Brief History of Psychology

Before we begin, let's ask ourselves-what is psychology?

Psychology is the academic and applied scientific study of mental processes and behaviour.
Psychology also involves the application of knowledge to various spheres of human activity, from
daily life, work and family to the treatment of severe mental health problems.
Psychology revolves around such broad areas as emotions, perception, individuality and
personality, relationships, social dynamics and functions, plus many other subjects. Psychology
also attempts to identify the physical, biological processes that underlie mental functioning.
Early origins
The earliest origins of psychology are, unsurprisingly, found in the ancient civilizations of Greece,
Egypt, China and India. This took a highly philosophical form though- the early psychology
involved theories on the mind, body and soul and how they all operate together, so they weren't
really what we would call psychology today. However, these great early psychological
philosophers identified things like the brain and speculation of its functions, basics of human
nature, and the "self".
The Medieval Times saw more psychological progress. As early as the 700s Medieval Muslim had
built insane asylums and practices to help patients with diseases of the mind. Ahmed ibn Sahl alBalkhi was among the first to suggest that if the mind gets sick, the body may eventually
develop a physical illness. He recognized and analyzed what we modernly call depression.
Several other modern psychological phenomena and neuropsychiatric conditions were emerging:
hallucination, mania, dreams, nightmares, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo, psychotherapy and
musical therapy, social psychology, neurophysiology, and the subconscious. Western Psychology
Emerging
The Ancient writings were preserved thanks to Islamic translators, and together with their
theories and experiments became the basis for modern psychology which started to emerge
during the Renaissance. While early psychology involved the study of the soul, modern
psychology focused more on brain functions. During the Enlightenment period, thinkers like
Descartes, Thomas Willis, and John Locke, discussed the nature of mind and soul, but also
supported the development of clinical psychology as a discipline of medicine.
Those times also saw the rise of popular yet false psychological developments. This included the
science of hypnotism, developed by Anton Mesmer as a way to cure diseases using the
"magnetism of the mind". Phrenology, the study of the brain and skull structure to establish
personality traits and mental disposition.
All the while though, psychology was treated as just a branch of philosophy. Scientific, empirical
psychology was not seen as plausible or acceptable, since the mind and soul were abstract
concepts.
Experimental Psychology is Born
During the Scientific Revolution, concepts that were thought to be philosophical were fused with
mathematical and scientific thoughts to come up with profound disciplines such as economics
and early engineering. Psychology was no exception. Johann Friedrich Herbart was among the
first to try and apply a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology.
As a result, more research followed. Fechner attempted to mathematically relate external stimuli
and resulting sensations, coining psychophysics in the process. Bessel, Donders, and other
scientists measured things like reaction times and the speed of mental decisions. During the
later 1800s, Wilhelm Wundt, the father of psychology, founded the first laboratory dedicated
exclusively to psychological research in Germany.
Experimental psychology became important during the late 1800s especially in Germany, but
also in Russia, the US, and the rest of Western Europe. Pioneers like Ebbinghaus and Pavlov made
important discoveries in the areas of memory, learning processes and more.
In the 1890s, psychoanalysis was developed. Sigmund Freud, probably the most well-known
psychology theorist, developed this method of study of human psychological functioning and
behavior through interpretive methods and observation. He became famous after tackling taboo
subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind, and he influenced Carl Jung

