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INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) power supplied to the utility grid is gaining more and more
attention nowadays. However, depending on the characteristics of the PV panels, the total
output voltage from the PV panels varies greatly due to variation of temperature, irradiation
conditions, shading and clouding effects. When even a small portion of a cell, module, or
array is shaded, while the remainder is in sunlight, the output falls dramatically. In view of
continuity & stability, a stable energy source and an energy source that can be dispatched at
the request are desired. As a result, energy storage such as batteries and fuel cells for solar
PV systems has drawn significant attention and the demand of energy storage for solar PV
systems has been dramatically increased, since, with energy storage, a solar PV system
becomes a stable energy source and it can be dispatched at the request, which results in
improving the performance and the value of solar PV systems.
There are different options for integrating energy storage into a Utility-scale solar PV
system. Every integration solution has its advantages and disadvantages. Different grouping
solutions can be compared with regard to the number of power stages, efficiency, storage
system flexibility, control complexity, etc.
Under the technical backgrounds a single-stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) for
PV-Battery system is presented in the project. The main objective of the project is to design a
single-stage inverter cum chopper instead of multistage inverter cum chopper. This proposed
single-stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) performs different operations such as DC-AC &
DC-DC in order to interconnect PV to Grid(dc to ac), PV to battery (dc to dc), battery to grid
(dc to ac), and battery/PV to grid (dc to ac) for solar PV systems with energy storage.
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The system described in [18][21] uses a line-commuted inverter along with an isolated dc
dc stage. Also, many no isolated single-stage boost or buckboost derived inverter topologies
have been developed [22][25].
The system described in [26], [27] overcomes the major drawbacks or limitation of inputvoltage range and/or requirement of two input sources.
The system described in [28] replaces the isolated Dcdc with non-isolated or transformer
less dcdc [28].
The system described in [29] uses the transformer less dcdc stage will be more reliable and
cost effective.
1.5 Summary
In this chapter introduction, literature survey, organization of the project is discussed
and in the next chapter introduction to the proposed Single-Stage inverter cum chopper
(SSICC) circuit, comparison with state of art methods, different operating modes and system
benefits PV-Battery System are explained clearly.
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CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM
2.1 Introduction
In chapter1 introduction about the project has been discussed. This chapter explains
about block diagram of the proposed Single-Stage inverter cum chopper circuit (SSICC).
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result of the absorption of ionizing radiation. Energy conversion devices which are used to
convert sunlight to electricity by the use of the photovoltaic effect are called solar cells. A
single converter cell or, more generally, a photovoltaic cell, and combination of such cells
designed to increase the electric power output is called a solar module or solar array.
Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductors that generate electricity when they
absorb light. As photons are received, free electrical charges are generated that can be
collected on contacts applied to the surface of the semiconductors.
solar radiation.
Region containing a drift field for charge separation, and
Charge collecting front and back electrodes.
The photo-voltaic effect can be described easily for p-n junction in a semi-conductor.
In an intrinsic semi-conductor such as silicon, each one of the four valence electrons of the
material atom is tide in a chemical bond, and there are no free electrons at absolute zero. If a
piece of such a material is doped on one side by a five valence electron material, such as
arsenic or phosphorus, there will be an excess electrons in that side, becomes an n-type semi5 | Page
conductor. The excess electrons will be practically free to move in the semi-conductor lattice.
When the other side of the same piece is doped by a three valence electron material, such as
boron, there will be deficiency of electrons leading to a p-type semi-conductor. This
deficiency is expressed in terms of excess of holes free to move in the lattice. Such a piece of
semi-conductor with one side of the p-type and the other of the n-type is called a p-n
junction. In this junction after the photons are absorbed, the free electrons of the n-side will
tend to flow to the p-side, and the holes of the p-side will tend to flow to the n-region to
compensate for their respective deficiencies. This diffusion will create an electric field E F
from the n-region to the p-region. This field will increase until it reaches equilibrium for V e,
the sum of the diffusion potentials for holes and electrons. If electrical contacts are made
with the two semi-conductor materials and the contacts are connected through an external
electrical conductor, the free electrons will flow from the n-type material through the
conductor to the p-type material. Here the free electrons will enter the holes and become
bound electrons thus, both free electrons and holes will be removed. The flow of electrons
through the external conductor constitutes an electric current which will continue as long as
more free electrons and holes are being formed by the solar radiation. This is the basis of
photo-voltaic conversion, that is, the conversion of solar energy into electrical energy. The
combination of n-type and p-type semi-conductors thus constitutes a photo-voltaic (PV) cell
or solar cell. All such cells generate direct current which can be converted into alternating
current if desired.
