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Humans, and other animals, are able to detect a range of stimuli from the external
environment, some of which are useful for communication
Stimulus detected
Photoreceptors
- Pain
- Pressure
- Gravity
- Touch
- Light
Chemoreceptors
- Chemicals
Thermoreceptors
- Temperature
Electroreceptors
- Electricity
Location
- Skin
- Ear
Organs called receptors detect stimuli and message is sent to the spinal cord to the brain
2.
Visual communication involves the eye registering changes in the immediate environment
Describe the anatomy and function of the human eye, including the:
(conjunctiva, cornea, sclera, choroid, retina, iris, lens, aqueous and vitreous humor, ciliary body, optic nerve)
The human eye:
- Structure allows light to enter and hit photosensitive cells
- Cells change the light stimulus into an electrochemical signal that is interpreted and responded to by CNS
Sclera
Choroid
Pupil
Retina
Iris
Function
- Lubricates and nourishes eye
- Infection of conjunctive causes
conjunctivitis
- Refracts light and allows it to
be focused on the cells of
retina
- Protects inner parts of eye
- Helps keep shape
- Provides nutrients to back of
eye
- Allows light to pass through to
retina
- Converts light stimuli into
electromechanical message
sent to brain for interpretation
Lens
Aqueous humor
Vitreous humor
Cillary body
Optic nerve
Identify the limited range of wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum detected by humans and
compare this range with those of other vertebrates and invertebrates
The electromagnetic spectrum:
Electromagnetic spectrum (EM): describes different types of radiation
- Radiation travels in forms of waves (transverse waves)
- Waves are able to travel in a vacuum and carry energy
9 Hertz
) OR wavelength of 1-
17
19
- The more energy a wave has, the more damaging it can be to human body
Light energy:
15
- Light waves form part of EMS in mid range of 10 Hertz or 400-700 nanometers
- Known as visible spectrum
- Compromised of all colors of the rainbow from violet to red
- Sun and stars emit much of their radiation in this section
- Human eye is sensitive to this part of spectrum
- Frequencies above or below visible light cannot be detected by human eye
- Australian buprestid fire beetle( Merimna atrata) detects fires using infrared sensors on abdomen. Once fire
is detected, they lay their eggs underneath the freshly burnt wood. This lets the larvae munch away at a
ready food supply and be cocooned by the dead wood.
3. The clarity of the signal transferred can affect interpretation of the intended visual communication
identify the cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous humor as refractive media
- tissues in cornea, aqueous humor lens and vitreous humor have different densities, therefore different
refractive indices.
- at the interface between each tissue, light refracts at a different angle if it approaches at an angle
Refractive indices of substances associated with the eye:
- Light refraction at greatest point where light meets the interface between the eye and the cornea as it
enters eye. Difference between refractive index of two mediums are great.
- Cornea is convex lens to assist in focusing light ray on retina.
Fluid
Vacuum
1.000
Air
1.003
Aqueous humor
1.336
Water
1.333
Lens
1.421
Cornea
1.377
Vitreous humor
1.337
identify accommodation as the focusing on objects at different distances, describe its achievement
through the change in curvature of the lens and explain its importance
- light wave travelling through eye changes direction many times to meet retinal cell directly
- objects can be on different planes and distances from your eye
- light waves from different objects hit your eyes at different angles
- objects at a distance reflect light waves almost parallel to cornea
- light will travel through the cornea and the lens, where the light will be directed onto the retinas fovea
Fovea: focal point
- a clear image is then seen
- When an object is brought close to the eye, light rays will converge behind the retina and produce a blurry
image.
compare the change in the refractive power of the lens from rest to maximum accommodation
- refractive power of lens is measured in diopters
- a diopter is equal to the reciprocal of the focal length measured in meters
- focal length (distance) from cornea to retina of a normal relaxed eye is about 1.7cm (0.017m) or 59 a
diopter lens
- focal length must change for image to be focused clearly on the fovea of the retina when objects are close.
- For example: if an object is 1m away from the eye, it must have a focal length of 1.67cm or a power of 60
diopter to be seen clearly.
- Power of accommodation: variation in the accommodation power of the eye from rest to its maximum
accommodation value in viewing nearby objects.
- Normal health young adult has accommodation range from 59 diopters while at rest and 63 diopters when
viewing an object 25cm away total accommodation of 4 diopters
- with age, eye lens becomes more rigid and looses flexibility and therefore its ability to change shape
- by 70yrs old total accommodation power is approx. 1.5 diopters compared to a baby that starts with a total
accommodation of approx. 15 diopters.
distinguish between myopia and hyperopia and outline how technologies can be used to correct these
conditions.
