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BUILDING SENTENCES
Before introducing the basic notions of set theory, it will be useful to make
certain observations on the use oflanguage.
By a sentence we will mean a statement whict in a given context is
unambiguously either true or -false. Thus
London s the capital of England.
'
22
1.2
"I + | :2 :>
z is a transcendental number"
is true, even though there is no causal relationship between the two compohent
sentences. To take another example,
"2 + 2 :
5 +
4isaprimenumber"
is trug even though the two component sentences are false. This should not
disturb the reader undul for formal implication still has the fundamental
if P - Q is trug then,
Building Sentences
23
1.5 Theorem For all sentences P and Q the following statements are true.
i) P + PvQ.
ii) PnQ-P.
i)' Q-PvQ.
ii)' P nQ + Q.
Proqf
i) We wish to prove that if P and Q are any sentences, then P + PvQ is
true; in other words, we wish to prove that no matter what truth values
are assumed by P and p, P - P v Q is always true. To do this, we derive
a truth table for P + P v Q asfollows.
P,
t
t
f
f
"f
PvQ
t
t
.f
t
t
P+PvQ
t
t
t
t
The basic idea of the derived truth table is this: in line 1, P and Q both take
the value ; thus, by 1.3, PvQ takes the value t; now, P has the value I
and PvQ has the value /, so, by I.4,P + PvQ takes the value /. We do
the same for each line, and we find that in every line.(that is, for every
possible assignment of truth values to P and Q) F
- P v Q has the value
(true). This is what we had set out to prove.
i)' The derived truth table for Q + P v Q is analogous to the one for
P + P v Q; the conclusion is the same.
ii) ln order to prove that P nQ- P for all sentences P and Q, we derive a
truthtableforPQ-P.
PQ
PnQ+P
24
ii)'
Q+ P,and
Proof
Q)
^(Q-
R)l
(P
R).
l(P-Q)n(Q+R)l + (P+R)
and veriff that this sentence takes the truth value r in every line of the
1f
table'l
R is true, then
i\ PvQ-PvRist{ue,and
ii) PnQ-PnRistrue.
Proo-f
i) we
assume that
Q+
Pla
ii)
lRl
PvQ
>
P v R.
PvQ+ PvR
We agree that P
Q is to be an abbreviation f9r (P
Q\
x(Q
P\'
1.8 Theorem For all sentences P, Q and R, the following are true:
i) Pv Q+ Qv P,
ii) Pv(0vR)+(PvQ)vR,
iii) Pn(0 v R) +
iv) PvP+P,
(P n Q)v(P nR),
i)'PnQ+Qt'P,
ii)'Pn(QnR)e(PnQ)nR,
iii)' Pv(g nR) +. (Pv Q)n(PvR),
iv)'PnP+P.
Building Classes
In
25
EXERCTSES 1.1
a)
-(PvQ)+-p-e.
-(PnQ)+-pv-e.
b)
+ Q)o(-e + -p).
c) (P + Q) o -(P -e).
a) (P
e) [(PvQ)n
-p]>
e.
all
b)
and e.
(P+ Q)+(pve).
d) [Pn(P
a1l
p,
Q)]
e.
and R.
are true.
BUILDING CTASSES
we are free
26
Classesand Sets
to have.
proper class.
Let us comment briefly on the "meaning" we intend to attach to these
notions. In the intended interpretation of our axiomatic systerq the word
c/ass
is understood to refer to any collection of objects. However, as we noted
in
section 2 of chapter 0, certain "excessively large" collections can be
formed in
intuitive set theory (for exampre, the collction of all x such that x
I x), and if
we do not exercise special caution they lead to contradictions such
as Russell,s
paradox. The"term proper c/ass is understood to refer to these ..excessively
largie" collections; all other collections are sers.
A:B
A:
itr
Ifx :
yand x e A,then y e A.
element of ,4 is an element of
B.
In symbols,
Building Classes
'
AeB
itr
27
xeA+xeB.
is a subclass of B.
A e B to mean that A c B
A is a strict subclass of B.
If A is a subclass of B, and .4 is a
set, we
and
t'
next
theorem.
