Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the

physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic

compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. Metallurgy is also

thetechnology of metals
Distillation is a process of separating component substances from
liquid mixtures through vaporisation and condensation, based on
different volatility (vaporization point) of components in the mixture. Distillation is

a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction

Where gravity flow lines
are shown, piping has to ensure that there is no loop in the circuit and if provision
of a loop becomes unavoidable, one has to ensure that the outlet nozzle of the
tank from which the fluid flows, is always at a higher elevation than the inlet
nozzle of the tank in to which the fluid flows.

Siphon u tube
When the ends of the pipe ends are closed and pipe is subjected to an internal
pressure P
following stresses would act on each element of the pipe.
Circumferential (hoop) stress H
Longitudinal Stress L

Redial Stress R
Elements resisting this type of failure would be subjected to stress and direction
of this stress is along the circumference. Hence the above stress is called
Circumferential or Hoop Stress

Piping Specification is a document specifying each of the elements.

Different material specifications are segregated in different Piping
Classes. Identification of Piping Classes depends on each designer.

Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS)

or ultimate strength,[1][2] is the maximum stress that a material can withstand
while being stretched or pulled before failing or breaking. Tensile strength is not
the same as compressive strength and the values can be quite different.

Some materials will break sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called
a brittle failure. Others, which are moreductile, including most metals, will
experience some plastic deformation and possibly necking before fracture.

compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand

loads tending to reduce size. It can be measured by plotting applied force against
deformation in a testing machine. Some material fracture at their compressive
strength limit; others deform irreversibly, so a given amount of deformation may
be considered as the limit for compressive load. Compressive strength is a key
value for design of structures

The selection or design of the elements is based on :

Yield Strength.
The Ultimate Strength
Percentage elongation
Impact Strength
The Fatigue Endurance Strength

A yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in engineering and materials

science as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield
point the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the
applied stress is removed
Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus or elastic modulus, is a measure of
the stiffness of an elastic material and is a quantity used to characterize materials. It is defined as
the ratio of the stress (force per unit area) along an axis over the strain (ratio of deformation over
initial length) along that axis in the range of stress in which Hooke's law holds

Fatigue limit, endurance limit, and fatigue strength are all expressions used to
describe a property of materials: the amplitude (or range) of cyclic stress that can be
applied to the material without causing fatigue failure.[1] Ferrousalloys
and titanium alloys[2] have a distinct limit, an amplitude below which there appears to be
no number of cycles that will cause failure. Other structural metals such
as aluminium and copper, do not have a distinct limit and will eventually fail even from

small stress amplitudes. In these cases, a number of cycles (usually 10 7) is chosen to

represent the fatigue life of the material.

The ASTM defines fatigue strength, SNf, as the value of stress at which failure occurs
after Nf cycles, and fatigue limit, Sf, as the limiting value of stress at which failure occurs
as Nf becomes very large. ASTM does not define endurance limit, the stress value
below which the material will withstand many load cycles, [1] but implies that it is similar
to fatigue limit

The following are to be considered for strength calculation

Design Pressure as 10% higher than anticipated maximum operating
pressure.
Design Temperature as 25C above the maximum anticipated operating
temperature.
When operating temperature is 15C and below, the design temperature
is minimum
anticipated operating temperature.

Carbon Steel shall be used upto 425C. (797F)

Low temperature Steel shall be used below 20C.
Alloy carbon steel shall be used above 425C
The pipes are normally available in standard length of 20 ft.( 6 m ).

Type of Pipe based on Pipe Ends

Bevelled Ends.
Plain Ends
Screwed Ends.
Flanged Ends.
Spigot / Socket Ends ( lead cock joint ).
Type of Pipes Based on Manufacture
Seamless
Welded.
Electric Resistance Welded ( ERW).
Electric Fusion Welded ( EFW ).
Spiral Welded.

Furnace Butt Welded.

Double Submerged Arc Welded.
Forged and Bored.

In American National Standard, material standards are covered under ASTM

(American
Society of Testing Materials) and dimensional standard under ANSI (American
National
Standard Institute). Most of these Standards are adapted by ASME (American
Society of Mechanical Engineers) and are specified along with.
American Petroleum Institute ( API ).
The American Iron and Steel Institute ( AISI ).
The American National Standard Institute ( ANSI ).
The American Society of Testing Materials ( ASTM ).
The American Welding Institute ( AWS ).
The American Water Works Association ( AWWA ).
The Manufacturers Standardization Society of Valves and Fitting Industry Standard
Practices MSS - SP )
The American Society of Mechanical Engineer (ASME)
API
API
API
API
API
API
API
API
API

5L - Specification for line pipe.

