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Copyright

By

Shehzad Akram Hashmi

2015

The thesis Supervisor for Shehzad Akram Hashmi


Certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis

UNDERGROUND ELECTRIFICATION
SYSTEM

APPROVED BY

Supervisor:

_______________________________
Engineer Hamid Raza
Lecturer (Preston University)

UNDERGROUND ELECTRIFICATION
SYSTEM

By

Shehzad Akram Hashmi


(Reg. No 14P2-214001)

Presented to the Faculty of Preston University in Partial Fulfillment of the


Requirements for the Degree of

B. TECH (Honors)
Electrical

PRESTON UNIVERSITY
Islamabad
August, 2015

DEDICATION
I dedicate this report to my parents, teachers
and all my colleagues.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I especially thank to Engineer Hamid Raza, Lecturer Preston University, who
guided me wherever I suffered from hurdles academically as well as morally. It was
he who under his kind supervision directed me towards successful accomplishment of
goals of thesis and to overcome any stumbling blocks faced. I also thank Mr. Tanvir
Asghar, Manager (Electrical), Habib Rafiq Ltd. (HRL), who gave me technical
support and provided access to the valuable technical data. He also shared with me his
practical expertise and knowledge especially related to cable laying, jointing and
termination. I am really grateful to and appreciate contribution of Mr. Mudassar
Hussain Hashmi, Senior Engineer, Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC),
who guided me regarding technical report writing and provided me very useful tips
and trick. At the end I would like to thank all my colleagues and family members who
supported me morally, ethically and financially owing to which the successful
completion of the thesis was possible.

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ABSTRACT
Communication, electricity and transport lines often require the installation of
underground cables in order to obtain high-level performance and low impact on the
environment. Underground cables need stringing equipment capable of operating
under any condition, always providing good performance, high power and working
accuracy. This report specifies the methods and requirements for the safe and efficient
installation of underground cables in Pakistan.
With proper consideration of the many factors related to design, specification,
manufacturing, installation, and commissioning, underground cable systems can be a
viable alternative to overhead lines where the use of cable is warranted because of
rights-of-way constraints, sensitive areas along the planned route, specialized
obstacles (waterways, bridges, etc.) that must be crossed, concerns about weather
effects and reliability affecting overhead lines, or clearance limitations to get into a
congested substation. Though the material and installation costs of underground
power cables are higher than comparable capacity overhead lines, factors such as real
estate, permitting and constructability can often make underground the preferred
alternative as a complete underground system or portions of a hybrid underground and
overhead circuit.
This report provides an introduction to the cable system types and presents an
overview into considerations for using underground cable systems. The discussion is
focused on transmission cables but also has relevance for distribution cable
applications.
The report starts with standard methods and requirements of cable laying in
trenches. In subsequent section the details of cable preparation, termination, jointing,
and tools used for the purpose are detailed. At the end the methods for underground
cable fault detection and diagnosis are presented.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1.

UNDERGROUND CABLES...........................................................1

1.1

INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................1

1.2

TYPES OF UNDERGROUND POWER CABLES......................................1

1.3

XLPE CABLES (Cross-Linked Polyethylene)..............................................2

1.3.1

Construction of XLPE:...............................................................................2

1.3.2

Properties and Advantages of XLPE:.........................................................4

1.3.3

Applications...............................................................................................5

1.4

SELECTION OF CABLE SIZES..................................................................5

1.5

CABLE STORAGE AND HANDLING........................................................6

1.5.1

Storage........................................................................................................6

1.5.2

Handling.....................................................................................................7

CHAPTER 2.
2.1

CABLE LAYING.............................................................................8

GENERAL.....................................................................................................8

2.1.1

Route..........................................................................................................8

2.1.2

Proximity to Communication Cables.........................................................9

2.1.3

Railway Crossing.......................................................................................9

2.1.4

Way Leave................................................................................................10

2.2

CABLE LAYING EQUIPMENT.................................................................10

2.2.1

Cable Laying Trailer................................................................................10

2.2.2

Cable Pulling Winches.............................................................................11

2.2.3

Cable Roller.............................................................................................12

2.3

LAYING DIRECT IN GROUND................................................................13

2.3.1

General.....................................................................................................13

2.3.2

Trenching.................................................................................................13

2.3.3

Cable Installation Depths.........................................................................18

2.3.4

Back Filling..............................................................................................20

2.3.5

Route Markers..........................................................................................21

2.3.6

Cable Identification Tags.........................................................................22

CHAPTER 3.

JOINTING AND TERMINATION..............................................23

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3.1

CABLE JOINTING.....................................................................................23

3.1.1

Joints Pits.................................................................................................23

3.1.2

Safety Precaution.....................................................................................24

3.1.3

Jointer.......................................................................................................24

3.1.4

Characteristics of Jointing Material.........................................................24

3.2

PROCEDURE OF CABLE JOINTING.......................................................25

3.2.1

Cable Overlap...........................................................................................25

3.2.2

Cable Preparation.....................................................................................25

3.2.3

Core Preparation.......................................................................................26

3.2.4

Completion of the Joint............................................................................30

3.3
3.3.1
3.4
3.4.1

CABLE TERMINATION............................................................................35
Characteristics of Termination Material...................................................35
PROCEDURE OF CABLE TERMINATION..............................................36
Cable Preparation for Termination...........................................................36

CHAPTER 4.
4.1

TESTING OF THE UNDERGROUND CABLES......................41

INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTING....................................................41

4.1.1

Insulation Testing Components................................................................41

4.1.2

Various Insulation Tests...........................................................................43

4.2

CONTINUITY TEST...................................................................................46

4.2.1

Tools & Equipments Required.................................................................46

4.2.2

Test Procedure..........................................................................................47

CHAPTER 5.

CABLE FAULT LOCATING TESTS..........................................48

5.1

BLAVIER TEST..........................................................................................48

5.2

MURRAY LOOP TEST...............................................................................49

5.3

VARLEY LOOP TEST................................................................................51

5.4

FISHER LOOP TEST..................................................................................53

CHAPTER 6.

CABLE FAULT LOCATING INSTRUMENTS.........................55

6.1

SURGE GENERATOR................................................................................55

6.2

CABLE FAULT PINPOINTING EQUIPMENT.........................................56

6.2.1

Surge Detector..........................................................................................56

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6.2.2
6.3

Electromagnetic Impulse Detector...........................................................56


SURGE DETECTION PROCEDURE........................................................57

CHAPTER 7.
7.1

UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS...................59

TYPES OF THE U/G DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS...............................59

7.1.1

Ring Distribution System.........................................................................59

7.1.2

Radial Distribution System......................................................................60

7.1.3

Interconnected System.............................................................................61

7.2

SWITCHGEARS USE IN UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM


62

7.2.1

Ring Main Unit (RMU)............................................................................62

7.2.2

Padmount Transformer.............................................................................65

7.2.3

Padmount 3 Phase Distribution Panel......................................................66

7.2.4

Street Light Control Panel........................................................................67

APPENDIX A:

Arrangement of Cables in Trenches.........................................69

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1: Crimp Lug...................................................................................................38
Table 3-2: Mechanical Lug BLMT..............................................................................38
Table 4-1: Recommended test voltages for routine maintenance insulation-resistance
tests of equipment rated to 4,160V and above.............................................................42
Table 4-2: Listing of Conditions of Insulation as Indicated by Dielectric Absorption
Ratios............................................................................................................................45

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Atypical XLPE Cable..................................................................................3
Figure 1-2: Cable Drum.................................................................................................6
Figure 2-1: Cable Laying Trailer..................................................................................10
Figure 2-2: Cable Pulling Winch..................................................................................11
Figure 2-3: A typical Heavy Duty Cable Roller...........................................................12
Figure 2-4: Cable Laying in Open Trench and Pulling................................................14
Figure 2-5: Excavation of Trenches.............................................................................15
Figure 2-6: Typical Direct Laid Configuration with Single Cable...............................21
Figure 2-7: CC Marker.................................................................................................22
Figure 3-1: A Typical Cable Joint................................................................................23
Figure 3-2: Joint Pits....................................................................................................23
Figure 3-3: Caution Board...........................................................................................24
Figure 3-4: Cable Overleap..........................................................................................25
Figure 3-5: Cable Preparation......................................................................................26
Figure 3-6: Folding Screen Wire..................................................................................26
Figure 3-7: Applying Mastic Tape...............................................................................27
Figure 3-8: Folding Screen Wires Back.......................................................................27
Figure 3-9: Applying Red Mastic Tape........................................................................27
Figure 3-10: Applying Black Tube...............................................................................28
Figure 3-11: Bending Screen Wires Back....................................................................28
Figure 3-12: Removal of Insulation Screen.................................................................28
Figure 3-13: Removal of Insulation.............................................................................29
Figure 3-14: Wrapping the Void Filler.........................................................................29
Figure 3-15: Sliding the Stress Control Tubing...........................................................29

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Figure 3-16: Completion of the Joint...........................................................................30


Figure 3-17: Conductor Fitting....................................................................................30
Figure 3-18: Fitting Connector into the Conductor......................................................31
Figure 3-19: Filling the Hollows over the Sheared-off Bolts.......................................31
Figure 3-20: Removal of Release Paper from the Stress Grading Patch.....................31
Figure 3-21: Positioning the Screened Insulating Sleeve............................................32
Figure 3-22: Wrapping Half-Lapped Layer of Tinned Copper Mesh..........................32
Figure 3-23: Gathering the Screen Wires Together and Cutting Them Centrally........33
Figure 3-24: Inserting the Screen Wires into the Shear Head Connector....................33
Figure 3-25: Wrapping Second Layer of Tinned Copper Mesh...................................33
Figure 3-26: Abrading, Cleaning and Degreasing........................................................34
Figure 3-27: Wrapping Red Sealant Tape....................................................................34
Figure 3-28: Shrinking in the Center...........................................................................34
Figure 3-29: Cooling of the Joint.................................................................................34
Figure 3-30: Medium Voltage Termination System.....................................................35
Figure 3-31: 1) Cutting of Cable & Sheath Removal; 2) Sealant Tape Wrapping.......37
Figure 3-32: 3) Removal of Filler; 4) Cutting the Conductive Tubing........................37
Figure 3-33: 5) Positioning the Conductive Tubing; 6) Pulling Breakout 7) Cutting
Insulation......................................................................................................................38
Figure 3-34: 8) Removing Release Paper; 9) Applying Sealant Mastic; 10) Preheating
Cable Lug.....................................................................................................................39
Figure 3-35: 11) Indoor Termination; 12) Outdoor Termination.................................40
Figure 4-1: Schematic of a Megohmmeter...................................................................42
Figure 4-2: Connection for Testing a Transformer Bushing........................................43
Figure 4-3: Insulation Resistance Test of Motor..........................................................44
Figure 4-4: Insulation Resistance Test of Cable...........................................................44

