Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Introduction

Useful and versatile laboratory instrument

Allows the user to see the amplitude of electrical signals as a function of time on
the screen.
Studying wave shapes of alternating currents and voltages
Measurement of voltage, current, power and frequency
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Introduction
Very fast X-Y plotter displaying an i/p signal v/s time or v/s another i/p signal
Stylus of the plotter being a luminous spot (produced by a beam of electrons
striking a fluorescent screen) which moves over a screen in response to an i/p
voltage.
Projectile analogy horizontal (time) and vertical (i/p signal) deflection
Block Diagram

Basic Principle
Cathode ray tube (CRT), which is the heart of the oscilloscope, generates the
electron beam, accelerates the beam to a high velocity, deflects the beam to create
the image, and contains a phosphor screen where the electron beam eventually
becomes visible .
The power supply circuit provides various electrical signals and voltages for
accomplishing these tasks Low voltage supply is required for the heater of the
electron gun for generation of electron beam and high voltage, of the order of few
thousand volts, is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam. Normal
voltage supply, say a few hundred volts, is required for other control circuits of
the oscilloscope.
Horizontal and vertical deflection plates are fitted between electron gun and
screen to deflect the beam according to input signal.
The signal to be viewed is supplied to the vertical deflection plates through the
vertical amplifier, which raises the potential of the input signal to a level that will
provide usable deflection of the electron beam.
Time base generates a saw tooth, variable in frequency and amplitude. As the saw
tooth voltage rises, it causes the spot to sweep from left to right, across the face of
the CRT. When the saw tooth suddenly falls to zero, the spot flies back to the left

of the screen ready for another sweep. The beam is cut off during the flyback
time.
The combination of forces produces a display which represents the input signal.
A triggering circuit is provided for synchronizing two types of deflections so that
horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical signal each time
it sweeps. The input signal is sampled by the trigger circuit and used to ensure
that the time base runs at exactly the same frequency as the input signal
The sweep trigger generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the cycle
of the trigger signal.
This pulse turns on the sweep generator initiating the sawtooth wave form.

CRT Heart of CRO

Electron gun for producing a stream of electrons

Focusing and accelerating anodes for producing a narrow and sharply focused
electron beam
Horizontal and vertical deflection plates for controlling the beam path
An evacuated glass envelope with phosphorescent screen giving bright spot
when struck by a high velocity electron beam
CRT Internal structure

CRT - Electron Gun Assembly

Consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control grid surrounding the cathode, a
focusing anode and an accelerating anode
Function of the electron gun assembly is to provide a focused electron beam
which is accelerated towards the phosphor screen.
cathode is a nickel cylinder coated with an oxide coating and emits plenty of
electrons, when heated.
CRT Control Grid
Control grid is a metal cylinder covered at one end, with a small hole in the cover,
kept at negative potential (variable) w.r.t cathode and its function is to vary the
electron emission and so the brilliancy of the spot on the phosphor screen.
Hole in the grid is provided to allow passage for electrons through it and
concentrate the beam of electrons along the axis of tube
CRT Anodes
Pre-accelerating anode, a hollow cylinder, is at a potential of few hundred volts
more positive than the cathode so as to accelerate the electron beam.
This accelerated beam would be scattered now because of variations in energy
and would produce a broad ill-defined spot on the screen.
This electron beam is focused on the screen by an electrostatic lens consisting of
two more cylindrical anodes called the focusing anode and accelerating anode .
The function of these anodes is to concentrate and focus the beam on the screen
and also to accelerate the speed of electrons.
Electrostatic Focusing System

Electrostatic lens consists of three anodes, with the middle anode at a lower
potential than the other two electrodes.
Force on the electron is exerted in the direction normal to the equipotential
surface.
Equipotential surface acts as a concave lens in geometrical optics. That is why,
this focusing system is named as an electrostatic lens.
Deflection Plate Assembly
One pair of deflection plates is mounted vertically and deflects the beam in
horizontal or X-direction and so called the horizontal plates and the other pair is