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The most normal configuration for a solar cell to make a p-n junction semi conductor
is as shown schematically in fig.2.2 The junction of the p type and n type materials
provides an inherent electric field which separates the charge created by the absorption of
sunlight. This p-n junction is usually obtained by putting a p- type base material into a
diffusion furnace containing a gaseous n-type dopant such as phosphorus and allowing the ndopant to diffuse into the surface about 0.2m. The junction is thus formed slightly below the
planer surface of the cell and the light impinges perpendicular to the junction. The positive
and negative charges created by the absorption of photons are thus encouraged to drift to the
front and back of the solar cell. The back is completely covered by a metallic contact to
remove the charges to the electric load. The collection of charges from the front of the cell is
aided by a fine grid of narrow metallic fingers. The surface coverage of the conducting
collectors is typically about 5% in order to allow as much light as possible to reach active
junction area. An antireflective coating is applied on the top of the cell. The p-n junction
provides an electrical field that sweeps the electrons in one direction and the positive holes in
the other. If the junction is in thermodynamic equilibrium, then the Fermi energy must be
uniform throughout. Since the Fermi level is near the top of the gap of an n-doped material
and near the bottom of the p-doped side, an electric field must exist at the junction providing
the charge separation function of the cell. Important characteristics of the Fermi level is that,
in thermodynamic equilibrium, it is always continuous across the contact between the two
materials.
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I i =I o exp
Ve
1
KT
Where
IoSaturation current also called the dark current and is applied when a large negative
voltage is applied across the diode.
V Voltage across junction.
e Electronic charge
k Boltzmanns constant
T Absolute temperature
When light impinges on the junction, electron hole pairs are created at a constant rate
providing an electrical flow across the junction. The net current is thus the difference
between the normal diode current and light generated current IL. The internal series resistance
Rs is mostly due to the high sheet resistance of the diffused layer which is in series with the
junction. The light generated current acts as a constant current source supplying the current to
either the junction or a useful load depending on the junction characteristic and the value of
the external load resistance. The net current I is given by
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I =I L I i =I L I o exp
Ve
1
KT
The internal voltage drop in a cell can usually be minimized, and for ideal cell Rs may
be assumed equal to zero i.e. Rs=0. With these the corresponding I-V plot is given in figure.
Open circuit voltage Voc for the ideal cell is then given by
I
KT
V oc =
ln L +1 3
e
IO
[ ]
Since IL>>Io, the 1 in the equation can be neglected. Then open circuit voltage
I
KT
V oc =
ln L 4
e
IO
[ ]
In practice the open circuit voltage of the cell decreases with increasing temperature.
The maximum power that can be derived from the device is given by
Pmax=Vmp.Imp
5
I L EG
eP sun
( )(
V mp I mp
I l V OC
eV OC
EG
)( )
V mp I mp
6
Psun
The fill factor (FF) for a solar cell is defined as the ratio of two areas shown.
FF=
V I
mp mp
I l V OC
7
Solar cell designers, strive to increase the fill factor values, to minimize the internal
losses. Maximum power can be defined in terms of Voc and IL is given by
Pmax= IL
VOC
FF
8
A typical value of the fill factor for a good silicon cell is about 0.8.The voltage factor
(eVoc/Eg) is determined by the basic properties of the materials in the cell and typically about
0.5 for a silicon cell.
2.2.2
Blocking diode
A Blocking Diode which lets the array generated power flow only toward the
battery or grid. Without a blocking diode the battery would discharge back through the solar
array during times of no insulation.