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Figure 4-5: Schematic of Continuity Test....................................................................46


Figure 5-1: Blavier's Test to Find the Cables Fault Location......................................49
Figure 5-2: Circuit Connection of Murray Loop Test for Ground Fault......................50
Figure 5-3: Circuit Connection of Murray Loop Test for Short Circuit Fault.............50
Figure 5-4: Circuit Connection of Varley Loop Test for Ground Fault........................52
Figure 5-5: Circuit Connection of Varley Loop Test for Short Circuit Fault...............52
Figure 5-6: Circuit Connection (A) for Fisher Loop Test to Locate the Cable Fault...53
Figure 5-7: Circuit Connection (B) for Fisher Loop Test to Locate the Cable Fault...53
Figure 6-1: Surge Generator.........................................................................................55
Figure 6-2: A) Surge Detector, SD-3000; B) Electromagnetic Impulse Detector........56
Figure 6-3: Acoustic/Electromagnetic Pinpointing......................................................58
Figure 6-4: SD-3000 Display at Positions 1, 2, And 3.................................................58
Figure 7-1: Operation of Ring Distribution System.....................................................59
Figure 7-2: Radial Distribution System.......................................................................61
Figure 7-3: Single Line Diagram of Interconnected System.......................................62
Figure 7-4: Ring Main Unit (RMU).............................................................................63
Figure 7-5: Single-Line Representation of a Typical RMU Configuration..................63
Figure 7-6: An Example of Distribution Network With Ring Main Units...................64
Figure 7-7: Padmount Transformer..............................................................................65
Figure 7-8: Padmount 3 Phase Distribution Panel.......................................................66
Figure 7-9: A Typical Street Light Panel......................................................................67

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CHAPTER 1. UNDERGROUND CABLES


1.1

INTRODUCTION
Where general appearance, economics, congestion, or maintenance conditions

make overhead construction inadvisable, underground construction is specified. While


overhead lines have been ordinarily considered to be less expensive and easier to
maintain, developments in underground cables and construction practices have
narrowed the cost gap to the point where such systems are competitive in urban and
suburban residential installations, which constitute the bulk of the distribution
systems. The conductors used underground are insulated for their full length and
several of them may be combined under one outer protective covering. The cables
may be buried directly in the ground, or may be installed in ducts buried in the
ground. Concrete or metal markers are often installed at intervals to show the location
of the cables.
The installation of cable directly in the ground saves the cost of building
conduits and manholes and allows the use of long sections of cable, thereby
eliminating the necessity for a number of splices. The cable may be buried alone in a
trench, or may be buried in a trench together with other facilities, including telephone
cables, gas mains, water, or sewer systems. Sharing the cost of installing such
facilities jointly contributes greatly to the economy of underground distribution
systems. The width and depth of the trench are dictated by the number and type of
facilities to be installed and by National Electric Safety Code (NESC) requirements.
This chapter covers the requirements for the selection, installation and jointing
of Power cables for low, medium and high voltage applications up to and including
33KV.

1.2

TYPES OF UNDERGROUND POWER CABLES


The cables for applications for low and medium voltage (up to and including

1.1KV) supply shall be one of the following:

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i.

PVC insulated and PVC sheathed

ii.

Cross linked polyethylene insulated, PVC sheathed (XLPE)


The cables for applications for high voltage (above 1.1KV but up to and

including 11KV supply) supply shall be one of the following:


i.

PVC insulated and PVC sheathed

ii.

Paper insulated, lead sheathed (PILCA)

iii.

Cross linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated, PVC sheathed


The cables for applications above 11KV but up to and including 33KV supply

shall be one of the following:


i.

Paper insulated lead sheathed (PILCA)

ii.

Cross linked, polyethylene insulated (XLPE)


The cables shall be with solid or stranded aluminum conductors, as specified.

Copper conductors may be used, only in special applications, where use of aluminum
conductor is not technically acceptable. Where paper insulated cables are used in
predominantly vertical situation, these shall be of non-draining type. Mostly use
XLPE cable in underground high voltage power system, so now we discuss about
XLPE cable.

1.3

XLPE CABLES (Cross-Linked Polyethylene)


A typical XLPE cable is shown in Figure 1 -1.

1.3.1 Construction of XLPE:


An XLPE Cable normally consists of following components.
1)

Conductor:
The conductors made from electrical purity aluminum wires, are stranded

together and compacted. All sizes of conductors of single or three core cables are
circular in shape. Conductor construction and testing comply to IS 8130 - 1984.
Cables with copper conductor can also be offered.

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Figure 1-1: Atypical XLPE Cable

2)

Insulation:
High quality XLPE unfilled insulating compound of natural color is used for

insulation. Insulation is applied by extrusion process and is chemically cross linked by


continuous vulcanization process.
3)

Shielding
All XLPE cables rated above 3.3 kV are provided with both conductor

shielding and insulation shielding. Both conductor and insulation shielding consists of
extruded semi conducting compound. Additionally, insulation is provided with semiconducting tape and non-magnetic metallic tape screen over the extruded insulation.
Conductor shielding XLPE insulation and insulation shielding are all extruded in one
operation by a special process. This process ensures perfect bonding of inner and
outer shielding with insulation.
4)

Inner Sheath (Common Covering)


In case of multi-core cables, cores are stranded together with suitable non-

hygroscopic fillers in the interstices and provided with common covering of plastic

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tape wrapping. As an alternative to wrapped inner sheath, extruded PVC inner sheath
can also be provided.
5)

Armouring
Armouring is applied over the inner sheath and normally comprises of flat

steel wires (strips) for multi core cables. Alternatively, round steel wire armouring can
also be offered. Single core armoured cables are provided with non-magnetic armour
consisting of hard drawn flat or round aluminum wires.
6)

Outer Sheath :
A tough outer sheath of heat resisting Tropodur (PVC) compound (Type ST2

as per IS 5831) is extruded over the armouring in case of armoured cables or over
non-magnetic metallic tape covering the insulation or over the non-magnetic metallic
part of insulation screening in case of un-armoured single core cables. This is always
black in color for best resistance to outdoor exposure. The outer sheath is embossed
with the voltage grade and the year of manufacture. The embossing repeats every
300/350 mm along the length of the cable.

1.3.2 Properties and Advantages of XLPE:


Given below are some outstanding features of XLPE cables.
1. High Continuous Current Rating: Its ability to withstand higher operating
temperature of 90oC enables much higher current ratings than those of PVC or
PILC cables.
2. High Short Circuit Rating: Maximum allowable conductor temperature
during short circuit of 250oC is considerably higher than for PVC or PILC
cables resulting in greater short circuit withstand capacity.
3. High Emergency Load Capacity: XLPE cables can be operated even at 1300
C during emergency, therefore in systems where cables are installed in
parallel, failure of one of two cables will not bring down the system capacity
because the remaining cables can carry the additional load even for longer
duration until repairs / replacements are carried out.

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4. Low Dielectric Losses: XLPE cables have low dielectric loss angle. The
dielectric losses are quadratically dependent on the voltage. Moreover, these
losses occur continuously in every charged cable whether it carries load or not.
Hence use of XLPE cable at higher voltages would result in considerable
saving in costs.
5. Charging Currents: The charging currents are considerably lower permitting
close setting of protection relays.
6. Easy Laying and Installation: Low weight and small bending radii make
laying and installation of cable very easy. The cable requires less supports due
to low weight.
7. High Safety: High safety against mechanical damage and vibrations

1.3.3 Applications
Because of the excellent mechanical and electrical properties XLPE cables are
being used extensively in all power stations and in industrial plants. They are ideally
suited for chemical and fertilizer industries where cables are exposed to chemical
corrosion or in heavy industries where cables are exposed to chemical corrosion or in
heavy industries where severe load fluctuations occur and for systems where there are
frequent over voltages.
Cables can also be used at higher ambient temperature on account of their
higher operating temperature. There excellent installation properties permit the cable
to be used even under most difficult cable routing conditions and also in cramped
conditions e.g. City distribution network. Single core cables due to their excellent
installation properties are used in power stations, sub stations and industrial plants
with advantage.

1.4

SELECTION OF CABLE SIZES


The cable sizes shall be selected by considering the voltage drop in the case of

MV (distribution) cables and Current carrying capacity in the case of HV (feeder)


cables. Due consideration should be given for the Prospective short circuit current and

Page 5

the period of its flow, especially in the case of HV cables. While deciding upon the
cable sizes, de-rating factors for the type of cable and depth of laying, grouping,
ambient temperature, ground temperature, and soil resistivity shall be taken into
account.

1.5

CABLE STORAGE AND HANDLING


1.5.1 Storage
i.

The cable drums shall be stored on a well drained, hard surface so that
the drums do not sink in the ground causing rot and damage to the cable
drums (see Figure 1 -2). Paved surface is preferred, particularly for long
term storage.

ii.

The drums shall always be stored on their flanges, and not on their flat
sides.

iii.

Both ends of the cables especially of PILCA cables should be properly


sealed to prevent ingress/ absorption of moisture by the insulation during
storage.

iv.

Protection from rain and sun is preferable for long term storage for all
types of cables. There should also ventilation between cable drums.

Figure 1-2: Cable Drum

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v.

During storage, periodical rolling of drums once in, say, 3 months


through 90 degrees shall be done, in the case of paper insulated cables.
Rolling shall be done in the direction of the arrow marked on the drum.

vi.

Damaged battens of drums etc. should be replaced as may be necessary.

1.5.2 Handling
i.

When the cable drums have to be moved over short distances, they
should be rolled in the direction of the arrow marked on the drum.

ii.

For manual transportation over long distances, the drum should be


mounted on cable drum wheels, strong enough to carry the weight of the
drum and pulled by means of ropes. Alternatively, they may be mounted
on a trailer or on a suitable mechanical transport.

iii.

