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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) power supplied to the utility grid is gaining more and more
attention nowadays. However, depending on the characteristics of the PV panels, the total
output voltage from the PV panels varies greatly due to variation of temperature, irradiation
conditions, shading and clouding effects. When even a small portion of a cell, module, or
array is shaded, while the remainder is in sunlight, the output falls dramatically. In view of
continuity & stability, a stable energy source and an energy source that can be dispatched at
the request are desired. As a result, energy storage such as batteries and fuel cells for solar
PV systems has drawn significant attention and the demand of energy storage for solar PV
systems has been dramatically increased, since, with energy storage, a solar PV system
becomes a stable energy source and it can be dispatched at the request, which results in
improving the performance and the value of solar PV systems.
There are different options for integrating energy storage into a Utility-scale solar PV
system. Every integration solution has its advantages and disadvantages. Different grouping
solutions can be compared with regard to the number of power stages, efficiency, storage
system flexibility, control complexity, etc.
Under the technical backgrounds a single-stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) for
PV-Battery system is presented in the project. The main objective of the project is to design a
single-stage inverter cum chopper instead of multistage inverter cum chopper. This proposed
single-stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) performs different operations such as DC-AC &
DC-DC in order to interconnect PV to Grid(dc to ac), PV to battery (dc to dc), battery to grid
(dc to ac), and battery/PV to grid (dc to ac) for solar PV systems with energy storage.

1.2 Literature survey


Literature survey has been carried out on information regarding single stage inverter
cum chopper (SSICC) for PV- Battery system [1][29].
The system described in [7] proposes a hybrid CAES system, where compression and
expansion modes are operated under a Maximum Efficiency Point Tracking (MEPT) strategy.
The system described in [13][17] proposes a two-stage high-frequency power conversion in
cascaded configuration with dc link in the middle.

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The system described in [18][21] uses a line-commuted inverter along with an isolated dc
dc stage. Also, many no isolated single-stage boost or buckboost derived inverter topologies
have been developed [22][25].
The system described in [26], [27] overcomes the major drawbacks or limitation of inputvoltage range and/or requirement of two input sources.
The system described in [28] replaces the isolated Dcdc with non-isolated or transformer
less dcdc [28].
The system described in [29] uses the transformer less dcdc stage will be more reliable and
cost effective.

1.3 Project overview


The proposed single-stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) for PV-Battery System is
implemented by a small modification to conventional three phase inverter. The proposed
Single-Stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) minimizes the number of conversion stages,
reduces the losses thereby improving efficiency and reducing cost, weight, and volume
when compared to multi stage power converter for PV- battery system. Simulation &
experimental results are presented to verify the validities of the proposed single-stage
inverter cum chopper (SSICC) for PV-Battery System.

1.4 Organization of the thesis


This thesis is comprised of eight chapters. Chapter 1 describes the introduction to
the project, literature survey & overview of the project. Chapter 2 introduces block diagram
of the Single-Stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) circuit for PV-Battery System. Chapter 3
describes different modes of operation, system benefits compared to state of art methods &
System control schemes of the proposed system. Chapter 4 describes necessary design
considerations and modifications to the conventional three-phase PV converter & circuit
components. Chapter 5 describes the modulation topologies for three phase voltage source
inverter. Chapter 6 describes about maximum power point tracking. Chapter 7 verifies the
SSICC & performance characteristics through simulation .Finally chapter 8 summarizes
and concludes the project.

1.5 Summary
In this chapter introduction, literature survey, organization of the project is discussed
and in the next chapter introduction to the proposed Single-Stage inverter cum chopper
(SSICC) circuit, comparison with state of art methods, different operating modes and system
benefits PV-Battery System are explained clearly.
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CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM
2.1 Introduction
In chapter1 introduction about the project has been discussed. This chapter explains
about block diagram of the proposed Single-Stage inverter cum chopper circuit (SSICC).

2.2 Block diagram

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FIG.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SSICC


The above diagram shows the block diagram of the SSICC .The block diagram
consists of following blocks.
2.2.1 Solar cell array
2.2.2 Blocking diode
2.2.3 Converter
2.2.4 Battery Storage

2.2.1 Solar cell array


Solar array is the one which converts the solar radiation in to useful DC electrical
power.

2.2.1(A) Electricity from solar energy


Electricity is directly generated by utilizing solar energy by the photo voltaic process.
When photons from the sun are absorbed in a semi-conductor, they create free electrons with
higher energies than the electrons which provide the bonding in the base crystal. Once these
free electrons are created, there must be an electric field to induce these higher energy
electrons to flow out of the semiconductor to do useful work. The electric field in most solar
cells is provided by a junction of materials which have different electrical properties.

2.2.1(B) Solar electric power generation


The direct conversion of solar energy into electrical energy by means of the
photovoltaic effect, that is, the conversion of light (or other electromagnetic radiation) into
electricity. The photo-voltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force as a
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result of the absorption of ionizing radiation. Energy conversion devices which are used to
convert sunlight to electricity by the use of the photovoltaic effect are called solar cells. A
single converter cell or, more generally, a photovoltaic cell, and combination of such cells
designed to increase the electric power output is called a solar module or solar array.
Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductors that generate electricity when they
absorb light. As photons are received, free electrical charges are generated that can be
collected on contacts applied to the surface of the semiconductors.

2.2.1(c) Solar cell principles


The photo-voltaic effect can be observed in nature in a variety of materials, but the
materials that have shown the best performance in sunlight are the semi-conductors as started
above.
When photons from the sun are absorbed in a semiconductor, they create free
electrons with higher energies than the electrons which provide the bonding in the base
crystal. Once these electrons are created, there must be an electric field to induce these higher
energy electrons to flow out of the semi-conductor to do useful work. The electric field in
most solar cells is provided by a junction of materials which have different electrical
properties.
To obtain a useful power output from photon interaction in a semi-conductor three
processes are required.
The photons have to be absorbed in the active part of the material and result in
electrons being excited to a higher energy potential.
1 The electrons-hole charge carrier created by the absorption must be physically
2

separated and moved to the edge of the cell.


The charge carriers must be removed from the cell and delivered to a useful load

before their loose extra potential.


For completing the above processes, a solar cell consists of:
a Semi-conductor in which electron hole pairs are created by absorption of incident
b
c

solar radiation.
Region containing a drift field for charge separation, and
Charge collecting front and back electrodes.
The photo-voltaic effect can be described easily for p-n junction in a semi-conductor.

In an intrinsic semi-conductor such as silicon, each one of the four valence electrons of the
material atom is tide in a chemical bond, and there are no free electrons at absolute zero. If a
piece of such a material is doped on one side by a five valence electron material, such as
arsenic or phosphorus, there will be an excess electrons in that side, becomes an n-type semi5 | Page

conductor. The excess electrons will be practically free to move in the semi-conductor lattice.
When the other side of the same piece is doped by a three valence electron material, such as
boron, there will be deficiency of electrons leading to a p-type semi-conductor. This
deficiency is expressed in terms of excess of holes free to move in the lattice. Such a piece of
semi-conductor with one side of the p-type and the other of the n-type is called a p-n
junction. In this junction after the photons are absorbed, the free electrons of the n-side will
tend to flow to the p-side, and the holes of the p-side will tend to flow to the n-region to
compensate for their respective deficiencies. This diffusion will create an electric field E F
from the n-region to the p-region. This field will increase until it reaches equilibrium for V e,
the sum of the diffusion potentials for holes and electrons. If electrical contacts are made
with the two semi-conductor materials and the contacts are connected through an external
electrical conductor, the free electrons will flow from the n-type material through the
conductor to the p-type material. Here the free electrons will enter the holes and become
bound electrons thus, both free electrons and holes will be removed. The flow of electrons
through the external conductor constitutes an electric current which will continue as long as
more free electrons and holes are being formed by the solar radiation. This is the basis of
photo-voltaic conversion, that is, the conversion of solar energy into electrical energy. The
combination of n-type and p-type semi-conductors thus constitutes a photo-voltaic (PV) cell
or solar cell. All such cells generate direct current which can be converted into alternating
current if desired.

FIG.2.2: SCHEMATIC VIEW OF A TYPICAL SOLAR CELL

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The most normal configuration for a solar cell to make a p-n junction semi conductor
is as shown schematically in fig.2.2 The junction of the p type and n type materials
provides an inherent electric field which separates the charge created by the absorption of
sunlight. This p-n junction is usually obtained by putting a p- type base material into a
diffusion furnace containing a gaseous n-type dopant such as phosphorus and allowing the ndopant to diffuse into the surface about 0.2m. The junction is thus formed slightly below the
planer surface of the cell and the light impinges perpendicular to the junction. The positive
and negative charges created by the absorption of photons are thus encouraged to drift to the
front and back of the solar cell. The back is completely covered by a metallic contact to
remove the charges to the electric load. The collection of charges from the front of the cell is
aided by a fine grid of narrow metallic fingers. The surface coverage of the conducting
collectors is typically about 5% in order to allow as much light as possible to reach active
junction area. An antireflective coating is applied on the top of the cell. The p-n junction
provides an electrical field that sweeps the electrons in one direction and the positive holes in
the other. If the junction is in thermodynamic equilibrium, then the Fermi energy must be
uniform throughout. Since the Fermi level is near the top of the gap of an n-doped material
and near the bottom of the p-doped side, an electric field must exist at the junction providing
the charge separation function of the cell. Important characteristics of the Fermi level is that,
in thermodynamic equilibrium, it is always continuous across the contact between the two
materials.

