UNIT-IV

QUANTUM PHYSICS
4.1

Introduction
Max Planck put forward a revolutionary hypothesis that the molecules

in a source does not emit energy continuously but in small discrete packets
called quanta. A new theory which was base on planks work came to be
known as quantum theory or quantum physics. Quantum physics explains
the behaviour of matter and radiation at the microscopic level.

4.2

Blackbody radiation

A blackbody is an object that absorbs all the energy that falls on it.
When a perfect blackbody is heated, it emits radiation at all wavelengths and
so it is a good emitter. The radiation emitted by a perfect blackbody is called
blackbody radiation.

4.3

Energy spectrum of blackbody radiation

The distribution of energy for various wavelength of radiations and its

variation at different temperature was studies by Lummer and Pringsheim.

The experimental setup (Fig. 4.1) consists of a hot carbon tube which
emits radiations in all directions. The radiations form this tube is made to

pass through the slit S1 and is allowed to fall on mirror M1. The emergent
parallel beam is focused on to the fluorspar prism. The rays get dispersed and
fall on mirror M2. The rays are sent to the bolometer through the silt S2.

The bolometer measures the intensity corresponding to the wavelength

of radiations. By rotating the prism, the energy corresponding to different
wavelength can be determined.

Analysis of energy spectrum

The

energy

distribution

for

different

wavelength

at

various

temperatures of the source is shown in Fig. 4.2. From the energy spectrum
the following are observed.

1.

For any given temperature the energy distribution is not uniform.

2.

For any given temperature the intensity of radiation becomes

maximum (m) at a particular wavelength and then decreases with
increase in wavelength.

3.

As temperature increases the maximum wavelength (m) decreases.

4.

For all wavelengths, an increase in temperature causes increase in

the energy emission.

4.4

Laws of black body radiation

1.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
According to this law, the total energy (E) emitted by a hot body

is directly proportional to the fourth power of temperature (T) of the body.

i.e.

E T4
E = T4

Where is Stefans constant and

Its value is 5.67 x 10-8 W / m2.K4
2.

Wiens Law
According to this law the product of the wavelength corresponding to

maximum energy (m) and absolute temperature is a constant

i.e.,

mT = constant

Wien also showed that the maximum energy Em is directly proportional

to the fifth power of the absolute temperature.

i.e.,

Em T5
Em = constant x T5

Wien deduced the radiation law for the energy emitted at a given
wavelength at a given temperature T1 as
Where C1 and C2 are constants.
Wiens law holds good only in the shorter wavelength region.

3.

Rayleigh-Jeans Law

According to Rayleigh, the energy distribution in the thermal spectrum

is given by
This law holds good in the region of longer wavelengths only.
4.5

Planck Quantum Theory

Planck suggested the quantum theory of radiation based on the

following as sumptions.
1.

The black body radiation chamber is filled with electrons or simple

harmonic oscillators.

2.

The oscillators can vibrate with all possible frequencies.

3.

The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is same as the of

the frequency of its vibration.

4.

The oscillators cannot radiate or absorb energy continuously.

5.

The oscillators emit energy only in the form of discrete packet of

energy i.e quanta or photon.

Derivation

Let us consider a black body having N number of oscillators with total

energy ET

 Average energy of an oscillator E = ET / N

If there are N0, N1, N2, N3 . Nr oscillators with energy 0, E, 2E, 3E.rE
respectively then we can write
Total number of oscillators N = N0,+ N1,+ N2,+ N3 . Nr

(2)

Total energy of oscillators ET = 0N0 + EN1 +2EN2 + 3EN3 + + rENr (3)

From Maxwells distribution formula the number of oscillators having

energy rE is given by

Substituting the values of number of oscillators for various r we get,

From equation
Total number of oscillators

Similarly from equation

Total energy of oscillators

Substituting the values of N and ET from (6) and (8) in (1) we get,
The average energy of the oscillator

Substituting the value of E as hv in (9) we get

This is the average energy of an oscillator. If we assume that all the
oscillators are within the wavelength range and + d, then the number of
oscillators per unit volume is given by

Total energy per = No. of oscillators x Average energy of unit volume

per unit volume an oscillator.

