by the

(A)

coupling

In this constant plane of rotation, point A remains

orbits.

at an equal radius

of

rotation

Therefore, since the

members.

(A-B)
line

for

are

constant

for

both

both

segment

fixed in space and the connecting point to

radii

rotates

shafts,

rotating

A-A'

shaft

remains
extension

simple

geometric

arguments show that the line segment A-A' bisects the obtuse
0

angle formed by the

shafts.

misaligned

In

addition,

the

velocities

constant connecting point radii keep the angular

constant and equal at all times.

The examination of

figure

3-5

has

the

illustrated

requirements necessary to have a constant velocity

four

flexible

coupling.
The driving and driven shaft's

(1)

must remain constant in

space

plane

throughout

of
each

contact
shaft

revolution. This is different from the plane of contact

of

single

universal

joint

which

cycles

between

positions perpendicular to each shaft twice during each

revolution.

48

(2)

The

normal
(3)

plane of contact point

to the plane defined

This plane of

obtuse

angle

bisected angle will

obtuse offset
(4)

by

the

must

the

exactly

of

remain

rotating

offset

be one-half

must

shafts.

bisect

shafts.
the

total

the
This

shafts

angle.)

While obvious

for

arrangements,

for

three or more shaft configurations all shafts must

lie

in

by

contact

made

rotation

two

shaft

the same plane.

A large number of constant velocity flexible

currently available in the market place.
couplings, tripot couplings,

disk

couplings

They include

couplings

and

are
ball

numerous

arrangements of multiply connected universal joint

couplings.

Using the

criteria

laid

out

for

constant

velocity coupling, a double universal joint coupling will be

analyzed

in

the

following

paragraphs

constant velocity coupling will

be

and

analyzed

disk

in

type
latter

chapter of this text.

Figure 3-6 depicts a three shaft constant velocity coupling

*0

displacement angle is
yoke whose mid-point
plane of rotation.

2a
(C)

The

universal

arrangement.
.

The

total

Shaft number 2 is the

constantly remains
first

constant

in

the

velocity

Joint
joint

coupling
shafts
coupling

criteria is thus satisfied in that for each revolution

49
r

double

this

Three shaf t double universal joint

constant velocity coupling

FIGURE 3-6

05

point of contact remains constant in space.

of contact remains

normal

to

the

rotating shafts, which satisfies

constant velocity couplings.

Also, the plane

plane

the

defined

second

It should also

that to be a constant velocity

coupling

the

criteria

for

be

all

must lie in the same plane.

Finally,

show that at the number

two

shaft

midpoint

plane of contact bisects the

angle

formed

understood

three

geometric

shafts meeting the third requirement for

couplings.

by

arguments

the
by

shafts

rotating

the

constant

offset
velocity

It should be emphasised that the symmetry

in figure 3-6 is essential for constant velocity

shown

operation.

Figure 3-7 shows some other configurations in which constant

velocity coupling can
Joints.

be

achieved

with

double

universal

Again, keeping in mind that all shafts must lie

the same plane.

A more subtle requirement

for

the

in

double

universal joint coupling to achieve constant velocity is the

couplings

yoke-cross

pin

arrangement,

which

will

be

discussed in the following section.

At this point it should be shown

intuitive argument a mathematical
constant velocity coupling.

that

in

addition

argument

holds

to
for

an
the

Recalling that the equation for

the non-constant velocity coupling

is

function

of

the

shaft angular displacement, rotor position and driving shaft

angular velocity, equation 17 of section

51

3-1

is

repeated.

...........

S(CbO

Constant ve~c

nvra

oncniuain

FIGURE
30C

03

52

4'COS~Ct)-'C

Applying equation

(1)

apparent that shaft

sin2 COtCOS CV&))

C13

to shafts 1 and 2 of figure 3-6,

2 does not rotate at

but rather at a speed specified by the

constant

it

velocity

non-constant velocity

coupling equation.

Also, for proper operation the yokes

shaft number 2 must

be angularly aligned as

with

their

velocity

respective

cross

relationship

for

pin
the

in

members
shaft

combination of figure 3-6 can then be

two

two

joints

common

joined by the

non-constant
coupling

shaft.

equal

to the moment

(M.)

transmitted

driven shaft

(M.C)

(shaft #3)

transmitted

must also be

transmitted along the coupling

shaft.

to

moment
must

the

axially

equal

universal

shaft

For

must

(shaft #2).

The

along

shaft as shown in section 3.2 of this study.

reasons, the moment

#3)

velocity

transmitted axially along the driving

three
Invoking

(shaft

(M.0

3-8

in section 3.2,

time rate of work of the driving shaft

In essence there are

on

The

and

developed.

the time rate of work of the driven shaft

(K.)

figure

parallel.

the same procedures and assumptions outlined

equal the

is

be

coupling
the

same

along
the

the

moment

Therefore,

we

have:

0
M.

M..

(2)

The time rate of work for each

53

shaft

must

also

be

equal

Coupling shaf t yoke arrangement

FIGURE 3-8

54

(again assuming frictionless couplings) so that:

/M
2
2C

Where
M

= McoSCO/D

C4)

Hco(&Y.D

CS)

and

=
=2

noting that

and
D = C1

sin2C00cos2 C4P))

Inserting equations (4)

and

(5)

/2

into

equation

(3)

then

yields the constant velocity relationship:

C5)

Consequently, it can be seen that the

universal

Joint

velocity

triple

relationship

is

improvement over the single universal

joint

though the coupling

does

yoke

(shaft

2)

constant velocity, coupling shafts I and

55

shaft
a

double

substantial

design.

Even

not

rotate

at

do

rotate

at

equal

constant velocities.

previously

As

the

mentioned,

vectors normal to the cross pins oscillate between positions

aligned with the center of rotations of the coupled

shafts.

It is these non-linear oscillations which give rise

to

the

non-constant velocity phenomena as discussed in section

3.2

joint

arrangements.

Vibrations normally resulting from the shafts

misalignment*

of this

paper

for

universal

single

are eliminated in this double universal joint configuration.

Even though coupling shaft #2 is not

at

rotating

velocity and the rotational inertia of the shaft

and decelerate

twice

each

during

shaft

constant
accelerate
the

revolution,

acceleration components are out of phase with each other due

and

moment

cancelling

effect.

This

coupling

arrangement

with

to the coupling yoke arrangements and the force

generated

vibrations

cancellation yields a

have

flexible

constant velocity characteristics and without the two

The limiting factor

angular velocity vibrations.

joint designs is

relatively

maintaining

angular displacement.

times

in

these

angles

small

In situations where more than 8 or 10

degrees of in plane angular displacement is desired the

of two or

more

of

the

double

couplings is an alternative.

universal

joint

universal

flexible

vibrational

energy is a factor the angular misalignment is small

double

use

This configuration is shown in

figure 3-9. However, in most applications where

single

of

joint

sufficient.

56

flexible

and

coupling

a
is

d5p4Ocemfflt a,4eo

4(Uc)

FIGURE 3-9

57

In summary the symmetry of shafts one and

3-5 is critical in achieving a constant

three
velocity

Once the shafts are aligned such that the symmetry

of

figure

coupling.
is

lost

or the shafts are no longer in the same plane, the system is

degraded to a system of two single universal
gives rise to a non-constant

velocity

Joints.

coupling

and

This
their

components of vibrational energy at frequencies of multiples

of two times the operating angular velocity.

So once

again

the two times operating speed vibrations can be an indicator

of misalignment in the double universal Joint flexible shaft
coupling arrangement.

58

4.0 RUBBER COUPLINGS

Although metallic flexible couplings including a variety

of

universal joint configurations are the most popular means of

compensating for angular misalignment, rubber couplings
used

often

0-

in

where

applications

minimal

are

loads,

shock

torsional vibration and noise transmission are desired.

Due

to the mechanical properties of rubber, these couplings

are

usually limited to relatively low torque applications.

The

applied torque of the driving shaft determines the

size

the rubber coupling which will withstand the load.

As

of
the

coupling

rapidly

Rubber couplings can be

grouped

the

torque requirements increase

rubber

becomes excessive in size.

into

either

couplings.

constant

or

velocity

non-constant

flexible

However, the constant velocity coupling is

limited in use due to

very

low

In

function

of

This dependence on Young's Modulus

is

addition rubber coupling behavior is a

its Young's Modulus.

applications.

torque

very

strong

further complicated for rubber couplings due to the

Modulus dependence on rubber hardness, ambient

Young's

temperature,

geometry of the coupling, load frequency and load amplitude.

Another

disadvantage

of

the

susceptibility to fatigue when

bending and torsion.

59

rubber

coupling

cyclically

loaded

is

its

in

both

4.1 NON-CONSTANT VELOCITY RUBBER COUPLINGS

Rubber couplings when configured for

non-constant

applications

previously

universal

are

similar

joint.

However,

replaced by a rubber

to

in this case

disk.

geometry of the driving

the

the

Depending

and

driven

on

cross

two or

observed

three times operating

for

the

unaligned

angular

discussed two
observed.

times

However,

If

operating

speed

rubber

energy

scheme

each

points

the

can

be

shaft

is

previously

vibrations

will

if each shaft is connected to the

disk by three connecting points vibrational energy

observed at three

times

the

operating

angular

plane of
*

joint.

frequency.
to

the

For each revolution of the driving shaft a

rotation normal to the page and

drive shaft

revolution.

joint previously discussed,

As

indicated

in

the

single

this gives rise to

velocity characteristics of the output shaft.

velocity fluctuates between
during

be

by

A-A'

moves to positions normal to shafts one and two twice during

each

be

rubber

will

Figure 4-1 shows a coupling arrangement very similar

universal

is

the

frequency

shafts.

connected to the rubber disk at two

pin

attachment

to

coupling a non-constant velocity vibrational

of

described

the

shaft

velocity

each

revolution

minima
of

the

and

driving

configurations using three shaft to rubber

60

maxima

disk

universal

non-cdnstant

This
two
shaft.

output
times
In

connecting

rubber disk

/t

Univrsal joint with rubber disk

'

lpce of rigid cross pin.

|61

B'

/~j

FIGURE 4-1

I-

pins the same argument as above can be

these speed excursions

now

happen

used

three

to
times

show

that

per

each

revolution of the drive shaft.