2.2.1(D) Conversion efficiency and power output


A solar cell usually uses a p-n junction its physical configuration is shown
schematically in fig.2.3.

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FIG.2.3: THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SOLAR CELL


Where
Ic = cell output current
Vc = cell output voltage
Iph = light generated current
Io = reverse saturation current
Rs = series resistance of the cell
Current and voltage relationship is given by

I i =I o exp

Ve
1
KT

Where
IoSaturation current also called the dark current and is applied when a large negative
voltage is applied across the diode.
V Voltage across junction.
e Electronic charge
k Boltzmanns constant
T Absolute temperature
When light impinges on the junction, electron hole pairs are created at a constant rate
providing an electrical flow across the junction. The net current is thus the difference
between the normal diode current and light generated current IL. The internal series resistance
Rs is mostly due to the high sheet resistance of the diffused layer which is in series with the
junction. The light generated current acts as a constant current source supplying the current to
either the junction or a useful load depending on the junction characteristic and the value of
the external load resistance. The net current I is given by
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I =I L I i =I L I o exp

Ve
1
KT

The internal voltage drop in a cell can usually be minimized, and for ideal cell Rs may
be assumed equal to zero i.e. Rs=0. With these the corresponding I-V plot is given in figure.
Open circuit voltage Voc for the ideal cell is then given by
I
KT
V oc =
ln L +1 3
e
IO

[ ]

Since IL>>Io, the 1 in the equation can be neglected. Then open circuit voltage
I
KT
V oc =
ln L 4
e
IO

[ ]

In practice the open circuit voltage of the cell decreases with increasing temperature.
The maximum power that can be derived from the device is given by
Pmax=Vmp.Imp
5

FIG.2.4: A TYPICAL I-V PLOT FOR IDEAL SOLAR CELL


Where
Vmp and Imp are the voltage and current at maximum power point as shown in figure
respectively. It can be seen that the maximum efficiency for the cell is obtained by dividing
Vmp Imp by the total power density of the sunlight Psun.
Thus

I L EG
eP sun

( )(

V mp I mp
I l V OC

[Where Eg= Forbidden energy gap]


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eV OC
EG

)( )

V mp I mp
6
Psun

The fill factor (FF) for a solar cell is defined as the ratio of two areas shown.
FF=
V I
mp mp

I l V OC
7
Solar cell designers, strive to increase the fill factor values, to minimize the internal
losses. Maximum power can be defined in terms of Voc and IL is given by
Pmax= IL

VOC

FF

8
A typical value of the fill factor for a good silicon cell is about 0.8.The voltage factor
(eVoc/Eg) is determined by the basic properties of the materials in the cell and typically about
0.5 for a silicon cell.

2.2.2

Blocking diode
A Blocking Diode which lets the array generated power flow only toward the

battery or grid. Without a blocking diode the battery would discharge back through the solar
array during times of no insulation.

2.2.3

Converter
Converter is the one which converts the power from AC to DC or DC to DC or DC to

DC. In order to integrate the solar arrays with the batteries there is a requirement for chopper
which converts fixed DC to variable DC. Also to
Integrate solar arrays or batteries to grid there is a need for DC to AC inverter
.Integration of solar arrays, batteries & grid requires a number of conversion stages which
increases the losses, cost & further reduces the efficiency. To overcome the above defects a
SSICC emerges in this project.

2.2.3(A)Single-stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC)

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FIG.2.5 SCHEMATIC OF SSICC


The schematic of the SSICC is presented in Fig. 2.5 the Single-Stage inverter cum
chopper (SSICC) is basically a modified conventional three-phase voltage source inverter
system. These modifications allow the SSICC to utilize the conventional three-phase
voltage source inverter system to operate as both chopper & inverter for the purpose of
charging the battery. The SSICC consists of a three-phase voltage source converter and its
associated components such as additional cables and mechanical switches, as shown in Fig.
2. Optional inductors are included if the ac filter inductance is not enough for the charging
purpose.

2.2.3(B) Inverter
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electrical power converter that changes direct
current (DC) to alternating current (AC).The input voltage, output voltage, and frequency
are dependent on design.
Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process. Some applications for
inverters include converting high-voltage direct current electric utility line power to AC,
and deriving AC from DC power sources such as batteries. The main objective of static
power converters is to produce an ac output waveform from a dc power supply. These are
the types of waveforms required in adjustable speed drives (ASDS), uninterruptable power
supplies (UPS), static VAR compensators, active filters, flexible ac transmission systems
(FACTS), & voltage compensators, which are only a few applications. For sinusoidal ac
outputs, the magnitude, frequency, and phase should be controllable.
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2.2.3(C) Three phase voltage source inverters


Single-phase VSIs cover low-range power applications and three-phase VSIs cover
the medium- to high-power applications. The main purpose of these topologies is to provide
a three-phase voltage source, where the amplitude, phase, and frequency of the voltages
should always be controllable. The standard three-phase VSI topology is shown in Fig. 2.6
and the eight valid switch states are given in Table 2.1. As in single-phase VSIs, the
switches of any leg of the inverter (S1 and S4, S3 and S6, or S5 and S2) cannot be switched
on simultaneously because this would result in a short circuit across the dc link voltage
supply. Similarly, in order to avoid undefined states in the VSI, and thus undefined ac output
line voltages, the switches of any leg of the inverter cannot be switched off simultaneously
as this will result in voltages that will depend upon the respective line current polarity. Of
the eight valid states, two of them (7 and 8 in Table 2.1) produce zero ac line voltages. In
this case, the ac line currents freewheel through either the upper or lower components. The
remaining states (1 to 6 in Table 2.1) produce non-zero ac output voltages. In order to
generate a given voltage waveform, the inverter moves from one state to another. Thus the
resulting ac output line voltages consist of discrete values of voltages that are Vi , 0, and -Vi
for the topology shown in Fig2.4 the selection of the states in order to generate the given
waveform is done by the modulating technique that should ensure the use of only the valid
states.

FIG. 2.6: THREE-PHASE VSI TOPOLOGY


TABLE 2.1: VALID SWITCH STATES FOR A THREE-PHASE VSI

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2.2.4. Battery storage


An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that
convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Each battery consists of a negative
electrode material, a positive electrode material, an electrolyte that allows ions to move
between the electrodes, and terminals that allow current to flow out of the battery to perform
work. Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the
electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the
alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable devices. Secondary
(rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original
composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the leadacid batteries used in vehicles and lithium ion batteries used for portable electronics.

2.2.4(A) Principle of operation

FIG. 2.7: BATTERY CONSTRUCTION

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In this example the two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge separator that permits the
transfer of ions, but not water molecules. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to
electrical energy. A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two
half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cat ions. One
half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions
(negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive
electrode to which cat ions (positively charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions power the
battery. Cat ions are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode during charging, while
anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during discharge. The electrodes do
not touch each other, but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use
different electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow between half-cells,
but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells. Thus, if the electrodes have emfs

emf is

and

, then the net

; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials

of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or

across the terminals of a cell is known as the

terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is
neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the
cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller
in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of

until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell

maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would
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perform 1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge
and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are
plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies
according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical
reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarbon cells have different
chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells
have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The high
electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells
emfs of 3 volts or more.

2.2.4(B) Classification of batteries

Primary batteries irreversibly transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When

the supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery.
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, approximately restoring their
original composition.

2.2.4(C) Primary batteries


Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly.
These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only
intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and
communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available.
Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not
easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery
manufacturers recommend against attempt to recharge primary cells.
In general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable
batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 ).
Common types of disposable batteries include zinccarbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

2.2.4 (D) Secondary batteries


Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must
be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the
discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which
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reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the
appropriate current are called chargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the leadacid battery. This technology contains
liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the
area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during
overcharging. The leadacid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it
can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common
where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling
issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak
current of 450 amperes.
The sealed valve regulated leadacid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive
industry as a replacement for the leadacid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized
sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA
batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.


Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in special fiberglass
matting.
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, which

are useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in
order of increasing power density and cost) include nickelcadmium (NiCd), nickelzinc
(NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the
highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way
radios, and medical equipment.
Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL,
which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector,[and smart battery packs with
state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on overdischarge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.