1) A: A.
11)A:B+B:A..
nDA:BandB:C>A:C.
iv\ A c BandB c A> A: B.
v)AcBandBeC+AcC.
Proqf
i) The statement
:Z',liZ';
From the first and third of these statements we conclude (by 1.6) that
x e A + x e C. From the second and fourth of these statements we
concludethatxe C+xe ,4. ThuqbyDefinition 1.9,A: C.
We leave the proofs of (iv) and (v) as an exercise for the reader.
We have seen that the intuitive way of making classes is to name a property
of objects and form the class of all the objects which have that property. Our
second axiom allows us to make classes in this manner.
!4.
2A
class construction.
The reader should note that axiom A2 permits us to form the class of all
tbe elements x which satisff P(x),not the class of all the classes x which satisfy
P(x); as we discussed on page 13, this distinction is sufficient to eliminate the
logical paradoxes. The semantic paradoxes have been avoided by admitting
in axiom A2 only those statements P(x) which can be written entirely in terms
of the symbols e, v, A, r,
3, V, brackets and variables.
The class C whose existence is asserted by Axiom A,2 will be designated
*,
by the symbol
{x lrlx}.
l.l2 Remurk The use of a small x in the expression {x I f(x)} is not accidental,
but quite essntial. Indeed, we have ugt..d that lower-cas l"tters x, y, etc.,
will be used only to designate elements. Thus
c
{*lp(r)}
from given
classes.
v B if and only if x e A or x e B.
1.15 Defnition By the unitersal class ll we mean the class of all elements.
The existence of the universal class is a consequence of the axiom of class
construction, for if we take P(x) to be the statement x : x,then M guarantees
the existence of a class which consists of all the elements which satisff x : x;
by 1.11(i), every element is in this class.
Building Classes
1.16 Definition By ihe empty c/ass we mean the class @ which has no elements
at all. The existence of the empty class is a consequence of the axiom of class
construction; indeed, M guarantees the existence of a class which consists of
all the elements which satisfy x * x; by Theorem 1.11(i), this class has no
elements.
i)=..
Ii)Acolt.
Proof
e@+xeA.
Well, suppose x
x(A+x4.
(A+
It
x O.
x e all. f
1.18 Definition If two classes have no elements in commor they are said to
be
disjoint. ln symbols,
A and B are disjoint
iff
AnB:@.
1.19 Definition The complement of a class ,4 is the class of all the elements
which do not belong to A. In symbols,
A'
Thus, x e A'
if and only if x (
{xl*d t\.
A.
Ao(BuC):(AoB)v(AtC).
This formula is illustrated
A o (B u C); one immediately notices that this same shaded area represents
(AnB)v(,4nC).
EXERCISES 1.2
c B and C c
a)(AvC)c(BuD),
D; prove that
1. Suppose that A
b)(.anOg(BnD).
Set 1.1.]
lHnt t IJse the result of Exercise 7, Exercise
2. Suppose
A: BandC: D;Provethat
a)AvC:BvD,
[Hnr:
b).4nC:BD.
3. Prove that If A
:
:
A
5. Prove thatif
6. Prove thatlf A
7. Prove Theorem
8. Let S
B
B and B
and
c
c
c CC,then A c C.
C,then A
One of the most interesting and useful facts about classes is that under the
operations of union, intersection, and complementation they satisS certain
The Algebra of
Classes
31
algebraic laws from which we can. develop an algebra of classes. We shall see
later (Chapter 4) that the algebra of classes is merely one example of a dtructure
known as a Boolean algebra; another example is the "algebra of logic," where
v, A, r Lre regarded as operations on sentences.
Our purpose in this section is to develop the basic laws of the algebra of
classes. We remind the reader that the word clcss should be understood to
mean any collecton of objects; thug the laws we are about to present should
be thought ofas applying to every collection ofobjects; in particular, they apply
to all
sets.
i\Ac.AvBandBc AvB,
ii)AaBcAandAaBcB.
Proof
i) To prove that A
by l.I4
by 1.s(ii).
:
:
B,
A.