6D - Pipe line valves, end closures, connectors and swivels.
6F - Recommended practice for fire test for valves.
598 - Valves inspection and test.
600 - Steel Gate Valves.
602 - Compact Design Carbon Steel Gate Valves for Refinery use.
607 - Fire test for soft seated ball valves.
609 - Butterfly valves
1104 - Standard for welding pipe line and related facilities.

DIN stands for "Deutsches Institut fr Normung", meaning "German institute for
standardization"
ASME
ASME
ASME
ASME
ASME
ASME
ASME
ASME

B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

16.1 - Cast iron pipe flanges and flanged fittings.

16.3 - Malleable iron threaded fittings.
16.4 - Cast iron threaded fittings.
16.5 - Steel pipe flanges and flanged fittings.
16.9 - Steel butt weldings fittings.
16.10 - Face to face and end to end dimensions of ferrous valves.
16.11 - Forged steel socket welding and threaded fittings.
16.20 - Ring joint gaskets and grooves for pipe flanges.

ASME
ASME
ASME
ASME
ASME
ASME
ASME

B
B
B
B
B
B
B

16.21 - Non metallic gasket for pipe flanges.

16.25 - Butt welding ends.
16.28 - Short radius elbows and 180 Degree returns
16.47 - Large Diameter steel Flanges
16.34 - Steel valves, flanged and butt welding ends.
18.2 - Square and hexagonal head bolts and nuts.
36.10 - Welded and seamless wrought steel pipes.

ASME B 36.19 - Welded and seamless Austenitic stainless steel pipes.

Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon (0.1 to 0.25%) content in contrast
to cast iron (2.1% to 4%), and has fibrous inclusions, known as slag up to 2% by weight.
It is a semi-fused mass of iron with slag inclusions which gives it a "grain" resembling
wood, that is visible when it is etched or bent to the point of failure. Wrought iron is
tough, malleable, ductile and easily welded

c = Sum of mechanical allowances (Thread or groove depth) plus corrosion and erosion
allowances.
C Sum of Mechanical, corrosion and erosion allowances.
Following are the usual allowances to be accounted.
1. Threads:
This is applicable if the pipes are threaded for making joints as is the case with
galvanized piping. The nominal thread depth has to be accounted under such situation.
Refer table
314.2.1 Minimum Thickness of male threaded components
2. Corrosion/erosion allowances:
These allowance depend upon the type of fluid handled and are indicated by the
Process licenser. These allowances vary from 1mm to 6mm, and in some cases even
more. As a good engineering practice, it is advisable to consider minimum 1mm
corrosion allowance for all other services where Process licenser has not specifically
indicated any requirement. This also takes care of external corrosion if any.
3. Bending Allowance:
If the pipes are to be used for making bends, then it may be necessary to increase the
thickness tm by a factor called bend thinning allowance. During bending the outer
fibres get stretched and in order to maintain minimum wall thickness tm at all point in a

completed bend, one has to add allowance for thinning Flattening of a bend, the
difference between maximum and minimum diameters at any cross section, shall not
exceed 8% of nominal outside diameter for internal pressure.
6D (nom. Dia) 1.06 tm
5D 1.08 tm
4D 1.14 tm
3D 1.25 tm
The DN code is a code that rounds off the diameter of the pipe to get an even number to
work with, not the exact diameter. The American version is called NPS and is in english
units. DN is the european version and is based on millimeters. For example, If you want
2" Pipe, NPS calls it 2" and DN calls it 50 mm. but the actual outside diameter is neither
2" or 50 mm. They just use these nice round numbers cause it is easier.

Finding the inside diameter is even more complicated. If you have 2" pipe, the inside
diameter will vary dependeing on how strong the pipe needs to be. For example, 2" sch
80 pipe has thicker walls and therefore a smaller inside diameter than 2" Sch 40 pipe.
The outside diameter of these pipes are the same so that you can use the same fittings
on each You must remember that people have been produced steel pipe for about 150
years. The Pipe sizes that we use today in pvc and galvanized were originally designed
years ago for steel pipe. The number system, like Sch 40, 80, 160, were set long ago
and seem a little odd. For example, Sch 1120 pipe is even thinner than Sch 40, but
same OD. And while these pipes are based on old steel pipe sizes, there is other pipe,
like gold-flow cpvc for heated water, that uses pipe sizes, inside and out, based on old
copper pipe size standards insteasd of steel.

Thus for seamless pipes if tm is the minimum thickness required then the nominal
thickness T should be equal or greater than tm / 0.875.

