STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

HYDROLOGY OF BORNEOS PEAT SWAMPS

Henk Ritzema and Henk Wsten

Alterra
The Netherlands

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

HYDROLOGY OF BORNEOS PEAT SWAMPS

1.
2.

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................1
Climate.............................................................................................................................................1
2.1.1 Evaporation.......................................................................................................................................1
2.1.2 Rainfall..............................................................................................................................................2
2.1.3 Dry spells ..........................................................................................................................................4
3
Topography......................................................................................................................................5
3.1 SURFACE TOPOGRAPHY ..............................................................................................................................5
3.2 MINERAL SUBSOIL ......................................................................................................................................6
3.3 CATCHMENTS .............................................................................................................................................6
3.2.3 Drainage Base...................................................................................................................................7
3.2.4 Drainability.......................................................................................................................................8
3.2.5 Water Management .........................................................................................................................10
4
The water balance in a peat swamp..............................................................................................12
4.1 WATER LEVELS.........................................................................................................................................12
4.2 DISCHARGES / RUN-OFF............................................................................................................................13
4.3 STORAGE CAPACITY .................................................................................................................................14
5
Gaps in knowledge ........................................................................................................................15
References ............................................................................................................................................16

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

1.

April 2002

Introduction

The lowland peat swamps of Borneo are purely rain-fed. They have their origins in the
topographic conditions that lead to semi-permanent waterlogging. Under natural conditions,
they are formed by the accumulation of vegetation, which is deposited on the waterlogged
soils faster than it can decay. Hydrology is an important (if not the most important) factor in
the formation and functioning of peat swamp ecosystems. The hydrology of a peat swamp
depends on the climate, topographic conditions, natural subsoil, and drainage base. Any
changes in the hydrology, especially those from the introduction of drainage, will have oftenirreversible effects on the functioning of these fragile ecosystems. A better understanding of
the hydrology of peat swamps will make it possible to develop and manage them in a more
sustainable way.

2. Climate
The climate in Borneo is characterised by its uniform temperature, high humidity, and high
rainfall intensity. The mean monthly temperature is stable and varies between 24C and
27C. According to the Kppen classification system, which is based on precipitation and
temperature, the climate is a tropical rain climate without a dry season and a long-term mean
precipitation in the driest month higher than 60 mm (Class Af). The climate is influenced by
two monsoon winds, namely the Northeast Monsoon from November to February and the
Southwest Monsoon from April to September.

2.1.1

Evaporation

The average evaporation is fairly constant, varying between 3.5 mm/d and 4.8 mm/d with a
total of around 1500mm per year (Table 1).

Table 1 Mean monthly evaporation and rainfall (mm) in Central Sarawak and South
Kalimantan
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Mukah, Central Sarawak:

Evaporation

116

119

140

136

136

133

131

137

128

129

109

115

1529

Rainfall

626

428

323

179

168

168

174

187

251

266

323

530

3623

Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan:

Evaporation

109

111

125

133

125

117

126

136

143

139

115

114

1492

Rainfall

436

298

323

269

206

156

156

98

70

141

273

397

2823

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

2.1.2

April 2002

Rainfall

For the peat swamps, rainfall, in particular the rainfall that is in excess of evaporation, is the
most important hydrology parameter. The annual rainfall is much higher than the annual
evaporation (Table 1). The rainfall, however, is much more irregular, both in time and space.
Along the coast of Sarawak, the annual rainfall varies from 2800 mm to 4700 mm (Table 2)
with an overall average of around 3600 mm. In South Kalimantan, rainfall is significant lower,
varying between 1900 and 3000 mm per year with an overall average of around 2800 mm.
Differences is space (Figure 1) are linked closely to the average rainfall intensity and not so
much to the number of days of rainfall.

Table 2

Total annual rainfall at Mukah Airfield, Central Region of Sarawak

Year

Rainfall
(mm)

Year

Rainfall
(mm)

Year

Rainfall
(mm)

1965

3429

1977

4159

1989

4099

1966

3291

1978

3387

1990

3272

1967

3892

1979

3066

1991

3283

1968

3401

1980

3486

1992

3319

1969

3717

1981

3739

1993

3454

1970

3877

1982

3796

1994

4031

1971

4516

1983

4631

1995

3809

1972

2878

1984

4453

1996

3813

1973

3823

1985

3560

1997

2748

1974

3478

1986

4116

1998

3198

1975

3742

1987

2783

1999

2985

1976

3147

1988

4698

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

Figure 1

April 2002

Map of the mean annual rainfall isohytes in the Central Region of Sarawak.