2.2.4.3 Battery chemistry


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TABLE 2.2: PRIMARY BATTERY CHEMISTRIES:

Sl.
No.

Chemistry

Zinccarbon

Nominal

Specific

Cell

Energy

Voltage

[MJ/kg]

1.5

0.13

Elaboration

Inexpensive.
Also known as "heavy

Zincchloride

1.5

duty", inexpensive.
Moderate energy density.

Alkaline
(zincmanganese dioxide)

1.5

0.4-0.59

Good for high and low


drain uses.

Nickel oxy hydroxide


Moderate energy density.
4

(Zincmanganese

1.7

Good for high drain uses

dioxide/nickel oxy hydroxide)


No longer manufactured.
Lithium
5

(lithiumcopper oxide)

Replaced by silver oxide


1.7

LiCuO

(lithiumiron disulfide)
LiFeS2

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"SR")

batteries.
Expensive.

Lithium
6

(IEC-type

1.5

Used in 'plus' or 'extra'


batteries.

Expensive.
Only used in high-drain
devices or for long shelf
Lithium
7

(lithiummanganese dioxide)

0.83-

3.0

1.01

LiMnO2

life due to very low rate


of self discharge.
'Lithium' alone usually
refers to this type of
chemistry.
High drain and constant
voltage.

Mercury oxide

Banned in most countries

1.35

because of health
concerns.
Mostly used in hearing
9

Zincair

1.351.65

1.59

aids.
Very expensive.

10

Silver-oxide (silverzinc)

1.55

0.47

Only used commercially


in 'button' cells.

TABLE2.3: RECHARGEABLE BATTERY CHEMISTRIES:

Sl.
No.

Chemistry

NiCd

Cell
Voltage

1.2

Specific
Energy

Comments

[MJ/kg]
0.14

Inexpensive.
High/low drain, moderate energy density.

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Can withstand very high discharge rates with


virtually no loss of capacity.
Moderate rate of self discharge.
Environmental hazard due to Cadmium use
now virtually prohibited in Europe.
Moderately expensive.
Moderate energy density.
Moderate rate of self discharge.
3

Leadacid

2.1

0.14

Higher discharge rates result in considerable


loss of capacity.
Environmental hazard due to Lead.
Common use Automobile batteries
Inexpensive.
Performs better than alkaline batteries in
higher drain devices.

NiMH

1.2

0.36

Traditional chemistry has high energy


density, but also a high rate of self-discharge.
Newer chemistry has low self-discharge rate,
but also a ~25% lower energy density.
Used in some cars.

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Moderately inexpensive.
High drain device suitable.
Low self-discharge rate.
Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells than
5

NiZn

1.6

0.36

other secondary cells.


No toxic components.
Newly introduced to the market (2009). Has
not yet established a track record.
Limited size availability.
Smaller volume than equivalent Li-ion.
Extremely expensive due to silver.
Very high energy density.
Very high drain capable.
For many years considered obsolete due to
high silver prices.
Cell suffers from oxidation if unused.

AgZn

1.86
1.5

Reactions are not fully understood.


0.46

Terminal voltage very stable but suddenly


drops to 1.5 volts at 70-80% charge (believed
to be due to presence of both argentous and
argentic oxide in positive plate one is
consumed first).
Has been used in lieu of primary battery
(moon buggy).
Is being developed once again as a
replacement for Li-ion.

Lithium ion

3.6

0.46

Very expensive.
Very high energy density.

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Not usually available in "common" battery


sizes.
Very common in laptop computers, moderate
to high-end digital cameras, camcorders and
cell phones.
Very low rate of self discharge.
Terminal voltage unstable (varies from 4.2 to
3.0 volts during discharge).
Volatile: Chance of explosion if short
circuited, allowed to overheat, or not
manufactured with rigorous quality standards.

2.2.4.3(A) Li-ion battery


A lithium-ion battery (sometimes Li-ion battery or LIB) is a member of a family of
rechargeable battery types in which lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode during
discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as
the electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in non-rechargeable battery.
Lithium-ion batteries are common in consumer electronics. They are one of the most popular
types of rechargeable battery for portable electronics, with one of the best energy densities,
no memory effect (note, however, that new studies have shown signs of memory effect in
lithium-ion batteries), and only a slow loss of charge when not in use. Beyond consumer
electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, electric vehicle and aerospace
applications. For example, Lithium-ion batteries are becoming a common replacement for the
lead acid batteries that have been used historically for golf carts and utility vehicles. Instead
of heavy lead plates and acid electrolyte, the trend is to use a lightweight lithium/carbon
anode and lithium iron phosphate cathode. Lithium-ion batteries can provide the same
voltage as lead-acid batteries, so no modification to the vehicle's drive system is required.
Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types. Handheld
electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), which offers high
energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate
(LFP), lithium manganese oxide (LMO) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC)
21 | P a g e

offer lower energy density, but longer lives and inherent safety. Such batteries are widely
used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a leading
contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) and
lithium titanate (LTO) are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles.
Lithium-ion batteries can be dangerous under some conditions and can pose a safety hazard
since they contain, unlike other rechargeable batteries, a flammable electrolyte and are also
kept pressurized. This makes the standards of these batteries high, and it consists of many
safety features. There have been many reported accidents as well as recalls done by some
companies.

2.2.4.3(B) Lithium-ion batteries construction


The three primary functional components of a lithium-ion battery are the anode,
cathode and electrolyte. Generally, the anode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is made from
carbon. The cathode is a metal oxide, and the electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic
solvent. The electrochemical roles of the electrodes reverse between anode and cathode,
depending on the direction of current flow through the cell. The most commercially popular
anode is graphite. The cathode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as
lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate) or a spinel (such as
lithium manganese oxide).The electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as
ethylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions. Depending on
materials choices, the voltage, energy density, life and safety of a lithium-ion battery can
change dramatically. Recently, novel architectures using nanotechnology have been
employed to improve performance. Pure lithium is highly reactive. It reacts vigorously with
water to form lithium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Thus, a non-aqueous electrolyte is
typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes moisture from the battery pack.
Lithium ion batteries are more expensive than NiCd batteries but operate over a wider
temperature range with higher energy densities. They require a protective circuit to limit peak
voltage. For notebooks or laptops, lithium-ion cells are supplied as part of a battery pack with
temperature sensors, voltage converter/regulator circuit, voltage tap, battery charge state
monitor and the main connector. These components monitor the state of charge and current in
and out of each cell, capacities of each individual cell (drastic change can lead to reverse
22 | P a g e

polarities which are dangerous), temperature of each cell and minimize the risk of short
circuits.

2.2.4.3(C) Electrochemistry
The three participants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery are the anode,
cathode and electrolyte.
Both electrodes allow lithium ions to migrate towards and away from them. During insertion
(or intercalation) ions move into the electrode. During the reverse process, extraction, ions
move back out. When a lithium-based cell is discharging, the positive ion is extracted from
the negative electrode (usually graphite) and inserted into the positive electrode (lithium
containing compound). When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs.
Useful work is extracted when electrons flow through a closed external circuit. The following
equations show one example of the chemistry, in units of moles, making it possible to use
coefficient .
The positive electrode half-reaction is:
.(1)

The negative electrode half-reaction is:


..(2)

The overall reaction has its limits. Over discharge supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide,
leading to the production of lithium oxide, possibly by the following irreversible reaction:
Li++ e-+ LiCoO2 Li2 + CoO .(3)
Overcharge up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt(IV) oxide, as evidenced by
x-ray diffraction:
LiCoO2= Li++ CoO2+e
23 | P a g e

..(4)

In a lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are transported to and from the cathode or
anode by oxidizing the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in LixCoO2 from Co3+ to Co4+ during
charge, and reduced from Co4+ to Co3+ during discharge.
The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents
Faraday's constant/6.941 or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium,
or 11.6 kWh per kg. This is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline, but does not
consider the other materials that go into a lithium battery and that make lithium batteries
many times heavier per unit of energy.

2.2.4.3(D) Charge and discharge


During discharge lithium ions Li+ carry the current from the negative to the positive
electrode, through the non-aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm.
During charging an external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies an overvoltage (a higher voltage but of the same polarity) than that produced by the battery, forcing
the current to pass in the reverse direction. The lithium ions then migrate from the positive to
the negative electrode where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a
process known as intercalation.