Similarly, for electric fusion welded steel pipes as per ASTM A672 the manufacturers
negative tolerance is 0.01 inch (0.3mm). Hence for pipes conforming to A 672 nominal
thickness T should be equal or greater than (tm + 0.01 inch)

STEPS TO DETERMINE PIPE WALL THICKNESS:

Using the minimum inside diameter determined from the fluid flow evaluation, select
the
next larger standard nominal size or outside diameter (OD) pipe from the listings
provided
in ASME B 36.10M for Standard Wrought Steel Pipe or B 36.19M for Stainless Steel
Pipe.
Based upon the Fluid and Service select a suitable piping material and if necessary
determine the corrosion, erosion, joining or mechanical strength allowances.
Using equations provided in the design Code, calculate the required minimum wall
thickness to provide for pressure integrity and allowances.
Refer to ASME B 36.10M or ASME B 36.19M to select an appropriate nominal wall
thickness or Schedule.
Confirm that the standard manufacturing tolerance will not reduce the minimum
calculated wall thickness or selected nominal wall thickness in the steps above.
Confirm that the inside diameter of the pipe based on the selected nominal wall
thickness
is compatible with the required inside diameter based on the fluid flow evaluation.

Eccentric reducers on horizontal lines with flat side down are preferred for following
cases:
On piperack & sleeper
On gravity flow line
On pump suction line handling slurry.
Eccentric reducers on horizontal lines with flat side up are preferred for all pump suction
lines
excluding pumps handling slurry. This is to avoid air getting trapped inside the pipeline
during
initial venting through pump casing.

Galvanization is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, in

order to prevent rusting. The term is derived from the name of Italian scientist Luigi
Galvani.
Although
galvanization
can
be
done
with electrochemical andelectrodeposition processes, the most common method in

current use is hot-dip galvanization, in which steel parts are submerged in a bath of
molten zinc.
Slip on type of flange is widely used because of its low initial cost.
Slip on flange is attached to pipe by fillet weld. The welding is either at the back or at
back and face.
The use of this type of flange is usually limited to moderate services where pressure
fluctuations, temperature fluctuations, vibrations and shocks are not expected to be
severe. The fatigue life of this flange is approximately one third that of a welding neck
flange

Use of slip on flange is usually limited to class 300 (refer para on pressure temp.
rating) and design temperature not exceeding 500F.

Welding-neck flanges have a long, tapered hub between flange ring & weld joint. This
hub provides a more gradual transition from the flange ring thickness to the pipe wall
thickness, thereby decreasing the discontinuity stresses and consequently increasing
the strength of the flange. Also welding area is sufficiently away from the face to avoid
undue distortion.
This type of flange is preferred for extreme service conditions such as repeated
bending from line expansion or other forces, wide fluctuations in pressure or
temperature, high pressure, high temperature and sub zero temperature.

While ordering this type of flange it is necessary to indicate schedule number

thickness or I.D and O.D. of connected pipe so that bore of the flange as well as butt
welding ends can be machined to suit pipe.
Lap - Joint Flanges :
i. Lap joint flanges are used with a lap -joint stub.
ii. The combined cost of the two parts is generally greater than the cost of a welding
neck flange of the same size, rating & material. However, we have an option of using

an ordinary steel flange behind the lap on alloy and stainless steel pipe without
sacrificing internal corrosion protection, thereby, the combined cost of two parts may
be less than the cost of a welding neck flange which necessarily has to be of the
same material as that of pipe.
These flanges have the disadvantage of having only about 10% of the fatigue life of
welding neck flanges. For this reason, these flanges should not be used for
connections where severe bending stresses exist.
This type of joint avoids the necessity of accurate alignment of bolt holes since the
flange is free to revolve on pipe. This permits it to be readily aligned with bolt holes of
mating flange whether they are on straddle centre line or in some odd or special
position.

"Lbs"
1

is

the

Pound

abbreviation
=

of
1

the
lb

unit

of
=

weight

called

0.45359

"Pounds"
Kilogram

1 Pound = 1 lb = 453.59 grams

The venturi flow meter uses the bernoulli principle and the manometer principle
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in
the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease
in the fluid's potential energy

By multiplying with the fluid density , equation (A) can be rewritten as:

or:

where:
is dynamic pressure,
is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the sum of the
elevation z and the pressure head)[10][11] and
is the total pressure (the sum of the static pressure p and dynamic
[12]
pressure q).
The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A common
approach is in terms of total head or energy head H:

In physics, cryogenics is the study of the production and behaviour of materials at very
low temperatures (below 150 C, 238 F or 123 K). A person who studies elements
that have been subjected to extremely cold temperatures is called a cryogenicist.
Rather than the relative temperature scales of Celsius and Fahrenheit, cryogenicists
use the absolute temperature scales.
Asme B31.3

The code prescribes requirements for materials and components,

design, fabrication, assembly, erection, examination, inspection, and
testing of piping.

