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to emerge and developed into a trait of many cities which then became a subject of amplified
critiques since this type of development has considerable social, environmental and economic
drawbacks (Ewing 1997; Frumkin, Frank, & Jackson 2004; Johnson 2001). Nevertheless,
even though this phenomenon is a popular topic for research and debates, there is little
agreement on many aspects of it. Defining characteristics and impacts of urban sprawl still
remain as a field that worth to explore.
Holcombe (1999) suggests four main features of sprawl which echo Breheny, 1997s earlier
definition of sprawl. These include leapfrog development, commercial strip development, low
density, and single-use development. Leapfrog can be described as the development of new
residential areas that are far away from an urban precinct. Most of the time, the developers
chose the areas to have a benefit of cheaper price, leaving more expensive empty areas near
the city. As a consequence, walking and bicycling become impractical since people live far
away from the places to go to work, shop, or school.
The second characteristic, known as strip development, is the development of very low
density areas and is typified by retails that are arranged in long blocks and surrounded by
large parking lots. Because of the stretched nature of the retail outlets and lack of concern for
pedestrian needs, a travel from one outlet to another are often made by car. The third, and
probably most recognizable characteristic of urban sprawl, is its low density. (Holcombe
1999) expresses the density of urban sprawl as in between that of the crowded urban centre
and rural neighbourhood.
Beside population density, the compactness of an area can also be measured by floor area
ratio (FAR), a ratio of the floor part of a building divided by the total land size (parcel).
Suburban neighbourhoods which are often associated with sprawling area generally have an
FAR between 0.05 and 0.18. This is quite low in comparison with urban interior densities that
can be 0.88 up to 5.05 (Holcombe 1999). Finally, other characteristic of urban sprawl is
single-use development. Sprawling zones may be portrayed as environments in which people
settle in low density neighbourhoods where the land is dedicated for one purpose only (i.e.
housing). Therefore, sprawling areas usually are not equipped with adequate public space and
services.
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In various planning literatures, urban sprawl is regarded as the cause for a range of problems.
Sprawl, for example, triggers traffic congestion by increasing car use, reduces rainwater
absorption by consuming large areas of natural green covers, encourages excessive land use
(due to under-valued open space in suburban areas), and promotes socioeconomic isolation
by supporting the practice of segregated housing markets (Frumkin 2002). Furthermore,
sprawl is also suspected to be responsible for several public health problems, taking in
growing obesity cases, air and water pollution, and mental health as the emerging issues
(Ewing, et al. S 2003; Frumkin 2002).
However, it is important to bear in mind that there are also positive sides of urban sprawl,
which perhaps have contributed to its dominance as an urban form. (Frumkin 2002) describe
that urban sprawl has allowed people to have less expensive homes on large land sited away
from noisy and overcrowded city centres. Furthermore, this type of neighbourhood also
enabled its residents to enjoy the ease of movement since the infrastructure planning such as
roads and high ways design gave emphasis to automobile travelling. Therefore, it is essential
to acknowledge that at the individual level, living in a sprawling community is quite
appealing as having a house in a large lot and exclusive neighbourhood with automobile
convenience is still considered as a sign of success.
Compact City Concept
Urban sprawl is just about unanimously criticised because it led to unsustainable cities
(Ewing, 1997; 1996; Holcombe, 1999; Joshuaisd, 2000). Many urban planning literatures
emphasise that action must be taken to achieve sustainable urban areas (Ewing, 1997;
Williams, 1999; Burton, 2000). In answering this challenge, literature in the early 1990s
proposed the compact city concept: a model of urban intensification that hypothetically
would reduce car use, stop urban expansion to rural area, promote social equity, and
contribute to long-term sustainability of urban areas (Jenks et. al., 1996).
Many of the literatures understand compact city as a mixed-use city, relatively high-density,
based on a well-organized public transport system and dimensions that support walking and
cycling (Burton, 2000). Having these characteristics, the model has a potential to overcome
urban sprawl issue. Compact city guiding principles were often designed to reduce the use of
private cars, promote public transport and stop the urban expansion to rural area. However,
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supporters of the concept claim that there are more than just environmental benefits that can
be achieved from compacting urban zone. For example, higher density community is believed
to be more socially sustainable because local facilities and services can be maintained
(Williams, 1999).