2.2.4.3(E) Charging procedure


The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells and complete Li-ion batteries are
slightly different.
A single Li-ion cell is charged in two stages:
1. CC
2. CV
A Li-ion battery (a set of Li-ion cells in series) is charged in three stages:
1. CC
2. Balance (not required once a battery is balanced)
3. CV

CC: Apply charging current to the battery, until the voltage limit per cell is reached.
Balance: Reduce the charging current (or cycle the charging on and off to reduce the average
current) while the state of charge of individual cells is brought to the same level by a

24 | P a g e

balancing circuit, until the battery is balanced. Some fast chargers skip this stage. Some
chargers accomplish the balance by charging each cell independently.
CV: Apply a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in series to
the battery, as the current gradually declines asymptotically towards 0, until the current is
below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current.

2.3 Summary
In this chapter block diagram of the proposed Single-Stage inverter cum chopper
circuit (SSICC) are discussed and in the next chapter different modes of operation, system
benefits compared to state of art methods & System control schemes of the proposed
system.

CHAPTER 3
MODES OF OPERATION & CONTROL OF SSICC
3.1 Introduction
In chapter 2 block diagram of the proposed Single-Stage inverter cum chopper
circuit (SSICC) are discussed. This chapter explains about different modes of operation,
system benefits compared to state of art methods & System control schemes of the
25 | P a g e

proposed system.

3.2 Operating modes of SSICC system


The five possible operation modes for the proposed SSICC system are as follows.

3.2.1 Mode 1PV to grid


3.2.2 Mode 2PV to battery
3.2.3 Mode 3PV/battery to grid
3.2.4 Mode 4battery to grid
3.2.1 Mode 1PV to grid (s1 & s6 switches remain open)
In Mode 1, the PV is directly connected to the grid through a dc/ac operation of the
converter with possibility of maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control .In this mode
S1 and S6 switches remains open keeping all the remaining switches in closed position.

FIG 3.1 OPERATING MODE 1 OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

3.2.2 Mode 2PV to battery (s5 & s3 switches remain open)


In Mode 2, the battery is charged from PV panels through the dc/dc operation of the
converter .In this mode S5 and S3 switches remains open keeping all the remaining switches
in closed position. In this mode, the MPPT function is performed therefore; maximum power
is generated from PV.

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FIG 3.2 OPERATING MODE 2 OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

3.2.3 Mode 3pv/battery to grid (switch s6 switch remains open)


In Mode 3 both the PV and battery provide the power to the grid. In this mode S6
switch remains open keeping all the remaining switches in closed position .In this mode
MPPT control is not possible.

FIG 3.3 OPERATING MODE 3 OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

3.2.4 Mode 4battery to grid (switch s4 & s6 switches remain open)


In Mode 4 both the battery provide the power to the grid Mode 4 represents an
operation mode that the energy stored in the battery is delivered to the grid. In this mode S4
&

S6 switches remains open keeping all the remaining switches in closed position.

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FIG 3.4 OPERATING MODE 4 OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

3.3 Advantages of single-stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) concept


The single stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) concept provides significant
benefits to system planning of utility-scale solar PV power plants. The current state-ofthe-art technology is to integrate the energy storage into the ac side of the solar PV
system.
An example of commercial energy storage solutions is the ABB distributed energy
storage (DES) solution that is a complete package up to 4 MW, which is connected to the
grids directly and, with its communication capabilities, can be utilized as a mean for peak
shifting in solar PV power plants. This concept allows not only the system owners to
possess an expandable asset that helps them to plan and operate the power plant
accordingly but also manufacturers to offer a cost-competitive decentralized PV energy
storage solution with the single stage converter. Fig.3.5 shows examples of the PV energy
storage solutions with the single stage converter and the current state-of-the-art
technology. However, different system controls can be proposed based on the requested
power from the grid operator specifically, a large solar PV power plant using the single
stage converter s can be controlled more effectively and its power can be dispatched more
economically because of the flexibility of operation. Developing a detailed operation Preq
and available generated power form the plant Pgen .These two values being results of an
optimization problem (such as unit commitment methods) serve as variables to control the
solar PV power plant accordingly.

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FIG.3.5. UTILITY-SCALE PV-ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS WITH THE SINGLE


STAGE INVERTER CUM CHOPPER (SSICC) AND THE CURRENT STATE-OF-THEART SOLUTION

3.4 System control schemes of single stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC)
In response to the request of the grid operator, different system control schemes can
be realized with the single stage inverter cum chopper (SSICC) based solar PV power
plant as follows:
3.4.1 System control 1 for P generated > P demand
3.4.2 System control 2 for P generated < P demand
3.4.3

System control 3 for P generated = P demand

3.4.1 System control 1 for p generated > p demand:


System control 1 will be activated when generated power is greater than the
demand. In this control the system operates in mode1 & mode2 such that the PV cells
supply the grid & excess amount of power be stored in the batteries.

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FIG 3.6 FOR SYSTEM CONTROL 1

3.4.2 System control 2 for p generated < p demand:


System control 2 will be activated when generated power is lesser than the
demand. In this control the system operates in mode 3 such that the PV cells & batteries
supply the grid.

FIG 3.7FOR SYSTEM CONTROL 2

3.4.3 System control 3 for p generated = p demand;


System control 3 will be activated when generated power is equal to the demand.
In this control the system operates in mode1 such that the PV cells supply the grid.

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FIG 3.8 FOR SYSTEM CONTROL 3

3.4.4 System control 4 for p generated = 0:

FIG 3.9 FOR SYSTEM CONTROL 4

3.5 Summary
Different modes of operation, system benefits compared to state of art methods &
System control schemes of the proposed system are discussed and in the next chapter circuit
diagram of the proposed system, necessary design considerations and modifications to the
conventional three-phase PV converter & circuit components are discussed.

CHAPTER 4
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS TO THREE
PHASE INVERTER

4.1 Introduction
It explains about circuit diagram of the proposed system, necessary design
considerations and modifications to the conventional three-phase PV converter & circuit
31 | P a g e

components.

4.2 Circuit diagram


4.2.1 Circuit diagram in dc/ac operation

FIG. 4.1.OVERALL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF SSICC IN DC-AC MODE.

4.2.1(A) Circuit description for dc-ac operation


The DC-AC operation of the SSICC is utilized for delivering power from PV to
grid, battery to grid, PV and battery to grid, and grid to battery. The SSICC performs the
MPPT algorithm to deliver maximum power from the PV to the grid. Like the
conventional PV inverter control, the SSICC is implemented in the synchronous reference
frame. The synchronous reference frame proportional-integral current control is
employed. In a reference frame rotating synchronously with the fundamental excitation,
the fundamental excitation signals are transformed in to dc signals. As a result, the current
regulator forming the innermost loop of the control system is able to regulate ac cur-rents
over a wide frequency range with high bandwidth and zero steady-state error. For the
pulse width modulation (PWM) scheme, the conventional space vector PWM scheme is
utilized. The above Fig. presents the overall control block diagram of the single stage
converter in the DC-AC operation. For the dc/ac operation with the battery, the proposed
system control should be coordinated with the battery management system (BMS), which
is not shown in Fig.4.1.

4.2.2 Circuit diagram in dc/dc operation

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FIG.4.2 OVERALL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF SSICC DC-DC MODE.

4.2.2(A) Circuit description for dc-dc operation


The DC-DC operation of the single stage converter is also utilized for delivering the
maximum power from the PV to the battery. The single stage converter in the dc/dc
operation is a boost converter that controls the cur-rent flowing into the battery. In this
research, Li-ion battery has been selected for the PV-battery systems. Li-ion batteries
require a constant current, constant voltage type of charging algorithm. In other words, a
Li-ion battery should be charged at a set current level until it reaches its final voltage. At
the final voltage, the charging process should switch over to the constant voltage mode,
and provide the current necessary to hold the battery at this final voltage. Thus, the DCDC converter performing charging process must be capable of providing stable control for
maintaining either current or voltage at a constant value, depending on the state of the
battery. Typically, a few percent capacity losses happen by not performing constant voltage charging. However, it is not uncommon only to use constant current charging to
simplify the charging control and process. The latter has been used to charge the battery.
Therefore, from the control point of view, it is just sufficient to control only the inductor
current. Like the DC-AC operation, the single stage converter performs the MPPT
algorithm to deliver maximum power from the PV to the battery in the DC-DC operation.
Fig. above shows the overall control block diagram of the single stage converter in the
DC-DC operation. In this mode, the single stage converter control should be coordinated
with the BMS, which is not shown in Fig.4.2.
33 | P a g e

4.3 Design considerations & modifications to conventional inverter


One of the most important requirements of the project is that a new power conversion
solution for PV-battery systems must have minimal complexity and modifications to the
conventional three-phase solar PV converter system. Therefore, it is necessary to
investigate how a three-phase DC-AC converter operates as a DC-DC converter and what
modifications should be made. It is common to use a LCL filter for a high-power threephase PV converter and the single stage converter in the DC-DC operation is expected to
use the inductors already available in the LCL filter. There are basically two types of
inductors, coupled three-phase inductor and three single-phase inductors that can be
utilized in the single stage converter circuit.
TABLE 4.1 INDUCTANCE VALUE OF A COUPLED THREE-PHASE INDUCTOR IN
THE DC/DC OPERATION