Proof
+xeB
Thus,4 u B
c B;but B c
by 1.13
by 1.7(i)
by 1.8(iv).
A u Bby 1.20(i);consequently,Av B: B.
AvB: B. By 1.20(i), Ac AwB;
ii)
Then
32
all classes
1.22 Theorem (Absorption Laws)' For
i)
Av(AaB): '
and B'
A'
Proof
i) By1.20(ii), AB c '4;therefore'bv1'21(i)'Av(AoB):
B):
ii) By 1.20(i),A = Au B;therefore'by 1'21(ii\'A (Av
A, (A')' :
Proof
'
A'l
'
by
xe(A',)',+x(A',+xeA
1.19,
by 1.19.1
xeA+xQA'+xe(A')'
i)
(,a
A'
B''
Proo.f
bY1'19
i)First, xe(AuB)'+x(AwB
+ xQ Aandx(
Next, x e (A' n B)
ii)
by l.r4
by
1.19
by
1.19.
commutatiue
Laws:
Idempotent Laws:
Assocatiae
r,aws:
i) A v B :
BwA
ii)AaB:BrA
iil\ Av A: A
lv)AoA':A
,ll
i:
::,"^:;"^z
[l : :]
Distributiue Laws:
vii) A n(B u C) : (A a B) v (A a C)
viii) Au (B n C) : (A v B) n (A w C)
Proqf
1)xeAvB+xeA or xeB
+xeB or xeA
+xeBwA
v) xe
Av(B
by
by 1.8(i)
by 1.13.
by 1.13
"':
by 1.13
by 1.8(ii)
by 1.13
l=t1ti:"i!.::l
> x(AwB)vC
vii) xe Aa(BuC) i xeA n xeBvC
ii.',ool 1: 1r",.,!'o ^
1.13
by
1.13.
by t.r4
by 1.13
xe
: lZl\u,,",i;:;,'
C)
by 1.8(iii)
by
by
l.I4
1.13.
The proofs of (ii), (iii), (iv), (vi), and (viii) are exercises for the reader.
The empty class and the universal class are identity elements for union
and intersection respectively; they satisfi the following simple rules:
1.26 Theorem For every class .4,
'l)Aw@:A.
iii) A v 4,/ * Q/.
v) '?l' :' g.
vii) I u A' : 4t..
ii)Aa:@.
iv) ,4 n 4t : A.
vi) Q' : a.
viii) ,4 n A' : @.
Proof
i) By t.I7, g A, and therefore by 1.21(i), A w @ + A.
iii) By 1.17(ii) A e al/, and therefore by 1.21(i), A v Ql : 4.
The proofs of the remaining parts of this theorem are left as an exercise for
the reader.
By using the laws of class algebra which we have developed above, we can
prove all the elementary properties of classes without referring to the definitions
of the symbols u, n, ', and
The following is an example of how such proofs
-c.
are carried out.
A r B.
Proof
A n (A' u B)
: (A n A,) v (A a B)
: Ow(AnB)
:AB
by 1.25(vii)
by 1.26(viii)
by L26(i\.
A and B is the
In symbols,
A-B:AaB'.
Example provethat A
- B: B'-
A".
Proof
A-B:AaB'
:B'nA
: B' n (A,),
:B'-A'
Definition
by 1.2s(ii)
by t.23
Definition of B' A'.
It is useful to note that with the aid of rheorem 1.21, relations involving
inclusion (c), not merely equalit can be proved using class algebra.
EXERCTSES 1.3
a\ If A C : A,then,4 n (B v C) : A n B.
b) lf A ^
a B : 6,thenz4 - B -- A.
-c) If A n B : and, Av B : C,then A : C
-
a)
Aa(B-C):(A^B)-C.
q - C : (A - c)u(B -
b) (.a v
C).
B.
(A
^C)
(B
n e.
c) A
d) A
u C) : (A - B) a(A - C).
n c) : (A - B) v (A - C\.
the operation + on classes as follows: lf A
35
(B
(B
8. We define
A+B:(A-B)v(B-A\.