For example the first character of the piping class code may indicates
the base material which can be 1 for carbon steel, 2 for alloy steel, 3
for stainless steel and so on.

The second character in this example may be a letter which indicates

the pipe pressure rating, the third character may be a number
indicating the corrosion allowance and the last character is usually a
progressive letter for coding the class of similar pipe sections having
different forms of the same base material.

Each piping system is allocated a piping class, which lists all the
components required to construct the piping.

Process design conditions.

Corrosion allowance.

List of piping components.

Branch table.

Special assemblies.

Support notes.

Pipe (seamless and welded)carbon and stainless steel.

Pipe (exotic)Inconel, Monel, titanium.

Pipe fittings (seamless and welded)carbon and stainless steel.

Valves gate/globe/check (small bore, 112 in. and below)(Larg Bore 2 in.
and above)carbon and stainless steel.

Ball valves (all sizes)carbon and stainless steel.

Special valves (all sizes)non-slam-check valves, butterfly valves.

Stud boltingall materials.

Gasketsflat, spiral wound, ring type.

Special piping items (SPs)strainers, hoses, hose couplings, sight

glasses, interlocks, and the like.

90o long radius (LR)

elbow
90o short radius (SR)
elbow

Change direction
Change direction

45o Elbow

Change direction

180o return

Change direction

Equal Tee

Change direction

Reinforced Branch
(Olet)

Change direction and

size
Change direction and
size

Eccentric Reducer

Change size

Concentric Reducer

Change size

Reducing Tee

Join pipe and

components
Join pipe and
components
Join pipe and
components
Join pipe and
components

Flanges
Flanges
Couplings
Unions
Spectacle Blinds,
Spades and Spacers

Isolation

ASME B16.9 (1248

in.)
ASME B16.28 (1248
in.)
ASME B16.9 (1248
in.)
ASME B16.9 (1248
in.)
ASME B16.9 (1248
in.)
ASME B16.9 (1248
in.)
Manufacturers
standard
ASME B16.9 (1248
in.)
ASME B16.9 (1248
in.)
ASME B16.5 (1248
in.)
ASME B16.47 (2660
in.)

ASME B16.11 (124

in.)
Not applicable
ASME B16.11 (124
in.)
Not applicable
ASME B16.11 (124
in.)
ASME B16.11 (124
in.)
Manufacturers
standard
ASME B16.11 (124
in.)
ASME B16.11 (124
in.)
ASME B16.5 (1224
in.)
Not applicable

Not applicable

ASME B16.11 (124

in.)

Not applicable

BS 3799

Not applicable

Not applicable

Each particular component is manufactured to a specific dimensional

standard, with fixed tolerances, based on its size, pressure rating, the
method of manufacture, and the choice of end connections.

Hazardous processASME 31.3, Category M.

Nonhazardous processASME B31.3, Normal Fluid Service (NFS).

Utility serviceASME 31.3, Category D

Low pressureASME Class 150 and 300.

Intermediate pressureASME Class 600, 900, 1500, 2500.

High pressureabove ASME 2500 as specified in ASME B31.3, Chapter

IX, K.

Highbutt weld used for weld neck, lap joint.

Mediumfillet weld used for socket weld, slip on.

Lowthreaded used for screwed joints

Lap joint and weld neckmost expensive (one butt weld).

Slip onexpensive (two fillet welds).

Socket weldcheaper (one fillet weld).

Screwedcheapest (one mechanical joint).

Lap jointmost expensive (two components).

Weld neckexpensive (one component, one butt weld).

Socket weldcheaper (one component, one or two fillet welds).

Screwed and slip oncheapest (one component, no weld).

In materials science, creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of

a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of
mechanical stresses. It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of
stress that are still below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in
materials that are subjected to heat for long periods, and generally increases as they
near their melting point.

Acronym: AARH
Definition: Arithmetic Average Roughness Height

Types of Gaskets

For flanges designed to ASME B16.5, B16.47 (series A or B), or

API 6A, materials fall into three fundamental types:

Nonmetallicflat rubber, elastomers, graphite, Teflon, and the

like.

Semi-metallic or compositespiral wound, jacketed, Kamprofile

(stainless steel/graphite, Inconel/graphite, and so forth).

Metallic-ring typesoft iron, stainless steel, Monel, and the like.

For ASME flanges, bolts, sometimes called fasteners, are used in sets,
which come in multiples of four bolts, with four the minimum number.
The bolt spacing is carefully calculated, taking into consideration the
nominal pipe size of the flange, the design temperature, the pressure
to be encountered, and the material of the flange to ensure good
sealing characteristics.

Bolt Coating

Nonebare bolts, with no coating, are also known as black bolts.

Zinc.