Using all three phases of the coupled three-phase inductor in the DC-DC operation
causes a significant drop in the inductance value due to inductor core saturation. Table I
presents an example of inductance value of a coupled three-phase inductor for the DC-DC
operation, which shows significant drop in the inductance value. The reduction in
inductance value requires inserting additional inductors for the DC-DC operation which
has been marked as optional in Fig. 2. To avoid extra inductors, only one phase can
perform the DC-DC operation. However, when only one phase, for instance phase B, is
utilized for the DC-DC operation with only either upper or lower three insulated-gate
bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are turned OFF as complementary switching, the circulating
current occurs in phases A and C through filter capacitors, the coupled inductor, and
switches, resulting in significantly high current ripple in phase B current, as shown in
Fig.4.3.
To prevent the circulating current in the dc/dc operation, the following two solutions
are proposed;
1) All unused upper and lower IGBTs must be turned OFF
2) The coupled inductor is replaced by three single-phase Inductors.
34 | P a g e

While the first solution with a coupled inductor is straight-forward, using three singlephase inductors makes it possible to use all three phase legs for the DC-DC operation.
There are two methods to utilize all three phase legs for the DC-DC operation:
1) Synchronous operation
2) Interleaving operation.
In the first solution, all three phase legs can operate synchronously with their own
current control. In this case, the battery can be charged with a higher current compared to
the case with one-phase DC-DC operation. This leads to a faster charging time due to
higher charging current capability. However, each phase operates with higher current
ripples. Higher ripple current flowing into the battery and capacitor can have negative
effects on the lifetime of the battery and capacitors.
To overcome the aforementioned problem associated with the synchronous operation,
phases B and C can be shifted by applying a phase offset. For the interleaving operation
using three phase legs, phases B and C are shifted by 120 and 240, respectively. The
inductor current control in interleaving operation re requires a different inductor current
sampling scheme, as shown in Fig. 9. How-ever, for three-phase interleaving, a modified
sampling scheme is required to measure the average currents for all three phases.
Therefore, the sampling points for phases B and C must be shifted by 120 and 240,
respectively [see Fig.4.4], which may imply that computation required inductor current
control for each phase should be done asynchronously. Using the interleaving operation
reduces the ripples on the charging current flowing into the battery. Therefore, the filter
capacitance value can be reduced significantly.

FIG.4.3. CIRCULATING CURRENT PATH IF ONE PHASE IS USED FOR THE DC/DC
OPERATION OF SSICC WITH A COUPLED THREE-PHASE INDUCTOR.

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FIG.4.4. INDUCTOR CURRENT SAMPLING SCHEMES IN THE INTERLEAVING


OPERATION.
(A) TWO-PHASE INTERLEAVING (B) THREE-PHASE INTERLEAVING.

4.4 Description of components used in SSICC

The circuit diagram of single-stage-converter consists of different components &

description of those is as fallows. The conventional grid-tie PV inverter is connected to the


grid and delivers the power from the PV to the grid. Therefore, the conventional grid-tie PV
inverter requires grid synchronization and power factor control functions. The single stage
converter consists of six IGBTs and diodes that have the rating of 1.2 kV and 100 Ap eak There
is a pre charging circuit that limits an inrush current flowing into the capacitors of the threephase inverter, when the dc power supply is initially connected to the three-phase inverter.
The filter capacitors are used to reduce voltage and current ripples for the batteries. There is
the voltage balancing circuit that limits an inrush current flowing into the filter capacitors of
the batteries, when the battery system including the battery filter capacitors is initially
connected to the inverter. There are three relays used for battery charging in the dc/dc
operation. The relay rating is determined by the battery charging current requirement. As
mentioned earlier, a passive load is used in single stage converter verification. A passive load
has a maximum power of 3 kW under the air-cooled condition. At the top of the picture is the
single stage converter consisting of six IGBTs, six diodes, filter inductors, capacitors, relays,
and wires. At the bottom of the picture is the energy storage device, the K2 Li-ion battery.
The specification of the K2 battery is described in Table II. The K2 battery has its own
BMS. The master controls four slaves who have nine battery cells assigned. The BMS
measures the state of the battery cell voltages, temperatures, and the current flowing into or
out of the battery. It also determines the battery operating status such as normal, warning, and
error in which status BMS uses the relays to protect the battery system and prevent any
damage. The battery system includes a pre charging circuit to limit an inrush current flowing
36 | P a g e

from the batteries into the capacitors that can be connected to the battery in parallel for a
filtering purpose.
The proposed system control algorithms are implemented with MATLAB/Simulink.

TABLE 4.2 LITHIUM-ION K2 BATTERY PARAMETERS

4.5Summary
In this chapter circuit diagram of the proposed system, necessary design considerations
and modifications to the conventional three-phase PV converter & circuit components in brief
& next chapter explains about modulation topologies of three phase voltage source inverter.

CHAPTER 5
MODULATION TOPOLOGIES
5.1 Introduction
This chapter explains about the modulation topologies for three phase voltage source
inverter.
37 | P a g e

5.2 Pulse width modulation in inverters


Output voltage from an inverter can also be adjusted by exercising a control within the
inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing this is by pulse-width modulation control
used within an inverter. In this method, a fixed dc input voltage is given to the inverter and a
controlled ac output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter
components. This is the most popular method of controlling the output voltage and this method
is termed as Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) Control.
The advantages possessed by PWM techniques are as under:
(i) The output voltage control with this method can be obtained without any additional
components.
(ii) With the method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its
output voltage control .As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, the filtering
requirements are minimized.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is a technique where the duty ratio of a pulsating
waveform is controlled by another input waveform. The intersections between the reference
voltage waveform and the carrier waveform give the opening and closing times of the switches.
PWM is commonly used in applications like motor speed control, converters, audio amplifiers,
etc. For example, it is used to reduce the total power delivered to a load without losses, which
normally occurs when a power source is limited by a resistive element. PWM is used to adjust
the voltage applied to the motor. Changing the duty ratio of the switches changes the speed of the
motor. The longer the pulse is closed compared to the opened periods, the higher the power
supplied to the load is. The change of state between closing (ON) and opening (OFF) is rapid, so
that the average power dissipation is very low compared to the power being delivered. PWM
amplifiers are more efficient and less bulky than linear power amplifiers. In addition, linear
amplifiers that deliver energy continuously rather than through pulses have lower maximum
power ratings than PWM amplifiers. There is no single PWM method that is the best suited for
all applications and with advances in solid-state power electronic devices and microprocessors,
various pulse-width modulation (PWM) techniques have been developed for industrial
applications. For these reasons, the PWM techniques have been the subject of intensive research
since 1970s.The SPWM technique is the easiest modulation scheme to understand and to
implement in software or hardware but this technique is unable to fully utilize the DC bus supply
voltage available to the voltage source inverter. This drawback led to the development of
38 | P a g e

THIPWM and SVPWM. THIPWM is a technique that adds a third-order harmonic content to a
sinusoidal reference signal thereby increasing the utilization rate of the DC bus voltage by
15.5%.The implementation of the conventional SVPWM is especially difficult because it
requires complicated mathematical operations. In the under-modulation region, this algorithm
provides 15.5% higher output voltages compared to the SPWM technique. Moreover, the
utilization of the DC bus voltage can be further increased when extending in to the overmodulation region of SVPWM. Three-phase voltage source pulse-width modulation inverters
have been widely used for DC to AC power conversion since they can produce outputs with
variable voltage magnitude and variable frequency.

5.3 Different types of PWM techniques

PWM TECHNIQUES

Third-Harmonic-Injection
Sinusoidal
Space Vector
PWM PulsePWM
Width Modulation for 3-phase VSI:

FIG.5.1 TYPES OF PWM TECHNIQUES

5.3.1 Sinusoidal PWM


The sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM) technique produces a sinusoidal
waveform by filtering an output pulse waveform with varying width. A high switching frequency
leads to a better filtered sinusoidal output waveform. The desired output voltage is achieved by
varying the frequency and amplitude of a reference or modulating voltage. The variations in the
amplitude and frequency of the reference voltage change the pulse-width patterns of the output
voltage but keep the sinusoidal modulation. A low-frequency sinusoidal modulating waveform is
compared with a high-frequency triangular waveform, which is called the carrier waveform. The
switching state is changed when the sine waveform intersects the triangular waveform. The
crossing positions determine the variable switching times between states. In three-phase SPWM,
39 | P a g e

a triangular voltage waveform (VT ) is compared with three sinusoidal control voltages (Va, Vb,
and Vc), which are 120 degrees out of phase with each other and the relative levels of the
waveforms are used to control the switching of the devices in each phase leg of the inverter.