This Plancks Law for black body radiation in terms of wavelength.

Case 1 For shorter wavelength

When is small v is large
Equation (13) represents Wiens radiation law.

Case 2 For longer wavelengths

Equation (14) represents Rayleigh-Jeans Law.

4.6. Compton Scattering

When a beam of monochromatic X-rays is scattered by a material of low
atomic number such as carbon, the X-rays suffer a change in wavelength. The
scattered radiation consists of two components.

1.

A component having longer wavelength than the incident radiation.

2.

A component having the same wavelength as the incident radiation.

The change in wavelength is due to loss of energy of the incident Xrays. This phenomenon in which there is a change in wavelength of
scattered X-rays is called compton effect.

Theory of Compton Scattering

Compton explained the scattering of X-rays on the basis of quantum
theory of radiation. The photons of incident X-ray make inelastic collision
with the looslly bound electrons of the carbon atom as shown in Fig. 4.3. The
colliding photon exchanges some of its energy and momentum to the recoiling
electron and the scattered photon. In this process the energy and momentum
are conserved.

The energy of the incident photon = hv

Momentum of the incident photon = hv / c
Initial energy of the electron

= Rest mass energy

= m0c2

Initail momentum of the electron = 0

The energy of the scattered photon = hv'
Momentum of the scattered photon = hv1 / c
The energy of the recoiled electron = mc2
Momentum of the recoiled electron = mv
where v is the velocity of the recoiled electron.
Let and be the angles made by the scattering photon and the
recoiling electron with the direction of the incident photon.

By the principle of conservation of energy, Energy before collision = Energy

after collision
hv + m0c2 = hv1 + mc2
i.e.,

mc2 = h (v v1) + m0c2

(1)

According to the principle of momentum,

Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision
Momentum of incident photon+momentum of electron at rest = Momentum
of scattered photon+momentum of recoiled electron.

X and Y component of the momentum can be written as

X component

(2)

Y component

(3)

From Equations (2) and (3) we get,

mvc cos = h(v-v1 cos )

(4)

muc sin = hv1sin

(5)

Squaring and adding (4) and (5)

m2v2c2

= h2 (v2 2vv1 cos + v2 cos2 + v12 sin2 )

= h2 (v2 2vv1 cos + v12)

Squaring equation (1) we get,

(6)

m2c4

= h2 (v2 2vv1 + v2) + 2h (v v1) m0c2 + m20c4

(7)

Subtracting (6) from (7), we have,

m2c2 (c2-v2) = -2h2vv1 (1-cos ) + 2h (v-v1) m0c2 + m20c4

(8)

The value of m2c2 (c2-v2) can be obtained from Einsteins relativistic

formula as follows.

From equation (8) and (9)

The above relation shows that d is independent of the wavelength

of the incident radiations as well as the nature of the scattering
substance. It depends upon the angle of scattering only.

Case i
When = 0, cos0 = 1, 1- =0, i.e., no scattering takes place along
the direction of incident photon.

Case ii

This change in wavelength is called compton's shift or compton

wavelength and it is a constant.

Hence it can be concluded that when varies between 0 and , the

wavelength of scattered photon varies between and + 2h / m0c1 provided

the incident photon is of very small wavelength.

Experimental Verification of Compton Effect
Fig. 4.4 shows the experimental setup for study of Compton effect.
Monochromatic beam of X-rays is allowed to fall on a carbon block B which
act as scatterer. The Bragg's spectometer can freely swing in an arc about the
scatterer. The scattering of X-ray photon can take place in different directions
and their intensities can be measured by Bragg's spectrometer. The
measurements are made for scattering angles 0, 45, 90 and 135.
If a graph is ploted between relative intensities and wavelengths, then
we observe that for each value of , there are distinct intensity peaks for two
wavelengths, one of which corresponds to the incident radiation and the
other has a higher value 1(Fig. 4.5). The peak corresponding to 1 is called
modified peak.
We can see that with increase of , 1 - increases and the shift in
wavelength . increases in accordance with the results obtained by
Compton and so the Compton effect is verified experimentally.