For loading into and unloading from vehicles, a crane or a suitable lifting
tackle should be used. Small sized cable drums can also be rolled down
carefully on a suitable ramp or rails, for unloading, provided no damage
is likely to be caused to the cable or to the drum.

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CHAPTER 2. CABLE LAYING


In this chapter method of cable laying and precautionary measures to be taken
during laying of cables is discussed.

2.1

GENERAL
Following measures should be taken while cable laying.
i.

Cables with kinks, straightened kinks or any other apparent defects like
defective armouring etc. shall not be installed.

ii.

Cables shall not be bent sharp to a small radius either while handing or in
installation. The minimum safe bending radius for PVC/XLPE (MV)
cables shall be 12 times the overall diameter of the cable. The minimum
safe bending radius for PILCA/XLPE (HV) cables shall be as given in
Table-II. At joints and terminations, the bending radius of individual
cores of a multi core cable of any type shall not be less than 15 times its
overall diameter.

iii.

The ends of lead sheathed cables shall be sealed with solder immediately
after cutting the cables. In case of PVC cables, suitable sealing
compound/tape shall be used for this purpose, if likely exposed to rain in
transit storage. Suitable heat shrinkable caps may also be used for the
purpose.

2.1.1 Route
i.

Before the cable laying work is undertaken, the route of the cable shall
be decided by the Engineer-in-Charge considering the following.

ii.

While the shortest practicable route should be preferred, the cable route
shall generally follow fixed developments such as roads, foot paths etc.
with proper offsets so that future maintenance, identification etc. are
rendered easy. Cross country run merely to shorten the route length shall
not be adopted.

Page 8

iii.

Cable route shall be planned away from drains and near the property,
especially in the case of LV/MV cables, subject to any special local
requirements that may have to be necessarily complied with.

iv.

As far as possible, the alignment of the cable route shall be decided after
taking into consideration the present and likely future requirements of
other services including cables enroute, possibility of widening of
roads/lanes etc.

v.

Corrosive soils, ground surrounding sewage effluent etc. shall be


avoided for the routes.

vi.

Route of cables of different voltages.


a.

Whenever cables are laid along well demarcated or established


roads, the LV/MV cables shall be laid farther from the kerb line
than HV cables.

b.

Cables of different voltages, and also power and control cables


shall be kept in different trenches with adequate separation.
Where available space is restricted such that this requirement
cannot be met, LV/MV cables shall be laid above HV cables.

c.

Where cables cross one another, the cable of higher voltage


shall be laid at a lower level than the cable of lower voltage.

2.1.2 Proximity to Communication Cables


Power and communication cables shall as far as possible cross each other at
right angles. The horizontal and vertical clearances between them shall not be less
than 60cm.

2.1.3 Railway Crossing


Cables under railway tracks shall be laid in spun reinforced concrete, or cast
iron or steel pipes at such depths as may be specified by the railway authorities, but
not less than 1m, measured from the bottom of the sleepers to the top of the pipe.
Inside railway station limits, pipes shall be laid up to the point of the railway station

Page 9

limits, pipes shall be laid up to a minimum distance of 3m from the center of the
nearest track on either side.

2.1.4 Way Leave


Way leave for the cable route shall be obtained as necessary, from the
appropriate

authorities,

such

as,

Municipal

authorities,

Department

of

telecommunication, Gas Works, Railways, Civil Aviation authorities, Owners of


properties etc.

2.2

CABLE LAYING EQUIPMENT


2.2.1 Cable Laying Trailer
Cable Trailer (see Figure 1 -1) is use for cable laying. It is also use for cable

Drum handling, cable drum move from one place to another very easy and safe. The
typical diagram of cable Trailer and its specification is given below.

Figure 2-3: Cable Laying Trailer

2.2.1.1 Specification

Axle Type: Multi Axle

Payload (Approx): 50,000Kgs

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Gross Vehicle Weight: 57,000Kgs

Maximum Drum Width: 37000mm

Drum Diameter: 5000mm Max, 2900mm Min

Spindle Diameter: 152mm

Trailer Width: 5200mm

Towing Speed: 10kmh

Types Main Axle: 14.00x24

2.2.2 Cable Pulling Winches


A range of trailer mounted cable pulling winches is required for the installation
of power cables where high pulling tensions are required. All of the units are designed
with the operator in mind.
A typical cable pulling winch is shown in Figure 2 -4. Simple in operation and
robustly engineered, these units are fitted with heavy duty diesel engines powering
hydraulic transmission for smooth controlled pulling, and are fitted with a console
mounted line tension indicator so that at all times the operator has a visual display of
the pulling force applied. All of the Winches can be quickly pre-set so they do not
exceed the required pulling tension.

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Figure 2-4: Cable Pulling Winch

This is our 3 tonne capacity single capstan winch and is a great asset to any
Multi Utility business. It is fitted with a free spooling payout system which makes it a
one man only operation. The unit is fitted with a pull load indicator with read out via
dial gauge.
2.2.2.1 Technical Specification

Power unit diesel engine, rated at 13kw, at 3600 rpm, main drive system single
capstan.

Rewind drum drive hydraulic driven for rope tension.

Cable pay out free spooling

Pull load indicator dial gauge for pressure / tonnes pull

Oil cooler fitted with thermostat fan.

Rewind drum 400 mtrs. 10mm dia rope. (mounted under rewind drum)

Rope pull/speed 0.5 tonne 30 mtr/min 1.5 tonne 22mtr/min 3.0 tonne 7
mtr/min capacity (max)

Rope layering free moving layering arm

2.2.3 Cable Roller

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The main feature of the heavy duty cable roller (see Figure 2 -5) is the full
rounded edges of the frame that protect the cable in the event of the roller falling or
flipping over. This is why it is known as the 'SAFE' roller.

Figure 2-5: A typical Heavy Duty Cable Roller

2.2.3.1 Technical Specification

Size: 41cm Long x 20.5cm Wide x 22cm High.

Steel Roller Diameter: 110mm Diameter.

Cable Capacity: 130mm diameter.

Weight: 3.5Kg

Finish: Bright Zinc plated.

2.3

LAYING DIRECT IN GROUND


2.3.1 General
This method shall be adopted where the cable route is through open ground,

along roads/lanes, etc. and where no frequent excavations are likely to be encountered
and where re-excavation is easily possible without affecting other services. The
general method of cable laying in open trenches is show in .Figure 2 -6

2.3.2 Trenching
Method of trenching is discussed in following sections.

Page 13

i.

Width of Trench
The width of the trench shall first be determined on the following basis
a.

The minimum width of the trench for laying a single cable shall
be 35cm.

b.

Where more than one cable is to be laid in the same trench in


horizontal formation, the width of the trench shall be increased
otherwise specified, shall be at least 20cm.

c.

There such that the inter-axial spacing between the cables,


except where shall be a clearance of at least 15cm between axis
of the end cables and the sides of the trench.

Page 14

Figure 2-6: Cable Laying in Open Trench and Pulling

Page 15

ii.

Excavation of Trenches
a. The trenches shall be excavated in reasonably straight lines.
Wherever there is a change in the direction, a suitable curvature
shall be adopted complying with the requirements of clause
2.6.1(ii).
b. Where gradients and changes in depth are unavoidable, these shall
be gradual.
c. The bottom of the trench shall be level and free from stones, brick
bats etc. (see Figure 2 -7)

Figure 2-7: Excavation of Trenches

d. The excavation should be done by suitable means-manual or


mechanical. The excavated soil shall be stacked firmly by the side
of the trench such that it may not fall back into the trench.
e. Adequate precautions should be taken not to damage any existing
cable(s), pipes or any other such installations in the route during
excavation. Wherever tricked, tiles or protective covers or bare
cables are encountered, further excavation shall not be carried out
without the approval of the Engineer-in-Charge.
f. Existing property, if any, exposed during trenching shall be
temporarily supported adequately as directed by the Engineer-in-

Page 16

Charge. The trenching in such cases shall be done in short lengths,


necessary pipes laid for passing cables therein and the trench
refilled in accordance with clause 2.6.7.4.
g. It there is any danger of a trench collapsing or endangering
adjacent structures, the sides may be left in place when back filling
the trench.
h. Excavation through lawns shall be done in consultation with the
Department concerned
2.3.2.1 Laying of Cable in Trench
Steps are below:
i.

Sand cushioning
The trench shall then be provided with a layer of clean, dry sand cushion
of not less than 8cm in depth, before laying the cables therein. However,
sand cushioning need not be provided for MV cables, where there is no
possibility of any mechanical damage to the cables due to heavy or shock
loading on the soil above. Such stretches shall be clearly specified in the
tender documents. Sand cushioning shall however be invariably provided
in the case of HV cables.

ii.

Testing before laying


All the time of issue of cables for laying, the cables shall be tested for
continuity and insulation resistance.

iii.

The cable drum shall be properly mounted on jacks, or on a cable wheel at


a suitable location, making sure that the spindle, jack etc. are strong
enough to carry the weight of the drum without failure, and that the spindle
is horizontal in the bearings so as to prevent the drum creeping to one side
while rotating.

iv.

The cable shall be pulled over on rollers in the trench steadily and
uniformly without jerks and strain. The entire cable length shall as far as
possible be laid off in one stretch. PVC/XLPE cables less than 120sq.mm.

Page 17

Size may be removed by Flaking i.e. by making one long loop in the
reverse direction.
Note:
For short runs and sizes upto 50sq.mm. of MV cables, any other suitable
method of direct handing and laying can be adopted without strain or
excess bending of the cables.
v.

After the cable has been so uncoiled, it shall be lifted slightly over the
rollers beginning from one and by helpers standing about 10m apart and
drawn straight. The cable shall then be lifted off the rollers and laid in a
reasonably straight line.

vi.

Testing Before Covering


The cables shall be tested for continuity of cores and insulation resistance
and the cable length shall be measured, before closing the trench. The
cable end hall be sealed /covered.

vii.

Sand covering
Cables laid in trenches in a single tier formation shall have a covering of
dry sand of not less than 17cm above the base cushion of sand before the
protective cover is laid. In the case of vertical multi-tier formation, after
the first cable has been laid, a sand cushion of 30cm shall be provided over
the base cushion before the second tier is laid.

viii.