The rainfall is also not well distributed over the year (Figure 2). In the coastal region of
Sarawak, during the Northeas t Monsoon, when rainfall may exceed 600 mm/month, the
wettest months are DecemberFebruary. During these months rainfall can exceed 300 mm/d
(Table 3). During the dry season (MarchNovember) the average rainfall is about 200
300mm/month, which still exceeds the rate of evaporation. This is not the case in South
Kalimantan, where during the driest months (August and September) evaporation exceeds
rainfall.

Mukah, Sarawak
700
600
(mm)

500
400

300

Eto

200
100
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

Banjarmasin, Kalimantan
700

(mm)

600
500
400

300

ETo

200
100
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 2

Mean monthly rainfall and evaporation in a) Mukah, Central Sarawak and

b) Banjarmasin, Central Kalimantan

Table 3

Rainfall duration frequency in for two rainfall stations in the Central Region of
Sarawak (DID)
Rainfall (mm) for various return periods

Duration
(days)

2.1.3

Sibu Airport (19531990)

Mukah JKR (19341990)

5 years

10 years

5 years

10 years

156

178

264

307

181

202

326

377

210

233

381

444

253

278

480

563

294

326

535

628

14

427

471

702

808

30

624

681

1056

1213

Dry spells

Despite the tropical rain climate, the peat swamps suffer from water shortage during
prolonged dry period. In Sarawak, these dry periods that last for two weeks and have
negligible rainfall (<10 mm/fortnight) occur at least once or twice every year. The average
four-week minimum rainfall varies from 50 to 100 mm. This amount is often less than the
evapotranspiration, which is around 3 mm/day (or 84 mm every four weeks). In South
Kalimantan, the average dry season (monthly rainfall < 100 mm) can last for 3 to 4 months
(Figure 3). During this period the rainfall deficit is around 100 mm. In extreme dry years
(probability of exceedance 10%) this period can be extended to seven months. Without
water conservation, evaporation can lead to slight but persistent moisture deficits and so to
increased oxidation. In very dry years, the water table can fall below 1 m below soil surface.

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

Topography

The peat swamps are bordered by the sea and by rivers, and have a dome-shaped surface
(Figure 3). On the seaward side of the swamps, the borders consist of mudflats or sandy
beach deposits. On the landward side, there are sometimes very narrow levees or no levees
at all. Along the rivers, levees of mineral soils form the boundaries. These levees are prone
to flooding.

Figure 3

3.1

Topography of a peat dome (Melling 2000).

Surface topography

The youngest peat swamps are found close to the coast. The ground surface of the young
swamps rises gently from the edges to form a convex shape (dome) with slopes of 12
m/km. The highest point may be only 34 m above mean sea level. In the older, more
developed swamps, the convexity at the edges is more pronounced. A rise of 6 m over the
first 250 m has been recorded. The central bog planes are almost flat, with a rise of less than
0.5 m/km (Tie, 1991).

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

3.2

April 2002

Mineral subsoil

The basal mineral substrata of the peat swamps consist of sand or clay. The topography of
the subsoil usually drops gently from the riverbanks or the coast to the centre of the
swamps. This is what gives the peat deposits their characteristic lens-shaped cross-section.
Where old riverbeds or levees are buried under the peat, there are small rises and drops in
the mineral substrata. Levelling of transects across various peat domes has shown that the
mineral substrata usually lie within 12 m above or below mean sea level (Figure 4). The
mineral substratum under peat soils is often sulphidic. When this is the case, the peat layer
acts as a protective wet sponge that keeps the underlying mineral subsoil in a wet,
anaerobic condition. Once the peat has disappeared, however, the mineral subsoil will
surface, available pyrite will oxidise, and acid sulphate soils with very low pH values will
form. Acid sulphate soils are problem soils that can be farmed only under conditions of wellcontrolled water management. Box 2 presents the feasibility of farming on acid sulphate soils
at different locations in the landscape.

South China Sea

4

Streams

3
Stream

Level (m)

Drain

PEAT

PEAT

Batang Balingian

MINERAL SUBSOIL

0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

-1

-2
Chainage (m)

Figure 4.