5.3.2 Third-harmonic-injection PWM


The sinusoidal PWM is the simplest modulation scheme to understand but it is unable to
fully utilize the available DC bus supply voltage. Due to this problem, the third-harmonic
injection pulse-width modulation (THIPWM) technique was developed to improve the inverter
performance.

5.3.3 Space vector pulse width modulation for 3-phase VSI


Another method for increasing the output voltage about that of the SPWM technique is
the space vector PWM (SVPWM) technique. Compared to THIPWM, the two methods have
similar results but their methods of implementation are completely different. In the SVPWM
technique, the duty cycles are computed rather than derived through comparison as in SPWM.
The SVPWM technique can increase the fundamental component by up to 27.39% that of
SPWM. The fundamental voltage can be increased up to a square wave mode where a
modulation index of unity is reached. SVPWM is accomplished by rotating a reference vector
around the state diagram, which is composed of six basic non-zero vectors forming a
hexagon. .The topology of a three-leg voltage source inverter is shown in Fig.5.2. Because of the
constraint that the input lines must never be shorted and the output current must always be
continuous a voltage source inverter can assume only eight distinct topologies. These topologies
are shown on Fig. 5.3. Six out of these eight topologies produce a nonzero output voltage and are
known as non-zero switching states and the remaining two topologies produce zero output
voltage and are known as zero switching states.
A three-phase mathematical system can be represented by a space vector. For example, given a
set of three-phase voltages, a space vector can be defined by

Where Va(t), Vb(t), and


Vc(t)

are

three

sinusoidal

voltages of the same amplitude &


Frequency .But phase shift by 120 degrees. The space vector at any given time maintains its
magnitude. As time increases, the angle of the space vector increases, causing the vector to rotate
40 | P a g e

with a frequency equal to that of the sinusoidal waveforms. When the output voltages of a threephase six-step inverter are converted to a space vector and plotted on the complex plane, the
corresponding space vector takes only on one of six discrete angles as time increases. The central
idea of SVWPM is to generate appropriate PWM signals so that a vector with any desired angle
can be generated.
In the space-vector modulation, a three-phase two-level inverter can be driven to eight
switching states where the inverter has six active states (1-6) and two zero states (0 and 7).A
typical two-level inverter has 6 power switches (labeled S1 to S6) that generate three phase
voltage outputs. A detailed drawing of a three-phase bridge inverter is shown in Figure 5.2. The
circuit has a full-bridge topology with three inverter legs, each consisting of two power switches.
The circuit allows only positive power flow from the supply system to the load via a full-bridge
diode rectifier. Negative power flow is not possible through the rectifier diode bridge.
The six switching power devices can be constructed using power BJTs, GTOs, IGBTs,
etc. The choice of switching devices is based on the desired operating power level, required
switching frequency, and acceptable inverter power losses. When an upper transistor is switched
on, the corresponding lower transistor is switched off. Therefore, then ON and OFF states of the
upper transistors S1; S3; S5 can be used to determine the current output voltage. The ON and
OFF states of the lower power devices are complementary to the upper ones. Two switches on
the same leg cannot be closed or opened at the same time. The basic principle of SVPWM is
based on the eight switch combinations of a three phase inverter. The switch combinations can be
represented as binary codes that correspond to the top switches S1, S3, and S5 of the inverter as
shown in Figure 5.2. Each switching circuit generates three independent pole voltages Vao, Vbo,
and Vco, which are the inverter output voltages with respect to the mid-terminal of the DC
source marked as O on the same figure. These voltages are also called pole voltages.
The pole voltages that can be produced are either Vdc/2 or Vdc /2 . For example,
When switches S1, S6, and S2 are closed, the corresponding pole voltages are

Vao=Vdc /2 ,

Vbo=Vdc /2 , and Vco=Vdc /2 . This state is denoted as (1, 0, 0).


The three-phase inverter is therefore controlled by six switches & eight inverter
configurations. The eight inverter states can be transformed into eight corresponding space
41 | P a g e

vectors. In each configuration, the vector identification uses a 0 to represent the negative phase
voltage level and a 1 to represent the positive phase voltage level. The relationship between the
space vector and the corresponding switching states is given in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.2. In
addition, the switches in one inverter branch are in controlled in a complementary fashion (1 if
the switch is on and 0 if it is off). Therefore,

FIG. 5.2: TOPOLOGY OF A THREE-LEG VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

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FIG. 5.3: EIGHT SWITCHING CONFIGURATION OF A THREE-PHASE INVERTER.

The reference voltage vector

Vref

rotates in space at an angular velocity w = 2f,

Where f is the fundamental frequency of the inverter output voltage. When the reference voltage
vector passes through each sector, different sets of switches in Table 5.1 will be turned on or off.
As a result, when the reference voltage vector rotates through one revolution in space, the
inverter output varies one electrical cycle over time. The inverter output frequency coincides

43 | P a g e

with the rotating speed of the reference voltage vector. The zero vectors ( V 0

active vectors ( V 1

&

V 7 ) and

to

V 7 ) do not move in space. They are referred to as stationary

vectors.
TABLE 5.1: SPACE VECTORS, SWITCHING STATES, AND ON STATE SWITCHES

5.3.3(A) Voltage space vectors


Space vector modulation (SVM) for three-leg VSI is based on the representation of the three
phase quantities as vectors in a two-dimensional ( ) plane. This is illustrated here for the sake
of completeness. Considering topology 1 of Fig. 10, which is repeated in Fig. 11(a) we see that
the line voltages Vab, Vbc, and Vca are given by
Vab = Vg

V bc = 0
V ca = -Vg

1
This can be represented in the , plane as shown in Fig. 5.4, where voltages Vab, Vbc,

and Vca are three line voltage vectors displaced 120 degrees in space. The effective voltage
vector generated by this topology is represented as V1 (pnn) in Fig. 5.4. Here the notation pnn
refers to the three legs/phases a,b,c being either connected to the positive dc rail (p) or to the
44 | P a g e

negative dc rail (n). Thus pnn corresponds to phase a being connected to the positive dc rail
and phases b and c being connected to the negative dc rail.

FIG. 5.4 TOPOLOGY 1-V1 (PNN) OF A VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER.

FIG. 5.5 REPRESENTATION OF TOPOLOGY 1 IN , PLANE.


Proceeding on similar lines the six non-zero voltage vectors (V1 - V6) can be shown to assume
the positions shown in Fig.5.6. The tips of these vectors form a regular hexagon (dotted line in
Fig. 5.6). We define the area enclosed by two adjacent vectors, within the hexagon, as a sector.
Thus there are six sectors numbered 1 - 6 in Fig. 5.6.

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FIG. 5.6 NON-ZERO VOLTAGE VECTORS IN THE PLANE.


Considering the last two topologies of Fig. 5.3 which are repeated in Fig. 5.7 for the sake of
convenience we see that the output line voltages generated by this topology are given by
Vab = Vg

V bc = 0
V ca = -Vg

2
These are represented as vectors which have zero magnitude and hence are referred to as zero-

switching state vectors or zero voltage vectors. They assume the position at origin in the ,
plane as shown in Fig. 5.8. The vectors V1-V8 are called the switching state vectors (SSVs).

FIG 5.7 ZERO OUTPUT VOLTAGE TOPOLOGIES.

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FIG. 5.8 REPRESENTATION OF THE ZERO VOLTAGE VECTORS IN THE PLANE.

5.3.3(B) Space vector modulation


The desired three phase voltages at the output of the inverter could be represented by an
equivalent vector V rotating in the counter clock wise direction as shown in Fig. 5.9. The
magnitude of this vector is related to the magnitude of the output voltage (Fig. 5.10)) and the
time this vector takes to complete one revolution is the same as the fundamental time period of
the output voltage.

FIG. 5.9 OUTPUT VOLTAGE VECTOR IN THE PLANE.

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FIG. 5.10 OUTPUT LINE VOLTAGES IN TIME DOMAIN.


Let us consider the situation when the desired line-to-line output voltage vector V is in
sector 1 as shown in Fig. 5.11. This vector could be synthesized by the pulse-width modulation
(PWM) of the two adjacent SSVs V1 (pnn) and V2 (ppn), the duty cycle of each being d1 and
d2, respectively, and the zero vector (V7 (nnn) / V8 (ppp)) of duty cycle d0:
d1 V1 + d2 V2 = V = m Vg eje

d1 + d2 + d3 = 1

Where, 0 m 0.866, is the modulation index. This would correspond to a maximum line-to-line
voltage of 1.0Vg, which is 15% more than conventional sinusoidal PWM as shown.
All SVM schemes and most of the other PWM algorithms use Eqns. (3) and (4) for the output
voltage synthesis. The modulation algorithms that use non-adjacent SSVs have been shown to
produce higher THD and/or switching losses and are not analyzed here, although some of them,
e.g. hysteresis, can be very simple to implement and can provide faster transient response. The
duty cycles d1, d2, and d0, are uniquely determined from Eqns. (3) and (4) , the only difference
between PWM schemes that use adjacent vectors is the choice of the zero vector(s) and the
sequence in which the vectors are applied within the switching cycle.