4.7

Matter waves

The predictions made on the basis of Compton and photoelectric

effects established that electromagnetic radiation travel in form of tiny
packets or bundles of energy. These packets of energy behaved mostly like
a particle and were called photons. Subsequently the phenomenon of

interference or diffraction of light or X-rays could be explained only when

the electromagnetic radiation were assumed to be in wave nature. This
resulted in the dual character of radiation.

L.de Broglie in the year 1924 explained the dual nature of electro
magnetic radiation. According to him, the electron or any other material
particle must exhibit wave like properties in addition to particle nature.
Hence any moving particle will have a wave associated with it.
4.7.1 de-Broglie wavelength associated with light or photon
From the theory of light, considering a photon as a particle, the
total energy of the photon is given by,
E = mc2
where m-mass of the particle,
c-velocity of light.

Considering the photon as a wave, the total energy is given by,

E = hv
Where, h-plancks constant,
v-frequency of radiation.
Equation equation (1) and (2)
mc2 = hv
But, momentum = mass x velocity

i.e, p = mc
equation (3) becomes
i.e, The wavelength of a photon

de-Broglie suggested that equation (5) can be applied both for photons
and material particles if m is the mass of the particle and v is the velocity of
the particle, than

momentum p = mv

de-Brogile wavelength

4.7.2 de-Broglie wavelength interms of energy

We know that the kinetic energy if the particle
Multiplying by m on both sides
But de-Broglie wavelength
De-Broglie wavelength in terms of energy is

4.7.3 de-Broglie wavelength interms of voltage

If a charged particle of charge e is accelerated through a potential
difference V
The kinetic energy of the electron
The energy of the particle accelerated through a potential V is given by
E = eV
Equating (11) & (12)
Multiplying both sides by m
But de-Broglie wavelength

De-Broglie wavelength in terms of voltage is

4.7.4 de-Broglie wavelength interms of temperature

When a particle like neutron is in thermal equilibrium at temperature T,

then theypossess Maxwell distribution of velocities.
The kinetic energy
is the root mean square velocity of the particle.
Also we know the energy
Where KB-Boltzman constant.
Equating equations (15) (16)
Multiply both sides by m
But de-Broglie wavelength
De-Broglie wavelength in terms of temperature is

4.7.5 Properties of matter waves

1.

Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

2.

Smaller the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength

associated

3.

with it.

These waves are produced in the particles even if the particles are
charged

or uncharged. This means that these waves are not

electromagnetic waves
4.

but are new kind of waves.

The velocity of matter waves is not constant, since it depends on the

velocity of the material particle. But the velocity of electromagnetic

waves is constant.

4.8

Schrodinger wave equation

Schrodinger in the year 1925 developed a mathematical theory to

describe the wave nature of a particle based on de Broglie's ideas of matter
waves. He incorporated the de Broglie wavelength in the general wave
equation. There are two wave equations namely

1.

Schrodinger time independent wave equation

2.

Schrodinger time dependent wave equation

These equations are used to determine the electron energy levels in

atoms and molecules. They also enable to find the location or state of the
electron in a material.

4.8.1 Schrodinger time independent wave equation

Consi er a system of stationary waves to be associated with a
particle. Let be the wave function which represents the displacement
of the particle along x, y, z co-ordinates at any time 't' with a velocity 'v'.
The classical differential equation representing the wave motion is given
by

here is a function of x, y, z and t.

From equation(l) we get
Where is the Laplacian operator
The solution of equation (2) is of the form

Hereo is the amplitude of the stationary wave at any point

considered. Differentiating (3) with respect to 't'
Substituting (4) in (2)
From de Broglie's hypothesis we have = h / mv
Substituting in (6) we get
If E is the total energy of the particle and V is its potential energy, then its
kinetic energy is given by
mv2 = E - V ( Total energy = kinetic energy+ potential
energy) mv2=2(E - V)
m2v2 =2m(E - V)
This is schrodinger's time independent wave equation.
4.8.2 Scrodinger's time dependent wave equation
Schrodinger's time dependent wave equation can be arrived from time
independent wave equation by applying some modification. We have from
equation (3)
Differentiating with respect to time

Schrodingers time independent wave equation is

Substituting the value of E from (11)
This is schrodingers time dependent wave equation.