Alternate cycling of the connecting disk

between

positions

normal to each shaft leads to rapid fatigue of the disk when

shaft angular displacements are large.
angular misalignment of a

rubber

usually limited to small angles.

For this reason

disk

type

couplings

In these cases

the

variations and the forces and moments generated

the

are

speed
small.

In addition the material characteristics of the rubber

aid in transmitted force and

moment

vibration

The bending and torsional movement of the disk

of the energy generated due to the shaft

effectively

isolated

from

the

driven

propagation properties of the rubber disk.

62

end

disk

absorption.
absorb

misalignment.

addition noise transmission from the driving

is

end
due

rotor
to

most
In
is
poor

4.2 CONSTANT VELOCITY RUBBER COUPLINGS

Rubber couplings can be configured in

constant

mode.

larger

These flexible couplings allow

angular misalignment but are usually

torque applications.

limited

Figure 4-2 shows a

velocity
degree

of

very

low

to

constant

velocity

rubber coupling. For steady rotating loads the shaft can

assumed to be torsionally rigid.

In this case

and driven shafts operate at the same constant

the

fatigue

failure.

For

low

torque

For

loaded

tension and compression once again giving rise

rapid

driving

speed.

each rotation the rubber coupling alternately is

be

to

and

in

possible
low

rpm

applications this constant velocity flexible coupling can be

an effective means of transmitting torque through

angularly

misaligned shafts.

63

...
0,

"

........ .... ... ....... . ... .....

........ ..

- - -

. .

- .

. -

tension

Consta~nt velocity ruabber~ coupling

FIGURE 4-2

66

5.0 SPLINES AND AXIAL MOTION DEVICES

In previous sections flexible couplings were used to account

for angular and/or

lateral

misalignments when used in single

or multiply connected combinations.

With the

exception

of

amounts

of

the rubber coupling which can withstand limited

axial

strain, axial motion

motion could
*

not

be

*.

axial

allowed.

coupling which can be used

axial

and

misalignment.

As

to

misalignment;

spline

account

most

of

or

the

couplings could not compensate for axial

spline cannot

tolerate angular or

to

flexible

compensate

previous

for

flexible
the

lateral misalignment.

The

torque while

a degree of axial misalignment or motion.

configured

misalignment,

function of the spline is to transmit

the spline may be

is

axial

In

transmit

allowing

some

designs

torque

but

permanently pinned so as not to allow axial motion.

In

be
this

application the spline is used as an assembly aid in joining

*

lengthy sections of drive shafts or rotors

laden environments.
allows
"

axial

conditions.

to

exist

during

In the latter case the

motion compensating device, allows for

interference

In still other applications the

motion

characteristics of

in

the

driving

vehicle motion geometries.

or

normal

spline,

as

spline

operating
an

axial

length changes due to

driven

mechanisms

or

Spline connecting geometries can

65

I.
be lumped into two basic varieties, involute or parallel. An
involute spline has teeth which have

an

similar to that shown in figure 5-1.

This design

involuted

profile
has

high

torque characteristics due to its strong tooth construction.

The sides of the teeth of an involute spline act as

drivers

to transmit the torque (note the wide base of spline teeth).

The major diameters of the spline may or

not

make

contact

depending on the spline-shaft fit characteristics while

minor diameters should

Parallel
0

sided

not

splines

be

are

allowed

to

manufactured

driving teeth are parallel. The parallel

make

contact.

such

tooth

the

that

the

constructed

spline does not exhibit as strong a torque characteristic as

the involute spline of the same size, but is much cheaper to
manufacture. An example of a parallel aided spline is

shown

in figure 5-2.

The spline

coupling

operates

such

that

when

torque

is

applied to the driving shaft it rotates into a position such

that the sides of the teeth for the involute spline and

the

corners of the teeth on the parallel

the

sided

spline

on

driving shaft end connection make contact with the sides

the teeth of the driven spline as shown in figures
*

5-3.

and

In high torque applications this usually brings about

rapid wear due to fretting in vicinity of the tooth

points.

5-1

of

In

both

of

the

above

cases

axial

contact

motion

is

compensated for by axial sliding of the spline teeth in

the

66
0~a

contact area

0A

Invo(ute spUne tooth design

FIGURE 5-1

67

PoratLel sided sp~ine

FIGURE 5-2

68

Par-alet spline teeth contact

FIGURE 5-3

69

axial direction. In normal conditions this axial

smooth along

tooth

contact.

rotates with some

inherent axial

maintained.

axial

compensated

the

The

As

the

motion

motion

of

driving

tooth

the

properly

assembled the spline minimum

length

of

greater

spline

diameter

the

the spline surfaces are

*

force

shaft

is

length

of

designed

contact

maintain torsional strength of the coupling.

shaft
is

the

tooth contact within the spline. If

is

contact

driving

for by increasing or decreasing

than e.8 times

motion

and

should

be

order

to

in

In addition, if

not properly lubricated the friction

between the tooth contact

will

be

greater

than

the

axial force and the spline will be essentially welded to the

shaft allowing axial

the coupling.

vibrations to

assembly and disassembly, but when

splines

to

prevent

no

transmitted

through

The fixed or pinned spline is generally

in applications in which the spline

pinned

be

longer

axial

is used
joined

motion.

account

for

allow

easy

the spline is then

Once
axial

to

used

assembled
motion

these
will

and

dynamically have the properties of a single rotating disk on

*

a shaft.

To be properly operable the rotors Joined by a

*

be axially aligned.
coupling

can

If

exhibit

not
either

properly

aligned

constant

or

velocity and vibrational characteristics.

pure lateral misalignment as in figure

70

5-4

spline
the

must
spline

non-constant

For the

case

of

non-constant

0R1

Drivenh~f

Driving
shaf tSpiesat

Spline coupled shaft with lateral misalignment.

FIGURE 5-4

,'

71.

relationship

velocity

exist.

will

non-constant

This

velocity characteristic arises from the fact that the radius

of rotation of the driven shaft
angular positions around its

in

the

the driven shaft would be

This

assumes

for

lateral

spline

defined

by

the

larger

to

forced

of

radius

non-constant velocity profile the

is the

radius

of

rotate

and

rotation

occurs when Re is the radius of rotation.

pure lateral misalignment

the

In

case

the

the coupling is symmetrically fitted on

the

rules

minimum

spline

coupled

as

in

figure
Assuming
shafts

the two

velocity

operation

figure 5-5 and shown by line segment A-A')

in space.
normal

remains

in

constant

In addition the rotating plane of contact remains

to the plane defined

by

shafts.

the

figure 5-5 the obtuse angle formed

by

the

two

Finally,

in

shafts

is

bisected by the rotating plane of contact.

The

of the constant velocity coupling criteria

therefore

that

of

The shaft's plane

of contact (defined by a plane intersecting the coupling

of

and

results.

section 3.3 of this paper can be applied.

occurs
velocity

misalignment

constant

the

minimum

that

for

orbit

For

velocity

For

5-5, a constant velocity characteristic

required

an

in

maximum

speed

occur once per drive shaft revolution.

shafts exhibiting pure angular

coupling

rotation.

maximum

all

for

If both shafts were pinned rigidly to the

motion.

constant

circumference.

that there is sufficient play

when R1

not

is

the spline with pure angular

72

misalignment

application
shows

is a constant

A'

Spline coupled sha~ft with angular misalignment.

FIGURE 5-5

73

velocity

coupling.

symmetry

is

misalignments

not
occur

In

coupling

present
the

or

velocity

combinations
when

74

which

combinations

profile

non-constant velocity characteristics.

in

will

of

exhibit

f
K

5.1

DAMPING DUE TO SPLINE COUPLED SHAFTS

A more subtle but

potentially more severe coupling situation

occurs when a spline coupled shaft

supercritical region.

is operated in the rotors

If not properly

the spline coupling could

aligned

damping

coupling

spline

occurs

the

is due to rubbing

the coupling on the shafts as relative

and

fitted

introduce internal damping to

rotating system. This internal

shafts

and

motion

while

between

the

the

shaft

rotating. Consequently, any disturbance introduced

of

into

is
the

system which causes a bending action on the rotating element

or deflection of the rotor to an orbit

different

than

normal spin about its axis will allow the damping

to generate a force.

generated

by

the

In the subcritical

internal

damping

about its

axis.

different

rotational velocity

mechanism

regime

the

mechanisms

stabilize the system and return the system

situation

to

the

stable

arises

is above the rotors resonant

supercritical).

natural

Introducing

causes a whirling action

different

from

frequency

the

shaft

of

the

about

its

the

frequency.

shaft

rotor

disturbance

axis

to
spin

when

of

is

(i.e.
again

in which the shaft orbits in a

spin

force

tends

In this case the rotating angular velocity of the

greater than

the

path

rotation.

Depending on circumstances this whirl may be either in

the

direction of the driving angular velocity (forward whirl) or

75

..

. 0,'.. ..

II

Ima

m l llmlm

in

direction

opposite

(backward whirl).

system

driving

If the interactions

spline introduce an
rotating

the

internal

during

angular
of

damping

the

velocity
shafts

and

into

the

mechanism

condition

of

forward

whirl,

instability could occur.

An explanation of the

rotating

shaft

instability

internal damping can be accomplished by

explained by Bucciarelli

(1982).