mounted horizontally and deflects the beam in vertical or Y-direction and called
the vertical plates.
These plates are to deflect the beam according to the voltage applied across them.
For example if a constant pd is applied to the set of Y-plates, the electron beam
will be deflected upward if the upper plate is positive. In case the lower plate is
positive then the beam will be deflected downward.
Screen For CRT
Some crystalline materials, such a phosphor, have property of emitting light when
exposed to radiation. (fluorescence). These fluorescent materials continue to emit
light even after radiation exposure is cut off. (phosphorescence). The length of
time during which phosphorescence occurs is called the persistence of the
phosphor.
The end wall of the CRT, called the screen, is coated with phosphor.
When electron beam strikes the CRT screen, a spot of light is produced on the
screen. Phosphor absorbs kinetic energy of the bombarding electrons and emits,
energy at a lower frequency in a visual spectrum.
Glass Body And Base
The whole assembly - protected in a conical highly evacuated glass housing
through suitable supports.
The inner walls of CRT between neck and screen are usually coated with a
conducting material known as aquadag and this coating is electrically connected
to the accelerating anode. The coating is provided in order to accelerate the
electron beam after passing between the deflecting plates and to collect the
electrons produced by secondary emission when electron beam strikes the screen.
Thus the coating prevents the formation of ve charge on the screen and state of
equilibrium of screen is maintained.
Horizontal and vertical marks are marked on the screen of the CRT to provide
user a correct measurement. These marks, usually in rectangular form, are called
graticule.
CRO Controls
Number of controls - facilitate proper functioning.
Vertical Deflection System.
The function of vertical deflection system is to provide an amplified signal of the
proper level to drive the vertical deflection plates without introducing any
appreciable distortion into the system.
The vertical amplifier is required to provide this desired gain from milli-volt input
to several hundred volt (peak to peak) output.
Delay Circuit
Electrical signal is delayed by a certain amount of time when transmitted through
an electronic circuitry.
In CRO, output signal voltage of the vertical amplifier is fed to the vertical plates
of CRT and some of its portion is used for triggering the time base generator
circuit, whose output is supplied to the horizontal deflection plates through
horizontal amplifier.

The whole process, which includes generating and shaping of a trigger pulse and
starting of a time-base generator and then its amplification, takes time of the order
of 100 ns or so.
So the input signal of the vertical deflection plates of a CRT is to be delayed by at
least the same or little more amount of time. For this purpose, delay line circuit is
introduced between vertical amplifier and the plates of CRT.
Horizontal Deflection System
The horizontal amplifier, similar to the vertical amplifier, increases the amplitude
of the input signal to the level required by the horizontal deflection plates of CRT.
External signal is applied to horizontal deflection plates through the horizontal
amplifier at the sweep selector switch in EXT position
When the function of time is required to be displayed on the screen of CRT, INT
position of sweep selector switch is used
Horizontal Deflection System Contd
Assume that we supply an ideal saw-tooth signal voltage to the horizontal
deflection plates, keeping vertical deflection plates at zero potential,
The spot moves from left to right over the same path again for every cycle of sawtooth voltage applied to the horizontal deflection plates, so a horizontal line appears on the screen of CRO. (it) The spot moves from left to right on the screen
with the uniform speed. Thus it produces a linear time base to display function of
time on the screen of CRO.
Sine Wave
Suppose a sine-wave voltage signal y of time period T is applied to the vertical
deflection plates and a saw-tooth voltage signal vh of time period T is applied to
horizontal deflection plates
At zero time, the spot is at extreme left vertically central position on the
screen. Because of zero value of VV and maximum negative values of Vh.
At time T/4, the spot is at one-fourth way on the screen in horizontal direction and
at maximum positive deflection above the centre line in vertical direction because
of maximum positive value of VV.
At time T/2, values of both VV and Vh are zero, so the spot is at the central
position of the screen.
At time 3T/4, the spot is the three-fourth way on the screen in horizontal direction
and at the maximum negative deflection in vertical direction.
Finally, at the end of time T, the spot is at extreme right vertically central position
of the screen and then it moves back to begin a new trace.
In this way, sine-wave voltage applied to the vertical deflection system appears
on the screen.
If the period of sine-wave is reduced to half then two sine-wave cycle appears on
the screen.
Synchronization
Following conditions are to be satisfied in order to have a waveform of the input
signal applied to vertical deflection system as a stationary pattern on the screen of
CRO.

(i) Both horizontal and vertical signals must start at the same instant.
(ii) Ratio of frequency of horizontal and vertical signals should be a rational
or fractional number.
For satisfying the above conditions, sawtooth-wave is generated and synchronised
with the vertical input signal by the trigger circuit and time base generator,
Synchronous selector
A synchronous selector switch is used, as shown in figure, to select the type of
synchronization.
In the internal mode of switch the trigger is obtained from the vertical amplifier,
input of which is signal under measurement.
In the external position of switch, the trigger is obtained from the external source.
In the third position of switch i.e. line, trigger is obtained from the power supply
i.e. 230 V and 50 Hz.
Sweep generators
Two types of sweep generators are usually used.
In the first one sawtooth signal of constant frequency is generated whether there
is any input signal for vertical signal or not. That is why it is called free running
type. In this it is essential to adjust the frequency of the sawtooth to get stationary
pattern.
In the second type of sweep generator, sweep is triggered by the signal under
measurement so there is no need for any adjustment for synchronization
Position Controls
There are two knobs one for controlling the horizontal position and another for
controlling the vertical position.
The spot can be moved to left or right i.e. horizontally with the help of a knob,
which regulates the dc potential applied to the horizontal deflection plates, in
addition to the usual sawtooth-wave.
Similarly the spot can be moved up and down i.e. vertically with the help of
another knob, which regulates the dc potential applied to the vertical deflection
plates in addition to the signal.
Intensity Control
The potential of the control grid with respect to cathode is controlled with the help
of potentiometer in order to control the intensity of brightness of the spot.
Focus Control
In the electron gun of a CRT, middle anode is kept at lower potential with respect
to other two anodes and it acts like an electrostatic lens and focal length of this
lens can be varied by varying the potential of the middle anode with respect to
other two anodes. So focusing of an electron beam is done by varying the
potential of middle anode with the help of a potentiometer, as shown in figure. By
increasing the positive potential applied to the focusing anode the electron beam
can be narrowed and the spot on the screen can be made a pin point.
Astigmatism
This is an additional focusing control and is analogous to astigmatism in optical
lenses. A beam that is focused at the centre of the screen would be defocused at
the edges of the screen because the lengths of the electron paths are different for
the centre and the edges. Adjustment of this control gives a sharp focus over the