Extra loop cable


a.

At the time of original installation, approximately 3m of surplus


cable shall be left on each terminal end of the cable and on each
side of the underground joints. The surplus cable shall be left in
the form of a loop. Where there are long runs of cables such
loose cable may be left at suitable intervals as specified by the
Engineer-in-Charge.

b.

Where it may not be practically possible to provide separation


between cables when forming loops of a number of cables as in

Page 18

the case of cables emanating from a substation, measurement


shall be made only to the extent of actual volume of excavation,
sand filling etc. and paid for accordingly.
ix.

Mechanical protection over the covering


a.

Mechanical protection to cables shall be laid over the covering

b.

Unless otherwise specified, the cables shall be protected by


second class brick of nominal size 22cmX11.4cmX7 cm or
locally available size, placed on top of the sand (or, soil as the
case may be). The bricks shall be placed breadth-wise for the
full length of the cable. Where more than one cable is to be laid
in the same trench, this protective covering shall cover all the
cables and project at least 5cm over the sides of the end cables.

c.

Where bricks are not easily available, or are comparatively


costly, there is no objection to use locally available material
such as tiles or slates or stone/cement concrete slabs. Where
such an alternative is acceptable, the same shall be clearly
specified in the tender specifications.

d.

Protective covering as per need not be provided only for MV


cables, in exceptional cases where there is normally no
possibility of subsequent excavation. Such cases shall be
particularly specified in the Tender specifications.

2.3.3 Cable Installation Depths


All cables shall be installed to the following minimum depths of cover, where
the depth is measured to the top surface of either the cable or the duct containing the
cable. Cables and ducts should never be installed at increased depths unless there is
no other alternative, as increased depth reduces a cables rating and precludes easy
access to the asset in the future.
In instances where these minimum depths cannot be achieved, the cables shall
be installed with additional mechanical protection, in the form of either steel plates or
ducts. In this case, all steel plates shall be a minimum of 1000mm x150mm x 6mm

Page 19

and painted with a single coat of Bitumastic paint. Steel pipes shall be of the same
internal diameter as the plastic ducts, normally used for the type of cable to be
installed. All steel plates and ducts shall be protected with a suitable cable protection
tape. Typical arrangements of cables in trenches are shown in Appendix A.
2.3.3.1 Cable Protection Tapes and Covers
All cables and ducts shall be protected by a cable protection tape or a
stokboard (heavy duty plastic tile). The tape used depends upon the highest voltage
to be protected, which are available from Power Networks Supply Chain:

LV Service = Tile tape (40m 200mm 2.5mm)

LV Mains = Tile tape (40m 200mm 2.5mm)

11kV = Tile tape (40m 200mm 2.5mm)

22kV = Tile tape (40m 200mm 2.5mm)

33kV = Stokboard (1000mm 244mm 9mm)

66kV = Stokboard (1000mm 244mm 9mm)

132kV=Stokboard (1000mm 244mm 9mm)

2.3.3.2 Low Voltage Service and Mains Cables


All Low Voltage (LV) cables shall be installed to the following minimum depths,
whether they are laid direct or installed in suitable ducts.

Footways, grass verges or private property = 450mm.

Carriageways (including road crossings) = 600mm.

Normal agricultural land (not subject to deep ploughing) = 1050mm.

Agricultural land subject to deep ploughing = 1200mm

2.3.3.3 11kV and 20kV Cables


All 11 and 20kV cables shall be installed to the following minimum depths, whether
they are laid direct or installed in suitable ducts:

Footways, grass verges or private property=600mm.

Carriageways (including road crossings) = 750mm.

Normal agricultural land (not subject to deep ploughing) = 1050mm.

Page 20

Agricultural land subject to deep ploughing = 1200mm

2.3.3.4 33kV Cables


All 33kV cables shall be installed to the following minimum depths, whether
they are laid direct or installed in suitable ducts:

Footways, grass verges or private property = 900mm.

Carriageways (including road crossings) = 900mm.

Normal agricultural land (not subject to deep ploughing) = 1050mm.

Agricultural land subject to deep ploughing = 1200mm.

2.3.3.5 66 and 132kV Cables


All 66 and 132kV cables shall be installed to the following minimum depths, whether
they are laid direct or installed in suitable ducts:

Footways, grass verges or private property = 900mm.

Carriageways (including road crossings) = 900mm.

Normal agricultural land (not subject to deep ploughing) = 1050mm.

Agricultural land subject to deep ploughing = 1200mm.

2.3.4 Back Filling


The trenches shall be then back-filled (see Figure 2 -8) with excavated earth,
free from stones or other sharp ended debris and shall be rammed and watered, if
necessary in successive layers not exceeding 30cm depth. Unless otherwise specified,
a crown of earth not less than 50mm and not exceeding 100mm in the center and
tapering towards the sides of the trench shall be left to allow for subsidence. The
crown of the earth however, should not exceed 10 cm so as not to be a hazard to
vehicular traffic. The temporary re-statements of roadways should be inspected at
regular intervals, particularly during wet weather and settlements should be made
good by further filling as may be required.
After the subsidence has ceased, trenches cut through roadways or other paved
areas shall be restored to the same density and materials as the surrounding area and

Page 21

re-paved in accordance with the relevant building specifications to the satisfaction of


the Engineer-in-Charge.
Where road beams or lawns have been cut out of necessity, or kerb stones
displaced, the same shall be repaired and made good, except for turfing /asphalting, to
the satisfaction of the Engineer-in-Charge and all the surplus earth or rock shall be
removed to places as specified.

Figure 2-8: Typical Direct Laid Configuration with Single Cable

2.3.5 Route Markers


Route markers shall be provided along the runs of cables at locations approved
by the Engineer-in-Charge and generally at intervals not exceeding 100m. Markers
shall also be provided to identity change in the direction of the cable route and at
locations of underground joints.
a. Plate Type Marker

Page 22

Route markers shall be made out of 100mm 5mm GI/Aluminum plate


welded/bolted on 35mm 35mm 6mm angle iron, 60cm long. Such plate markers
shall be mounted parallel to and at about 0.5m away from the edge of the trench
b. CC Marker
Alternatively, cement concrete 1:2:4 (1 cement:2 coarse sand: 4 graded stone
aggregate of 20mm in size) as shown in Figure 2 -9 shall be laid flat and centered
over the cable. The concrete markers, unless otherwise instructed by the Engineer-inCharge, shall project over the surrounding surface so as to make the cable route easily
identifiable.

Figure 2-9: CC Marker

c. Inscription
The words BURIED-MV/HV CABLE as the case may be, shall be inscribed on the
marker.

2.3.6

Cable Identification Tags

Whenever more than one cable is laid / run side by side, marker tags as
approved, inscribed with cable identification details shall be permanently attached to
al the cables in the manholes / pull pits / joint pits / entry points in buildings / open
ducts etc. These shall also be attached to cables laid direct in ground at specified
intervals, before the trenches are backfilled.

Page 23

CHAPTER 3. JOINTING AND TERMINATION


3.1

CABLE JOINTING
Before laying a cable, proper locations for the proposed cable joints, if any,

shall be decided, so that when the cable is actually laid, the joints are made in the
most suitable places. As far as possible, water logged locations, carriage ways,
pavements, proximity to telephone cables, gas or water mains, inaccessible places,
ducts, pipes, racks etc. shall be avoided for locating the cable joints. A typical cable
joint is shown in Figure 3 -10.

Figure 3-10: A Typical Cable Joint

3.1.1 Joints Pits


Joint pits shall be of sufficient dimensions as to allow easy and comfortable
working (see Figure 3 -11). The sides of the pit shall be well protected from loose
earth falling into it. It shall also be covered by a tarpaulin to prevent dust and other
foreign matter being blown on the exposed joints and jointing materials. Sufficient
ventilation shall be provided during jointing operation in order to disperse fumes
given out by fluxing.

Page 24

Figure 3-11: Joint Pits

3.1.2 Safety Precaution


i.

A caution board indicating WARNING ELECTRICAL JOINTING WORK


IN PROGRESS shall be displayed to warn the public and traffic where
necessary (as shown in Figure 3 -12).

ii.

Before jointing is commenced, all safety precautions like isolation,


discharging, earthing, display of caution board on the controlling switchgear
etc. shall be taken to ensure that the cable would not be inadvertently charged
from live supply. Metallic armour and external metallic bonding shall be
connected to earth.

Figure 3-12: Caution Board

3.1.3 Jointer
Jointing work shall be carried out by a licensed/ experienced (where there is
no licensing system for jointers) cable jointer.

3.1.4 Characteristics of Jointing Material


3.1.4.1 Electrical Stress Control
The stress control tubing and the patch have a precisely defined impedance
characteristic which smoothes the electrical field over the connector and cable screen
ends.

Page 25

3.1.4.2 Insulation and Screen


The elastomeric sleeve provides the correct thickness of insulation (red) in one
step. The insulation screen is provided by the outer wall of the sleeve, which is of heat
shrink able conductive polymer (black). This technique saves installation time and
ensures a flawless bond between joint insulation and screen.
3.1.4.3 Metallic Shielding
Copper mesh and roll springs ensure the correct screen connection across the
joint area and make electrical contact with the outer screen of the joint.
3.1.4.4 Outer Sealing and Protection
The heat used to shrink the outer sleeve causes the pre-coated adhesive to melt
and flow, resulting in a lasting moisture and corrosion barrier on the cable oversheath.
The outer sleeve provides mechanical impact and chemical resistance as expected
from cable oversheaths.

3.2

PROCEDURE OF CABLE JOINTING


Complete procedure of cable jointing is given in following sections.

3.2.1 Cable Overlap


Overlap the cables to be jointed as shown in Figure 3 -13. Mark the reference line.

Figure 3-13: Cable Overleap

3.2.2 Cable Preparation

Page 26

i.

Remove the outer layer of the composite sheath for 215mm, from the
reference line. Remove the inner layer of the composite sheath to the
dimension as shown in Figure 3 -14.

ii.

Remove the water swellable tapes (if any) level with the inner layer of
composite sheath cut.

iii.

Abrade the outer layer of the composite sheath for a distance of 200 mm from
the outer layer composite sheath cut. Abrade the inner layer of the composite
sheath.

iv.

Clean and degrease the inner and outer layer of composite sheath using the
cleaning tissue provided in the kit.