An

energy

energy

due

to

methods

as

transformation

from kinetic energy due to spinning about the shaft axis

to

kinetic and potential energy due to the whirl orbit

be

accomplished

by

internal

damping

spline-shaft angular misalignment.

spline

can

be

modeled

spline-shaft rub

has

damping and

spline

the

separate shafts.

as

been

in

introduced

figure

as

by

The shafts and

modeled

mass

can

5-6

as

two

coupling

where

linear

rotating

whirl state exists the shaft

rotation.
axis

is

the

viscous
disks

In normal operation, the centers

of the disk lie on the axis of

the

of

However,

displaced

on
mass

when
from

a
the

normal axis of spin by an amount described by the angle (

in figure 5-6. During

this

whirl

orbit,

relative

between the rotor shafts and coupling spline

motion

introduce

the

damping modeled in figure 5-6.

Using Bucciarelli's (1982) model shown in

internal

damping

mechanism,

Cz,

76

is

figure

modeled

5-6,
as

the

linear

X2
X2A2

CIC

Eo
......
Is

077

A'

viscous damping

distributed

uniformly

around

the

outer circumferences connecting the two disks.

damper, also distributed around the
connects each disk to ground and

disks'

is

An

external

circumferences,

shown

as

C:

figure. This external damping acts to retard the

the shaft when in a whirl orbit.

disks'

In order

to

in

the

motion
isolate

of
the

potentially destabilizing elements of the shaft

configuration shown in figure 5-6, an analysis of the forces
and moments generated by the internal and
mechanisms must be accomplished.
*

external

In figure 5-6, the

normal

spin axis of the rotating system is denoted by line

A-A'.

The displacement of the shaft from

axis is represented by the angle

its

The X,

axis

lies along the

shaft

axis;

and

and

outward as shown.

lie in

and Xe

axes

the paper.) The Xa axis originates at the

extends radially outward from the

normal

the

paper.

v.
axis

radially

the

This

by
Xe

extends

disk

spin

angular

velocity

originates at the center of the disk

(The X,

segment

The shafts'

).

velocity is represented by a and the whirl

damping

plane

center

of

and

coordinate

system moves with the shaft as the shaft deflects away

from

its normal spin axis when whirling.

As the shafts whirl while

spinning,

the

internal

damping

mechanisms generate forces which push and pull on the

disk.

The incremental force (i.e. force per unit radian) acting on

the outer edge of the

disk

is

78

SJ

defined

as

positive

when

pushing outward on the disk and

on

the disk.

internal

The magnitude of

damping

placement

around

the

shafts

the force
is

the

circumference

of

measured from

the

outer
( a)

displacement

represented by the angle

from

function

its

by

of

normal

internal damping mechanisms is

of

angular
the

disk

Xe

axis)

spin

forces

generated

dependent

the

disks

on

circumferences.

rate

of

in

turn

is

of the disk.

The disk center travels

view of the same disks.

is L_,

Note

rotate

that

spin

in

the

whirl

L.

is

for

as shown

in figure 5-7(b).

The amount of

position around

the

deflection
disk

5-7(a)
is

the

side

the

separation

fixed

deflection

on

disk
-

L.

the

deflects
function

circumference

79

view

As the shafts whirl and

point

the

simultaneously,

is

orbit

bottom the separation is

circumference of disk of figure

paper.

and

Longitudinal separation at the top of the

2asin(O ) and at the

2asin( 0)

longitudinal

Figure 5-7(b) shows

between the disks at their center

( 0).

( a

in figure 5-7. Figure 5-7(a) shows the end

which has a radius Lain( 0).

angle

The
whirl

the

the

which

displacement due to the combination of

illustrated

axis

by

dependent on the damping components angular location,

around the disks' outer

the

( 0).

The magnitude of the incremental

longitudinal separation

generated

mechanisms

(represented by the angle

and

negative when pulling inward

denoted

outer

into
of

the

angular
by

(0

).

0m

L0

FIUR

2Osin( 0)

-7.......

The

longitudinal deflection can best be visualized by

the

allowing
examining

shaft

the

to

shaft

can by seen by fixing

positions

allowed to spin.

1 with a set of bearings located at

by

(determined

of

( 0

figure
5-7(b)

figure

disk's circumference to point

the

The

spinning

the internal dampers due to

(0

then

spinning.

without

As the disk in

amount sdt, point B

period dt,

and

of figure 5-6. With the shafts held in

points J and J'

whirling

without

whirling

longitudinal motion of

deflected

spin

first

D.

)),

the

5-7

longitudinal change in

shaft

spins

travels

disk

by

along

in

Therefore

their

the

is

an
the
time

separation

is:

L. = DF - BE,

as seen

in figure 5-7(b).

separation

to

spin

only

AL

2asin(O)Ecos(Ol + sdt)

(L

change

be

in

disk

written

as:

+ 2acos(cOsin(O)

(1)

cos(a))s

2acos( a )sin(O ) is the

at point B.

can

+ 2acos(a + sdt)sin(O)

hL

where La

due

The longitudinal

longitudinal

displacement

The sdt term represents the change

in

position around the disks circumference during an

of time, dt.

The longitudinal

due

change

to

the

in

increment

or axial velocity of the disk

angular

81

angular

position,

sdt,

is

i
I&

2asin()cos(t

+ sdt)

At

cos(a)]

dt

Invoking small

angle

approximations

for

longitudinal velocity due to the angular

adt

yields

spin

the

velocity

to

be:

V s = -2as~sin(c)sin(0)].

Equation

(3)

(3) shows that as the disks spin, the

of longitudinal

separation is

negative.

This

disks'

rate

agrees

with

figure 5-7(b) which shows the separation between

decreases when the disk spins

from

point

To determine the longitudinal velocity

due

the A-A' axis in the whirl orbit

of

figure

point B of figures 5-7(a and b) rotates

point B',

the change in

longitudinal

an

to

to

disks are not allowed to spin while the disks

the

disks

point

the

whirl,
rotate

5-6.
amount

displacement

about
As
wdt
of

disks is:

AL.

HD

GB

'0

which can be written,

&_=

So

+ 2acos(e

sin()

EL

82

...

+ 2acos(ct

D.

+ wdt)sin()J

the
to
the

L-

2asin(q5)[cos(a)

cos(a + wdt)]

(4)

This shows that as the shafts whirl about the A-A'

an amount wdt, the longitudinal displacement is
Again

invoking small

AL

The longitudinal

The

longitudinal

to

alone

then:

(6)

velocity along the disk's circumference due

the

the

is

2awsin(cO)sin(O)

measured

with

respect

to

= 2asin(o sin(O)(w -

(noting
X&

that

axis),

is:

(7)

s]

Now that the incrementa'l

forces,

( f = CjV

),

generated

by

internal damping can be determined, the moment generated

by the sum of the incremental

moment generated by the

forces can

o
0

be

written.

internal damping mechanisms, MI,

2n
CV(o0)asin(o

83

whirl

V = VW
w

due

( c),

is

increasing.

asin(W)sin(4)(wdt)

to spin and whirl at a point defined by

0 )

by

changes in wdt yields:

velocity

axis

dc)

The
is

2n
M I = 2asin( )(w

s)C 1

0 fsin( dasin (da

(9)

M I = 2na2 C Isin(q)[w - s]

where C,

(10)

is the damping per unit

circumference.

radian

around

the

disks

Equation (10) shows M, to be stabilizing

so

long as w > a.

To complete the analysis, the

effect

of

external

damping

needs to be determined. Figure 5-8 shows an end view of

the

disk with the external damping per unit radian, CE, attached
between the disks
whirl

outer

circumference

and

ground.

The

radius is shown as:

whirl

radius

= r

= Lsin(

).

(11)

The radial displacement of the dashpots as the disk

in the whirl orbit defined by equation

(11)

and

travels
shown

in

figure 5-8 is:

6 = LE - rcos(a)

.(12)

IE
where LE is the distance between the disk and ground when no
whirl

is

present.

In

order

to

component of the velocity due to the

determine
whirl

the

radial

velocity

at

84

4i ,

"

. . . .. . .

...

m m

"

LE

Lsiri(Z0)cos(CO)
E(C

LE

LE

ground
LE+ Lsin(0)

SLsIn(0O)sin(Cow
Lsin(.0 )w

DISK END VIEW IN WHIRL

FIGURE 5--

85

point on

need

velocity

tangential whirl

Figure

analyzed.

be

the

The

).

component of that velocity is:

VW

= rwsin(cd)

Thus the incremental force

element

to

of

components

velocity to be wLsin(

5-8(b) shows the tangential

radial

the

the disk's circumference,

due

(13)

to

an

damping

individual

is:

fE

rwCEsin(x)sin(a)dc

(14)

Summing these forces around the disk's circumference yields:

2n 2
ofsin

= Lsin(O)wCE

FE

(15)

ntLsin()wCE

This force subsequently generates a

parallel to the X& axis

figure 5-6.

(a)dc

and

passing

moment

about

through

an

point

This moment due to the external damping

axis

of

forces

is:

ME

LFE

(16)

"C EL wsin(O )

(17)

86

It should be noted that based on equation

(17) ME

is

always

stabilizing.

Recalling that M,

is stabilizing when w

> a,

and that M

always stabilizing, stability requirements for the

system of figure 5-6 can be established.
remain stable so

long as the sum of the

the rotating system are positive.

moments can be summed about the
Therefore,

the

rotating

The

Since M,
XA

system

will

acting

on

is a couple, the

axis
will

rotating

system

moments

is

of
be

figure

5-6.

stable

if:

S
mE + M,

>

0.