Furthermore, the transformation of local economy, particularly in city centre areas can
potentially also be achieved through intensification. Therefore, hypothetically, it seemed that
compact city concept is a way to achieve a sustainable city as well as a solution to deal with
urban sprawl problem.
Critique of Compact City
However, since the mid 1990s the compact city model has been questioned on three main
areas: whether it can provide its supposed benefits towards sustainability, whether it is viable
enough to be implemented in the urban environment, and whether it is acceptable to the local
communities regarding such changes they have to deal with (Breheny, 1997). Some of these
challenges occur because of the complexity of the compact city concept and the vagueness of
its definition. Actually, urban compaction has been implemented around the globe in many
different ways, from re-activation of an abandoned sites and implementation of the ideal
number of person per space in UK, the establishment of urban growth limits in the USA, to
the endorsement of medium density housing in Australia and New Zealand. In addition to
confirming the ambiguity the compact city model, this range of ways also illustrates how
each country has modified the concept to go well with local conditions and promote urban
sustainability in a way that is feasible and acceptable regarding their local environments.
In the urban perspective, despite the fact that the compact city model might not give all the
solutions to a more sustainable future as the critiques of it are in many way quite legitimate, it
has recognised the need to conduct urban planning on a much detailed scale to facilitate the
integration various aspects of city planning so that is more sustainable. As the compact city
hypothesis suggest, there is at least the capability for urban areas to function in a more
environmentally friendly, socially equitable and economically feasible way; the only problem
left is how to achieve it
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Achieving Sustainability
Porta and Renne (2005) underline eight urban fabric indicators which are considered to be
important elements that shape the sustainability of urban environment, including:
accessibility, diversity, public/private space, natural supervision, permeability/connectivity,
employment density, number of buildings, and number of lots. Besides these general
indicators, more detailed street indicators were also used by Porta and Renne to assess the
sustainability of urban designs. the indicators such as sky coverage, width, continuity,
softness, , visual complexity, , the apparent number of buildings, and seating opportunities
can inspire the broader urban fabric indicators that affect sustainability (Porta and Renne,
2005). What is more, by establishing higher-density urban environments through improving
the elements of a variety of urban design indicators, the negative image of urban
intensification can be diminished.
In response to the critiques of compact city concept, recent literature has also payed more
attention to giving rise to a variety of urban forms and sustainability that are presumably
appropriate to the area they are to be put into practice (Guy and Marvin, 2000). Furthermore,
there are also greater interest upon the design, functions and processes the city development
and how they can make a different toward sustainability, rather than just concerning the
density which became the focus of most literature throughout the 1990s (Vallance S, Perkins
C, & Dixon, J 2009). Nonetheless, the form of a city still plays an important role in shaping
sustainability of its future. Since the negative impact of urban sprawl on environmental,
economic and social become progressively more noticeable through traffic congestion, social
isolation and the constant loss of significant land because of urban expansion, it is obvious
that maintaining this type of development in the future will be greatly unsustainable.
Therefore, fundamental changes need to be made, not only to the density of urban
environment but also to the cultural attitudes that have resulted in the dominance of urban
sprawl, in order to achieve a more sustainable future.
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Conclusion
This paper has discussed the negative impacts of urban sprawl that leads to unsustainable
environment and become dominant throughout developed world cities. Understanding the
attractiveness of urban sprawl at the individual level is essential to formulate a new urban
form that is attractive enough so that it is feasible to be implemented and gain no resistant
from local community. Finding solutions to the urban sprawl has dominated urban planning
literature for decade. Many literatures suggested a compact city as a cure for urban sprawl
problem. By focusing on quality urban design, ensuring new, higher-density developments is
one way compact development can be made as attractive as the urban sprawl. Therefore,
shifting from urban sprawl to compact city is not an easy task to accomplish. It is cannot be
implemented unless there are acceptance from of higher-density living in the wider
community.
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Referent List
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