Note:
On the side of the joint where the outer sealing sleeve is intended to be parked, clean
the outer layer of the composite sheath for a distance of 1 metre using the cleaning
tissue provided in the kit.

Figure 3-14: Cable Preparation

3.2.3 Core Preparation


Fold the screen wires back onto the cable sheath. Do not bend them into
position at this stage. Do not cut the cables (see Figure 3 -15).

Page 27

Figure 3-15: Folding Screen Wire

Apply one layer of red mastic tape (20mm wide) over the insulation screen; 10
mm from the cable sheath cut (see Figure 3 -16).

Figure 3-16: Applying Mastic Tape

Fold the screen wires back over the insulation screen (see Figure 3 -17).
Apply one layer of red mastic tape (20mm wide) over the screen wires, 10 mm from
the cable sheath cut (i.e. over the mastic applied in step 5).

Figure 3-17: Folding Screen Wires Back

Apply red mastic tape (50mm wide) to equally overlap the inner and outer
layers of the composite sheath (see Figure 3 -18).

Page 28

Figure 3-18: Applying Red Mastic Tape

Slide the 150 mm long tube (black) over the cable, centered over the outer
sheath cutback. Shrink tube into position, applying additional heat over the area where
the red mastic tape was applied (see Figure 3 -19).

Figure 3-19: Applying Black Tube

Bend the screen wires back over the tube and onto the cable sheath. Secure the
screen wires to the cable using PVC tape (see Figure 3 -20).

Figure 3-20: Bending Screen Wires Back

Cut the cables at 140mm as shown using a hacksaw or a suitable power driven
saw to prevent deformation of the conductor strands (see Figure 3 -21). Thoroughly
remove the insulation screen to the dimension shown, so that the insulation surface is
free from all traces of conductive material.

Page 29

Figure 3-21: Removal of Insulation Screen

Remove the insulation from the cables to for a length of 30mm (see I in
Figure 3 -22). Clean and degrease the insulation using the cleaning tissues provided
in the kit. Use a wiping action from the exposed conductor towards the insulation
screen. Do not use a cleaning tissue that has previously been in contact with the
insulation screen.

Figure 3-22: Removal of Insulation

Remove the yellow void filling tape from the aluminum foil packet. Remove
the release papers from the yellow void filling tape with the pointed ends. Wrap the
void filler around the insulation screen starting 20 mm from the end of the insulation
screen and continuing onto the insulation for 10 mm (see Figure 3 -23). Stretch the
tape to half of its original width to achieve a fine, thin edge around the insulation.
Finish on the insulation screen.

Figure 3-23: Wrapping the Void Filler

Page 30

Slide the stress control tubing (black) over the cable level with the end of the
insulation cut. Start shrinking from the insulation cut towards the cable sheath (see
Figure 3 -24). Apply additional heat over the area where the void filling tape was
applied.

Figure 3-24: Sliding the Stress Control Tubing

3.2.4 Completion of the Joint


Slide a combined tubing set over the cable. 1 Screened insulation sleeve (black and
red). 2 Outer sealing sleeve (black) (see Figure 3 -25).

Figure 3-25: Completion of the Joint

The connector is supplied with either half shell inserts or centralizing inserts
for use on smaller conductor cross sections. Check if each of the conductors will fit
with the respective half shell or centralizing insert installed. If the conductor fits,
leave the half shell or centralizing insert fitted. The centralizing insert is a tight fit in
the connector and requires complete insertion. If the conductor does not fit with the
half shell insert or centralizing insert installed, remove and discard the half shell or
centralizing insert from that side of the connector (see Figure 3 -26).

Page 31

Figure 3-26: Conductor Fitting

Fit the conductors into the connector. There should be no gap left between the
connector and the insulation. Take up the tension equally on all shear bolts with a tee
bar spanner (do not shear the heads at this stage). Starting at the connector ends and
working towards the middle (following the number sequence indicated), tighten the
bolts until the heads shear off. If a proud edge remains after removal of the bolt heads,
this edge should be filed to obtain a smooth finish (see Figure 3 -27).

Figure 3-27: Fitting Connector into the Conductor

Re-align the cables if necessary. The numbers indicate the bolt tightening
sequence. Clean and degrease the cable cores and connector using the cleaning
tissues provided in the kit (see Figure 3 -28). Using the clay pack supplied in the kit,
fill the hollows over the sheared off bolts in the connector to obtain a smooth finish.

Figure 3-28: Filling the Hollows over the Sheared-off Bolts

Page 32

Remove the release paper from the stress grading patch (black). Position the
patch centrally over the connector area (see Figure 3 -29).

Figure 3-29: Removal of Release Paper from the Stress Grading Patch

The start of the patch should just cover the shear bolts to ensure two layers of
stress grading will be applied over the shear bolt area. Apply the long side of the patch
across the connector. Wrap the patch over the connector. Do not stretch the patch.
Position the screened insulating sleeve (black and red) centrally over the connector
area (see Figure 3 -30).
1. Start shrinking the sleeves in the centre (1).
2. Continue shrinking by working towards one side (2), stopping 50 mm from the
end.
3. Shrink the other half in the same way (3).
4. Shrink down the first end (4) and finally the second (5).

Page 33

Figure 3-30: Positioning the Screened Insulating Sleeve

Wrap one half-lapped layer of tinned copper mesh around the cable and across
the full length of the joint (see Figure 3 -31). Cover 80 mm of the 150mm long black
tube on the side of the joint with the short screen wires. Fix the screen wires with a
copper wire binder at the end of the tinned copper mesh.

Figure 3-31: Wrapping Half-Lapped Layer of Tinned Copper Mesh

For cable side with long screen wires bend the screen wires back over the joint
area. For cable side with short screen wires bend the screen wires back over the joint
area close to the tinned copper mesh. Gather the screen wires together and cut them
centrally above the 80 mm tinned copper mesh overlap on the cable sheath (see Figure
3 -32).

Page 34

Figure 3-32: Gathering the Screen Wires Together and Cutting Them Centrally

Insert the screen wires into the shear head connector supplied. Tighten the
shear heads until the heads shear off. Rotate the screen wire connector so that the
screws of the screen wire connector do not puncture the outer sealing sleeve or the
screened insulating sleeve (see Figure 3 -33).

Figure 3-33: Inserting the Screen Wires into the Shear Head Connector

Wrap a second layer of tinned copper mesh around the joint with a 50%
overlap. Cover the complete joint area including the mechanical screen wire connector
(see Figure 3 -34).

Figure 3-34: Wrapping Second Layer of Tinned Copper Mesh

Abrade, clean and degrease the cable sheath for a distance of 150mm either
side of the tinned copper mesh (see Figure 3 -35).

Page 35

Figure 3-35: Abrading, Cleaning and Degreasing

Wrap one layer of red sealant tape (50mm wide) around the composite sheath
sealing sleeve (Step 9) starting at 20mm from the ends of the mesh on both sides of
the joint (see Figure 3 -36).

Figure 3-36: Wrapping Red Sealant Tape

Centre the outer sealing sleeve (black) over the copper mesh area. Start shrinking in
the centre, working towards the ends (see Figure 3 -37).

Figure 3-37: Shrinking in the Center

The joint is completed. Allow the joint to cool before applying any mechanical strain
(see Figure 3 -38).

Figure 3-38: Cooling of the Joint

Important Note: It must be ensured that a buried joint is surrounded with soft
bedding material up to a depth of 100mm above the joint.

Page 36

3.3

CABLE TERMINATION
3.3.1 Characteristics of Termination Material
A typical Medium Voltage Termination System is shown in Figure 3 -39.

Figure 3-39: Medium Voltage Termination System

3.3.1.1 Moisture sealing


Durable sealing is achieved by special Raychem sealants on the inside of nontracking, weather-resistant components. At the same time as the installer heats the
tubing, the shrinking action causes the sealant to melt and flow into place. In case of
three core cables, a sealant-lined heat-shrinkable breakout installed over the cores and
cable crutch provides a sealed and weather-resistant surface from the connecting lugs
to the oversheath.
3.3.1.2 Compact and versatile stress control
To meet the need for space-saving, flexible termination design, adaptable to
different types of compact equipment, we developed a Raychem material with
carefully controlled non-linear impedance based on ceramic semiconductor
technology (ZnO), which is applied in the form of a coating inside the tubing. When
the tubing is shrunk, the stress control coating is softened by the applied heat and
conforms and bonds to even irregular insulation surfaces to ensure a void free contact.
Details of electrical stress control in Raychem terminations can be found on page 10.
3.3.1.3 Non-tracking insulation tubing
The superior non-tracking characteristics and long-term erosion resistance of
Raychem terminations have been exhaustively demonstrated in comparative tests at
major independent laboratories and Raychems own extensive development facilities.

Page 37

These results are borne out by the continuing performance of over a million
units installed in tropical, desert, arctic and industrially polluted climates, confirming
that Raychem terminations do not track even in severe service conditions and
verifying their exceptional erosion resistance and reliability.
3.3.1.4 Yellow void filler
The semi-conducting void filler is easily applied in form of a short adhesive
tape. It ensures that, independent of the type of semi-conductive screen or removal
method, no air voids can cause discharges in the high stress area of the screen end.
3.3.1.5 Earthing
Earthing wires or braids are imbedded in the sealing mastic to prevent any
corrosion by moisture ingress. For cables with tape screen or metal sheaths with
armour solder less earthing systems are either provided within the termination kit or
can be ordered separately.

3.4

PROCEDURE OF CABLE TERMINATION


3.4.1 Cable Preparation for Termination
Steps are below (see Figure 3 -40 to Figure 3 -44):

1. Cut the cable and remove both the layers of composite sheath for 320mm
minimum. Remove the outer layer of composite sheath for 40mm. Leave
enough length to set the cores into their final position. Degrease and clean the
end of the oversheath for about 100 mm using the cleaning tissue provided in
the kit.
2. Wrap one layer of red sealant tape (50mm wide) with slight tension starting at
the end of the inner sheath cutback, downwards for 80 mm. Bend the shielding
wires from each core back onto the oversheath. Avoid crossing individual
wires. Temporarily fix the shielding wires to the oversheath.