Substituting equations

(18)

(10)

and

(17)

into

equation

(18)

yields:

2a2 CIEw - s3

+ L 2CEw

Consequently, the system

(1>

is stable if:

0
2CIa 2s

<

(2a2C

+ CE L 2w

(20)

and the system is borderline stable if:

2
[ 1 + C L 2 /2C a2]w

87

(1
(21)

In review, the internal damping

components

of

figure

introduce forces into the rotating system which act

shaft and generate a moment.

on

damping

This internal

5-6
the

moment

can be either stabilizing or destabilizing depending on

magnitude and direction in which it
the moment is stabilizing if:

acts,

that

(Recalling

On the

w > a.).

the

other

hand

external damping applied on the rotating system retards

the

Therefore,

the

whirl orbit

and

always

is

stabilizing.

is

external damping which is modeled in figure 5-6 by Ca

and internal damping

stabilizing mechanism

as

modeled

a
C,

may be either stabilizing or destabilizing.

In backward

whirl,

whirl

the

direction opposite the

internal damping and

Therefore,
the

whirl

angular

the

moment

orbit

acts

direction as the shaft's angular velocity

direction of

the

backward whirl the

whirl

angular

internal

stabilizing influence on the

and

rotating

will

in

to

rotating

the

(w

and

orbit
rotating

shafts

forward whirl may become unstable

unless

positive.).

equation

whirl

Therefore,

(19) is met.

88

are

whirl
angular

now

operating
the

forward

In

the

in

have

always

as

and

the

Therefore,

orbit acts in the same direction

velocity

same

the

whirl, the moment due to the internal damping and the

the

opposes

system.

velocity

due
in

velocity.

damping

is

direction

rotational

shaft

(i.e. w is negative).

orbit

criteria

both
with
of

In summary, rotation in

the

region and supercritical

operation with backward

conditions

of

subcritical

stability.

Shafts

angular

velocity
whirl

operating

supercritical regime with forward whirl will

in

be

are
the

stable

so

long as:

<

1 + C L

/2C a 2w

(22)

In

all

practical

cases,

the

spline

coupling

must

angularly aligned such that the axial travel

is

the

lateral

design

restricted
particular

parameters

and

allow

the

parameters

angular

lateral

well
of

suited
the

axial

to

motion

for

the

spline

are often in tandem with couplings designed

misalignment.

couplings, shaft systems can

angular,

coupling,

application. Applications

coupling devices
to

fitting

of

limited

be

and

be

axial

For

arranged

these

to

misalignments

non-constant or constant velocity applications.

89

compound

provide
in

for

either

6.0 SHAFTS AND ROTORS

The preceding sections all assumed

were

properly

designed

and

that

system

installed

to

components

withstand

applied operating frequencies and load torques.

several

criteria

in

shaft

construction

arrangements which must be considered in

vibrational problems.

demanded.
*

In

There

and

addition,

to

support

alignment

established and implemented on

the

to

prevent

and

support

the

work

criteria
rotating

are

equipment

order

The shaft construction

arrangements must be adequate

the

loads

must

system

be
which

will take into account movement of the equipment foundations

due to movement of the
0

thermal expansion and

system

of

rotating

mounts

and

contraction.
elements

platforms,
In

operating

order

shock,
to

and

have- a

properly

and

to

achieve the equipment life expectancies, the system elements

must be properly designed,
selected and

correct

the

alignment

coupling
criteria

devices

properly

established

implemented. Rotating element design is a complicated

which

is

function

of

configurations, application,
velocity and equipment size.

material

properties,

and
issue

mounting

applied torque, angular

In

the

following

section

brief discussion is presented for two simply supported shaft

designs.

Equations similar to those presented are cataloged

in various texts but each equation used must be tailored

the particular application.

90

to

Coupling devices have been devised for numerous

applications.
years

with

The coupling industry has

the

number

currently on the market

of

coupling

designs

over
and

ranging in the thousands.

than the design of a coupling being an

the coupling from those

available

chapter seven

text,

of

thrived

this

issue,

must

So rather

selection

of

accomplished.

In

concerning

coupling

selection are discussed in detail. The

discussion

includes

considerations which must

in general;

be considered

exact

science, much

equipment

alignment.

alignment

tools

currently

not

remains

and

agreed

The

to

be

correct

allowable

upon

by

an

becoming

an

determined
alignment

alignment

most

an

amount of misalignment tolerable

the

left to

procedures,

tolerances

In section 6.2 of

discussion is presented on two alignment

concerning

experts.

alignment techniques are often viewed as

the mechanic or technician.

and

is presented.

With shaft construction and coupling selection

art

the century are briefly discussed and a

laser-optical

system operation is

issue of how much misalignment

applications is discussed.

91

is

In

the
of

this study

"state of

tolerable

fact

with

techniques.

outlined.

are

judgement

indicator methods which have been around since the

sizes

issues

analysis of a particular coupling

the

turn
the

Finally,
in

Dial
of
art"
the

particular

6.1

SHAFT CONSTRUCTION

For sections of circular shafts the design of the rotor must

(1)

determined from equations

and

S = l6Tdo/[Cn)Cdo 4

this

of

(2)

be

section.

outer

the

at

can

shafts

circular

stress

shear

torsional

Maximum

for

values

These

per

twist

angular

shear stress while minimizing the shaft

unit length.

torsional

applied

maximum

the

be sufficient to withstand

fiber:

di4)I

C1

Twist angle in radians/unit length:

8 = 32T-Cnr)Cdo' -

Torsional
typical

Torsional

C2.)

di4]

(lb-in)

applied torque

do

outer shaft diameter

(in)

di

inner shaft diameter

(in)

important for a variety of reasons. A

stiffness is

shaft can often be considered

as

mechanism

connecting relatively large rotating inertias.

can be subjected

to

(psi)

rigidity

of

modulus

variety

either forced or free in nature.

92

of

vibratory

Consequently,

This

for

system

excitations

the

drive

shaft or coupling

shaft

should

be

retard shaft torsional vibrations.

resonant frequency can
element

wall

stiffness.
desired

be

thicknesses

properly

For instance the

altered
to

designed

by

yield

designing
a

system
rotating

desired

torsional

Other parameters which may be varied to

system

characteristics

are

shaft

to

achieve

length,

shaft

diameter and rotating element material properties.

Another parameter which must be

considered

coupling devices is the maximum

rotating

particularly true for the double

when

designing

speed.

universal

This

joint

is

constant

velocity coupling which makes use of several shaft sections.

[93

Whenever the shaft angular

velocity

approaches

critical speed,

vibratory

shaft whirling.

The Critical speed of a

oscillations

can

the

occur

rotating

shaft
due

to

shaft

is

the same as the resonant frequency of the shaft in

bending.

Equations (3) and (4) define the critical speeds for

Aipoqrted

solid

and

modulus of elasticity
lb/insz).

hollow

rotating

(E = 29X101-)

and

These shaft configurations are

steel
density
shown

shafts

with

( P

.281

in

figures

6.1a through 6.1c.

Solid round shaft:

Nc

(3)

=47050Oed/LO.

simply

Simiply supported shaf t

(a)
dd

hollow sha~ft
(C)

solid shaft
(b)

SHAFT GEOJMETRI[S
FIGURE 6-1

94

Hollow round shaft:

Nc = 47e5000(dol

(4)

e/Le

= shaft diameter

where:

+ diO)

= inner shaft diameter

di

do = outer shaft diameter

L

shaft

length

The coefficients of equations (3) and

the end support conditions.
shaft

1961).

in several

texts (Den

Hertog,

angular

velocities

can

corresponding to frequencies of the

in

direction

whirl

opposite

have
and

in

been
Harris

frequency

operation

near

vibrations

velocities.
is

direction as the rotating angular velocity;

is

of

yield

the case of forward whirl the whirl orbit

whirl

variety

1956

Shaft systems quite routinely operate

critical

on

conditions

regimes above the critical speeds. However,

the

dependent

Coefficients for a

configurations and end support

catalogued

(4) are

in
while

the

the

In
same

backward

applied

angular

velocity. These whirling cycles induce fetigue cycles

which

are substantially different.

shaft

whirl orbit with its

Figure

accompanying

shaft rotates counter-clockwise

6-2
stress

the

orbit

whirl

point

cycle.

whirl

counter-clockwise. Tracking the shaft

one cycle shows that the observed

depicts

goes

As
is

orbit

the
also

through

through

two

stress maxima.

The frequency of the stress

maxima

95

in

the

forward

whirl

U2

Tension
Comipression\,
0

Fatigue Period
= 1/( s-

=1/f

FATIGUE CYCLE FOR SHAFT IN FOWARD 'WHIRL.

FIGURE 6-2

96

state

is the difference between the whirl velocity

the shafts spin velocity

(a

When the whirl

(a)

= 0.

)(5)

velocity is the same as

velocity

the

As

its axis.

about

called synchronous whirl, there

fv

in either

and

(w)

velocity

whirl
the

no

is

spin

the

fatigue

and

cycle

from

deviates

the

spin

subsynchronous

or

supersynchronoua

velocity,

direction, the fatigue frequency increases.

In backward whirl
is

(shown if figure 6-3)

whirl

the

in a direction opposite the spin velocity.

frequency of backward whirl

ii

is:

(6)

orbit

the stress maxima are equal for both

but the occurrence of the stress

forward and backward whirl,

maxima are much more frequent in the

Thus for fatigue loading the
given

specifications
order

fatigue

The

w.

For a given whirl

more severe

velocity

equal

backward

whirl

backward

case

whirl

orbits.

must be designed to prevent

whirl
is

Therefore,
shaft

case.
much
shaft

whirl

in

to prevent unwanted vibrations and to eliminate damage

due to fatigue caused by bending action during

cycles.

97

the

whirling

I3

Tension
Compression

T
TT
Faitigue Period
A -/ 1AC s; + w)

Fatigue cycle for shaft in backward whirl.