entire screen. This control is affected by varying the potential of deflection plates
and accelerating anodes.
Blanking Circuit
Sawtooth sweep voltage is applied to horizontal deflection plates of CRT which
moves the spot on the screen following a straight horizontal line from left to right
during the sweep period. When the spot moves slowly so that its rate of movement exceeds the threshold of persistence vision, the spot appears as a solid line.
Below this threshold limit, only spot or some portion of line after the spot appears. If the movement of the spot is fast, it appears as thin and dim horizontal
line or may be invisible.
Calibration Circuit
Normally an oscillator, which generates a known and fixed voltage in square
waveform is fitted in the CRO for calibration purpose.
CRO Tube Controls
POWER on / off
Scale
Illumination
Focus. Create spot on screen
Intensity. Brightness (Dont burn a spot on your screen)
Vertical Amp
Position on display
Sensitivity of vertical amp Calibrated. Cal fully clockwise.
Variable sensitivity. Continuous range between calibrated steps.
AC - DC - Gnd.
Selects desired coupling for incoming signal, or grounds amp input. DC couples
signal directly to amp. AC connects via a capacitor. (Blocks DC)
Gnd = no signal. Gnd connects Y input to 0 volts. Checks position of 0v on
screen.
Horizontal Sweep
Sweep time / Div (or CM) Select desired sweep rate, or admits external sig to
horiz amp.
Sweep time / Cm Variable Continuously variable sweep rates. Cal is fully
clockwise.
Position Controls horizontal position of trace.
Horizontal variable controls attenuation of signal applied to Horz amp through
Ext Horiz connector.
Trigger Set to Auto or normal
Trigger selects timing of the beginning of the Horizontal sweep.
Slope selects trigger at +ve increasing or -ve decreasing portion of signal.
Coupling Selects whether trigger is at a specific DC or AC level.
Source: Int from Vertical Amp
Ext from Ext Trig Input.
Line AC line 50 (60) HZ

Volts /Div switch

Volts / Div
Variable Fine adjustment
these controls can have a Pull out switch position. May be 5 times mag.

Vertical mode
The operation of vertical deflection plates
Chan 1 and Chan 2 can each operate separately.
Dual. Ch1 and Ch2 are swept alternatively.
Why Dual? Used to measure input and Output signals of a device under test.
Ch1 and Ch2 can be added
Time base
Main, Max, Min, delay.
Selects the sweep for the main mix or delay mode and also X-Y switch
Time/Div provides selection of sweep rates. Range of 0.1 Second, 50 to .1 mS,
50 to 0.1uS per div. Note 5,2,1, sequence.
To determine a frequency use reciprocal.
Frequency = 1/time period (50Hz = 1/20mS)
Time period = 1/Frequency (number of div * ?ms/div. Eg 4div*5ms/div = 20 ms)
Other
Comp Test. Allows individual components to be tested. Connect via banana jacks
to test resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, etc
Cal delivers calibrated voltage e.g. 2v p-p 1KHz square wave for setting scale.
GND. Earth terminal of scope
Connections
Vertical Input
Horizontal Input
External Trigger
Cal. Out
Bandwidth
A 10MHz CRO does not mean it will correctly measure signals at 10MHz.
Vertical Amps are not so wide-band as to amplify all signals. 10MHz is the 3dB
point. A 10MHz signal of 1v will measure 0.707v on the screen.
Clipping introduces odd order harmonics. A CRO operating near the max freq.
will not show the harmonics and you think you are reading a clean signal.
Square waves begin to look like sine waves.
A rule of thumb is 5 times. To measure 2MHZ use a 10MHz CRO. 3 times is
suitable for most Amateur work.
For 7MHz. Times 3 = 21. Use a 20 MHz CRO.
Every CRO will be different
Many instruments made for specific work.
Beam Finder push button

 Trace rotation
Chan 1 Vertical input. During X-Y operation this is X axis (abscissa)
Chan 2 Vertical input Chan 2. During X-Y this becomes ordinate input.
Measuring
Voltage RMS is 0.707 * Vp for Sine and Cosine waveforms.
Hint: Try using a multimeter in parallel until you are happy with the measured
CRO readings.