4.9

Physical significance of wave function

1.

The wave function hasno direct physical meaning. It is a complex

quantity representing the matter wave of electron.

2.

It connects the particle nature and its associated wave nature

statistically.

3.

is a measure of the probability of finding the particle at a particular

position. It does not give the exact location of the particle.

4.

//2 = * is real and positive and has physical meaning.

5.

The probability of finding out a particle in a particular volume d is

given by

Where * is the complex conjugate of .

4.10. Particle in a one dimensional potential box

Consider a particle of mass 'm' moving along x axis in a one

dimensional box of length L as shown in Fig 4.6

The walls of the box are of infinite potential and so the particle cannot
penetrate out from the box. The potential energy V of the electron inside the
box is constant and can be taken as zero for simplicity .

the boundary conditions are

V(x) = 0 for 0 x L
V (x) = for 0 x L
Since the particle cannot exist outside the box the wave function =O
when

0xL

The wave function is to be determined within the box.

The schrodinger time independent wave equation is
Within the box V = 0
Where
Equation (2) is a second order differential equation and the solution for
this equation is given by
= A sin kx + B cos kx

Where A and B are arbitrary constants and their values can be

obtained by applying the boundary conditions
At x = 0, = 0
Substituting in (4) we get, B = 0
At x = L, = 0
Substituting in (4) we get, 0 = A sin kL
A 0

Sin kL = 0
Substituting the value of B and k in (4) we get,
Squaring equation (5) we get
Comparing (7) and (3)
The energy of the particle

For every value of en' there is an energy level and corresponding wave
function. Each value of En is known as Eigen value and the corresponding
value of is called as Eigen function.

The value of A in equation (6) can be obtained by applying the

normalization condition. Since the particle is inside the box of length L, the
probability that the particle is found inside the box is unity

The normalized wave function of the particle is

Particle in a three dimensional box

The solution of one dimensional potential box can be extended for a

three dimensional potential box. In a three dimensional potential box the
particle can move in any direction and so they have three quantum numbers
nx, ny and nz corresponding to the three co-ordinate axes x, y and z respectively.

If we assume that the sides of the box are same then the eigen
functions are given by
Where
The eigen value is given by
Where
The three integers n1, n2 and n3 are called quantum numbers and are
required to specify each energy state. For a particle inside the box, cannot
be zero and so no quantum number can be zero.

Degeneracy

For several combination of quantum numbers we have same energy

eigen value but different eigen functions. This condition is called
degeneracy.

The combination of quantum numbers (1 1 2), (1 2 1) and (2 1 1) give

the same eigen value but different eigen functions. These levels are also
called three fold degenarate state.
For various combination of quantum numbers if we have same energy
eigen value and same eigen function then that condition is known as nondegenatrate state.

The states such as (1 1 1) (2 2 2) etc are called non-degenerate states.

4.11

Electron Microscope
Electron microscope is an instrument used for magnifying small

objects so that their minute parts are observed. This can be used for both the
physical and chemical analysis.
The electron microscope is base on the following principles

Particles such as electrons possess wave like properties and have

shorter wavelength .

Like light being focussed by lenses, electrons can be focussed by

suitable electric and magnetic fields.
The basic reason for utilizing the electron microscope is its superior

resolution, resulting from the very small wavelengths as compared to other

forms of radiation like X-rays and neutrons. Electron microscopes giving
magnifications more than 2,00,000 X are found common in research
laboratories.
The difference types of electron microscope are
1.

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

2.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

3.

Field emission electron microscope

In TEM and SEM, the electron beam emerging from the electron gun

acts as source of beam. However in field emission electron microscope, the

specimen itself acts as a source of radiation.