FIGURE 6-3
74

98
4

6.2 EQUIPMENT ALIGNMENT

Previous

sections

of

this

paper

discussed

flexible couplings to compensate for

the

use

misalignments

driving and driven pieces of rotating

of

between

equipments.

Although

couplings can compensate for misaligned pieces of equipment,

the need for accurate machinery
cannot be over emphasized.

It

rotating
is

shaft

important to ensure proper

machinery alignments allowing high cost

capital

to last years instead of

In

only

there is a need to ensure proper

months.

machinery

Damage to equipments due

in the form of bearing failure due

equipments

every

industry

alignment

misalignment can cause damage amounting to many

dollars.

alignments

since

millions

of

to shaft misalignment

is

to excessive rub as

well

as destructive vibrations.

Misalignments

of

rotating

elements occur as angular,

two.
0

Figure

6-4

rchinery

drive

the

various

configurations.

In parallel misalignment

are parallel but

are

6-4(a)).

coaxially

aligned

are not parallel.

A configuration

is angularly misaligned
figure 6-4(b).

laterally aligned

misalignment
two

shafts

(see

figure

the

Angular misalignment& occur when the

shafts to be coupled are

driven

lateral or as combinations of the

depicts

not

and

ends

but

of

the

shafts

in which the driven shaft

to the driving

To further visualize

shaft
angular

is

shown

H H

i"'

in

misalignment,

99

the

-:

d
DRIVING

DRIVEN
partlel mli

nnnt

iZI

*DRIVING

angutoar misutignment
(b)
DRIVING

com'bina~tion of' parallel and angular misaotignrent

(C)

ALIGNMENT CONFIGURATIONS
FIGURE 6-4

00

if the shafts can be brought

end of either or both shafts
condition,

by

into alignment
to

correct

moving

the

misalignment

the shafts can be said to exhibit purely

In figure 6-4(b) the shafts

misalignment.

can

angular

be

into alignment by raising the right hand end of

brought

the

driven

The amount or magnitude of misalignment present

shaft.

tolerable in a coupled rotating system is usually

total indicator runout

as offset or

as the amount one shaft

*truely" aligned
0

one

Total

shaft.

when

position

indicator runout is

specified

(TIR). Offset is defined

physically

is

or

displaced

measured
the

from

the

from

difference

its

other

in

dial

indicator readings taken in a particular plane when the dial

indicator attached to one shaft is rotated 180 degrees.
relationship between offset and
offset

= TIR/2.

be addressed
should

be

in
noted

the

following

that

measured

(I. e.

be

expressed

alignment

To

should

offset

lateral and

or

present.

does

as

be

it
not

combinations

clarify

should

angular

However,

alone

lateral misalignment

addition, the total amount of

when combinations of

offset

present.

tolerances

amounts of angular and

paragraphs.

angular, lateral

of the two) of misalignment

Se

can

Methods for determining TIR and offset will

determine the type

criteria,

TIR

The

alignment

specified

in

allowable.

In

be

specified

misalignment

are

Currently,

the

most

element misalignmenta

common
are

means

dial

determining

indicator

laser-optical alignment methods.

misalignment

of

techniques

Determining

is usually done with dial

configurations similar to those of

and

the amount

indicator

figure

shaft

gages

6-5.
With

indicators connected as shown the gages are

initialized

twelve o'clock positions.

and

its attached dial

axis stopping at
indicator reading.
6,

the

the

respective

Holding shaft B

indicator

ninety

at

fixed,

dial
by

shaft's

shaft

is rotated slowly about

degree

intervals

to

the

the

3,

9 and 12 o'clock positions for reasons to be discussed

The dial

indicator

in

then

be

stopped at the 12 o'clock position to ensure the reading

is

still zero.

It is a good idea to repeat

verification.

Then hold shaft A fixed and

should

A
its

record

(Readings should be recorded at

following paragraphs.)

in

Indicator

readings are taken in the following manner.

adjusting the readings to zero

of

the

readings

rotate

shaft

and record the readings of indicator 8 in a similar

The recorded readings should look

similar

to

be accomplished by moves in either the horizontal,

or axial directions.
only the 3, 6,

can

6-6.
only

vertical

This is why readings were recorded

9 and 12 o'clock positions. When aligned

readings of gages A and B of figure 6-5 should be

manner.

figure

Adjustments to the rotating equipment foundations

for

equal

at
the
to

zero throughout each shaft revolution. Again noting that the

TIR is the gross difference

in

102

readings

taken

with

dial

IN&CA-RARAN
IALA

133

10

IMNDT

MEASURED FROM
DRIVER TO DRIVEN
DRIVEN TO DRIVER
0

TOP
6

LEFT

TOP
RIGQT

LEU T

-25

R3GHT

26

-19

RECORDED DIAL INDICATOR

READINGS ( IN MILS.)
FIGURE 6-6

104

.uuc

m i m ill

lj l

ll

m I

il

m l

..

indicators at the three and nine o'clock positions or twelve

and six o'clock positions.
TIR/2.

It should also be clear

vertical plane will

from the dial

be

indicated by

and

nine

indicator

o'clock

misalignment
the

offset

misalignments.

However,

readings

positions.

generally a combination of

offset

is

in

the

determined

Conversely, horizontal plane misalignment

be indicated by dial

three

that

of

indicator readings taken in the twelve and six

o'clock positions.
will

Again, the amount

taken

in

the

Misalignments

vertical

and

are

horizontal

plane

for simplicity of explanation,

following paragraphs will assume the misalignment

to

the
occur

in a single plane.

In general,

misalignment conditions are usually combinations

of parallel

and angular misalignments.

of purely angular
detected by dial
misalignment
the dial

or purely parallel

However,

misalignment&

indicator techniques.

To

is purely angular, determine

indicators in

outlined above ensuring

the

can

determine
the

that the distances from the

misalignment

end

indicator apparatus

driver

is purely angular the readings taken

to driven shafts will

readings taken
*

from the

particular plane.

The

correspond

driven
angular

105

---

i-e

to

exactly

driving

offset

as
of
is

If

the

from

the

to

shafts

component

with

planes

fastened to the shafts are the same for each shaft.

*

be

if

offset

the horizontal or vertical

the shaft to the point where the dial

cases

those
for
in

a
the

horizontal or

vertical

planes

by equation

is then determined

(1).

Tan(e)

where L is

(indicator

the distance between

indicator connecting

To

( e)

driving

and measuring

should be the same for each dial

angle

offset)/(L)

and

shaft

driven

points.

This

distance

indicator arrangement.

The

is the angle of misalignment.

determine

if

misalignment

condition

parallel misalignment, determine the offset

indicators

(1)

in either

the horizontal or

is

with

purely

the

vertical

dial

planes

the same techniques expressed in the previous paragraphs.

the misalignment

be equal

particular

purely

from dial

readings taken
will

is

in

plane

offset

the

indicators A and

magnitude
(either

amount of misalignment

parallel,

but

opposite

horizontal

or

dial
of
in

by
If

indicator
figure

sign

for

vertical).

6-5
a
The

is then expressed as:

(2)

TIR/2

As noted above, misalignments generally occur as

combinations of angular and parallel misalignments.
cases of combined misalignment the dial

106

indicator

In

the

readings

taken from dial

indicators A and

of

methoe'. described above will differ

Using dial

indicators to

measure

singularly isolated.

the misalignment

For cases

and

the
sign.

offset

misalignment

is

The

amount

of

misalignment

cannot

be

of

combined

misalignment,

is usually expressed simply as the TIR.

these cases the largest TIR from

(dial

angular

angular

by

misalignment

yield only the total offset.

parallel or the degree of

6-5

in magnitude
the

when combinations of parallel and

present, will

figure

the two

indicators A and B of figure 6-5)

sets

of

In

readings

is regarded

as

the

correct TIR. Consequently, to clearly express the

allowable

or existing coupling misalignment

alignment

tolerances should

be

angular misalignment
misalignment

(in

expressed

criteria,
in

the

terms

in

degrees

or

mils

or

inches)

and

of

amounts

radians),
TIR

of

parallel

(in

mils

or

inches).

Currently,

graphic

methods

for

the

the

misalignment are the most popular means of

the

corrections.

However,

exist which can be incorporated

and personal computers

mathematical

into hand

(Piotrowski,

determining

held

fact that the

shaft axes

of

the

two

rotating

107

ml

lll

solutions
calculators

1986).

The mathematical solution is obtained by making

*6

indicator

run-outs and determining the moves necessary to correct

alignment

recording

use

of

pieces

the
of

I1

P~I

equipment can

then used

figure 6-7 ht
indicator

I~

rotation.

lines corresponding

Use

similar

of

to resolve the equipment

scalene

moves.

is the distance between points where the

is attached on

shaft.

other

Ii

be represented by straight

to the axes center of

triangles is

HT

bracket is attached

dial

one shaft and where it touches

is the distance from

where

the

In

the

indicator

to the location of the inboard feet

is

the

shaft diameter on which the readings are taken. The

BS

and

BBS terms are the magnitudes of

of

the

HHT the

The value be

and

distance to the outboard feet.

inboard and outboard

the required

respectively.

feet

moves

Similar

triangle

relationships can be obtained for each of the two pieces

equipment to be aligned.

Consequently, correcting moves can

The similar triangle

be algebraically determined.

relationships are then given by equation

ht/bs

For

= HT/BS

(3).

(3)

HHT/BBS

the driven and driving

elements

shown

in

required moves to bring the system into alignment

plane can be calculated.

of

Correcting moves

for

figure
in
the

6-7

single
.driven

and driving feet are calculated as follows.

Driver

SIBD=

inboard feet:
B

X + Y I/C

lea

(4)

HHT

b...BE ..........