3.3

Cross-section through a peat dome (PS Konsultant 1998)

Catchments

The dome-shaped surface of the peat swamps causes rainwater to drain off to different
sides. This phenomenon divides a peat swamp into several catchments (Figure 5). A
catchment is the area from which a stream collects water. Water divides form the boundaries
of a catchment. Contrary to upland catchments, peat swamps have minimal topographic
gradients, which makes it difficult to distinguish the catchment boundaries. To establish
catchment boundaries, it is best to combine data from survey lines with information on land
use, vegetation, and drainage patterns. Aerial photographs, maps, and satellite images (e.g.
LANDSAT images) can provide valuable information. Because catchments in lowland
swamps have a low relief and are often inter-linked, the catchment boundaries are not fixed.
Under natural circumstances these boundaries can vary seasonally, due to extreme rainfall,
drought, or tidal effects.

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

t
men
at ch
c
g
oren
Jem
5m

K ual a
Mat u

Bat
ang
Mat
u
Matu

2m
3m
4m
5m

6m

7m

Sekaan
catchme
nt
5

0
Kil ometres

Figure 5

The catchment of a peat swamp (adapted from SWRC,1997). The dotted lines
are the catchment boundaries. Also visible are contour lines of the Jemoreng
catchment.

Certain types of land use (e.g. intensive farming and logging of forests) influence the
groundwater table and the boundaries of the catchments. The groundwater table in a
drained area influences the water table in an adjacent non-drained area. Activities that have
long-term impacts are:
S Digging of transportation canals that connect streams or rivers
S Construction of drains
S Pumping of groundwater
S Building of roads through swamp lands
S Drainage for agriculture.
As drained areas influence water tables in contiguous undrained areas, so, too, do
catchment areas influence each other. This influence can cause the hydrology of lowland
peat swamps to behave in uncontrolled or unexpected manner. Activities or projects that
take place in one catchment can influence activities in another and lead to conflicts of
interest. It is easy to imagine the conflicting interests that would occur if, for instance, an
agricultural project were adjacent to a water-supply area. The drainage in the agricultural
project would lower the water table in the water-supply area, reducing the volume of water
available for domestic and industrial use.

3.2.3

Drainage Base

Tidal ranges along the Borneo coast may vary from about 2 m to almost 6 m. The influence
of the tide is not restricted to the coastal area. It can move up rivers, reaching as far as 200
km inland. Most of the peat lands are located in areas under tidal influence.

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

3.2.4

April 2002

Drainability

Drainability refers to drainage by gravity, thus drainage without the aid of mechanical
devices such as pumps. Different classifications are used in Indonesia and Malaysia. In
Sarawak, the long-term drainability is assessed on the basis of the mineral subsoil level,
rather than the present (peat) ground surface (Box 1). The drainage base is defined as the
water level in the adjacent river or stream, below which natural drainage by gravity cannot be
achieved (conveyance losses add an additional hydraulic head of at least 20cm per
kilometre). In Indonesia, four land categories are commonly distinguished in tidal swamp
areas. The classification is mainly based on the potential for irrigation, but they have be
adjusted to incorporate the drainage potential (Box 2).
Gravity drainage
Gravity drainage of an agricultural scheme in peat lands is possible when the water level
inside the scheme is higher than the (outside) water level of the river. In the lower-lying
areas, drainage may be possible only during low tides. In such a case, control structures and
bunds are needed to prevent water entering the scheme area during high tide. Adequate
storage should be available inside the scheme, so that it is possible to keep the excess
water until it can be discharged during low tide.

Box 1

Drainability classes (Agrosol, 1997)

Figure 6 The drainability concept.

Drainability refers to drainage by gravity, thus drainage without the aid of mechanical
devices such as pumps. Long-term drainability is assessed on the basis of the mineral
subsoil level, rather than the present (peat) ground surface. The drainage base is defined
as the water level in the adjacent river or stream, below which natural drainage by gravity
cannot be achieved (conveyance losses add an additional hydraulic head of at least 20cm
per kilometer). To assess drainability, the following classification is used:

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

Very good:

Mineral subsoil surface is above the drainage base established at High Water
Level (HWL); therefore natural drainage can be achieved at all tide levels,
including high tides.