who developed analytical psychology. This laid basis to many modern psychological concepts still
used today.
Behaviorism, Humanism, Cognitivism, and other Modern Developments
Experimental psychology led to the use of things like recollecting childhood experiences and
analyzing them subjectively and introspectively. Opposition to this led to the development of
behaviorism, which states that all things which organisms do can be regarded as behaviors,
which can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to
hypothetical constructs such as the mind. This was developed by John B. Watson and B.F.
Skinner, and based on animal experimentation.
Behaviorism was popular in the US for the first half of the 1900s. In the 50s, drawing from
psychoanalysis, behaviorism and existentialist philosophy, humanistic psychology was
developed. It focused on human issues such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and
meaning. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs and Carls Rogers's client-centered therapy are humanistic
developments still used today.
Cognitivisim is another psychological school of thought. It accepts the use of the scientific
method, rejecting introspection (and pscyhoanalysis), and it acknowledges the existence of
internal mental states (unlike behaviorism). Cognitive psychology sees mental functions as
information processing, and is advancing thanks to computerized developments and a better
understanding of how the brain and neural systems work.
Where is psychology going?
Modern psychology incorporates all of these fields to provide useful solutions to mental
problems. Using psychoanalytical therapy, behavioral theories, humanist concepts and cognitive
understanding, psychologists can learn and offer the best solutions possible.
Future developments and questions that need to be answered in psychology are numerous. The
application of genetic research and the discoveries of new genes that relate to behavior and
personality will pose a challenge for psychologists. Using new bioengineering and computerized
techniques can help develop medicines and cures for neuropsychological symptoms.
As well, new social concepts have to emerge to explain changing, modern societies. With
depression and eating disorders constantly on the rise, psychological answers are in high
demand. In engineering and technology, the development of artificial intelligence will require
thorough psychological understanding of human intelligence.
VALUES
Value theory encompasses a range of approaches to understanding how, why, and to what
degree persons value things; whether the object of valuing is a person, idea, object, or anything
else. This investigation began in ancient philosophy, where it is called axiology or ethics. Early
philosophical investigations sought to understand good and evil and the concept of "the good".
Today, much of value theory is scientifically empirical, recording what people do value and
attempting to understand why they value it in the context of psychology, sociology, and
economics.[1]
At the general level, there is a difference between moral and natural goods. Moral goods are
those that have to do with the conduct of persons, usually leading to praise or blame. Natural
goods, on the other hand, have to do with objects, not persons. For example, the statement
"Mary is a good person" represents a very different sense of the word 'good' than the statement
"That was some good food".
Ethics is mainly focused on moral goods rather than natural goods, while economics has a
concern in what is economically good for the society but not an individual person and is also
interested in natural goods. However, both moral and natural goods are equally relevant to
goodness and value theory, which is more general in scope.
OBJECTIVE
What is OBJECTIVE?
1. having authentic presence in reality, based upon viewable phenomena. 2. adjective. unbiased
or not influenced by private emotions, perceptions, or biases. 3. noun. something which is to be
attained or worked toward. 4. noun. with regard to language, reference: accusative. 5. noun. the
lens or lens system within an optical tool, like a microscope. Commonly referred to as item glasslens- item lens.

OBJECTIVE: "I find it is helpful throughout life to always have set objectives lying ahead for
which one is motivated to pursue."
Overview Of Early Psychology
The following are some of the major schools of thought that have influenced our knowledge and
understanding of psychology:
Structuralism and Functionalism
Structuralism is widely regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. This outlook
focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Major thinkers
associated with structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. The focus of
structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most basic elements. The
structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the human
mind.
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and
was heavily influenced by the work of William James. Unlike some of the other well-known
schools of thought in psychology, functionalism is not associated with a single dominant theorist.
Instead, there are some different functionalist thinkers associated with this outlook including John
Dewey, James Rowland Angell, and Harvey Carr.
Author David Hothersall notes, however, that some historians even question whether
functionalism should be considered a formal school of psychology at all given its lack of a central
leader or formalized set of ideas.
Instead of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead
interested in the role that these processes play.
Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things as
unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th
century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Instead of breaking down
thoughts and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt psychologists believed that you
must look at the whole of experience. According to the Gestalt thinkers, the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the
work of thinkers such as:
John B. Watson
Ivan Pavlov
B. F. Skinner
Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by
internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Theories of learning including
classical conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of a great deal of research.
The behavioral school of psychology had a significant influence on the course of psychology, and
many of the ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely used
today. Behavioral training, token economies, aversion therapy and other techniques are
frequently used in psychotherapy and behavior modification programs.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought
emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.
Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the ego, and the
superego. The id consists of primal urges while the ego is the component of personality charged
with dealing with reality. The superego is the part of personality that holds all of the ideals and
values we internalize from our parents and culture. Freud believed that the interaction of these
three elements was what led to all of the complex human behaviors.

Freud's school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated considerable debate.
This controversy existed not only in his time, but also in modern discussions of Freud's theories.
Other major psychoanalytic thinkers include:
Anna Freud
Carl Jung
Erik Erikson.
Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
Humanistic psychology instead focused on individual free will, personal growth and the concept
of self-actualization. While early schools of thought were primarily centered on abnormal human
behavior, humanistic psychology differed considerably in its emphasis on helping people achieve
and fulfill their potential.
Major humanist thinkers include:
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers.
Humanistic psychology remains quite popular today and has had a significant influence on other
areas of psychology including positive psychology. This particular branch of psychology is
centered on helping people living happier, more fulfilling lives.
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that studies mental processes including how
people think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this
branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and
linguistics.
Cognitive psychology began to emerge during the 1950s, partly as a response to behaviorism.
Critics of behaviorism noted that it failed to account for how internal processes impacted
behavior. This period is sometimes referred to as the "cognitive revolution" as a wealth of
research on topics such as information processing, language, memory, and perception began to
emerge.
One of the most influential theories of this school of thought was the stages of cognitive
development theory proposed by Jean Piaget.
References
Hothersall, D. (1995). History of Psychology, 3rd ed. New York: Mcgraw-Hill.
Schacter, D. L., Wegner, D., and Gilbert, D. (2007). Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers
List of psychological research methods
A wide range of research methods are used in psychology. These methods vary by the sources of
information that are drawn on, how that information is sampled, and the types of instruments
that are used in data collection. Methods also vary by whether they collect qualitative data,
quantitative data or both.
Qualitative psychological research is where the research findings are not arrived at by statistical
or other quantitative procedures. Quantitative psychological research is where the research
findings result from mathematical modeling and statistical estimation or statistical inference.
Since qualitative information can be handled as such statistically, the distinction relates to
method, rather than the topic studied.
There are three main types of psychological research:
Correlational research
Descriptive research
Experimental research
The following are common research designs and data collection methods:
Archival research
Case study
Computer simulation (modeling)
Content analysis