0f

BS

DRIVER

DRIVEN

.:

FM

* -L

muT
-r

puy

DIAL INDICATOR GEOMETRIES FOR

MATHEMATICAL CALCULATIONS OF
EQUIPMENT ALIGNMENT MOVES.
FIGURE 6-7

10~9

Driver outboard feet:

OBDR = A[ X
Driven

+ Y 3/C

(5)

(6)

(7)

inboard feet:

IBoN = D[ X + Y ]/C
Driven outboard feet:
OBDN =

+ Y ]/C

where:
X = one half
the dial

and

the dial

indicator attached

taken

readings

Y = one half the dial

readings

indicator

the

to

the

on

indicator

driven

the

shaft

shaft.

driving

with

taken

readings

the dial indicator attached to

with

taken

driving

shaft

and readings taken on the driven shaft.

The

other

dimensions

are

on

shown

6-7.

figure

To complete the machinery alignment these calculations

be accomplished for moves in the vertical

and

plane

must

again

for the horizontal plane. Therefore, to accomplish alignment

in one move of the equipment feet eight calculations must be
*

performed.

For horizontal

moves,

the

indicator

recorded in the three and nine o'clock positions

*

run-outs
are

used.

The vertical moves are determined using readings recorded in

the

twelve

and

six

o'clock

positions.

In

both

cases

positive values indicate that the equipment feet need to

raised
*

or

moved

left.

Negative

values

equipment feet must be moved right or down.

11

indicate

be
the

Although currently not

methods,

the use of

more

to

systems improving the

viable

alignment

optically

tool

for

the

to the driving and driven shafts,

connecting cables.

processor

with

In simple terms,

laser alignment system is

as

and

becoming

system

unit is mounted on either the driving or

for

unit

operation

The

prism

keyboard

display

century

reflecting

the

follows.

is

is

ruggedness

alignment

attached

micro

unit

shafts

twentieth

A laser-optical

laser/detector

indicator

and

laser system

of

entry,

dial
align

consists

data

as

With the cost, size

mechanic and technician.

i0

commonplace

lasers

becoming more popular.

of these

as

and

of

the

laser/detector
shaft

and

trained toward the reflecting prism which is mounted on

the

other shaft.

the

detector.

driven

The prism reflects the laser beam back to

In an initial position the reflected

is zeroed onto the detector to establish a

shaft is then rotated.

micro processor and display

zeroed position.

beam

reference.

The

As the reflected beam moves relative

to the zeroed position during the

display the amount the

laser

units

reflected

rotation;
measure,
beam

the

calculate

deviates

This operating principle can

figure 6-8 (Piotrowski, 1986).

By utilizing

detector,

be
the

and

from

the

seen

in

keyboard,

the correct geometric numerics for the equipment

installation can be entered into the micro processor.

Using

entered data for the machinery installation and the measured

*deviations

of

the reflected beam, the alignment condition is

111

....
0,-.

mnm

ii

pl

PRISM

PROCESSOR

.....

>

LASER UPTICAL ALIGNE4T SYSTEM

FIGURE 6-8

112

visualized on the display unit together with

moves

The

to bring

the system

advantages

of

Bloch

the

(1987)

necessary

into alignment.

laser

indicator methods are many.

fact

the

optical

system

Set up time

reported

that

over

dial

is much faster;

in

Canadian

in

power

generation plant, alignaents which normally took eleven days

with dial

indicator methods took only five days

alignment techniques.

Laser optical

laser

be

taken

This allows a

check

readings can

with the coupling in place or removed.

0.

with

to be done with out a need to uncouple the rotating devices.

Distance between driving and driven pieces of
no longer

critical.

The

accuracy

measurements are vastly

improved.

representation of

misaligned

the

and

equipment

is

repeatability

of

Lastly, visual
condition

and

required

moves are automatically calculated and displayed.

Disadvantages of the
equipment

In

and

preceding

laser

relative

sections

optical

systems

fragileness

of

this

of

the

report

the

equipment misalignments have been discussed.

how much a system can deviate from the
!

position

has not been generally

manufacturers.

general

it

and

of

results

by

of

aligned
machinery

guide

are

of

issue

lines

individuals.

is agreed that alignment tolerances

of

components.

The

upon

Figure 6-9 shows a variety

113

cost

"perfectly"

agreed

established by several organizations

are

In

angular

60
-

-occeptable)
,

x
40

< L
" UNACCEPTABLE

US 3cOUPLING MFR.
BLOCH CRITERIA
P1OTROVSKI
(50
PIOTROWSKI
(good)

24 In. P =

In. >

z
z

-.

10

'-

ACCEPTABLE
GOOD
,,

10

SHAFT RPM ( X 1000)

FIGURE 6-9

114

14

16

18

This stems from two criteria.

velocity dependent.
misalignment
amplitude

causes

increases

frequency squared.
proper

unbalance,

system
in

proportion

the

to

When

vibrational

the

rotational

Secondly, for gear couplings to maintain

lubrication the sliding velocity of the engaged teeth

should not exceed

120

inches

per

minute

(Bloch,

1987).

Equation (8) approximates this velocity.

V =

DN(tan(

(8)

),

pitch

where D equals the gear

diameter,

is

the

shaft

angular velocity in revolutions per minute and 2[tan( e)]

the total indicator run-out
separation ( L

).

divided

An expression for

by

the

coupling

is
hub

the amount of allowable

offset would then be:

TIR/L

Equation
*

(9)

V/(DN).

(9) shows the allowable TIR to be a function of one

over the angular velocity. This

relationship

figure

on

6-9.

recommendation
*

second
of

curve

US

couplings (Bloch, 1987).

figure

is
6-9

shown

on

shows

for

gear

This curve utilizes equation

(10)

coupling

manufacturer

to determine allowable offsets.

TIR

I L/P +

1]K.

(10)

115

In equation ten

(L)

is

the

length

between

coupling

gear

teeth centers, P is the gear tooth pitch diameter and N is a

velocity dependent coefficient.

The third set

criteria shown in figure 6-9 were published

(1986).

In this figure Piotrowaki's

of
by

tolerance
Piotrowski;

allowable

offset

inch of shaft separation was converted to a measure

for L equal

to 24

inches and P equal to eight

inches.

figure also shows a relative measure of alignment

merit.

Depending on the type of coupling,

the drive and the

0

application,

ranges may be "acceptable".

the

operation

For

TIR
The

tolerance

velocity

in

diaphragm

of

per

any

of

of
the

couplings

very

little misalignment is allowable due to fatigue

considerations,
desirable.

so

For

operation

universal

in

the

joints

operation in the acceptable region

adequate.

In general the

derived from the gear

other types of
unbalanced

coupling

and
of

velocity

"good"

region

gear

figure

dependence

couplings
6-9

tends

failure

and

vibrational amplitude are also velocity dependent

dependent.

by the mechanical

For

constant

In

the

velocity

misbehavior

limitations

The discussion

in

case

couplings

or

unbalance

m l

of

constant

of

the

section

particular
3.3

of

is

not

velocity

indicator run-out is

116
,-...m

be

couplings, bearing rub, fatigue

couplings the allowable total

0-

to

for

due to misalignment, the coupling alignment criteria

geometry.

be

However

and must be considered.

velocity

may

requirements.

which do not exhibit vibrational

is

governed
coupling

this

study

outlines

configurations

the

in

which

constant

velocity

couplings can be used to compensate for considerable amounts

of

angular

and/or

lateral

applications the degree of

angular velocity

misalignment.

allowable

dependent

but

For

misalignment

rather

dependent

mechanical construction of the flexible couplings.

for these couplings would plot as horizontal

6-9 corresponding to the

of

TIR

the

these
is

not

on

the

Criteria

lines on figure

particular

coupling

specification.

In conclusion, allowable alignment tolerances depend on

type of couplin. and the application.
has been reached on how
However,

much

misalignment

there is agreement that

misalignment decreases

inversely

velocity.

117

0.

m Nlm

No general

the
to

in

amount
the

the

agreement
acceptable.

of

driving

allowable
angular

7.0 COUPLINGS

To ensure that the rotor of a piece of rotating machinery is

sufficiently designed to withstand the stresses and
of the operating environment, the coupling

chosen

strains
to

join

the driving and driven mechanisms must be properly selected.

In addition to transmitting torque from the driving
driven

pieces

of

machinery,

the

coupling

to

must

the
also

compensate for intentional and/or unintentional

misalignments and allow for possible

axial

motion

rotating devices. Rotating drivers involve

horsepower ratings of

less

turbines rated at 60,000

angular velocities

of

100,000 revolutions

then

horsepower
a

per

few
minute

equipments

single
or

of

with

horsepower

to

rotating

at

minute

to

more
per

revolutions

(Piotrowski,

The

1986).

proper choice of couplings used to connect these drivers

their corresponding components Is a critical
selection depends upon the characteristics
and

driven

work-pieces,

the

operating

issue.
of

must

be

capable

of

operating

at

the

horsepower and speeds of the machinery.

the

I'I

and

coupling

maximum

designed

In most

cases

that

of the coupling in some instances would cause severe

driving

The

coupling is not chosen to be the weak link in

118

to

Proper

environment

operating life expectancies of the machinery.

the

the

failure
damage

to either the driving or driven or both pieces of machinery.

The misalignment capacity of the coupling must be sufficient
to account for installation

offsets,

misalignment

thermal expansion or contractions and dynamic

due

to

misalignments

encountered when equipments are located on moving platforms.

Often the coupling must be able to absorb large axial thrust
due to loading or unloading of the driven equipments

0-

as

in

propulsion turbines and engines. The torsional stiffness

of

the coupling must be compatible with both

the

driven components.

In some installations

will dampen large torsional fluctuations

driving
coupling

may

be

that

desirable

while in other instances the coupling application will

for torsional rigidity.