Good:

Mineral subsoil surface is between drainage base established at HWL and

Mean Water Level (MWL).

Moderate:

Mineral subsoil surface is between drainage base established at MWL and Low
Water Level (LWL).

Poor:

Mineral subsoil surface is below drainage base established at LWL; therefore

natural drainage cannot be achieved at any tides, even low tides.

Note: This classification differs slightly between the various studies (see e.g. Alan Tan and Lim Hiok Hwa,
1999).

Box 2

Tidal land Classification in Indonesia (AARD & LAWOO 1992)

elevation of the
water level
class A

class B

class C

class D

av

g
era

er

i ve

rw

r
ate

lev

el

high tide
mean sea level
low tide
land

distance from river mouth

river
mouth

Figure 7
Type A

Type B

TypeC
TypeD

Tidal land classification is based on the water levels in the main rivers.

Areas between mean low tide and mean neap tide. Daily flooding and drainage. These
areas appear close to the sea. The potential for irrigation and drainage is good because
there is sufficient tidal fluctuation to allow a daily flooding and drainage of the soil surface
Areas between mean neap tide and mean spring tide. Springtide flooding and daily
drainage. Irrigation is only possible during springtide. Absence of daily flooding requires
water conservation measures. Daily drainage is always possible.
Area above spring tide. No tidal flooding, permanent drainage. In these areas drainage of
excess rainfall is always possible due to absence of high water levels in the canals.
Area outside the influence of daily tide. No tidal flooding, limited drainage. Due to the
absence of a drainage infrastructure, this area can not be drained. The water table drops
during the dry season when evaporation exceeds rainfall.

STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

The assumption is that a peat swamp can be economically drained on a long-term basis only
if the mineral subsoil level is above the mean water level in a nearby stream, river, or sea,
into which the drainage water will be discharged. At present, also areas are being developed
where the mineral subsoil is below mean sea level. Gravity drainage is possible in these
peat swamps because of their dome-shaped morphology. Uncontrolled drainage and the
subsequent excessive subsidence could put an end to this quickly: it may take 50 to 750
years before the overlaying peat soil has disappeared.
Pumped drainage
Currently, pumped drainage of peat swamps is not an option, and the drainability of areas
that lie below mean water level is classified as moderate or poor. In Mukah, a design
rainstorm with a return period of five years may produce 480 mm of rain in 5 days. If we
neglect the storage within the area, 11 l/sec/ha will have to be evacuated in this five-day
period. Pumped drainage might not be an option at present, but it might be one in future.
Then, and on a limited scale, it might be more economical for crops with a very high rate of
return (e.g. horticultural crops). The alternative is to give the land back to nature.

3.2.5

Water Management

Peat under natural conditions is waterlogged for most time of the year. Using peat land for
agriculture requires a water management system that will lower the water table and
guarantee a timely removal of excess rainfall. Peat, however, is a precious resource that
should be handled with care to prolong its life. To avoid excessive subsidence, and to
reduce water stress in dry periods, the level of the water table has to be controlled (Figure
68.

Figure 8

Peat land requires a water management system that controls the water table.

The functions of the water management system are somewhat conflicting: on one hand there
is the removal of excess water, which requires unrestricted outflow conditions, and on the
other hand is the control of the water table and water conservation, which can be achieved
only by restricting the outflow. To fulfil these requirements, two conditions have to be
considered: the normal-water-level criterion for normal (= average) conditions and the highwater-level criterion for short periods of extreme rainfall:

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STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

The normal-water-level criterion refers to maintaining the water level at a level that is
deep enough to enhance the agricultural use of the land but, at the same time, shallow
enough to sustain the peat;
The high-water-level criterion refers to removing excess rainfall during extreme
events.