Page 38

Figure 3-40: 1) Cutting of Cable & Sheath Removal; 2) Sealant Tape Wrapping

3. Remove any filler up to the end of the inner sheath cutback. Bend and shape
the cores into their final position. Cut the cores to the required length.
Thoroughly remove the core screen according to dimension a (see Error:
Reference source not found for crimp lugs. For mechanical lugs see Table 3
-2). The surface of the insulation should be free from all traces of conductive
material. Smooth out any irregularities.
4. Wrap one layer of red sealant tape (50mm wide) over the screen wires for
80mm. Mark the core screen 40 mm below the screen cut. Measure the
distance c of each individual core and cut the conductive tubing accordingly.

Figure 3-41: 3) Removal of Filler; 4) Cutting the Conductive Tubing

Page 39

Table 3-1: Crimp Lug

Table 3-2: Mechanical Lug BLMT

95 to 24
a

95 to 240
BLMT
(range mm2)

[mm]
11kV indoor/outdoor

200

a
[mm]

11kV indoor/outdoor

200

5. Position the conductive tubing over the cores 40 mm below the end of the core
screen. Shrink each tubing into place by starting on top and continue shrinking
them down towards the cable crotch. Allow the tubing to cool before
continuing.
6. Pull the breakout down the crotch as far as possible. Shrink the breakout into
place starting at the centre. Work first towards the lower end and then shrink
the turrets onto the cores. The numbers in the drawing indicate the shrinking
sequence.
7. Cut back the insulation according to K = depth of cable lug barrel hole + 5 mm
for crimp lug. BLMT = depth of the cable lug + 0 mm. Install the cable lug.
Remove any sharp edges. Degrease and clean the lug and the insulation using
the cleaning tissue provided in the kit.

Figure 3-42: 5) Positioning the Conductive Tubing; 6) Pulling Breakout 7) Cutting Insulation

Page 40

Note: Do not use cable lugs with barrel holes deeper than 110 mm.
8. Remove the release paper and wrap the void filling strip (yellow) around the
end of the core screen. Stretch the strip to half of its original width to achieve a
fine, thin edge onto the insulation. Cover 20 mm of the core screen and
continue onto the insulation for 10 mm.
9. Apply one complete turn of red sealant mastic (20mm wide) around the barrel
of the lugs, at the tab end of the lug barrels as depicted covering the top
fastener of compressed area as applicable. Use the remaining sealant to fill in
the space between the core insulation and the cable lug to leave a smooth
transition.
10. Preheat the cable lug slightly before placing the tubing over the core so that
the top of the tubing covers the crimping area or the top fastener of the cable
lug. Shrink the tubing down starting at the screen cut using a soft yellow
flame. Heat the area well but avoid scorching of surface. Continue shrinking
towards the cable lug. Finally shrink down the bottom end of the tubing. The
numbers in the drawing indicate the shrinking sequence.

Figure 3-43: 8) Removing Release Paper; 9) Applying Sealant Mastic; 10) Preheating Cable Lug

Page 41

11. Indoor termination completed.


Note: After installation the termination must be post-heated as well as the
palm of the cable lug until a bead of sealant (green) appears around the top of
the tubing. Allow the termination to cool before applying any mechanical
strain. Tie the shielding wires or the earth leads with a wire binder to the
oversheath below the breakout. Gather the shielding wires together to form an
earth lead.
12. For outdoor terminations:
Shrink the skirts into place at the position shown in the drawings on the next
page. Start with the first skirt on the lowest position.

Figure 3-44: 11) Indoor Termination; 12) Outdoor Termination

Page 42

CHAPTER 4. TESTING OF THE UNDERGROUND


CABLES
Three types of fault may occur in underground cabling i.e. open circuit fault, short
circuit fault and earth fault. To avoid these faults there are some tests carried out at
site before laying and after laying of each cable span.

Before Laying

Insulation Resistance Test

Continuity Test

After Laying

Insulation resistance test

Continuity test

DC pressure test
(For 15 minutes, if not possible than test for 01 minute with 1000 V Megger
for LT cable and with 2500/5000 V Megger for HT cable)

4.1

INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTING


Insulation starts to age as soon as it's made. As it ages, its insulating

performance deteriorates. Any harsh installation environment, especially with


temperature extremes and/or chemical contamination, accelerates this process. This
deterioration can result in dangerous conditions in power reliability and personnel
safety. As such, it's important to identify this deterioration quickly so that corrective
steps can be taken. One of the simplest tests and its required test instrument are not
universally understood. To help eliminate this lack of understanding, let's discuss in
detail Insulation Resistance (IR) testing and the megohmmeter.

4.1.1 Insulation Testing Components

Page 43

Insulation testing components are below.


4.1.1.1 The Megohmmeter
A basic megohmmeter hook-up schematic is shown in Figure 4 -45. The
megohmmeter is similar to a multimeter, when the latter is in its ohmmeter function.
There are differences, however.

Figure 4-45: Schematic of a Megohmmeter

First, the megohmmeter's output is much higher than that of a multimeter.


Voltages of 100, 250, 500, 1,000, 2500, 5,000, and even 10,000V are used (Table 4
-3). The most common voltages are 500V and 1,000V. Higher voltages are used to
stress insulation to a greater degree and thus obtain more accurate results.
Table 4-3: Recommended test voltages for routine maintenance insulation-resistance tests of
equipment rated to 4,160V and above.

Equipment AC Rating

DC Test Voltage

Up to 100V

100V and 250V

440V to 550V

500V and 1,000V

2,400V

1,000V to 2,000V and higher

4,160V and above

1,000V to 5,000V or higher

Second, the range of a megohmmeter is in megohms, as its name implies,


instead of ohms as in a multimeter. Third, a megohmmeter has a relatively high
internal resistance, making the instrument less hazardous to use in spite of the higher
voltages.

Page 44

Testing Connections: A megohmmeter usually is equipped with three terminals. The


"LINE" (or "L") terminal is the so-called "hot" terminal and is connected to the
conductor whose insulation resistance you are measuring. Remember: These tests are
performed with the circuit de-energized. The "EARTH" (or "E") terminal is connected
to the other side of the insulation, the ground conductor.
The "GUARD" (or "G") terminal provides a return circuit that bypasses the
meter. For example, if you are measuring a circuit having a current that you do not
want to include, you connect that part of the circuit to the "GUARD" terminal.
Figure 4 -46, Figure 4 -47 and Figure 4 -48 show connections for testing
three common types of equipment. Figure 4 -46 shows a connection for testing a
transformer bushing, without measuring the surface leakage. Only the current through
the insulation is measured, since any surface current will be returned on the
"GUARD" lead.

Figure 4-46: Connection

for Testing a Transformer Bushing

4.1.2 Various Insulation Tests


Basically, there are three different tests that can be done using a megohmmeter.
4.1.2.1 Insulation Resistance (IR) Test
This is the simplest of the tests. After the required connections are made, you apply
the test voltage for a period of one min. (see Figure 4 -47). (The one-min interval is
an industry practice that allows everyone to take the reading at the same time. In this

Page 45

way, comparison of readings will be of value because, although taken by different


people, the test methods are consistent.)

Figure 4-47: Insulation Resistance Test of Motor

During this interval, the resistance should drop or remain relatively steady. Larger
insulation systems will show a steady decrease, while smaller systems will remain
steady because the capacitive and absorption currents drop to zero faster on smaller
insulation systems. After one min, read and record the resistance value.

Figure 4-48: Insulation Resistance Test of Cable

Note that IR is temperature sensitive. When the temperature goes up, IR goes
down, and vice versa. Therefore, to compare new readings with previous readings,
you need to correct the readings to some base temperature. Usually, 20C or 40C are
used as comparison temperatures; tables are available for any correction. However, a
common rule of thumb is that IR changes by a factor of two for each 10C change.

Page 46

For example, suppose we obtained an IR reading of 100 megohms with an insulation


temperature of 30C. The corrected IR (at 20C) would be 100 megohms times 2, or
200 megohms.
Also note that acceptable values of IR will depend upon the equipment.
Historically, field personnel have used the questionable standard of one megohm per
kV plus one. The international Electrical Testing Assoc. (NETA) specification
NETA MTS-1993,Maintenance

Testing

Specifications

for

Electrical

Power

Distribution Equipment and Systems, provides much more realistic and useful values.
Test results should be compared with previous readings and with readings
taken for similar equipment. Any values below the NETA standard minimums or
sudden departures from previous values should be investigated.
4.1.2.2 Dielectric Absorption Ratio
This test recognizes the fact that "good" insulation will show a gradually
increasing IR after the test voltage is applied. After the connections are made, the test
voltage is applied, and the IR is read at two different times: Usually either 30 and 60
sec, or 60 sec and 10 min. The later reading is divided by the earlier reading, the result
being the dielectric absorption ratio. The 10 min./60 sec. ratio is called the
polarization index (PI).
For example, let's assume we apply the megohmmeter as described earlier
with the appropriate test voltage impressed. The one min. IR reading is 50 megohms,
and the 10 min. IR reading is 125 megohms. Thus, the PI is 125 megohms divided by
50 megohms, or 2.5. Various sources have tables of acceptable values of dielectric
absorption ratios (see Table 4 -4 below). The values must be considered tentative and
relative, subject to experience with the time-resistance method over a period of time.
Table 4-4: Listing of Conditions of Insulation as Indicated by Dielectric Absorption Ratios.

Insulation Condition 60/30-sec Ratio


Dangerous

10/1-min Ratio
(Polarization Index)
Less than 1

Page 47

Questionable

1.0 to 1.25

1.0 to 2*

Good

1.4 to 1.6

2 to 4

Above 1.6**

Above 4**

Excellent

*These results would be satisfactory for equipment with very low capacitance,
such as short runs of house wiring.
**In some cases with motors, values approximately 20% higher than shown
here indicate a dry, brittle winding that may fail under shock conditions or during
starts. For preventative maintenance, the motor winding should be cleaned, treated,
and dried to restore winding flexibility.
4.1.2.3

Step Voltage Test


This test is particularly useful in evaluating aged or damaged insulation not

necessarily having moisture or contamination. A dual voltage test instrument is


required here. After the connections are made, the IR test is done at a low voltage, say
500V. The test specimen then is discharged and the test is done again, this time at a
higher voltage, say 2500V. If more than a 25% difference exists between the two IR
readings, age deterioration or damaged insulation should be suspected.