2.2.3
Converter
Converter is the one which converts the power from AC to DC or DC to DC or DC to
DC. In order to integrate the solar arrays with the batteries there is a requirement for chopper
which converts fixed DC to variable DC. Also to
Integrate solar arrays or batteries to grid there is a need for DC to AC inverter
.Integration of solar arrays, batteries & grid requires a number of conversion stages which
increases the losses, cost & further reduces the efficiency. To overcome the above defects a
SSICC emerges in this project.
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2.2.3(B) Inverter
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electrical power converter that changes direct
current (DC) to alternating current (AC).The input voltage, output voltage, and frequency
are dependent on design.
Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process. Some applications for
inverters include converting high-voltage direct current electric utility line power to AC,
and deriving AC from DC power sources such as batteries. The main objective of static
power converters is to produce an ac output waveform from a dc power supply. These are
the types of waveforms required in adjustable speed drives (ASDS), uninterruptable power
supplies (UPS), static VAR compensators, active filters, flexible ac transmission systems
(FACTS), & voltage compensators, which are only a few applications. For sinusoidal ac
outputs, the magnitude, frequency, and phase should be controllable.
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In this example the two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge separator that permits the
transfer of ions, but not water molecules. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to
electrical energy. A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two
half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cat ions. One
half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions
(negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive
electrode to which cat ions (positively charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions power the
battery. Cat ions are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode during charging, while
anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during discharge. The electrodes do
not touch each other, but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use
different electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow between half-cells,
but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells. Thus, if the electrodes have emfs
emf is
and
; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials
of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or
terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is
neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the
cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller
in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of
maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would
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perform 1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge
and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are
plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies
according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical
reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarbon cells have different
chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells
have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The high
electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells
emfs of 3 volts or more.
the supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery.
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, approximately restoring their
original composition.
reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the
appropriate current are called chargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the leadacid battery. This technology contains
liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the
area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during
overcharging. The leadacid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it
can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common
where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling
issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak
current of 450 amperes.
The sealed valve regulated leadacid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive
industry as a replacement for the leadacid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized
sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA
batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:
are useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in
order of increasing power density and cost) include nickelcadmium (NiCd), nickelzinc
(NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the
highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way
radios, and medical equipment.
Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL,
which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector,[and smart battery packs with
state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on overdischarge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.
Sl.
No.
Chemistry
Zinccarbon
Nominal
Specific
Cell
Energy
Voltage
[MJ/kg]
1.5
0.13
Elaboration
Inexpensive.
Also known as "heavy
Zincchloride
1.5
duty", inexpensive.
Moderate energy density.
Alkaline
(zincmanganese dioxide)
1.5
0.4-0.59
(Zincmanganese
1.7
(lithiumcopper oxide)
LiCuO
(lithiumiron disulfide)
LiFeS2
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"SR")
batteries.
Expensive.
Lithium
6
(IEC-type
1.5
Expensive.
Only used in high-drain
devices or for long shelf
Lithium
7
(lithiummanganese dioxide)
0.83-
3.0
1.01
LiMnO2
Mercury oxide
1.35
because of health
concerns.
Mostly used in hearing
9
Zincair
1.351.65
1.59
aids.
Very expensive.
10
Silver-oxide (silverzinc)
1.55
0.47
Sl.
No.
Chemistry
NiCd
Cell
Voltage
1.2
Specific
Energy
Comments
[MJ/kg]
0.14
Inexpensive.
High/low drain, moderate energy density.
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Leadacid
2.1
0.14
NiMH
1.2
0.36
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Moderately inexpensive.
High drain device suitable.
Low self-discharge rate.
Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells than
5
NiZn
1.6
0.36
AgZn
1.86
1.5
Lithium ion
3.6
0.46
Very expensive.
Very high energy density.
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offer lower energy density, but longer lives and inherent safety. Such batteries are widely
used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a leading
contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) and
lithium titanate (LTO) are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles.