Hot-dipped galvanization.

PTFE (polytetraflouridethylene).

Other coatings.

Lubrication of Bolts

Lubricationthe better the lubricant, the lower the effects of

friction.

Compatibilitythe lubricant must be compatible with the stud

and nut and also the gasket construction; and it must not
contaminate the process fluid.

Temperaturethe lubricant must be suitable at the upper and

lower temperatures of the process fluid.

LJ
SO
WN
FF
RF
BF
Size 1

Lap Joint
Slip-on
Welding Neck
Flat Face
Raised Face
Blind Flange
Main line size in inches *

Size 2
Sch 1
Sch 2
RF
BW / BE
PE
TE
WN
SW
SCD
TOE
TBE
TLE
PLE
PBE
BLE
TSE
PSE
WND
ST.
NPTF
NPTM

HDG
FLG

Branch line size or reduced size in inches *

Pipe thickness relating to size1 in inches or schedule
Pipe thickness relating to size 2 in inches or schedule
Raised Face
Butt welded / Beveled End
Plain End
Threaded End
Weld Neck
Socket Weld
Screwed End
Threaded One End
Threaded Both Ends
Threaded Large End
Plain Large End
Plain both Ends
Bevel Large End
Threaded Small End
Plain Small End
Wound
Straight
National Pipe Taper Female
National Pipe Taper Male
-

S.S
SSCR

Hot dip galvanised

Flanged
Stainless Steel
Soft Steel Centering Ring

Vlaves body astm a216 gr wcb

Trim astm a182 gr f316l
A check valve, clack valve, non-return valve or one-way valve is a valve that
normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one direction.
Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two openings in the body, one for
fluid to enter and the other for fluid to leave. There are various types of check valves
used in a wide variety of applications. Check valves are often part of common
household items. Although they are available in a wide range of sizes and costs, check
valves generally are very small, simple, or inexpensive. Check valves work
automatically and most are not controlled by a person or any external control;

accordingly, most do not have any valve handle or stem. The bodies (external shells) of
most check valves are made of plastic or metal.

By the very definition of Surge Drum, it is a vessel that is designed to provide a given
volume or residence time for the fluid passing through. I have only heard the term used
in connection with liquid services, so I'll address it from that point of view. I suppose the
term could also be applied to gases,

Immiscible- (of liquids) not forming a homogeneous mixture when mixed.

Horizontal drums may be supported on saddles positioned about one-fifth
of the drum length from each T/L of the drum.
A demister is a device often fitted to vapor-liquid separator vessels to enhance the
removal of liquid dropletsentrained in a vapor stream

Baffle (heat transfer), a flow-directing vane or panel in some vessels such as

shell and tube heat exchangers, chemical reactors, or static mixers

Knock-out drums are used to separate condensate in the relieving discharges before
going to the flare stack
Headers to flare stacks from relief and blow down valves and vents are run first to
knockout drum.
It is recommended that the lines should run overhead to the top of the drum and must
slope at minimum 1:400 so that all condensate drain into the drum.

To locate a drum, the following information to be collected so that the level of drum can
be finalised.
Drum dimensions
Type of heads
Support details
NPSH requirements of pump
Bottom outlet size
Minimum clearances
Location

Piping should be positioned to facilitate the installation of supports with sufficient

flexibility to absorb any excessive stresses during operation.

The relief valve (RV) is a type of valve used to control or limit the pressure in a system
or vessel which can build up by a process upset, instrument or equipment failure, or fire.
The pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurised fluid to flow from an auxiliary
passage out of the system. The relief valve is designed or set to open at a
predetermined set pressure to protect pressure vessels and other equipment from being
subjected to pressures that exceed their design limits. When the set pressure is
exceeded, the relief valve becomes the "path of least resistance" as the valve is forced
open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through the auxiliary route. The diverted fluid
(liquid, gas or liquidgas mixture) is usually routed through a piping system known as
aflare header or relief header to a central, elevated gas flare where it is usually burned
and the resulting combustion gases are released to the atmosphere. [1] As the fluid is
diverted, the pressure inside the vessel will drop. Once it reaches the valve's reseating
pressure, the valve will close. The blowdown is usually stated as a percentage of set
pressure and refers to how much the pressure needs to drop before the valve reseats.
The blowdown can vary from roughly 220%, and some valves have adjustable
blowdowns.
In high-pressure gas systems, it is recommended that the outlet of the relief valve is in
the open air. In systems where the outlet is connected to piping, the opening of a relief
valve will give a pressure build up in the piping system downstream of the relief valve.
This often means that the relief valve will not re-seat once the set pressure is reached.
For these systems often so called "differential" relief valves are used. This means that
the pressure is only working on an area that is much smaller than the openings area of
the valve. If the valve is opened the pressure has to decrease enormously before the
valve closes and also the outlet pressure of the valve can easily keep the valve open.
Another consideration is that if other relief valves are connected to the outlet pipe
system, they may open as the pressure in exhaust pipe system increases. This may
cause undesired operation.
A catastrophe is an extremely large-scale disaster, a horrible event.
The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the
material's coefficient of thermal expansion
Embrittlement is a loss of ductility of a material, making it brittle.

ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often
characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Malleability, a similar
property, is a material's ability to deform undercompressive stress; this is often
characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Both
of these mechanical properties are aspects of plasticity, the extent to which a solid
material can be plastically deformed without fracture. Also, these material properties are
dependent on temperature and pressure (investigated by Percy Williams Bridgman as
part of his Nobel Prize winning work on high pressures)
Mill Tolerance is the tolerance for variation in the thickness of pipe from
nominal pipe thickness which is 12.5%
corrode is usually applied to metals while erode is usually applied to soil, rock, concrete,
and minerals
Corrode: Destroy or damage (metal, stone, or other materials) slowly by chemical
action.
Erode:
Become
ground
down
or
deteriorate.
Basically corrode is a chemical thing & erode is a more general term of anything being
worn down. So corrosion is a form of erosion
Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are a
result of an earthquake, explosion, or a volcano that imparts low-frequency acoustic
energy. Many other natural and anthropogenic sources create low amplitude waves
commonly referred to as ambient vibrations.
Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by Newton's second and third laws.
When a system expels or accelerates mass in one direction, the accelerated mass will
cause a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction on that system. The force
applied on a surface in a direction perpendicular or normal to the surface is called
thrust. Force, and thus thrust, is measured in the International System of Units (SI) as
the newton (symbol: N), and represents the amount needed to accelerate 1 kilogram of
mass at the rate of 1 metre per second squared.
The question:
What is the meaning of MTO, BOM and BOQ and how do I start this ..... I mean some
useful tips to make a BOM, MTO, BOQ...like what are the things to be considered, what
all are mandatory... etc. ?
My answer: (Based on my experience)
MTO means Material Take-Off. This is the action of counting of the pieces and parts
needed to fabricate, purchase and or construct something. (Have you started the MTO
yet? - Have you completed the MTO yet?)
BOM means Bill of Material. This is normally a listing of only the material shown on an
individual specific drawing such as a piping Isometric. (Have you checked all the
BOMs for the Area 10 Isometrics?)
BOQ means Bill of Quantity (also called Material Summary). This is the totaling of all the
quantities from all the BOMs from all the project to send to a piping supplier for pricing
or purchase.

There are normally three material take-offs sessions during a process plant project.
These are preliminary, secondary and final.
Preliminary MTO:
What is it? A preliminary MTO is a material take-off very early in the design process
when only a limited amount of information is known and very little detail has been
developed.
Why is it done? - A preliminary MTO is normally done for two reasons. The first is to
assist with the early "order-of-magnitude" (+/- 10%) estimate for the overall project. The
second reason is to issue early order of magnitude "RFQ's" (Request for Quote) for
piping materials
When is it done? - The preliminary MTO is only possible when there is a Plot Plan that
is "Approved" by the Client or has been issued to the client for approval. This is done
long before there is any detailed work started on the 3D design model.
Who does it? - A preliminary MTO is best done by very strong well experienced senior
piping designers who are familiar with the project.
How is it done? - For the preliminary MTO we used a formatted form on which we could
indicate the number or amount of material required for each line. On the form I would
identify the line number along with the line class. I would then look at this line on the
P&ID and on the Plot Plan and determine the routing of the pipe. Then in the boxes (on
the form) I would then mark the amount of pipe required for each size required for that
line. Then I would count the number of fittings required, starting with 90 degree elbows.
Then continuing through all the other inline fittings and online fittings. After the fittings I
would count all the flanges by size. Then I would count all the valves from the P&ID.
The high point vents and low point drains would be made last based on an educated
guess. Then I would take another form and do another line. As I did each line I would
"Yellow" off the line on the P&ID so at the end all the lines are accounted for. As the
forms were completed they would be reviewed by the Area Supervisor and then
forwarded to the Material Control Group who would process the data to produce the
RFQ's
Secondary MTO:
Why is it done? - The primary reason for the Secondary MTO is to update quantities for
the issue of the actual Purchase orders for piping material. A second reason is to update
the project estimate.
When is it done? - The Secondary MTO can only be done when there is significant
progress completed on the 3D design model (or other electronic design method).
However it must be done early enough to insure that the procurement (purchase and
delivery) of the piping material to the field will fit the overall project schedule.
Who does it? - The Material Control Group.
How is it done? - The Material Control Group would access the electronic data base and
down-load all the material available at that time. Some factoring would be done by the
Material Control Group and the Piping Design Leads to allow for work not done yet.
Final MTO
Why is it done? - The final MTO is done first to identify any item added late in the project
or anything that was missed on the Preliminary or Secondary MTO's. The second
reason for the Final MTO is to get a fix on the final job costs.
When is it done? - The Final MTO is done when the last Isometric has been issued.