The

coupling's

expected

operating temperature range must be known.

proper material

service
aides

often temperature dependent in that in cold temperature

the

may

become

brittle

while

temperatures a loss of strength may

be

the

mechanical

driving

and

driven

shafts

at

observed.

high
Lastly,

connecting

geometries and material characteristics must be known.

The

connecting mechanism on the coupling must mate in

and

geometry

to

the

shafts.

In

addition,

characteristics of the connecting shafts must

size

the
be

thermal
specified

so that expansion or contraction of the shafts and

will not weaken the
*-

in
are

components

Katerial

call

characteristics

coupling

selections.

This

and

mechanical

Joint.

to

in

previous sections of this paper there is a large variety

of

119

As

alluded

coupling

coupling types.

The rigid

briefly outlined below.

couplings

be

discussed

in

which

variety of devices

consist of a

section 3.1

will

Six major categories of couplings

directly

fasten the driving to the driven equipments with no capacity

for compensating for axial,

lateral or

Gear couplings are used to

misalignments.

pieces

or

decreases

These couplings involve mating

of

the

components through various

with speed

join

increases

equipment primarily when speed

desired.

angular

teeth

or

Slight

chain-teeth

contacts

are

misalignment&

are

machinery

variations accomplished by the driving to

gear diameter ratios.

of

driven

accounted

for in either loose fitting or sliding of mating parts. Grid

couplings are couplings in which

hubs

connecting ends of the rotating elements.

be the same diameter and slotted

such

an inter-woven fashion.
angular

and

lateral

(see

accommodate

can

to

due

misalignment&

when

changing

imposed on the system. Grid

shaft angular velocity when misaligned.

loads,

per

drive

shaft

revolution

120

the

allows

shock

or

couplings -yield

These

characteristics are due to the flexing of the

times

the

hub

vibration data corresponding to even multiples of the

two

must

of

In addition, this coupling

flexibility of the grid.

vibrations are

the

hubs

slots

driven

couplings

These

for torsional flexibility

on

A metallic grid is then placed in the slots in

figure 7-1).

These

that

driver mate exactly with the slots of the

axial,

placed

are

when

drive

vibrational
metalic

grid

misaligned

stltted clsks

Grid coupling

FIGURE 7-1

121

(Piotrowski, 1986).

The fourth and fifth major categories of

couplings are the universal

or

Cardan

joints

and

rubber

couplings which have been discussed in sections 3.2, 3.3 and

4.0 of this paper.
couplings.

The final category of couplings are disk

These couplings

consist

of

multiple

flexible

disks which are alternately fastened to each other

driving and driven shafts (see figure 7-2).
can

accommodate

varying

degrees

lateral misalignments as well

of

angular

load

can

be

quite

complex.

and

variations.

As can be seen, the selection of the proper coupling

given application

the

These couplings

axial,

as torsional

and

The

for

selection

process is further complicated in that the various

coupling

manufactures do

criteria

not

always

sought when incorporating

provide

the

the

coupling

design
into

the

design.

Certainly, there is a minimum set of requirements needed

to

ensure at least a minimal degree of success when selecting a

coupling.

The

horsepower

four

rating,

basic

requirements

highest

operating

allowable alignment tolerances and the

size and geometry needed
shafts.

to

fasten

In addition input versus

are
angular

the

would be useful, especially in applications

122

S -

ll

mll

lll..

coupling

coupling
speed
where

maximum
velocity,

mechanical

output

angular velocity outputs are desired.

the

to

the

variations
constant

ftexbt wctf rs

SLI

Disk type flexbte couptlrn9

FIGURE 7-2

123

9Disk Coupling Analysis

7.1

To

illustrate the complexities of coupling selection an "off

the shelf coupling" will

include

angular

be analyzed.

velocity,

The

horsepower

discussion

ratings,

will

alignment

criteria, coupling size and geometries, dynamic

characteristics and possible failure
selected

for

this

study

is

modes.

The

coupling

disk

flexible

coupling

manufactured by Renbrandt, Inc. of Boston Massachusetts. The

specifications supplied with the coupling are shown in table
7-1.

The first

the

column

item of business is to determine which

specifications

apply

to

the

particular

of

coupling.

Physical measuring of the device determines that the overall

diameter is 1.5 inches indicating column three is applicable
to this particular coupling.
this coupling.
RPM is 5008

See figure 7-2 for a sketch of

The torque rating is 258 in.-oz. and maximum

which indicates

that

the

torque

maximum

angular velocity to be delivered by the driver must be

than these values.

The degree of existing

determined by methods

described

study.

124

less

The alignment criteria for this coupling

is specified in both angular, parallel and

misalignment.

and

in

total

misalignment
section

6.2

allowable
can
of

be
this

Renbrendt Flex-mite coupling& are not designed for applications in

excess of the following ratings:

SERIES

Overall diameter
Bore aizes (inches)
Static torque rating
Max. angular misalignment

.75 in.
1/16 - 1/4
30 in-oz
3 deg.

1.0 in.
1/16 - 3/8
60 in-oz
3 deg.

1.5 in.
1/16 - 5/8
250 in-oz
3 dog.

Max. parallel misalignment

.010 (in)

.015 (in)

.818 (in)

Total indicator misalignment

(inches)

.020 T.I.R.

.030 T.I.R.

.935 T.I.R.

RPM

5eee

5000

5eee

Renbrandt flexible coupling No.

Table

S55C55c specification sheet.

7-1

125

01"

The

flexibility

of

disk

type

accomplished by the thin flexible

7-2.
and

flexible
wafers

coupling

shown

in

is

figure

The coupling bore assemblies and center disk are rigid

are

not

coupling.

designed

to

flex

When the disk coupling

during
is

rotation

used

to

of

the

connect

two

pieces of equipment that are misaligned the flexible

wafers

continually bend as the coupled shafts rotate. Consequently,

both angular and parallel misalignments

are compensated

by bending action of the dual flexible wafers.

action gives rise to fatigue during operation
I*

configurations which is

the primary

metallic disk couplings.

parameters held constant.

constant

This bending
in

of

misaligned
failure

Obviously, the greater the

of misalignment the shorter the

velocity

cause

To

characteristics,

coupling
analyze

the

life

the

basic

for

with

output

requirements

for

degree
other
angular
for

velocity couplings should be re-stated.

(1) The driving and driven shafts plane of contact must

be

constant

(2)

The plane of contact

normal
(3)
*

in

space

throughout
point

to the plane defined

This plane of contact

*For

by

the

must

rotating

remain
shafts.

must exactly bisect thd angle

The

shafts

must

lie

in

the

same

plane.

the disk coupling depicted in figure 7-2 the driving and

126

Si

rotation

revolution.

made by the offset shafts.

(4)

..

each

s l

l I

ll

driven plane of contact is defined by the center

the shafts rotate in a

misaligned

disks deflect equally allowing

condition

the

center

rotation to remain fixed throughout each

disk.

the

flexible

disk

shaft

As

plane

of

revolution.

This center disk also remains normal to the plane defined by

the driving and driven shafts. The flexible disk coupling is

analogous to a double universal joint coupling.

Each of the

two flexible disks correspond to the

joints

universal

and

the center rigid disk corresponds to the coupling shaft. Due

to action and reaction forces imposed on the flexible
by the misaligned shafts, the

rigid

center

disk

pushed and pulled into a position of equilibrium

the obtuse angle formed by the two shafts

will

disks

will
such

be

be
that

exactly

bisected. Thus the conditions required for constant velocity

couplings are achieved.

A critical issue for this

coupling is the material of the flexible disks.

must

resist

surface

fatigue

while

type

These disk&

maintaining

flexibility parameters throughout its life.

disks must exhibit identical properties.

of

constant

In addition the

If the

elasticity

of the flexible disks are different the equilibrium position

of the center disk will not bisect the obtuse

angle

formed

by the shafts and constant velocity characteristics will

lost.

127

- -,.

m ml

i i

be

7.2 Disk Coupling

To assess

Failure Analysis

the fatigue resistance of the coupling, a

dynamic

analysis of the coupling's flexible disks must be performed.

For this analysis take

the

misalignment

degrees)

velocity

(i.e.

(5000 rpm).

figure 7-3.

case

of

the

at

the

maximum
maximum

point

coupling bore assemblies attach to the flexible

be alternately
0

misalignment.
imposed

on

misalignment.
fatigue

displaced

by

one-half

the

In addition, an out of plane

the

angular

This alignment scheme can be

As the coupling rotates, the

wafer

equal

to

seen
where

disks

total
twist

one-half

angular

the
will

angular
will

the

in

be

angular

These cyclic displacements could give rise to

failure

if

the

stress

placed

on

the

coupling

flexible disks is greater than the flexible disks "endurance

limit".

The endurance limit of a material

is defined as the

stress in which regardless of the number of

fatigue failure does not occur.

The

loading

endurance

cycles

limit

steels in bending is generally twice the endurance limit

the same specimen

in

torsion.

Therefore,

criteria for the endurance limit of

both
*

bending

and

approximately fifty

torsion
percent

(i.e.
of

the

.. ..

..
0=

m m

a u m m l l m

...

good

material

combined

bending stresses (Timoshenko, 193e).

128

of

design

undergoing

stresses)

endurance

for

limit

is
for

pla~ne of rotatlon

3 deg.

Flexlole disk coupling with a nguLar misallgnment

FIGURE 7-3
1

129

It should be noted that endurance limits

determined experimentally.

of

materials

Endurance limits

are

are

functions

of the types of applied stresses, the directionality of

applied

stresses,

geometries.

the

material

While the

cannot be expressed

endurance

properties,
limit

of

the endurance limit

fifty percent

of

all

in terms of the material

steels sufficient data exists to support a

and

the

sample
materials

properties, for
correlation

for

in bending to be approximately equal

the

ultimate

tensile

strength

of

to

the

material.