Lithium-ion batteries can be dangerous under some conditions and can pose a safety hazard
since they contain, unlike other rechargeable batteries, a flammable electrolyte and are also
kept pressurized. This makes the standards of these batteries high, and it consists of many
safety features. There have been many reported accidents as well as recalls done by some
companies.
polarities which are dangerous), temperature of each cell and minimize the risk of short
circuits.
2.2.4.3(C) Electrochemistry
The three participants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery are the anode,
cathode and electrolyte.
Both electrodes allow lithium ions to migrate towards and away from them. During insertion
(or intercalation) ions move into the electrode. During the reverse process, extraction, ions
move back out. When a lithium-based cell is discharging, the positive ion is extracted from
the negative electrode (usually graphite) and inserted into the positive electrode (lithium
containing compound). When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs.
Useful work is extracted when electrons flow through a closed external circuit. The following
equations show one example of the chemistry, in units of moles, making it possible to use
coefficient .
The positive electrode half-reaction is:
.(1)
The overall reaction has its limits. Over discharge supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide,
leading to the production of lithium oxide, possibly by the following irreversible reaction:
Li++ e-+ LiCoO2 Li2 + CoO .(3)
Overcharge up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt(IV) oxide, as evidenced by
x-ray diffraction:
LiCoO2= Li++ CoO2+e
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..(4)
In a lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are transported to and from the cathode or
anode by oxidizing the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in LixCoO2 from Co3+ to Co4+ during
charge, and reduced from Co4+ to Co3+ during discharge.
The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents
Faraday's constant/6.941 or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium,
or 11.6 kWh per kg. This is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline, but does not
consider the other materials that go into a lithium battery and that make lithium batteries
many times heavier per unit of energy.
CC: Apply charging current to the battery, until the voltage limit per cell is reached.
Balance: Reduce the charging current (or cycle the charging on and off to reduce the average
current) while the state of charge of individual cells is brought to the same level by a
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balancing circuit, until the battery is balanced. Some fast chargers skip this stage. Some
chargers accomplish the balance by charging each cell independently.
CV: Apply a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in series to
the battery, as the current gradually declines asymptotically towards 0, until the current is
below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current.
2.3 Summary
In this chapter block diagram of the proposed Single-Stage inverter cum chopper
circuit (SSICC) are discussed and in the next chapter different modes of operation, system
benefits compared to state of art methods & System control schemes of the proposed
system.
CHAPTER 3
MODES OF OPERATION & CONTROL OF SSICC
3.1 Introduction
In chapter 2 block diagram of the proposed Single-Stage inverter cum chopper
circuit (SSICC) are discussed. This chapter explains about different modes of operation,
system benefits compared to state of art methods & System control schemes of the
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proposed system.
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S6 switches remains open keeping all the remaining switches in closed position.
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3.4 System control schemes of single stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC)
In response to the request of the grid operator, different system control schemes can
be realized with the single stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) based solar PV power
plant as follows:
3.4.1 System control 1 for P generated > P demand
3.4.2 System control 2 for P generated < P demand
3.4.3
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3.5 Summary
Different modes of operation, system benefits compared to state of art methods &
System control schemes of the proposed system are discussed and in the next chapter circuit
diagram of the proposed system, necessary design considerations and modifications to the
conventional three-phase PV converter & circuit components are discussed.
CHAPTER 4
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS TO THREE
PHASE INVERTER
4.1 Introduction
It explains about circuit diagram of the proposed system, necessary design
considerations and modifications to the conventional three-phase PV converter & circuit
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components.
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Using all three phases of the coupled three-phase inductor in the DC-DC operation
causes a significant drop in the inductance value due to inductor core saturation. Table I
presents an example of inductance value of a coupled three-phase inductor for the DC-DC
operation, which shows significant drop in the inductance value. The reduction in
inductance value requires inserting additional inductors for the DC-DC operation which
has been marked as optional in Fig. 2. To avoid extra inductors, only one phase can
perform the DC-DC operation. However, when only one phase, for instance phase B, is
utilized for the DC-DC operation with only either upper or lower three insulated-gate
bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are turned OFF as complementary switching, the circulating
current occurs in phases A and C through filter capacitors, the coupled inductor, and
switches, resulting in significantly high current ripple in phase B current, as shown in
Fig.4.3.