Who does it? - The Material Control Group.

How is it done? - The Material Control Group would access the electronic data base and
down-load all the material. Any differences between the Final MTO and the Secondary
MTO would be identified. Purchase orders would be issued for the updated quantities.
Each particular component
is manufactured to a specific dimensional standard, with fixed tolerances,
based on its size, pressure rating, the method of manufacture, and the
choice of end connections
Rust is
an iron
oxide,
usually
red oxide formed
by
the redox reaction
of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture.

stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French "inoxydable", is
a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5%[1] chromium content by mass.
Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does,
but despite the name it is not fully stain-proof, most notably under low-oxygen, highsalinity, or poor-circulation environments.[2] There are different grades and surface
finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure. Stainless steel
is used where both the properties of steel and resistance to corrosion are required.
Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present.
Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to air and moisture. This iron
oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide, and
due to the greater volume of the iron oxide this tends to flake and fall away. Stainless
steels contain sufficient chromium to form a passive film of chromium oxide, which
prevents further surface corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and
blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal structure, and due to the similar
size of the steel and oxide ions they bond very strongly and remain attached to the
surface
90 short
radius (SR)
elbow
ASME B16.28
(1248 in.)

Weld end (WE) Butt weld ASME B16.25 All sizes

Plain end (PE) Socket weld ASME B16.11 4 in. and below
Threaded (Thd) Screwed ASME B1.20.1 4 in. and below

Flanged (Flg) Flanged ASME B16.5 1224 in.

Flanged (Flg) Flanged ASME B16.47 2660 in.

In materials science, quenching is the rapid cooling of a workpiece to obtain

certain material properties. It prevents low-temperature processes, such
as phase transformations, from occurring by only providing a narrow window of time in
which the reaction is both thermodynamically favorable and kinetically accessible. For
instance, it can reduce crystallinity and thereby increase toughness of
both alloys and plastics (produced throughpolymerization).
In metallurgy, it is most commonly used to harden steel by introducing martensite, in
which case the steel must be rapidly cooled through its eutectoid point, the temperature
at which austenite becomes unstable. In steel alloyed with metals such
as nickel and manganese, the eutectoid temperature becomes much lower, but the
kinetic barriers to phase transformation remain the same. This allows quenching to start
at a lower temperature, making the process much easier. High speed steel also has
added tungsten, which serves to raise kinetic barriers and give the illusion that the
material has been cooled more rapidly than it really has. Even cooling such alloys
slowly in air has most of the desired effects of quenching.
Note: Schedules 5S and 10S wall thickness do not permit threading in
accordance with ASME B1.20.1.
The joint type chosen must be leak free for the duration of the plant
life. Therefore, the following factors must be taken into consideration:
. Type of process fluidits toxicity and viscosity.
. Design temperature range.
. Design pressure.
. Mechanical strength of the base materialits tensile strength and ability
to yield.
. Size.
. Weight.
. Erosion and corrosion
. For permanent or temporary use, need for quick release.
. Quality of the labor available.
. Cost.
. Maintainability and reliability.
. Plant life.
. Need to handle vibration.
. External mechanical impact from personnel, vehicles, and the like.
. Ease of fabrication or erection.
. Availability.

Hazardous processsee ASME 31.3, Category M.

. Nonhazardous processsee ASME B31.3, normal fluid service
(NFS).
. Utility servicesee ASME 31.3, Category D.
Tabulated data in ASME B16.5 for steel flanges states the
maximum
allowable internal design pressure for a specific material in a
piping class
at a given temperature. This allowable internal pressure reduces
as the
temperature increases
Piping systems
carrying toxic fluids or operating under very high pressures and
temperatures may be subjected to 100% NDE, which means that
all
valves are X-rayed.
Other methods of nondestructive examination, such as
magnetic particle examination (MPE) or liquid penetration
examination
(LPE), for nonmagnetic metals, come a very close second. Piping
systems
carrying toxic fluids or operating under very high pressures and
temperatures may be subjected to 100% NDE, which means that
all
valves are X-rayed
hexagonal machine bolts complete with one hexagonal nut,
and more commonly, stud bolts, which have a threaded stud
complete
with two hexagonal nuts. Bolts come in four material groups:
carbon
steel, low alloy steel, stainless steel, and exotic material, such as
Monel or
Inconel.