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FIG. 5.11 SYNTHESIS OF REQUIRED OUTPUT VOLTAGE VECTOR IN SECTOR 1.

The degrees of freedom we have in the choice of a given modulation


algorithm is:
1) The choice of the zero vector; whether we would like to use V7(ppp) or V8(nnn) or both.
2) Sequencing of the vectors.
3) Splitting of the duty cycles of the vectors without introducing additional commutations.

5.3.3 (C) Implementing SVPWM


The SVPWM can be implemented by using wither sector selection algorithm or by using
a carrier based space vector algorithm.
The types of SVPWM implementations are:a) Sector selection based space vector modulation
b) Reduced switching Space vector modulation
c) Carrier based space vector modulation
d) Reduced switching carrier based space vector modulation.

5.4 Summary
This chapter explains about the modulation topologies for three phase voltage source
inverter in brief and chapter6 explains about MPPT.

CHAPTER 6
MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING
6.1 Introduction
In chapter5 the modulation topologies for three phase voltage source inverter was
explained in brief. This chapter explains about maximum power point tracking.

6.2 Requirement for maximum power point tracking (MPPT)


Maximum power point tracking, frequently referred to as MPPT, is an electronic system
that operates the Photovoltaic (PV) modules in a manner that allows the modules to produce all
the power they capable of. MPPT is not a mechanical tracking system that physically moves the
modules to make them point more directly at the sun. Since the power output of a PV array
varies according to the sunlight conditions, atmospheric conditions, including cloud cover local
surface reflectivity and temperature. So MPPT is necessary in order to extract the maximum
49 | P a g e

power from the array at all times. MPPT is a fully electronic system that varies the electrical
operating point of the modules so that the modules are able to deliver maximum available power.
the MPPT varies the ratio between the voltage and current delivered to the battery, in order to
deliver maximum power. If there is excess voltage available from the PV, then it converts that to
additional current to the battery. Furthermore, it is like an automatic transmission. As the Vpp of
the PV array varies with temperature and other conditions, it "tracks" this variance and adjusts
the ratio accordingly.

FIG.6.1: PV MODULE POWER/VOLTAGE/CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

The function of a MPPT is analogous to the transmission in a car. When the transmission
is in the wrong gear, the wheels do not receive maximum power. That's because the engine is
running either slower or faster than its ideal speed range. The purpose of the transmission is to
couple the engine to the wheels, in a way that lets the engine run in a favorable speed range in
spite of varying acceleration and terrain.
Let's compare a PV module to a car engine. Its voltage is analogous to engine speed. Its
ideal voltage is that at which it can put out maximum power. This is called its maximum power
point. (It's also called peak power voltage, abbreviated Vpp). Vpp varies with sunlight intensity
and with solar cell temperature. The voltage of the battery is analogous to the speed of the car's
wheels. It varies with battery state of charge, and with the loads on the system (any appliances
and lights that may be on). For a 12V system, it varies from about 11 to 14.5V.
In order to charge a battery (increase its voltage), the PV module must apply a voltage
that is higher than that of the battery. If the PV module's Vpp is just slightly below the battery
voltage, then the current drops nearly to zero (like an engine turning slower than the wheels). So,
to play it safe, typical PV modules are made with a Vpp of around 17V when measured at a cell
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temperature of 25C. They do that because it will drop to around 15V on a very hot day.
However, on a very cold day, it can rise to 18V!

FIG.6.2: SYSTEM CONFIGURATION OF PV SYSTEM

6.3 System configuration


The system configuration for the topic is as shown. Here the PV array is a combination of
series and parallel solar cells. This array develops the power from the solar energy directly and it
will be changes by depending up on the temperature and solar irradiances. So we are controlling
this to maintain maximum power at output side we are boosting the voltage by controlling the
current of array with the use of PI controller. The relevant circuit is as shown. After we are
getting the maximum power we are applying to the utility grid.

6.3.1 PV array
A photovoltaic cell is nothing but a Solar cell which consists of a p-n
junction fabricated in a thin wafer or layer of semiconductor (usually silicon).
In the dark, the I-V output characteristic of a solar cell has an exponential
characteristic similar to that of a diode. When solar energy (photons) hits the
solar cell, with energy greater than band gap energy of the semiconductor,
electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the material, creating
electron-hole pairs. These carriers are swept apart under the influence of the
internal electric fields of the p-n junction and create a current proportional to
the incident radiation. The voltage and current relationship of the simplified
solar cell based on Kirchhoffs current law.

6.3.2 Boost converter


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The boost converter is nothing but a DC/DC converter which has boosting the voltage to
maintain the maximum output power constant for all the conditions of temperature and solar
irradiance variations. Shown in fig.6.3

FIG.6.3: BOOST TOPOLOGY


When the switch S is on, the current builds up in the inductor L due to the positive
inductor voltage is equal to the input voltage. When S is off, the voltage across L reverses and
adds to the input voltage, thus makes the output voltage greater than the input voltage. For steady
state operation, the average voltage across the inductor over a full period is zero. By designing
this circuit we can also investigate performance of converters which have input from solar
energy.

6.3.3 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)


Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) has been used to force the PV array to work
around the maximum power point. For this reason, the MPPT is required to track the maximum
power available in the PV array. The MPPT operates by periodically incrementing the terminal
voltage of the PV array and continuously seek. The radiation and temperature are used to
calculate the maximum PV array output power and PV array terminal voltages. The MPPT
operates by periodically incrementing the terminal voltage of the PV array and continuously seek
the peak power point. The control system adjusts the boost converter to seek maximum power
point of PV array. A comparison between the terminal voltages (actual and optimum) will control
the duty ratio of boost converter. Changing the duty ratio according to the error signal between
the maximum and actual power will pass the maximum power available from PV to the electric
utility. A comparison between actual and reference values for PV terminal voltage and maximum
power available from PV array will control the duty ratio of boost converter. The PV simulator
uses the radiation, temperature and output current from PV to determine the corresponding PV
curve by using equations. The output power from PV is the result from multiplying PV terminal
voltage and PV output current.
Different algorithms help to track the peak power point of the solar pv module automatically. The
various algorithms used are.
52 | P a g e

A. Perturb and observe.


B. Incremental Conductance.
C. Parasitic Capacitance.
D. Voltage Based Peak Power Tracking.
E. Current Based peak power Tracking.
A perturb and observe: In this algorithm a slight perturbation is introduce system. Due to
perturbation, power of the module changes. If the power increases due to the perturbation then
the perturbation is continued in that direction. After the peak power is reached the power at the
next instant decreases and hence after that the perturbation reverses.

FIG.6.4. PERTURB AND OBSERVE ALGORITHM


When the steady state is reached the algorithm oscillates around the peak point. In order to keep
the power variation small the perturbation size is kept very small. The algorithm is developed in
such a manner that it sets a reference voltage of the module corresponding to the peak voltage of
the module. A PI controller then acts moving the operating point of the module to that particular
voltage level. It is observed that there some power loss due to this perturbation also the fails to
track the power under fast varying atmospheric conditions. But still this algorithm is very
popular and simple.

B. Incremental conductance: The disadvantage of the perturb and observe method to track
the peak power under fast varying atmospheric condition is overcome by Incremental
conductance method. The algorithm makes use of the equation
P=V*I
(Where P= module power,V=module voltage, I=module current);
Diff with respect to dV
dP/dV = I+V*dI/dV
Depending on this equation the algorithm works.
At peak power point
53 | P a g e

1
2

dP/dV = 0
dI/dV = -I/V

3
4

FIG.6.5.INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD.


If the operating point is to the right of the Power curve then we have
dP/dV < 0
5
dI/dV < I/V
6
If operating point is to the left of the power curve then we have
dP/dV > 0
7
dI/dV > I/V
8
Using equations 7, 9& 10 the algorithm works. The incremental conductance can determine that
the MPPT has reached the MPP and stop perturbing the operating point. If this condition is not
met, the direction in which the MPPT operating point must be perturbed can be calculated using
the relationship between dl/dV and I/V This relationship is derived from the fact that dP/dV is
negative when the MPPT is to the right of the MPP and positive when it is to the left of the MPP.
This algorithm has advantages over perturb and observe in that it can determine when the MPPT
has reached the MPP, where perturb and observe oscillates around the MPP. Also, incremental
conductance can track rapidly increasing and decreasing irradiance conditions with higher
accuracy than perturb and observe. One disadvantage of this algorithm is the increased
complexity when compared to perturb and observe.
The solar array terminal voltage can be adjusted relative to the maximum power point
voltage by measuring the incremental and instantaneous array conductance (dI/dV and I/V,
respectively). Although the incremental conductance method offers good performance under
rapidly changing atmospheric conditions, four sensors are required to perform the computations.
The drawback is that sensor devices require more conversion time thus result in a large amount
of power loss. Figure 6.7 views the algorithm of incremental conductance and the operation of
incremental conductance algorithm is shown in Figure 6.6
54 | P a g e

FIGURE 6.6 THE OPERATION OF THE INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD.