To prevent the circulating current in the dc/dc operation, the following two solutions
are proposed;
1) All unused upper and lower IGBTs must be turned OFF
2) The coupled inductor is replaced by three single-phase Inductors.
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While the first solution with a coupled inductor is straight-forward, using three singlephase inductors makes it possible to use all three phase legs for the DC-DC operation.
There are two methods to utilize all three phase legs for the DC-DC operation:
1) Synchronous operation
2) Interleaving operation.
In the first solution, all three phase legs can operate synchronously with their own
current control. In this case, the battery can be charged with a higher current compared to
the case with one-phase DC-DC operation. This leads to a faster charging time due to
higher charging current capability. However, each phase operates with higher current
ripples. Higher ripple current flowing into the battery and capacitor can have negative
effects on the lifetime of the battery and capacitors.
To overcome the aforementioned problem associated with the synchronous operation,
phases B and C can be shifted by applying a phase offset. For the interleaving operation
using three phase legs, phases B and C are shifted by 120 and 240, respectively. The
inductor current control in interleaving operation re requires a different inductor current
sampling scheme, as shown in Fig. 9. How-ever, for three-phase interleaving, a modified
sampling scheme is required to measure the average currents for all three phases.
Therefore, the sampling points for phases B and C must be shifted by 120 and 240,
respectively [see Fig.4.4], which may imply that computation required inductor current
control for each phase should be done asynchronously. Using the interleaving operation
reduces the ripples on the charging current flowing into the battery. Therefore, the filter
capacitance value can be reduced significantly.
FIG.4.3. CIRCULATING CURRENT PATH IF ONE PHASE IS USED FOR THE DC/DC
OPERATION OF SSICC WITH A COUPLED THREE-PHASE INDUCTOR.
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from the batteries into the capacitors that can be connected to the battery in parallel for a
filtering purpose.
The proposed system control algorithms are implemented with MATLAB/Simulink.
4.5Summary
In this chapter circuit diagram of the proposed system, necessary design considerations
and modifications to the conventional three-phase PV converter & circuit components in brief
& next chapter explains about modulation topologies of three phase voltage source inverter.
CHAPTER 5
MODULATION TOPOLOGIES
5.1 Introduction
This chapter explains about the modulation topologies for three phase voltage source
inverter.
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THIPWM and SVPWM. THIPWM is a technique that adds a third-order harmonic content to a
sinusoidal reference signal thereby increasing the utilization rate of the DC bus voltage by
15.5%.The implementation of the conventional SVPWM is especially difficult because it
requires complicated mathematical operations. In the under-modulation region, this algorithm
provides 15.5% higher output voltages compared to the SPWM technique. Moreover, the
utilization of the DC bus voltage can be further increased when extending in to the overmodulation region of SVPWM. Three-phase voltage source pulse-width modulation inverters
have been widely used for DC to AC power conversion since they can produce outputs with
variable voltage magnitude and variable frequency.
PWM TECHNIQUES
Third-Harmonic-Injection
Sinusoidal
Space Vector
PWM PulsePWM
Width Modulation for 3-phase VSI:
a triangular voltage waveform (VT ) is compared with three sinusoidal control voltages (Va, Vb,
and Vc), which are 120 degrees out of phase with each other and the relative levels of the
waveforms are used to control the switching of the devices in each phase leg of the inverter.
are
three
sinusoidal
with a frequency equal to that of the sinusoidal waveforms. When the output voltages of a threephase six-step inverter are converted to a space vector and plotted on the complex plane, the
corresponding space vector takes only on one of six discrete angles as time increases. The central
idea of SVWPM is to generate appropriate PWM signals so that a vector with any desired angle
can be generated.
In the space-vector modulation, a three-phase two-level inverter can be driven to eight
switching states where the inverter has six active states (1-6) and two zero states (0 and 7).A
typical two-level inverter has 6 power switches (labeled S1 to S6) that generate three phase
voltage outputs. A detailed drawing of a three-phase bridge inverter is shown in Figure 5.2. The
circuit has a full-bridge topology with three inverter legs, each consisting of two power switches.