4.12

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

The scanning electron microscope enables to analyse the specimen in 3

dimension
Principle
Electrons from the electron gun interacts with the specimen and emits
wide spectrum of electromagnetic waves and these rays are used to analyse
the physical and chemical properties.

Construction

Fig. 4.8. shows a scanning electron microscope. The essential parts of a

scanning electron microscope are
i.

An electon Gun.

ii.

A specimen holder.

iii.

Electron lenses (condenser lens, objectives lens, intermediate lens,

projector lens).

i.

iv.

Vacuum pumps.

v.

Scanning coils to scan the spot across the specimen.

vi.

A scan generator driving both the scanning coils and CRT output.

vii.

A detector amplifier system to modulate the brightness of the CRT.

Electron Gun

The common source for electrons in a scanning electron microscope

is the electron gun. When a positive potential is applied to the anode, the
filament cathode gets heated uniformly and a stream of electrons are
produced. The electrons, being negatively charged are attracted by the
positively charged anode. They are accelerated down the column. In order
to condense the electrons a negative potential (500V) is applied to the
wehnelt cap. Now electrons are collected in the space between the
filament and the wehnelt cap. This collection of electrons is called as
'space charge'.

The electrons at the bottom of the space charge (nearest to the

anode) can exit the gun area through the small < 1 mm) hole in the
wehnelt cap. These electrons are then send down the column to be later
used for imaging.

Working
The source at the top represents the electron gun producing a
stream of monochromatic electrons. The stream of electrons is condensed
by the first condenser lens. It is usually controlled by the 'Coarse probe
current knob'. It works in conjunction with the condenser aperture to
eliminate the high-angle electrons from the beam.
The

beam is

then

constricted

by

the

condenser

aperture

eliminating some high angle electrons. The second condenser lens

further focuses the electrons into a thin tight coherent beam and is
usually controlled by the 'fine probe current knob'. A user selectable
objective aperture further eliminates the high angle electrons from the
beam.
A set of coils 'scan' or 'sweep' the beam in a grid fashion (like a
Television), dwelling on points for a period of time determined by the
scan speed (usually in the microsecond range). The final lens, the
objective focuses the beam onto the part of the specimen desired.
The beam strike the specimen and dwells for a few micro seconds,
so that interactions occur inside the specimen and are detected with
various instruments.

The primary electron beam interacts with the specimen and

produce back scattered high energy electrons. Secondary electrons are
created by an electron crossing near the atom and infusing one of its
electron with extra energy. These secondary electron escapes from the
atom with some energy. They are collected by the scintillator and
converted into light signals.
The light signals are converted into electrical signals and then
amplified using the photo multiplier. The signal is sent to the CRT where
the image the formed.

Applications
1.

The surface feature of an object and its texture can be analysed.

2.

The morphology of the specimen surface can be studied.

3.

The composition of various elements in the specimen can be

studied.

4.

It is used to find out the disease causing agents like virus.

5.

Specimens of large thickness can also analysed.

4.13

Transmission electron microscope

Principle

The principle of transmission electron microscope is based on the

following

(i)

Electrons exhibit wave properties like light rays but have much
shorter wavelength.

(ii)

Electrons can be focussed by electric and magnetic fields just as

light rays can be focussed with the help of lenses.

Components of transmission electron microscope (TEM)

The essential components of a transmission electron microscopes
are
(i)

Electron gun

(ii)

Specimen holder

(iii)

Electron lenses (condenser lens, objective lens, intermediate

lens, projector lens)

(iv)

Vacuum system

(v)

Viewing screen or photographic plate

Electron gun
Electron gun consists of a tungsten 'hair pin' filament, which when

heated emits electrons due to thermionic emission. This filament is

given a negative potential 100 kV with respect to the rest of the
microscope. These electrons are then accelerated via a controlling
Wehnelt electrode through a hole in the anode. Thus the electron gun
produces a practically collimated stream of electrons of energy 100 keV
and electron beam size 50 to 100 m, which diverges over a small solid
angle on the exit from the gun.
The electrons coming out of the electron gun are focussed by a set
of condenser lenses to illuminate the specimen.
Specimen holder
The specimen is held in a special holder. The specimen is
introduced through an air lock because the interior of the microscope
must be highly evacuated. The holder is fitted to a stage which can be
moved or tilted so that the specimen can be studied at different
orientations.