Prove each of the following.
a\A+B:B+A,
, b\A+(B+C):(A+B)+c,
c) Aa(B-+ C):(AaB)+(A nC), d) A+ A: @, e) A+ @:
9.
A.
ti)AvB:g+A:6andB:9.
b) A a B' : ifandonly tf A c B.
c) A + B -- gifandonly if A : B.
10. Prove each of the following.
a)
AwC:Bv
b) (,a u Q +
B)
+BcC.
Cifandonlyif,4
(nu Q : @.+
if
C.
,4
c B and C : B-
r4, then
C.
If a is an element, we may use the axiom of class construction to form the class
{a} : {x l*
o).
It is easy to see that {a} contains only one elemen! namely the element a.
A class containing a single element is called a singleton.
lf a and b are elementq we may use the axiom of class construction to
form the class
{o,b}
: {, lx: a or x:
b\.
clearly {a, b} contains two elementg namely the elements a and b. A class
containing exactly two elements is called an unordered pair, r, more simply,
a doubleton.
In like fashion, we can form the classes {a, b, cl, {a, b, c, d), and so on.
Frequently, in mathematics, we need to form ciasies whose elements are
doubletons. In order to be able to do tiris legitimately, we need a new axiom
which will guarantee that if a and, b are elements, then the doubleton
{a, b} is
an element. This motivates our next axiom, which is often called the Axiom
of Pairing:
if
36
1.27 Theorem
If {x, y}
lx: u and y: uf
or
lx: u and y:
u].
cases
y,
b:d.
ordered
we would like to define ordered pain in such a way as to. avoid introducing
a new undfined notion of "order." It is an interesting fact that this canl
indeed, be accomplished;we proceed as follows.
(a,b)
{{a}, {a,b}}.
a\
{{b}, {a,b}}.
Hence there is a clear distinction between the two possible ..orders,, (a,
b) and
(b, a): they are distinct classes. It remains to provi that ordered
pairg as we
have just defined therr have property 1.2g.
Proof.
Suppose that
(c,d),thena: candb:
(a,bl
(c,
d); that
{{o}, {o, b} }
d.
is,
or
ce
{a},
{c},
so
so
1.31 Definition The Cartesian proiluct of two classes A and B is the class of
all ordered pairs (x, y) where x e A and y e B. ln symbols,
'
and yeBI.
A x (B v C) : (A x
1i1) (A x B) n (C x D) :
1l)
u(,4 x C).
(A o C) x (B n D).
B)
Proqf
(x, y) e
(A x
o(x,y)e(AxB)n(AxC).
B)o(C xD)e(x,y)eAxB and (x,y)eCxD
+xeA and yeB and xeC and yeD
xeArC and yeBaD
.+ (x, y) e (A a C) x (B n D). I
it
"J
BD
rI
"I
I
I
ncl
Fig. 5
EXERCISES 1.4
3r!
and,
(A x Bl - (A x D).
B) n(C x D) : (A x D) n (C x
B).
x A) a(B x
b) (,a x D - (c
c) (A x A) - (B
C)
(A a B\
x C) : l@ x C): f(A -
x (A
C\.
C) x Bl u la x (n - Ql.
B) x AlwlA x (A - C)f.
6. Prove that A and B are disjoint if and only if, for any nonempty class C, A
B x Caredisjoint.
7.lf AandCarenonemptyolasses,provethat A c
BxD.
BandC
8. LetA.B,C,Dbenonemptyclasses. Provethat A x
andB:D.
.ir.
plasses,
B:
ifandonlyif,4
Difandonly if
prove
A),
A'aredisjoint.
C and
xCc
A:
Graphs
11,
39
a) lf a: {b},tbenb e a.
b) x: yif andonlyif {x}: {y}.
c) x e a if and only 1f {x\ c q.
d) {a,b}
b.
(x,y):{{,,@},{t,{}}}uu"nr,}Tl";rl,T;!,il_7."