4.2

CONTINUITY TEST

Schematic of a continuity test is illustrated in Figure 4 -49.

Figure 4-49: Schematic of Continuity Test

4.2.1 Tools & Equipments Required

Page 48

1. Multimeter
2. Wire Nipper
3. Screw Driver Set
4. Box Spanner

4.2.2 Test Procedure


This test is carried out to confirm that the core under test is either showing break
between both ends or continuous. Testing can be commenced as per the following
procedure:

Set the knob of multimeter to check resistance at 200 ohm range.


(At Location A)

Connect one probe of multimeter to earth and other probe to the end of the
cable conductor to be tested, as shown in above figure.

Instruct staff at the other end (at Location B) to connect earth to same
conductor of the cable.

If earth is light at both ends, connect earth to armour also at both the ends.

Deflection of multimeter needle shows that the conductor under test is OK;
otherwise there is a break in the conductor.

Then

test

continuity

of all

other

conductors

with

respect

to

this tested conductor. For example to test conductor 2, connect the one probe
of the multimeter to conductor 2 and other probe to the tested conductor (at
Location A). Instruct the staff at other end (at Location B) to short conductor 2
with the tested conductor. Test continuity of all other conductors as above.

Page 49

CHAPTER 5. CABLE FAULT LOCATING TESTS


Following tests are used to locate fault in an underground cable.

5.1

BLAVIER TEST
Blaviers test is used to find the earth fault location in an underground cable.

The two ends faulty cable are mentioned as sending end and far end respectively as
shown in Figure 5 -50. In this test, the sending end of the cable must be open and
isolated and the resistance between sending end and earth point is measured by
keeping the far end isolated from earth and then it measured keeping far end of the
faulty cable, shorted to the ground.
Suppose, we get, resistance values R1 and R2 in these two said measurements
respectively. In the fault location, the conductor is shorted to ground, because of fault.
Thus, this short circuit may have some resistance that is mentioned as g. In Blaviers
test the total line resistance is supposed to be mentioned as L. The resistance
between the sending end to the fault end is mentioned as x and the resistance
between the fault end to the far end is denoted as y. So, the total resistance L is
equals to the addition of x and y resistances.
Now, the total resistance of the x and g loop is nothing but R1 the
conductor resistance between sending end and earth by keeping far end open,

The total resistance of the entire loop of the above circuit is nothing but R2 the
conductor resistance between sending end and earth by keeping far end earthed.

By solving the above three equation and eliminating g and y;

Page 50

This expression gives the resistance from the sending end to the fault location. The
corresponding distance is calculated by known resistance per unit length of the cable.
A practical difficulty in Blavier's test is that the resistance to ground g is variable,
being influenced by the amount of moisture present in the cable and the action of the
current at the fault condition. Also, the resistance g may be so high that it exerts very
little shunting action when y is placed in parallel with it by grounding the far end of
the line.

Figure 5-50: Blavier's Test to Find the Cables Fault Location

5.2

MURRAY LOOP TEST


This test is used to find the fault location in an underground cable by making

one Wheatstone bridge in it and by comparing the resistance we shall find out the
fault location. But we should use the known length of the cables in this experiment.
The necessary connection of the Murray loop test is shown in Figure 5 -51 & Figure
5 -52. The Figure 5 -51 shows that the circuit connection for finding the fault
location when the ground fault occurs and the Figure 5 -52 shows that the circuit
connections for finding the fault location when the short circuit fault occurs.
In this test, the faulty cable is connected with sound cable by a low resistance
wire, because that resistance should not affect the total resistance of the cable and it
should be able to circulate the loop current to the bridge circuits without loss.
The variable resistors R1 and R2 are forming the ratio arms. Balance of the
bridge is achieved by adjusting the variable resistors. G is the galvanometer to

Page 51

indicate the balance. [R3 + RX] is the total loop resistance formed by the sound cable
and the faulty cable.

Figure 5-51: Circuit Connection of Murray Loop Test for Ground Fault

Figure 5-52: Circuit Connection of Murray Loop Test for Short Circuit Fault

At the balance condition,

When the cross section area of the both sound cable and faulty cable are equal,
then the resistances of the conductors are directly proportional to their lengths. So, if
LX represents the length between test end to the fault end of the faulty cable and if L
represents the total length of the both cables, then the expression for LX is as follows;

Page 52

The above test is only valid when the lengths of the cables are known. In
Murray Loop Test, the fault resistance is fixed and it may not be varied. Also it is
difficult to set the bridge as balance. Thus, the determination of the fault position is
not accurate. Then the current circulation through the cable would cause temperature
rises due to high voltage or high current. If the resistance varies according to the
temperature, then the balance collapses. So, we need to apply less voltage or less
current to this circuit.

5.3

VARLEY LOOP TEST


This test is used to find the fault location in an underground cable by making

one Wheatstone bridge in it and by comparing the resistance we shall find out the fault
location instead of calculating it from the known lengths of the cable. The necessary
connection of the Varley loop test is shown in Figure 5 -53 & Figure 5 -54. The
Figure 5 -53 shows that the circuit connection for finding the fault location when the
ground fault occurs and the Figure 5 -54 shows that the circuit connections for
finding the fault location when the short circuit fault occurs.
In this test, the faulty cable is connected with sound cable by a low resistance
wire, because that resistance should not affect the total resistance of the cable and it
should be able to circulate the loop current to the bridge circuits without loss. A single
pole double through switch S is used in this circuit. There would be a variable
resistor R which is used to balance the bridge circuit during the working period.
If the switch S is in position 1, then we need to adjust the variable resistance R to
balance the circuit. Let us assume that the present R value as RS1. At this position,
the expressions are as follows;

This expression gives the value of [R3 + RX], if the value of R1, R2 and RS1
are known. If the switch S is in position 2, then again we need to adjust the variable

Page 53

resistance R to balance the bridge circuit. Let us assume that the new R value as
RS2. At this position, the expressions are as follows;

By solving the equation (1) and (2),

Therefore, the unknown resistance RX is,

Figure 5-53: Circuit Connection of Varley Loop Test for Ground Fault

Page 54

Figure 5-54: Circuit Connection of Varley Loop Test for Short Circuit Fault

Varley Loop Test is valid only when the cable sections are uniform throughout
the loop. The current flowing through the cable would cause the temperature effect.
Due to this temperature effect, the resistance of the cable would change. Thus, we
need to apply less current to this circuit to carry out the experiment.

5.4

FISHER LOOP TEST

In this Fisher Loop Test, there must be two healthy sound cables which must have the
same length and same cross sectional area as the faulty cable. As per the Figure 5 -55
& Figure 5 -56 circuit diagram, all the three cables are connected by a low resistance
wire.

Figure 5-55: Circuit Connection (A) for Fisher Loop Test to Locate the Cable Fault

Page 55

Figure 5-56: Circuit Connection (B) for Fisher Loop Test to Locate the Cable Fault

In the Figure 5 -55 circuit connection, the bridge connection is connected to


ground. Now, the bridge arms are RA, RB, RX and [RS1 + RY]. In the Figure 5 -56
circuit connection, the bridge connection is connected to Sound Cable 2. Now, the
bridge arms are RA', RB', RS2 and [RX + RY]. Here [RS1 = RS2]. Two balancing are
necessary as per the two different circuits. Let, for the first balance, the expressions
are as follows;

For the second balance, the expressions are as follows;

From the expression (1) and (2),

In this two circuits, if the bridge arm resistors are equal (or) if [(RA + RB) =
(RA' + RB')], then the expression (3) can be modified as,

Page 56

So, when the resistance per unit length of the conductor is uniform in all
conditions, then the fault location LX is as follows;

Here L if the total length of the faulty cable. But practically, this is not
possible. There would be fractional changes in the bridge arms. Thus, the fault
location LX is as follows;

This is about the working principle of Fisher Loop Test.

CHAPTER 6. CABLE

FAULT

LOCATING

INSTRUMENTS
Following instruments are used for location of cable faults.

6.1

SURGE GENERATOR
The surge generator is a lightweight and compact unit that impulses at 3, 6, 9,

12, or 15-kV. It offers benefits that ensure efficient and effective fault locating. Figure
6 -57 shows a simple surge generator.
Features:

Rugged construction housed in a sturdy fiberglass case,


designed to withstand the rigors of field operation.

Convenient transport/storage its light weight allows one


person to carry unit easily. Its compact size allows for easy
storage and transport in tight locations.

Noiseless discharge SCR provides discharge with no air gap


or moving parts. Quiet discharge is extremely desirable in
confined locations.

Simple operation minimum of controls and instrumentation

Page 57

to reduce operation complexity.

Figure 6-57: Surge Generator

6.2

CABLE FAULT PINPOINTING EQUIPMENT


6.2.1 Surge Detector
The surge detector is designed to locate faults in shielded, direct buried cables

by detecting both the electromagnetic and acoustic pulses emitted from an arcing fault
when it is surged. Either single or dual detector configurations are available. A typical
surge detector (Model SD-3000) is shown in Figure 6 -58 (A).
Features:

Determines distance and direction to the fault

Operates in all weather conditions

Selectable acoustic frequency band

6.2.2 Electromagnetic Impulse Detector


The Electromagnetic Impulse Detector is used primarily to localize faults on cable in
duct or conduit. The instrument is comprised of an amplifier module, a sheath coil and
a carrying case. Electromagnetic Impulse Detector is shown in Figure 6 -58 (B).
Features:

Indicates direction of fault

Works under all weather conditions

Converts to voltage gradient tester with optional earth frame

Page 58

Figure 6-58: A) Surge Detector, SD-3000; B) Electromagnetic Impulse Detector

6.3

SURGE DETECTION PROCEDURE


Some surge detectors combine both electromagnetic and acoustic pickups to

efficiently pinpoint the fault. The working principle of Model SD-3000 Surge
Detector is shown in Figure 6 -59. A pickup in the receiver detects the magnetic field
produced by the current impulse and also displays its magnitude on a bar graph
display every time the thumper discharges. The indicated magnitude of the impulse
will decrease if the fault has been passed or if the receiver is no longer over the cable
route. After detecting an impulse, an acoustic pickup placed on the ground listens for a
thump as a result of the discharge. The detected impulse starts a timer in the receiver
and when an audible thump is sensed, the timer is stopped. This measurement is the
time it takes the sound wave produced at the fault to travel to the acoustic pickup and
is displayed in milliseconds.
As the fault is approached, this time interval decreases to a minimum directly
over the fault and increases again as the fault is passed. The time never goes to zero
because there is always the depth of the cable between the pickup and the fault. This
technique relies on the elapsed time between the two events, not simply the loudness

Page 59

of the sound and thereby eliminates the problems of accurate pinpointing even under
difficult conditions.
If two acoustic pickups are used, the receiver makes dual measurements and
indicates with an arrow on the display which direction to move toward the fault. As
the fault is approached, the tail on the arrow becomes shorter until the fault is passed
when the direction of the arrow reverses. At this point, small movements of the
pickups are made. When they actually straddle the fault, two arrowheads appear
pointed toward each other. Once the instrument hears the thump, headphones are no
longer necessary and the measurements will lead the operator directly to the fault. The
receiver also measures and displays a digital value of the sound level, which typically
increases as the fault is approached. By using the Save function in the unit, two sets of
time and sound level values can be saved and displayed while observing the current
values which confirm that the direction being taken is correct.