Moment of inertia is the mass property of a rigid body that determines the torque
needed for a desired angular acceleration about an axis of rotation. Moment of inertia
depends on the shape of the body and may be different around different axes of
rotation. A larger moment of inertia around a given axis requires more torque to increase
the rotation, or to stop the rotation, of a body about that axis. Moment of inertia depends
on the amount and distribution of its mass, and can be found through the sum of
moments of inertia of the masses making up the whole object, under the same
conditions. For example, if ma + mb = mc, then Ia + Ib = Ic. In classical mechanics,
moment of inertia may also be called mass moment of inertia, rotational
inertia, polar moment of inertia, or the angular mass.
For planar movement of a body, the trajectories of all of its points lie in parallel planes,
and the rotation occurs only about an axis perpendicular to this plane. In this case, the
body has a single moment of inertia, which is measured around this axis.
For spatial movement of a body, the moment of inertia is defined by its symmetric 3 3
inertia matrix. The inertia matrix is often described as a symmetric rank two tensor,
having six independent components. The inertia matrix includes off-diagonal terms
called products of inertia that couple torque around one axis to acceleration about
another axis. Each body has a set of mutually perpendicular axes, called principal axes,
for which the off-diagonal terms of the inertia matrix are zero, and a torque around a
principal axis only affects the acceleration about that axis.

Gaskets for raised face flanges shall be spiral wound, non-asbestos filled,
with 316 stainless steel in accordance with ASME B16.20, with the exception
that compressed fiber gaskets complying with ASME B16.21 are acceptable
for cooling water service.
Full-face gaskets for flat face flanges shall be made from 3-mm (1/8) thick compressed, oilresisting non-asbestos sheets or neoprene. Materials shall be specified in the pipe class Data
Sheets. Ring gasket for ring type joint shall be octagonal and shall be as per ASME B16.20.
Rings for API 10000# flanges shall conform to API 6A. Type RX rings shall be used.

BUTTERFLY VALVE-API 609

BALL VALVE-API 6D/BS 5351

FIRE SAFE TEST-API 607/API 6FA

SEAT-SOFT SEAT( EPDM,RESILIENT)

FOREIGN PARTICLE METAL SEAT,
SEAL INSET-PTFE
STEM SEAL-PTFE
PACKING-GRAPHITE
An abrasive is a material, often a mineral, that is used to shape or finish a work piece
through rubbing which leads to part of the work piece being worn away. While finishing
a material often means polishing it to gain a smooth, reflective surface which can also
involve roughening as in satin, matte or beaded finishes.
Abrasives are extremely commonplace and are used very extensively in a wide variety
of industrial, domestic, and technological applications. This gives rise to a large
variation in the physical and chemical composition of abrasives as well as the shape of
the abrasive. Common uses for abrasives include grinding,
polishing, buffing, honing, cutting, drilling, sharpening, lapping, and sanding (see abrasive
machining). (For simplicity, "mineral" in this article will be used loosely to refer to both
minerals and mineral-like substances whether man-made or not.)
Files are not abrasives. They remove material not by scratching or rubbing, but by the
cutting action of sharp teeth which have been cut into the surface of the file, very much
like those of a saw. However, diamond files are a form of coated abrasive (as they are
metal rods coated with diamond powder).
An oil skimmer is a machine that separates a liquid from particles floating on it or from another
liquid. A common application is removing oil floating on water. These technologies are commonly
used for oil spill remediation but are also commonly found in industrial applications such as removing
oil from machine tool coolant and removing oil from aqueous parts washers. They were used to
great effect to assist in the remediation of the Exxon Valdez spill in 1989.

Oil skimmers are commonly found in three types: weir and oleophilic and non-oleophilic (disc, drum,
belt, tube, brush,mop, grooved disc, grooved drum):

Coalescence is the process by which two or more droplets, bubbles or particles merge during
contact to form a single daughter droplet, bubble or particle. It can take place in many processes,
ranging from meteorology to astrophysics. For example, it is seen in the formation of raindrops as
well as planetary and star formation.
there is very inverse relation between pressure and velocity
remember this line always
"where the pressure is high velocity will be low."
if u have any idea of venturi tube or nozzle them u can understand it practically
whenever area will be large then pressure velocity will be low because we know continuity equation that
AV = constant
A= area
V= velocity
in case of venturi or nozzle at convergent portion, area is decreasing mean velocity increasing and thus
pressure is decreasing and similarly in divergent portion, area is increasing gradually and velocity is
decreasing & pressure is increasing
in nozzle throat is the minimum area and thus we have maximum velocity and minimum pressure at throat