GRAPHS
1.33
.Definition
1.34 Definition
follows:
G ,and
G. H
{$r:
as
If G, 1, and J
It
j
I
' +lw=(x,w)eH.J
(x,y)e6"(H"J).
and (w,y)eG
and (w, y) e G
ii)
(x, y) e
iii) (x'Y)e (G
'H)-':T1'#1i1;:ru
"',izu '
domG: {xl3ya(x,y)eG},
and by the range of G we mean the class
ranG+{yll*=(x,y)eG}.
ln other words, the domain of G is the class of all "first
elements of G, and the range of G is the class of
elements of G.
components" of
all "second components" of
Proqf
i) xedom G+1y=(x,y)eG
e3y= (y,x)eG-1
xcranGiii) xedom(G
3y:(x. y)e(G"H\
+12=(x.z)e H and (z,y)e G
+_\domFI. I
"H)-
1.38 Corollary Let G and Il be graphs. If ran .EI c dom G then dom G o H
dom H.
The proof of this theorem is left as an exercise for the reader.
EXERCTSES 1.5
l.
Let
Graphs
and
Find G-1,
H : {A.a\(c.bl,(d.c)}.
H-',G " H,H " G,(c " H)-t,(G v H)-1,H-t
2. Prove Theorem
1.37, parts
3. Prove Theorem
1.38.
4. If
G,
U, andJ
" G.
a)
b) (C
- Hl-r:G-l - H-t,
-(c"J)=G"(H -
d) (c" H)
J).
: G-t v H*1.
7.IfA,B,andCareclasses,proveeachofthefollowing.
a)(AxB)-':BxA.
b) If,4
O,then(,4 x B)"(A x B): A x B.
^B B+are
c) ll,4 and
disjoint, then (,4 x B) " (A x q : A.
d) If B / @,then(B x C) "(A x B\ -- A x C.
8. Let G and H
be
a) IfG c A x B,thenG-1 c B x A.
b)IfG-AxBandIIcBxC,thenIoGcAxC.
t&
v H):
(dom G)
(dom H).
Gror:
{(x,
y)l@,y)eGand xeB}.
{y
l,
eB
G.
(x, y) e G\.
G(C),
{At}or'
Thus, speaking informally, {A,\n, is the class of all the classes A, as i ranges
/.
over
A,:
{x l1;,xec}.
- {1,2\, A,.: {a,b}, and
where.I
Ar:
{c,d\-
iel, A,is'an
element, then we let {A,l ; e f} designate the class whose elements are all the
A,, that.is, {,4, | ; e f} : {t l, : .4, for some i e I}. However, we shall follow
current mathernatical usage and use the two expressions, {,4,},.. and {Arl ; e f},
interchangeably.
1.39 Definition Let {A,},., be an indexed family of classes. The union of the
classes, , consists of all the elements which belong to at least one class .4, of
the family. In symbols,
UA,:
{xll.e I=xeA1.
The intersection of the classes,4., consists of all the elements which belong to
every class A, of the family. In symbols,
)A,:
ieI
{xlv;e I,xeA,\.
ho - t vv
Lo
vl,r"o
o,
, totr,oo,
lntersection
43
for
ii) IfB
Aforevery i
el,
then U
- )O,.
Proqf
i)
Suppose that
some
j e 1;but Aj -
B, so x e
now if
B. Thus [J A,
=
ieI
B.
iel
: ),q;.
iel
ii) (l^) .4,)' :0 ,q;:
i) (U /,)'
iel
iel
ieI
Proo.f
A,
iel
+VjeI,x(A,
YieI,xeAr'
+xe
,]ot''
i) (U
ii)
,4,)
i.4
(n ,4,)
iel
n ([J B.) :
U (A, n B),
u (l B;) : 0 (A, v B).
jeJ
(i,j)el J
jeJ
(i,j\el
xJ
Proof
i) xe([J,4,) n(U
ieI
be
ieI
Gr).
iI
iel
Proqf
xedom(U G,)e3ya(",y)e U
i)
t"
bY 1.36
by
1.39
bY 1.36
bY 1'39-
ieI
is
and
Ae'&
Ae,.
) e:
1.45
{xlxe.4forevery Ae.}.
Ae.r'/
,d
{K,L, M},
where
{s,b,d\,
) A:
U A: {a,b,c,d,e\ and Ae"t
f : {a,c.it\, and
{d\.