The circuit allows only positive power flow from the supply system to the load via a full-bridge
diode rectifier. Negative power flow is not possible through the rectifier diode bridge.
The six switching power devices can be constructed using power BJTs, GTOs, IGBTs,
etc. The choice of switching devices is based on the desired operating power level, required
switching frequency, and acceptable inverter power losses. When an upper transistor is switched
on, the corresponding lower transistor is switched off. Therefore, then ON and OFF states of the
upper transistors S1; S3; S5 can be used to determine the current output voltage. The ON and
OFF states of the lower power devices are complementary to the upper ones. Two switches on
the same leg cannot be closed or opened at the same time. The basic principle of SVPWM is
based on the eight switch combinations of a three phase inverter. The switch combinations can be
represented as binary codes that correspond to the top switches S1, S3, and S5 of the inverter as
shown in Figure 5.2. Each switching circuit generates three independent pole voltages Vao, Vbo,
and Vco, which are the inverter output voltages with respect to the mid-terminal of the DC
source marked as O on the same figure. These voltages are also called pole voltages.
The pole voltages that can be produced are either Vdc/2 or Vdc /2 . For example,
When switches S1, S6, and S2 are closed, the corresponding pole voltages are
Vao=Vdc /2 ,
vectors. In each configuration, the vector identification uses a 0 to represent the negative phase
voltage level and a 1 to represent the positive phase voltage level. The relationship between the
space vector and the corresponding switching states is given in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.2. In
addition, the switches in one inverter branch are in controlled in a complementary fashion (1 if
the switch is on and 0 if it is off). Therefore,
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Vref
Where f is the fundamental frequency of the inverter output voltage. When the reference voltage
vector passes through each sector, different sets of switches in Table 5.1 will be turned on or off.
As a result, when the reference voltage vector rotates through one revolution in space, the
inverter output varies one electrical cycle over time. The inverter output frequency coincides
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with the rotating speed of the reference voltage vector. The zero vectors ( V 0
active vectors ( V 1
&
V 7 ) and
to
vectors.
TABLE 5.1: SPACE VECTORS, SWITCHING STATES, AND ON STATE SWITCHES
V bc = 0
V ca = -Vg
1
This can be represented in the , plane as shown in Fig. 5.4, where voltages Vab, Vbc,
and Vca are three line voltage vectors displaced 120 degrees in space. The effective voltage
vector generated by this topology is represented as V1 (pnn) in Fig. 5.4. Here the notation pnn
refers to the three legs/phases a,b,c being either connected to the positive dc rail (p) or to the
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negative dc rail (n). Thus pnn corresponds to phase a being connected to the positive dc rail
and phases b and c being connected to the negative dc rail.
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V bc = 0
V ca = -Vg
2
These are represented as vectors which have zero magnitude and hence are referred to as zero-
switching state vectors or zero voltage vectors. They assume the position at origin in the ,
plane as shown in Fig. 5.8. The vectors V1-V8 are called the switching state vectors (SSVs).
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d1 + d2 + d3 = 1
Where, 0 m 0.866, is the modulation index. This would correspond to a maximum line-to-line
voltage of 1.0Vg, which is 15% more than conventional sinusoidal PWM as shown.
All SVM schemes and most of the other PWM algorithms use Eqns. (3) and (4) for the output
voltage synthesis. The modulation algorithms that use non-adjacent SSVs have been shown to
produce higher THD and/or switching losses and are not analyzed here, although some of them,
e.g. hysteresis, can be very simple to implement and can provide faster transient response. The
duty cycles d1, d2, and d0, are uniquely determined from Eqns. (3) and (4) , the only difference
between PWM schemes that use adjacent vectors is the choice of the zero vector(s) and the
sequence in which the vectors are applied within the switching cycle.
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5.4 Summary
This chapter explains about the modulation topologies for three phase voltage source
inverter in brief and chapter6 explains about MPPT.