Figure 6-59: Acoustic/Electromagnetic Pinpointing

The SD-3000 provides information on its liquid crystal display, which will efficiently
and quickly guide the operator to within inches of the exact fault location:

Page 60

Features:

Intensity of the surge impulse.

Elapsed time between the impulse and thump.

Magnitude of the sound.

Direction and relative distance to the fault.


Figure 6 -60 shows typical displays of the SD-3000.

Figure 6-60: SD-3000 Display at Positions 1, 2, And 3

CHAPTER 7. UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION


NETWORKS
7.1

TYPES OF THE U/G DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS

Distribution system is a circuit of users linked to a generating station and


substations that is typically arranged in either a radial or interconnected manner. Local
distribution systems transport power within a building. All distribution of electrical
energy is done by constant voltage system. In practice, the following distribution
circuits are generally used

7.1.1 Ring Distribution System


The loop or ring system of distribution starts at the substation and is connected to or
encircles an area serving one or more distribution transformers or load centre. The
conductor of the system returns to the same substation. The loop system (Figure 7
-61) is more expensive to build than the radial type, but it is more reliable.

Page 61

Figure 7-61: Operation of Ring Distribution System

It may be justified in an area where continuity of service is of considerable


importance, for example a medical centre. In the loop system, circuit breakers
sectionalize the loop on both sides of each distribution transformer connected to the
loop. The two primary feeder breakers and the sectionalizing breakers associated with
the loop feeder are ordinarily controlled by pilot wire relaying or directional over
current relays. Pilot wire relaying is used when there are too many secondary
substations to obtain selective timing with directional over current relays.
A fault in the primary loop is cleared by the breakers in the loop nearest the
fault, and power is supplied the other way around the loop without interruption to
most of the connected loads. Because the load points can be supplied from two or
more directions, it is possible to remove any section of the loop from service for
maintenance without causing an outage at other load points.
If a fault occurs in a section adjacent to the distribution substation, the entire
load may have to be fed from one side of the loop until repairs are made. Sufficient
conductor capacity must be provided in the loop to permit operation without excessive
voltage drop or overheating of the feeder when either side of the loop is out of service.
If a fault occurs in the distribution transformer, it is cleared by the breaker in the
primary leads; and the loop remains intact.

Page 62

7.1.1.1 Advantages of Ring Distribution System


i.

Less copper is required as each part of the ring carries less current than that
in radial system.

ii.

Less voltage fluctuations.

iii.

It is more reliable. In the event of fault on any one section the continuity of
supply to all consumers can be maintained by isolating the faulty section

iv.

Disadvantages of Ring Distribution System

v.

High cost of maintenance

vi.

It only used in urban place.

7.1.2 Radial Distribution System


A representative schematic of a radial distribution system is shown in Figure 7
-62. You should note that the independent feeders branch out to several distribution
centers without intermediate connections between feeders.
The most frequently used system is the radial distribution system because it is
the simplest and least expensive system to build. Operation and expansion are simple.
It is not as reliable as most systems unless quality components are used. The fault or
loss of a cable, primary supply, or transformer will result in an outage on all loads
served by the feeder. Furthermore, electrical service is interrupted when any piece of
service equipment must be de-energized to perform routine maintenance and service.

Page 63

Figure 7-62: Radial Distribution System

Service on this type of feeder can be improved by installing automatic circuit


breakers that will reclose the service at predetermined intervals. If the fault continues
after a predetermined number of closures, the breaker will lock out until the fault is
cleared and service is restored by hand reset.

7.1.3 Interconnected System


When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two generating stations or
substations, it is called inter-connected system. The Figure 7 -63 shows the single line
diagram of interconnected system where the closed feeder ring ABCD is supplied by
two substation S1 and S2 point D and C respectively. Distributors are connected to
points O, P, Q and R of the feeder ring through distribution transformers.

Page 64

Figure 7-63: Single Line Diagram of Interconnected System

The interconnected system has the following advantages:


i.

It increases the service reliability.

ii.

Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be
fed from the other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity
and increases efficiency of the system.

7.2

SWITCHGEARS

USE

IN

UNDERGROUND

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
7.2.1 Ring Main Unit (RMU)
Ring Main Unit as an important part of Secondary Distribution Substations
(Figure 7 -64) A Ring Main Unit (RMU) is a totally sealed, gas-insulated compact
switchgear unit. The primary switching devices can be either switch disconnectors or
fused switch disconnectors or circuit breakers.

Page 65

Figure 7-64: Ring Main Unit (RMU)

Different combinations of these primary switching devices within the unit are
commonly used. In case a circuit breaker is the switching device, it is also equipped
with protective relaying, either with a very basic self-powered type or a more
advanced one with communication capabilities. A single-line representation of a
typical RMU configuration is show in Figure 7 -65.

Figure 7-65: Single-Line Representation of a Typical RMU Configuration

Page 66

The rated voltage and current ranges for RMUs typically reach up to 24
kV and 630 Arespectively. With many of the manufacturers of RMUs, the basic
construction of the unit remains the same for the whole of the voltage range. An
example of distribution network with Ring Main Units is shown in Figure 7 -66.

Figure 7-66: An Example of Distribution Network With Ring Main Units

The increase in rated voltage is handled by an increase in the insulating gas


pressure. The figure above shows a typical RMU configuration where load
disconnectors are the switching devices for the incoming cable feeders and circuit
breaker works as the switching device for distribution transformer feeder.

Page 67

7.2.2 Padmount Transformer


A padmount or pad-mounted transformer (Figure 7 -67) is a ground mounted
electric power distribution transformer in a locked steel cabinet mounted on a concrete
pad. Since all energized connection points are securely enclosed in a grounded metal
housing, a padmount transformer can be installed in places that do not have room for a
fenced enclosure. Padmount transformers are used with underground electric power
distribution lines at service drops, to step down the primary voltage on the line to the
lower secondary voltage supplied to utility customers. A single transformer may serve
one large building, or many homes.

Figure 7-67: Padmount Transformer

Pad-mounted transformers are made in power ratings from around 75 to


around 5000 kVA and often include built-in fuses and switches. Primary power cables
may be connected with elbow connectors, which can be operated when energized
using a hot stick and allows for flexibility in repair and maintenance.

Page 68

7.2.3 Padmount 3 Phase Distribution Panel


This marine-grade aluminum distribution panel is a padmount enclosure generally
used for highway intersection lighting control. It has a built in meter base with a
viewing window, and ample room for cable termination (see Figure 7 -68).

Figure 7-68: Padmount 3 Phase Distribution Panel

7.2.3.1 Features/Specifications
i.

Marine-grade aluminum construction

ii.

Removeable lifting ears

iii.

Powder coated ASA 61 Grey

iv.

NEMA 3R rated

v.

All doors have a padlockable stainless steel 3-point latch

vi.

mechanism and gas shock door stays

vii.

Designed to fit precast base

viii.

Deadfront wireways (conduit extensions not required)

ix.

Built in meter base

x.

Customer specified breaker panel

xi.

Used in 3 phase 347/600V applications

xii.

Service entrance rated main breaker

Page 69

7.2.4 Street Light Control Panel


This stainless steel lighting control panel is specifically designed for areas where
corrosion is an issue. The compact form makes it easy to install and maintain, and the
pad-lockable door offers added security (see Figure

7 -69). This multi-purpose

lighting control panel offers extreme protection in a compact footprint

Figure 7-69: A Typical Street Light Panel

7.2.4.1 Features
i.

Stainless steel construction

ii.

NEMA 3R rated

iii.

Service entrance rated

iv.

Branch circuits

v.

Lighting contactors in control

vi.

section

vii.

Pole mount

viii.

Test switch

ix.

Pad-lockable cover

x.

Top photocell access

xi.

Mounting hardware and required fittings included

Page 70

CONCLUSION
With proper consideration of the many factors related to design, specification,
manufacturing, installation, and commissioning, underground cable systems can be a
viable alternative to overhead lines where the use of cable is warranted because of
rights-of-way constraints, sensitive areas along the planned route, specialized
obstacles (waterways, bridges, etc.) that must be crossed, concerns about weather
effects and reliability affecting overhead lines, or clearance limitations to get into a
congested substation. Though the material and installation costs of underground
power cables are higher than comparable capacity overhead lines, factors such as real
estate, permitting and constructability can often make underground the preferred
alternative as a complete underground system or portions of a hybrid underground and
overhead circuit.

Page 71

APPENDIX A: ARRANGEMENT OF CABLES


IN TRENCHES

Page 72

Page 73

Page 74

Page 75

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]

Page 76

VITA
The author of the thesis is currently an employee of Habib
Rafiq (Pvt.) Ltd., HRL a multinational construction company
since 2004. He is resident of Mandi Bahauddin, Punjab, Pakistan.
He completed his technical education in 2004 and started his
career in Speciallists Group Incorporated (SGI) as a technician.
Then he joined Habib Rafiq (Pvt.) Ltd. as an electrical technician
and was promoted to electrical supervisor due to his meritorious performance in the
said field. After completion of B. Tech (Pass), he was given the charge of assistant
electrical engineer in 2009. Since then he is working in the aforementioned
organization and has solved many practical problem in the field of underground cable
laying, jointing and termination.

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