FIGURE 6.7: CONDUCTANCE INCREMENTAL ALGORITHM FLOWCHART

C. Parasitic capacitances: The parasitic capacitance method is a refinement of the


incremental conductance method that takes into account the parasitic capacitances of the solar
cells in the PV array. Parasitic capacitance uses the switching ripple of the MPPT to perturb the
array. To account for the parasitic capacitance, the average ripple in the array power and voltage,
generated by the switching frequency, are measured using a series of filters and multipliers and
then used to calculate the array conductance. The incremental conductance algorithm is then
used to determine the direction to move the operating point of the MPPT. One disadvantage of
this algorithm is that the parasitic capacitance in each module is very small, and will only come
into play in large PV arrays.
55 | P a g e

Where several module strings are connected in parallel. Also, the DC-DC converter has a sizable
input capacitor used filter out small ripple in the array power. This capacitor may mask the
overall effects of the parasitic capacitance of the PV array.
D. Voltage control maximum point tracker: It is assumed that a maximum power point of a
particular solar PV module lies at about 0.75 times the open circuit voltage of the module. So by
measuring the open circuit voltage a reference voltage can be generated and feed forward voltage
control scheme can be implemented to bring the solar pv module voltage to the point of
maximum power. One problem of this technique is the open circuit voltage of the module varies
with the temperature. So as the temperature increases the module open circuit voltage changes
and we have to measure the open circuit voltage of the module very often. Hence the load must
be disconnected from the module to measure open circuit voltage. Due to which the power
during that instant will not be utilize.

E. Short-circuit current MPPT algorithm


Current control maximum power point tracker: The peak power of the module lies
at the point which is at about 0.9 times the short circuit current of the module. In order to
measure this point the module or array is short-circuited. And then by using the current mode
control the module current is adjusted to the value which is approx. 0.9 times the short circuit
current. The problem with this method is that a high power resistor is required which can sustain
the short-circuit current. The module has to be short circuited to measure the short circuit current
as it goes on varying with the changes in isolation level.
This method exploits the assumption of linear relationship between the cell current
corresponding to maximum power (IMP) and the cell-short circuit current (ISC).
This relationship can be expressed as:
IMP = K . ISC
Where K is called the current factor
Peak Power of the module lies at about 90% of its short circuit current. Measuring the short
circuit current Isc and adjusting the operating the converter at 90% of Isc the module can be
made to operate at Peak power.
The Flowchart of Short-circuit current MPPT is shown below

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FIG .6.8. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT MPPT FLOWCHART

6.3.4 Comparison of incremental conductance and short circuit current MPPT


methods
TABLE.6.1 COMPARISON OF INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE AND SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT MPPT METHODS

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Sl.N
o.

SPECIFICATION

INCREMENTAL
CONDUCTANCE

SHORTCIRCUIT
CURRENT

EFFICIENCY

High about 98%

Low about 90%

COMPLEXITY

Difficulty

Very simple

REALIZATION

More complex

Easy

COST

High cost

RELIABILITY

Accurate

lower
Not accurate

Good and automatically

RAPIDLY CHANGING

Relatively

adjusts modules operating

ATMOSPHERE

Faster response

voltage

TABLE 6.2 SHOWING THE MAXIMUM POWER, VOLTAGE, CURRENT AT


DIFFERENT IRRADIANCE:

Sl.

POWER(W

SHORT-

)
AVAILABE

CIRCUIT
CURRENT

No.

IRRADIENCE
(W/M2)

1000

1169

800

TABLE

6.3

SHOWING

IMAX

VMAX

10

9.3

125

919

7.4

123

THE

POWER

TRACKED

AT

DIFFERENT

IRRADIANCE.
METHODS

INCREMENTAL

SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT

1000

CONDUCTANCE
Voltage Current Power
(v)
(A)
tracked
(W)
124.3
9.33
1162

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58

105.2

IRRADIENCE

7.89

831.3

Voltage
(v)

Current
(A)

Power

117

9.676

tracked
(W)
1132

138.7

5.343

741.3

6.4

Summary
In this chapter maximum power point tracking was explained in brief .Chapter7
explains about explains about simulation of simulation of SSICC.

CHAPTER 7
SIMULATION OF SSICC FOR PV-BATTERY SYSTEM & RESULTS
7.1 Introduction
The above chapter explains the modulating topologies & its types. In this chapter
simulation of SSICC& results are shown. It integrates computation, visualization &
programming in an easy to use environment where problems & solutions are expressed in
familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include:
Math & computation
Algorithm development
Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation & prototyping
Data analysis, exploration & visualization
Scientific & engineering graphics
Application development like graphical user interface building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems especially those
with matrix & vector formulations in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in
a scalar non interactive. The name MATLAB software developed by the LINPAC &
EISPACK projects .Today, MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK & BLAS libraries,
59 | P a g e

embedding the state of art in software for matrix computation.


MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In university
environments, it is standard instructional tool for introductory & advanced courses in
mathematics, engineering & science. In industry MATLAB is the tool of choice for high
productivity research, development & analysis .MATLAB features a family of add-on
application-specific solutions called toolboxes. Very important to more users of MATLAB
toolboxes allow you to learn & specialized

technology .Toolboxes are comprehensive

collections of MATLAB functions (M-Files) that extend the MATLAB environment to solve
particular problems .Areas in which toolboxes are available include signal processing ,control
systems ,neural networks ,fuzzy logic , wavelets, simulation & many others.

7.2 Simulation circuit of SSICC in dc/dc operation mode for PV-battery


system

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FIG.7.1 SIMULINK MODEL OF SSICC IN DC/DC


The fig 7.1 shows Simulink model of SSICC in dc/dc operation mode .In this mode of
operation SSICC converts fixed DC from PV cells to variable DC in order to connect PV cells
with the batteries.

7.3 Controller block for dc - dc operation


FIG.7.2 SIMULINK MDEL OF CONTROLLER BLOCK FOR DC-DC OPERATION

7.4 MPPT block for DC DC operation

FIG.7.3 SIMULINK MODEL OF MPPT CONTROLLER BLOCK FOR DC-DC OPERATION


61 | P a g e

7.5 Simulation circuit of SSICC in dc/ac operation mode for PV-battery


system

FIG.7.4 SIMULINK MODEL OF CONTROLLER BLOCK FOR DC-AC OPERATION

7.6 Controller blocks for DC - AC operation

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FIG.7.5 SIMULINK MODEL OF CONTROLLER BLOCK FOR DC -AC OPERATION

7.7 MPPT block for DC DC operation

FIG.7.6 SIMULINK MODEL OF MPPT CONTROLLER BLOCK FOR DC -AC OPERATION


The fig 7.4 shows Simulink model of SSICC in DC/AC operation mode .In this mode of
operation SSICC converts fixed DC from PV cells to variable AC in order to connect PV cells
63 | P a g e

with the grid, battery to the grid.

7.8 Simulation out puts in DC- AC mode


7.8.1PV voltage (DC-AC)

7.8.2 Dc voltage (DC-AC)

7.8.3 Dc voltage (DC-AC)

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7.8.4 Grid current (DC-AC)

7.8.5 Battery voltage (DC-AC)

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7.9 Simulation out puts in DC-DC MODE


7.9.1 PV voltage (DC DC)

7.9.2 Dc voltage (DC DC)

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7.9.3 Battery voltage (DC DC)

CHAPTER8
CONCLUSION
The single stage inverter cum chopper for PV- battery application works efficiently for
generating the required output. The SSICC power conversion system performs different
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operating modes such as PV to grid (dc to ac), PV to battery (dc to dc), battery to grid (dc to
ac), and battery/PV to grid (dc to ac) in different control strategies for solar PV systems with
energy storage. Test results for various inputs shown in the above figures confirm that the
proposed system is an optimal solution for PV-battery power conversion systems. The
proposed solution requires minimal complexity and modifications to the conventional threephase solar PV converters for PV-battery systems. Therefore the solution is very attractive for
PV-battery applications because it minimizes the number of conversion stages, thereby
improving efficiency, reducing cost, weight and volume.

FUTURE SCOPE
Although this project focuses on three-phase application, the main concept can also be
applied to single-phase application. The proposed solution is also capable of providing
potential benefits to other intermittent energy sources including wind energy. The proposed
solution requires minimal complexity and modifications to the conventional three-phase solar
PV converters for PV-battery systems.

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