The

specimen

is

usually

surrounded

by

cooled

anticontamination shield.
Electron lens
All the lenses used in electron microscope are of magnetic type.
These are energised by highly stabilized direct current sources. Fig. 4.9
shows an electron lens of magnetic type called magnetic lens. A non
uniform magnetic field along the axis of short solenoid behaves like a

lens. In such a field, the electron beam undergoes divergence or

convergence depending on the potential gradient at different points of
the magnetic field. An electron passing through this non uniform
magnetic field gets focussed. The focal length of the magnetic lens can be
varied by changing the current in the coil.

The three important defects such as spherical aberration,

chromatic aberration and astigmatism considered in lens design are
related to the shape of the magnetic field i.e., variation of magnetic field
with the position in the lens pole piece. By designing a proper pole piece,
spherical aberration and chromatic aberration are corrected. Using a
compensating magnetic field astigmatism is corrected.
Vacuum system
The main limitation of the electron beam is that it must pass
through a vaccum because air molecules would scatter the beam. Vaccum
is also needed to prevent high voltage discharge between the tungsten
filament/shield and anode since it is one of the major cause of filament
failure. Filaments are extremly sensitive to oxidation and must be
protected. Vaccum eliminates the presence of contaminant gases that are
broken down under high energy electron bombardment and generate
corrosive radicals which destroy the fine structure of the specimen.
Vaccuum system consists of vaccuum pump valves and switches for
evacuating primarily the path way of electron beam and also the

chambers such as specimen, camera and gun column that need

evacuation. The electron microscope requires a vaccum more than 10- 6
torr for its operation.
Viewing screen
The electron beam travels through the specimen. Depending on the
density of the material present, some of the electrons are scattered and
get disappeared from the beam. At the bottom of the microscope the
unscattered electrons hit a fluorescent screen, which gives rise to a
"shadow image" of the specimen with its different parts displayed in
varied darkness according to their density. The image can be studied
directly by the operator or can be photographed. The electrons are
typically detected by a photographic film or a charge coupled device
(CCD).
Working
An electron beam emitted from the gun is made to pass through the
centre of the doughnut magnet shaped electromagnet called condenser lens.
The electrons get deflected to form a parallel beam which strike the object to
be magnified. It should be noted that the electrons will be transmitted more
through the transparent part of the object and less through comparatively
denser portions. The transmitted beam will thus have the likeness of the
object transversed by it.

The second electromagnet called objective lens causes the electron beam
to diverge to produce enlarged image of the object. The third electromagnet
called projector lens focusses the electron beam from part of the enlarged
image on the fluorescent screen producing still greater magnification. The
image obtained on the fluorescent screen is made visible by scintillation for
direct view. It can also be obtained on a suitable photographic plate for a
permanent record. Sharp focussing is obtained by adjusting the intensity of
the magnetic fields produced by electromagnets.

Uses
1.

It is used in the investigation of atomic structures and structure of

crystals in detail.

2.

It has been used in the study of structure of textile fibres, purification

of lubricating oils, composition of paper and paint surfaces of metals
and plastics.

3.

In biology it is used to study the presence of virus.

4.14. Difference between optical microscope and Transmission

electron microscope

Optical Microscope
1.

Transmission Electron microscope

The lenses used are made of The lenses used are electromagnets.
glass.

2.

The focal length of the lenses The focal length of the lenses can be
are fixed.

varied by changing

the current

through the coil.

3.

The objective lenses can be The objective lenses is fixed and the
varied

for

difference magnification is altered by changing

magnification

the focal length of projector lens.

4.

Depth of field is small.

Depth of fixed is large.

5.

The source is normally placed The source is normally placed at the

at the bottom.

top.