CHAPTER 6
MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING
6.1 Introduction
In chapter5 the modulation topologies for three phase voltage source inverter was
explained in brief. This chapter explains about maximum power point tracking.
power from the array at all times. MPPT is a fully electronic system that varies the electrical
operating point of the modules so that the modules are able to deliver maximum available power.
the MPPT varies the ratio between the voltage and current delivered to the battery, in order to
deliver maximum power. If there is excess voltage available from the PV, then it converts that to
additional current to the battery. Furthermore, it is like an automatic transmission. As the Vpp of
the PV array varies with temperature and other conditions, it "tracks" this variance and adjusts
the ratio accordingly.
The function of a MPPT is analogous to the transmission in a car. When the transmission
is in the wrong gear, the wheels do not receive maximum power. That's because the engine is
running either slower or faster than its ideal speed range. The purpose of the transmission is to
couple the engine to the wheels, in a way that lets the engine run in a favorable speed range in
spite of varying acceleration and terrain.
Let's compare a PV module to a car engine. Its voltage is analogous to engine speed. Its
ideal voltage is that at which it can put out maximum power. This is called its maximum power
point. (It's also called peak power voltage, abbreviated Vpp). Vpp varies with sunlight intensity
and with solar cell temperature. The voltage of the battery is analogous to the speed of the car's
wheels. It varies with battery state of charge, and with the loads on the system (any appliances
and lights that may be on). For a 12V system, it varies from about 11 to 14.5V.
In order to charge a battery (increase its voltage), the PV module must apply a voltage
that is higher than that of the battery. If the PV module's Vpp is just slightly below the battery
voltage, then the current drops nearly to zero (like an engine turning slower than the wheels). So,
to play it safe, typical PV modules are made with a Vpp of around 17V when measured at a cell
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temperature of 25C. They do that because it will drop to around 15V on a very hot day.
However, on a very cold day, it can rise to 18V!
6.3.1 PV array
A photovoltaic cell is nothing but a Solar cell which consists of a p-n
junction fabricated in a thin wafer or layer of semiconductor (usually silicon).
In the dark, the I-V output characteristic of a solar cell has an exponential
characteristic similar to that of a diode. When solar energy (photons) hits the
solar cell, with energy greater than band gap energy of the semiconductor,
electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the material, creating
electron-hole pairs. These carriers are swept apart under the influence of the
internal electric fields of the p-n junction and create a current proportional to
the incident radiation. The voltage and current relationship of the simplified
solar cell based on Kirchhoffs current law.
The boost converter is nothing but a DC/DC converter which has boosting the voltage to
maintain the maximum output power constant for all the conditions of temperature and solar
irradiance variations. Shown in fig.6.3
B. Incremental conductance: The disadvantage of the perturb and observe method to track
the peak power under fast varying atmospheric condition is overcome by Incremental
conductance method. The algorithm makes use of the equation
P=V*I
(Where P= module power,V=module voltage, I=module current);
Diff with respect to dV
dP/dV = I+V*dI/dV
Depending on this equation the algorithm works.
At peak power point
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1
2
dP/dV = 0
dI/dV = -I/V
3
4
Where several module strings are connected in parallel. Also, the DC-DC converter has a sizable
input capacitor used filter out small ripple in the array power. This capacitor may mask the
overall effects of the parasitic capacitance of the PV array.
D. Voltage control maximum point tracker: It is assumed that a maximum power point of a
particular solar PV module lies at about 0.75 times the open circuit voltage of the module. So by
measuring the open circuit voltage a reference voltage can be generated and feed forward voltage
control scheme can be implemented to bring the solar pv module voltage to the point of
maximum power. One problem of this technique is the open circuit voltage of the module varies
with the temperature. So as the temperature increases the module open circuit voltage changes
and we have to measure the open circuit voltage of the module very often. Hence the load must
be disconnected from the module to measure open circuit voltage. Due to which the power
during that instant will not be utilize.
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Sl.N
o.
SPECIFICATION
INCREMENTAL
CONDUCTANCE
SHORTCIRCUIT
CURRENT
EFFICIENCY
COMPLEXITY
Difficulty
Very simple
REALIZATION
More complex
Easy
COST
High cost
RELIABILITY
Accurate
lower
Not accurate
RAPIDLY CHANGING
Relatively
ATMOSPHERE
Faster response
voltage
Sl.