In selecting a coupling, the fatigue life

of

the

coupling

should ideally exceed the life of the equipment or at

exceed the time between planned overhauls.
the coupling's flexible wafers are

To determine

susceptible

the magnitude of the combined applied stresses

determined.

to
need

The compounding effects of the combined

of bending and

twisting

is

represented

least

by

if

fatigue
to

be

action

equation

(3)

(Timoshenko, 1930).

T=
SX

CC a '2)

In equation (3)

C3)

+ CT )2
t

is the cumulative stress on the flexible

disk due to both bending and twisting at any

disk.

The stress due to bending is a

and the
X

0to

twisting

is

7T.

130

point

on

the

stress

due

When the coupling

is angularly misaligned as in figure

the deflection of the flexible wafer can be

equation

7-4,

represented

by

(4).

0 /2)

(4)

Consequently, for a misalignment angle of three degrees

the

total out of

and

the

is

1.5

Rain(

plane

deflection

maximum angular twist

is

.014

placed on the

inches,

cross

section

degrees.

In his analysis of "Bending of a Curved Bar Out of

of

Initial Curvature", Timoshenko

(1930) utilized

Castigliano's theorems and the principle of

determine the deflection of a curved beam
bending and twisting.

Least
due

curved

V =

In equation
*section

beam

For an imposed force (P)

[C.
0

figure

-C2EI ))'
xy

(5)

M.

and

are

can

the
is

combined

and

moment

actions

for

written

as:

+ CM I -C2C))'3Rdp.

moments

on

the

cross

cross section brought on by the twisting action due to

load

direction tne K,

moment

on

C5)

beam

the

be

to

the

For a load placed on the beam

term

is zero,

131

..

7-5

+ CM /C2EI y ))'

due to bending and N,

P and moment N=
*

of

work

to

(Mt), the potential energy for these combined

the

its Plane

in the

"y"

d I

f texte wafer

bore assembly

%R

owe

Misalignedi disk coupling

FIGURE 7-4

132

4133
Sb

M.X

-PRsinCQ

C6)

and

zp

= PRC1

cosCcx -

).

Applying Castigliano's second

(dV/dP)

C7)

theorem yields:

d.

(8)

Combining equations 5, 6, 7,

and

yields

expression for the deflection of a curved

the

beam

following
in

bending

and torsion due to the applied load P.

0J'PRCsin0

Cot

9))/El

+ Ci

cosCo

For the semi-circular beam of figure 7-6 the

V>))

_C]d,.

central

angle

i , the location of the load is equal to

is equal to
I. is the

component

torsional

rigidity

of

moment

the

beam.

of

inertia
Carrying

and

C9)

ri/2.
C

the

out

the

integration of equation (9) yields:

d

P(.655).

(10)

For the case of three degrees of angular misalignment

.014 inches.

Inserting this value into equation

(8)

is

yields

the load required to accomplish the deflection.

P = .022 lbs.

(11)

134

9P

SEMI-CIRCULAR CURVED BEAM LOADED AT THE CENTER

FIGURE 7-6

135

The total
shafts

angular twist

angular

component

imposed on the flexible wafer by the

misalignment

due

to

the

has

imposed

due to the applied moment KMf.

the beam

is

unit

due to the load

ep

and

the

the

component

The maximum angular twist on

point

Assuming linearity, the

length around the

.03 radians per inch.

load

components;

.026 radians which occurs at the

applied load and moment.

twist per

two

circumference

of

the

angle

of

equates

to

Therefore, the twist per unit

length

(P) can be expressed as:

C12)

m 2C

zp

where
= PRC1

cosCa

Solving equation (12)

(13)
C,)

yields

ep

Thus the twist per unit length due

(M.,)

to

the

per

applied

inch.
moment

can be expressed as:

et = 9 m

where

- ep

C14)

is the maximum twist per unit length.

equation (14) determines:

*

.0148 radians

et =

.0153

radians

Utilizing
per

inch.

Solving for the applied twisting moments:

et/GC

M/t

(15)

136

--

lil

ii

....

yields:
HIt

Using

.01255c1

the

cosCa

principles

of

superposition

the

sum

of

the

twisting moments is:

MK.

(16)

cOSCa - v)).

C17)

which yields:

*M

.03C1

The stresses at any particular cross section can be

written

as:

M c/I

(18)
C

H /

C19)

T=

where c is the distance to the neutral

axis;

polar moment of inertia, is equal to l/3bea

Solving for the

maximum

stress

due

to

and

=2836 psi
3519 psi

tnMax

137

,.I

sI-.

fl

ll/.

..

the

for a thin beam.

the

bending

torsion combination (which occurs at the endpoints)

xaxes

CO,

and

yields:

Inserting these values

stress

due

to

into equation (3) yields the

the

bending

and

A typical value for the endurance limit of

is 25,000 psi.
1

flexible disk

twisting.

3793 psi

lrLa X

combined

maximum

stainless

The cyclic stress placed on

is

therefore

the

significantly

steel

coupling's

less

than

design endurance limit. Consequently, for the maximum

of misalignment fatigue failure of

the

Renbrandt

the
angle

coupling

should not occur.

At this

point

it

should

be

readily

apparent

selection of a coupling for a particular

complex issue.
application

The degree

requirements.

of
In

application

difficulty
high

that

depends

power

the
is

on

high

a
the

speed

applications coupling issues become paramount in maintaining

service

and service

life

as

well

as

protecting

costly

pieces of equipment.

138

..

.0- ..

lim

l i

...

..

LIST OF REFERENCES:

Bloch, Heinz P., 1987, "Making Ends Meet - Laser-Optic

Alignment of Shafts", Mechanical Engineering, November,
1987, pp. 56 - 63.
Bucciarelli, L. L., 1982, "On the Instability of Rotating
Shafts Due to Internal Damping", Journal of Applied
Mechanics, June 1982, Vol. 49, pp. 425 - 428.

Costa, A., 1982, "Inconsistant - Velocity Drives

Incorporating Two Cardan Joints: The Present State of
Knowledge and Design of Experimental Research", Meccanica,
Vol. 17, pp. 179 - 200.
Costa, A. and Davoli,

P.,

1983, "An Experimental

Investigation on Torsional Oscillations in Constant Velocity

Two-Cardan Joint Drives", Meccanica, Vol. 18,
pp. 34 - 53.
Crandall, S. H., 1980, "Physical Explanation of
Destabilizing Effects of Damping in Rotating Parts",
Rotardynamic Instability Problems in High Performance
Turbomachinery, NASA, CP. 2133, pp 1 - 18.

Crandall,

S.

H.,

1983,

"The Physical

Nature of Rotor

Instability Mechanisms", Rotor Dynamic Instability,

Adams, editor, AMD. - Vol. 55, ASME, MY.

M. L.

Den Hartog, J. P., 1956, Mechanical Vibrations, McGrawHill Book Company, New York, pp. 429 - 433.
Flexural Vibrations of Rotating
Dimentberg, F. M., 1961,
Shafts, Translated by: Production Engineering Research
Association, Butterworths.
Harris, C. M., ed., 1961, Shock and Vibration Handbook,
Vol. 1, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, pp. 1-1 - 1-13.
Iwatsubo, T. and Saigo, M., 1984, "Transverse Vibration of
a Rotor System Driven by a Cardan Joint", Journal of Sound
and Vibration, Vol. 95, pp. 9 - 18.
Mancuso, Jon R., 1986, Couplings and Joints, Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York and Basel, pp. 415 - 418.

Analysis of Welded Structures,

Masabuchi, Koichi, 1980,
Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 450 - 614.
Maxwell,

J.

H.,

1980, "Vibration Analysis Pinpoints

Coupling Problems", Hydrocarbon Processing, Jan. pp.

P*

95

98.

139

. ..
0,-

. u

ia |

i HI

...

..

Nichols, J. C., 1976, "Effect of Residual Shaft Bow on

Unbalance Response and Balancing of a Single Mass Flexible
Rotor", Engineering for Power, Vol. 98, No. 2, pp. 82 - 187.
Norris, C. H., Wibur, J. B. and Utka, S., 1960,
Elementar?
Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, pp.
213 - 278.
Ota, H. and Kato, M., 1984(a), "Lateral Vibrations of a
Rotating Shaft Driven by a Universal Joint", Bulletin of
JSME, Vol. 27, No. 231, pp. 2002 - 2007.
Ota, H. and Kato, M., 1984(b), "Unstable and Forced
Vibrations of an Asymmetrical Shaft Driven by a Universal
Joint", Vibrations in Rotating Machinery, York, UK, 1. Mech.
E., pp. 493 - 498.

Ota, H. and Kato, M. and Hiroshi, S., 1985, "Lateral

Vibrations of a Rotating Shaft Driven by a Universal Joint
second report", Bulletin of JSME, Vol. 28, No. 242, pp.
1749 - 1755.
Piotrowski, John, 1986, Shaft Alignment Handbook,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York and Basel, pp. 1 - 8,
108 - 114 and 231 - 234.
Porat, I.,

1980, "Moment Transmission by a Universal

Joint", Mechanisms and Machine Theory, Vol. 15, pp.

245 - 254.

Timoshenko, S., 1930,

Strength of Materials, part II,
Van Norstrand Company, Inc., pp. 467 - 473.

D.

Timoshenko, S., 1960,

Elements of Strength of Materials,
D. Van Norstrand Company, Inc., pp. 183 - 257.

Wiederrich, J. L.,
Variations

1982, "Analysis of Drive Shaft Speed

in a Scotch Yoke Mechanism", Journal of

Mechanical Design, Vol.

104, pp. 239 - 246.

Yanabe, S. and Fuwano, M., 1985, "Rotor Axial Vibration

Caused by Gear Couplings", Bulletin of JSME, Vol. 28, No.
*

241,

pp. 1497

- 1506.

140

.wo..