The design of the water management system should also be based on the specific soil
hydraulic characteristics of peat (i.e. on the very high infiltration rate, storage capacity and
permeability). Because of these unique characteristics, excess rainfall will not be removed
as surface runoff but mainly as groundwater runoff. For conditions in Borneo, with its humid
climate and prolonged periods of rather uniform rainfall, the steady-state approach (e.g. the
Hooghoudt Equation) can be used to calculate drain spacing. The simplicity and the limited
requirement of input data make it very suitable. The spacing of the drains should be based
on the drainage requirements during normal-water-level conditions and the dimensions of
the drains on the high-water-level conditions.
The design water level in the water management system will depend on the seasons. During
the monsoon season a lower level will have to be maintained to increase the discharge
capacity and during the dry season a higher level will have to be maintained to conserve
water. Consequently, structures are needed to control the water levels in the system.
Because peat is so highly permeable, we recommend a cascade of closely spaced
structures with small differences in head. The dynamic storage capacity in the drainage
system is small compared to the recharge by excess rainfall and the corresponding
discharge. Therefore it is possible to use the steady-state approach for the design. The
above considerations result in a water management system with narrowly spaced drains in
combination with an intensive network of control structures. As a consequence of
maintaining high water levels the percentage of the area occupied by the water management
system will be high: between 15 and 20% compared to less than 5% in mineral soil areas.
The layout of the water management system should make use of the dome-shaped
topography of the peat lands. Field drains should be located parallel to the contour lines and
collector drains perpendicular to these. Water storage is needed to replenish the
groundwater during prolonged dry periods. The best place to store water is in the centre of
the peat dome.
To minimise the effects of rapid initial subsidence in the first few years after reclamation, we
recommend a two-phase approach to implementing the water management system. In the
first phase, the area is opened and the main drainage system is installed. In the second
phase, the field drainage system is installed. A time delay of at least 1 to 2 years is
recommended between the two phases. We must remember, however, that the continuous
subsidence of the peat will cause the lands surface to fall and make it necessary to upgrade
the system at regular intervals, probably every 5 to 10 years. Continuous subsidence
restricts the future drainability. In most peat swamps, the subsidence will ultimately lead to a
shift from gravity drainage to pumped drainage or, if this is not feasible, to a return to nature.

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STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

The water balance in a peat swamp

The lowland peat swamps of Borneo are completely rain-fed. No flow from upland areas
enters these swamps. The rainfall either evaporates or is transported from the swamps as
near surface run-off, inter-flow, or groundwater flow. The general water balance of a peat
swamp can be written as follows:
P = E + Q + S
Where:

P
E
Q
S

total rainfall (m)

total evapotranspiration (m)
total discharge (m)
change in storage (m)

Under natural conditions, the groundwater table will rise due to rainfall and fall due to
evapotranspiration and the outflow of excess rainfall by surface flow, groundwater flow, or
interflow. The resulting change in storage can be considerable over short periods (i.e. days
or weeks). Over the years, however, this change in storage will be negligible compared to
the total in- and outflow.

4.1

Water levels

The fluctuation of the water level in a peat swamp depends mainly on rainfall because
evaporation and (groundwater) outflow are fairly constant. During the wet season
(NovemberFebruary), the rainfall always exceeds the combination of evaporation (Figure 2)
and groundwater run-off. Thus, in this period, the water level is always above the soils
surface (Figure 9). These wet conditions are favourable for peat accumulation. During the
drier months of the year, when dry spells can last for weeks, the water level in the swamp
can drop below the soil surface. Observations in different swamps have shown that the drop
of the water table is not the same throughout the whole swamp. Between the dry and wet
seasons, the water table in a peat swamp can fluctuate up to 0.58 m near the edge of a peat
dome (Tie, 1991). In the centre, the seasonal fluctuation is slightly smaller (0.45 m). The
relatively steep periphery has a deeper water table than the flat centre. Under natural
conditions, fluctuation of the water table will be as follows (Ong and Yogeswaran, 1991):
On hot and non-rainy days, surface water may drop 1015 mm daily.
When initial water levels are below soil surface, the drop is 510 mm.
Water levels drop fastest between 0900 hrs and 1700 hrs
The maximum drop of the water table depends on the length of the dry spell.
The maximum depth of the water table varies for different swamps from 0.31.0 m below
soil surface.

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STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

Figure 9

4.2

April 2002

Example of the fluctuation of the water level in a peat swamp in Penibong,

Central Sarawak in 1991 (Ong and Yogeswaran, 1991).

Discharges / Run-off

Under natural, undrained conditions, there are three types of outflow from the peat body of a
swamp:
Surface run-off or depression flow;
Sub-surface flow or interflow, and;
Deep groundwater flow.
Because of the predominantly high water levels in a peat swamp, surface flow will account
for most of the natural outflow (Table 4). In the study, conducted in the Kut Catchment in

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STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

Central Sarawak, groundwater flow formed only a small component of the water balance, but
it was still about 170 mm/year. Interflow, which is defined as the flow that takes place
through an upper soil layer of higher permeability, was about 340 mm/year. Because the
responses of the swamp were measured in an artificial drain, the results of the study may
not be fully representative of a natural situation.