POWER(W
SHORT-
)
AVAILABE
CIRCUIT
CURRENT
No.
IRRADIENCE
(W/M2)
1000
1169
800
TABLE
6.3
SHOWING
IMAX
VMAX
10
9.3
125
919
7.4
123
THE
POWER
TRACKED
AT
DIFFERENT
IRRADIANCE.
METHODS
INCREMENTAL
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT
1000
CONDUCTANCE
Voltage Current Power
(v)
(A)
tracked
(W)
124.3
9.33
1162
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58
105.2
IRRADIENCE
7.89
831.3
Voltage
(v)
Current
(A)
Power
117
9.676
tracked
(W)
1132
138.7
5.343
741.3
6.4
Summary
In this chapter maximum power point tracking was explained in brief .Chapter7
explains about explains about simulation of simulation of SSICC.
CHAPTER 7
SIMULATION OF SSICC FOR PV-BATTERY SYSTEM & RESULTS
7.1 Introduction
The above chapter explains the modulating topologies & its types. In this chapter
simulation of SSICC& results are shown. It integrates computation, visualization &
programming in an easy to use environment where problems & solutions are expressed in
familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include:
Math & computation
Algorithm development
Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation & prototyping
Data analysis, exploration & visualization
Scientific & engineering graphics
Application development like graphical user interface building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems especially those
with matrix & vector formulations in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in
a scalar non interactive. The name MATLAB software developed by the LINPAC &
EISPACK projects .Today, MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK & BLAS libraries,
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collections of MATLAB functions (M-Files) that extend the MATLAB environment to solve
particular problems .Areas in which toolboxes are available include signal processing ,control
systems ,neural networks ,fuzzy logic , wavelets, simulation & many others.
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CHAPTER8
CONCLUSION
The single stage inverter cum chopper for PV- battery application works efficiently for
generating the required output. The SSICC power conversion system performs different
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operating modes such as PV to grid (dc to ac), PV to battery (dc to dc), battery to grid (dc to
ac), and battery/PV to grid (dc to ac) in different control strategies for solar PV systems with
energy storage. Test results for various inputs shown in the above figures confirm that the
proposed system is an optimal solution for PV-battery power conversion systems. The
proposed solution requires minimal complexity and modifications to the conventional threephase solar PV converters for PV-battery systems. Therefore the solution is very attractive for
PV-battery applications because it minimizes the number of conversion stages, thereby
improving efficiency, reducing cost, weight and volume.
FUTURE SCOPE
Although this project focuses on three-phase application, the main concept can also be
applied to single-phase application. The proposed solution is also capable of providing
potential benefits to other intermittent energy sources including wind energy. The proposed
solution requires minimal complexity and modifications to the conventional three-phase solar
PV converters for PV-battery systems.
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REFERENCES
[1] U.S. Department of Energy, Solar energy grid integration systems-energy storage
(SEGIS-ES), May 2008.
[2] D. Bundestag, Gesetz zur Neuregelung des Rechts der erneuerbaren Energienim Strombereich
und zur A nderung damitzusammenhangenderVorschriften,Bundesgesetzblatt, 2008.
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[10] P. Barrade, S.Delalay, and A. Rufer, Direct connection of super capacitors to photovoltaic
panels with on-off maximum power point tracking, IEEE Trans. Sustainable Energy, vol. 3,
no. 2, pp. 283294, Apr. 2012.
[11] S. J. Chiang, K. T. Chang, and C. Y.Yen,Residential photovoltaic energy storage system,
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[12] Z. Zhao, M. Xu, Q. Chen, J. Lai, and Y. Cho, Derivation, analysis, and implementation of
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[13] C. Ho, H. Breuninger, S. Pettersson, G. Escobar, L. Serpa, and A. Coccia,Practical design
and implementation procedure of an interleaved boost converter using SiC diodes for PV
applications, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 28352845, Jun. 2012.
[14] M. Bragard, N. Soltau, R. W. De Doncker, and A. Schmiegel, Design and implementation
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