't.
1.47 Remark
Ud for l)
t/
lntersection
45
and
for ),.
)d
Ae,ry'
EXERCISES 1.6
1.42(11\.
I. Suppose
b)0.a,sn4.
a)UA,cU4,
eI
classes
eI
eI
iel
6. Let {A,}r., and {^B,}n, be indexed families of classes. Prove the following.
(A, x B1,
a) (n.4,) x
B;)
(ljeJ : (i,j\eln J
b) (U,4,) x ([J B.) : U (A, x B).
jeJ
(,j\el J
eI
ie/
4,.
eI,)jeJ=
Prove that
)a, s ).a,.
jeJ
:
:
eI je,I
Aif A
Suppose that
= !J 4.
{.B,}". and {C,}ru are two distinct coverings of ,4. Prove that the family
{(4 ^ c)}rt,.r*, is a covering of .4.
10. Let a: {u,u,w},b: {r,r}, c: {w,y},r: {a,b\,s-- {b,"},andp: {r,s}. Find
9. We say that an indexed family {8,},., isa couerng of
u(np) n(up).
Prove that a(. v g) : (a.) n (n0).
the classes u(up), n(np),
11.
a\ If A e 9,then A c v Q and a0 c A.
b) U c 0if andonlyif w. c vQ.
c) lf @ e,,then a, : .
16
SETS
ses
Sets
47
i"\, svch;a
JfLy; h-o_wg.u.el, that .for any propertv p(X\, it is legitimate to form the
class o.l atl sets
which satisy
Thus, the freedom we require is resioFd
p(x).
same thin
form the class of
is.
it here; thus,
words, we would quite certainly expect every set to be an element. The converse
is equally reasonable: for i[.] !s not a set, then A is a proper class. and we have
atready seen that ln order to avoid contradictions, proper classes should not be
elements of anything. Thus, if I is not a set, then I is not an element.
In the remainder of this section, we will state the basic axioms dealing with
sets. The main purpose of these axioms is to guarantee that when the usual
set-theoretic operations are perform'ed on sets, the result, each time, is a set.
First, we note that the Axiom of Pairing, our Axiom 43, may be re-stated
thus:
44.
A
then
Aed
is a set.
rf A and -B are sets, then, by Axiom A3, {A, B} is a set; it follows immediately
48
Next, we will establish that if is a set, then the class of all the subsets
is a set. We begin with a definition.
of
the subsets af
A.
A6. If
is a set, then
1.51 Example
If A
g(A) is a set.
,o,], then
g(A)
From all that we have said so far, it does not yet follow that there exisr
all. To fill this vacuum, we state a temporary axiom, which will be
superseded by Axiom A9:
any sets at
fnite
number of elements.
lf
,4
B:{Xlxet
and p(x)}
is the class of all the subsets of r which satisfy the property p; by Axiom
44, Axiom A2 may legitimately be used to form ttre class .8. Now if x e B,
Sets
49
l,
1.53 Theorem lf
it follows that
that is,
Thus
"y)
qlgl
B)1,
B)1.
AxBcglg(AuB)1.
It follows from Theorem 1.53 arrd Axiom A4 that if A and B are sets, then
anygraph G c A x Bisaset.
It is easy to show that if G is a set, then dom G and ran G are sets (see
Exercise 5, Exercise Set 1.7). Using this fact, one can easily show that if G and
El are sets, then G " H and G-r are sets (see Exercise 6, Exercise Set 1.7).
EXERCTSES 1.7
1. rf
u4
Set 1.3.)
-B
ado
ui,firP,i?;llse
8, Exercise
2. lf A is a proper
4. Let {Ail.r
that (-)
,4, is a set.
a graph. Prove that if G is a set, then o- 'rrr ran G are sets. [Ifinr: Show
that both dom G and ran G are subsets of u(uG).]
5. I,et G be
50
"\
a\ v(e(6\): fi.
c) lf 9(A) e A(0\
10. Exhibit the sets
then A e
s(s())
: {q}'
0 n(s(s\): '
A'
and
Els(E(@\\l'