Table 4

4.3

Water balance of Kpg. Kut catchment, Pulau Bruit (June 1988June 1989)
(SWRS, 1997)

P (mm/y)

E (mm/y)

Q (mm/y)

2789

1248

1541
Qsurface

Qinter

Qground

As a percentage of Q:

67%

22%

11%

As a percentage of P:

37%

12%

6%

Storage Capacity

In peat, rainfall can easily infiltrate into the soil. The storage capacity of peat works as a
buffer during times of heavy rainfall; the deeper the water table, the larger the storage
capacity. Although tropical peat has a high drainage pore space (in Sarawak it varies
between 0.3 and 0.85), the water storage capacity in the peat is relatively small, because
under natural, undrained, conditions, the water table fluctuates around the soil surfaces.
Even in dry periods, when the water table can drop to 0.6 m below soil surface, the storage
capacity in the soil will only be in the same order of magnitude as rainstorm with a 1-year
return period.

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April 2002

Gaps in knowledge

5.1

Climate changes:
5.1.1 Rainfall: total rainfall and distribution
5.1.2 Dry periods: frequency and duration

5.2

Hydrology
5.2.1 Run-off under natural conditions: percentage Surface run-off or depression
flow, sub-surface flow or interflow, and deep groundwater flow.
5.2.1 Water storage capacity of reclaimed peat soils
5.2.2 Relation between water table and peat accumulation or oxidation
5.2.3 Soil hydrologic characteristics of the deep peat: hydraulic conductivity,
saturated thickness, transmissivity, drainable pore space and storativity.
5.2.4 Catchment changes after reclamation
5.2.5 Effect of buffer zoning

5.3

Water Management
5.3.1 Water level control: maintaining a high water table.
5.3.2 Water storage in the canal system/ removal of excess rainfall
5.3.3 Effect of subsidence on the canal system
5.3.4 Operation and maintenance of the water management system

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STRAPEAT Status Report Hydrology

April 2002

References
Agrosol. 1997. Soil/Peat Drainability and Oil Palm Feasibility Studies of Balingian Rural
Growth Centre.
Alan Tan and Lim Hiok Hwa 1999. 1999. Peat hydrology and water management. In:
Proceedings Workshop on Working Towards Integrated Peatland Management for
Sustainable Development, 17-18 August 99, Kuching, 11 pp.
Department of Irrigation and Drainage & LAWOO, 1996. Western Johore Integrated
Agricultural Development Project, peat soil management study. Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia and Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Department of Irrigation and Drainage. 1962/97. Hydrological Yearbooks: edition 1962-1997.
Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Sarwak.
Department of Irrigation and Drainage. 2001. Water Management Guidelines for Agricultural
Development in Lowland Peat Swamps of Sarawak. Department of Irrigation and
Drainage, Sarawak.
Kselik, R.A.L., K.W. Smilde, H.P. Ritzema, Kasdi Subagyono, S. Saragih, Mauliana Damanik
and H. Suwardjo. 1993. Integrated research on water management, soil fertility and
cropping systems on acid sulphate soils in South Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: D.L. Dent
and M.E.F. van Mensvoort (eds.), Selected papers of the Ho Chi Minh City Symposium
on acid sulphate soils. ILRI Publication 53: pp. 177-194.
Melling, L. 2000. Dalat and Mukah sago plantation peat soil study. Final Report. Soil Branch,
Department of Agriculture Sarawak.
Ong,B.Y. and Yogeswaran,M., 1991. Peatland as a resource for water supply in Sarawak.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatland. Kuching, Sarawak.
PS Konsultant 1998. Detailed Design and Construction Supervision of Flood Protection and
Drainage Facilities for Balingian RGC Agricultural Development Project, Sibu Division,
Sarawak (Inception Report), Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Kuching. pp.24.
Ritzema, H.P., Mutalib Mat Hassan, A. and Moens, R.P. 1998. A New Approach to Water
management of Tropical Peatlands: A Case Study from Malaysia. Irrigation and
Drainage Systems 12 (1998) 2, p.123-139.
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