Experiment, often with separate treatment and control groups (see scientific control and
design of experiments)
Field experiment
Interview, can be structured or unstructured.
Meta-analysis
Neuroimaging and other psychophysiological methods
Observational study, can be naturalistic (see natural experiment), participant or
controlled.
Quasi-experiment
Self-report inventory
Survey, often with a random sample (see survey sampling)
Twin study
Research designs vary according to the period(s) of time over which data are collected:
Retrospective cohort study: Subjects are chosen, then data are collected on their past
experiences.
Prospective cohort study: Subjects are recruited prior to the proposed independent effects
being administered or occurring.
Cross-sectional study, in which a population are sampled on all proposed measures at one
point in time.
Longitudinal study: Subjects are studied at multiple time points: May address the cohort
effect and indicate causal directions of effects.
Research in psychology has been conducted with both animals and human subjects:
Animal study
Human subject research
Branches of Psychology
Abnormal Psychology: This explores psychopathology and abnormal behavior. Examples of
disorders covered in this field include depression, OCD, sexual deviation and dissociative
disorder.
Biopsychology: This looks at the role the brain and neurotransmitters play in influencing our
thoughts, feelings and behaviours. It combines neuroscience and the study of basic psychology.
Clinical Psychology: The focus here is the assessment and appropriate treatment of mental
illness and abnormal behaviours.
Cognitive Psychology: This branch of psychology focuses attention on perception and mental
processes. For example, it looks at how people think about and process experiences and events
their automatic thoughts and core beliefs. Also, how they learn, remember and retrieve
information.
Comparative Psychology: This field of psychology studies animal behavior. Comparative
psychologists work closely with biologists, ecologists, anthropologists, and geneticists.
Counseling Psychology: Here, the focus is on providing therapeutic interventions for clients
who are struggling with some mental, social, emotional or behavioural issue. It also looks at
living well, so people reach their maximum potential in life.
Developmental Psychology: This looks at lifespan human development, from the cradle to the
grave. It looks at what changes, and what stays the same, or even deteriorates over time. Also,
whether growth and change is continuous, or is associated with certain ages and stages. Another
area of interest is the interaction of genes and the environment.

Educational Psychology: This focuses attention on learning, remembering, performing and

achieving. It includes the effects of individual differences, gifted learners and learning disabilities.
Experimental Psychology: Although all of psychology emphasises the central importance of
the scientific method, designing and applying experimental techniques, then analysing and
interpreting the results is the main job of experimental psychologists. They work in a wide range
of settings, including schools, colleges, universities, research centers, government organisation
and private businesses and enterprises.
Forensic Psychology: Psychology and the law intersect in this field. It is where psychologists
(clinical psychologists, neurologists, counselling psychologists etc) share their professional
expertise in legal or criminal cases.
Health Psychology: This branch of psychology promotes physical, mental and emotional health
including preventative and restorative strategies. It looks at how people deal with stress, and
cope with and recover from, illnesses.
Human Factors Psychology: This is an umbrella category that looks at such areas as
ergonomics, workplace safety, human error, product design, and the interaction of humans and
machines.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology: This applies findings from theoretical psychology to
the workplace. Its goal is increasing employee satisfaction, performance, productivity and
matching positions to employees strengths. Other areas of interest are group dynamics, and the
development of leadership skills.
Social Psychology: This is what many people think of when they hear the word psychology. It
includes the study of group behaviour, social norms, conformity, prejudice, nonverbal behaviour/
body language, and aggression.
Sports Psychology: This area investigates how to increase and maintain motivation, the factors
that contribute to peak performance, and how being active can enhance our lives.