- ability of eye to focus on far and nearby objects is compromised by problems associated with tissues within
the eye
- bulging cornea or inflexible lens affect refraction of light and its focusing in fovea
- two most common vision defects are associated with accommodation power of the eye
- myopia: short sightedness
- hyperopia: long sightedness
Myopia:
- difficulty focusing on objects that are in distance
- one-third of population affected (esp. young people)
- caused by cornea that is more curved than normal
- light coming from the distant object is refracted more than necessary and the image falls short of the fovea
causing it to be blurred
- Also caused by longer eyeball, thus image will fall short of fovea
Hyperopia:
- difficulty focusing on objects nearby
- affects one in four people
- occurs when eyeball is too short, the cornea is too flat or the lens cannot become round enough
- closer the object to eye, the stronger the refractive power to be in focus
- refractive power is insufficient, thus image from nearby object is focused behind the retina producing a
blurry image
- can occur in children when eyeball is shorter than normal
- Can be corrected as eyeball elongates with normal growth
Treatment:
- most common treatment is use of corrective artificial lenses (glasses or contact lenses)
- correct refraction of the light that enters the eye
- Myopic conditions: light is overly refracted so use concave lens to diverge light before it enters the eye
- cornea and lens then converge image correctly onto retina
- Hyperopia: light does not refract enough to focus on the retina so convex lens is used to converge light
rays before they reach the cornea
Corrective surgery:
- reflective surgery LASIK (laser in situ Keratomileusis) can correct some vision defects such as myopia and
hyperopia
- Involves use of instrument called keratome to gently lift flap of corneal tissue and then laser is used to
reshape the cornea alter the way light is refracted onto lens
- Cornea reshaped by using tissue from underneath to flatten it or by taking microscopic section from the top
of the cornea
- laser of UV light source is used
- Hyperopia: heat from laser is used to shrink collagen around edges of cornea to make the curvature
steeper
- Other treatments: implantable contact lenses where lens is attached by surgeon to iris or in front of normal
lens
- Advantage: cannot be felt
- easily removed if complication occurs
- Plastic inserts are also being used around the edges of the cornea to flatten it
explain how the production of two different images of a view can result in depth perception
Depth perception: ability to accurately judge distance of an object
- human eyes are spaced apart, thus take in the same image at different angles
- you can see this by closing one eye and the switching to the other --> different view
- two images are directed towards the brain where it puts together two images as one and fills in missing
information
- as a result, we see 3D
- called binocular or stereoscopic vision
Cataracts:
- appears as cloudiness in the lens of the eye that stops light from reaching the retina
- lens is encased in a capsule made of water and protein
- when cells of lens die, the protein can accumulate in the capsule resulting in cloud covering the lens
- occur in older people as a process of ageing
- can also be caused by diseases (e.g. diabetes), use of drug containing steroids, smoking, excessive salt
and alcohol and exposure to UV light.
Treatment for cataract blindness:
- treated with eye surgery
- small incision made on edge of cornea and small prove is inserted into the lens capsule
- probe emits an ultrasound and breaks up inner clouded lens
- parts a removed by suction leaving behind lens capsule
- after natural lens is removed, a clear bionic lens (intraocular lens) is inserted.
- bionic lens acts as natural lens and focus the light on the retina to produce a clear image.
- Cataract blindness is the leading cause of blindness in the developing world.
- WHO estimates 18.5 million people are affected by cataract blindness.
4. The light signal reaching the retina is transformed into an electrical impulse
Identify photoreceptor cells as those containing light sensitive pigments and explain that these cells
convert light images into electrochemical signals that the brain can interpret
-
Rods: - contain light sensitive pigments that absorb light coming from an object
- Light absorption excites cell and sends electrochemical signal to the brain
- Enable night and peripheral vision
Function is to absorb light reflected from objects into the eye and change message into an
electrochemical form that can be sent to the brain along the optic nerve
Rods:
o Identify that there are three types of cones, each containing a separate pigment sensitive to either blue,
red or green light
o Explain that colour blindness in humans results from the lack of one or more of the colour-sensitive
pigments in the cones
Compression:
particles
in
air
squeeze
together
Rarefaction:
compression
expands
as
the
particles
move
further
apart
Sound travels as particles alternate between compression and rarefaction along the path of wave
Explain that sound is produced by vibrating objects and that the frequency of the sound is the same as
the frequency of the vibration of the source of the sound
Wavelength:
- Sound wave is a cycle of alternating compressions and rarefactions
- By measuring cycles (distance between wave) you measure the wavelength
- Symbol for wavelength is
- Measurement of wavelength can start at any point on the wave and end at the exact same point in the next
cycle
Frequency:
Frequency: number of times it vibrates per second
- One complete vibration: period
- Unit to measure frequency Hertz (1 Hertz = 1 vibration/second)
- Sound that vibrates at a high frequency is high pitched
- Sound that vibrates at low frequency is low pitched
- Sound waves do not change frequency when transmitted
- Frequency of oscillations produced by the source of sound is the same as the oscillations of the
transmitted sound wave
Pitch:
- The pitch of a sound is changed by wavelength of frequency
For example:
- If wave length is shortened, the frequency wave increases and pitch increases
- Alternatively, if wavelength is increased, the frequency decreases and the pitch sounds lower
Amplitude:
- Amplitude (loudness): measured in decibels (dB)
- Further the peak of the waves moves from the midpoint, the louder it is
Outline the structure of the human larynx and the associated structures that assist the production of
sound
Sound is useful because:
Easily
produced
sound
can
be
made
by
vibrating
an
object
Producing sound:
- Muscles change the shape of vocal folds (vocal cords), thus air passing through is emitted with
different sounds
- Vocal folds located in the larynx (voice box or Adams apple)
- Larynx is located at top of trachea
- (No Man Pops Like Tom)
- Vocal tract stretches from vocal folds to lips including the pharynx, tongue, teeth and soft and hard
palate.
- All structures in vocal tract are responsible for producing different sounds humans make
The Larynx
- Larynx is a tubular organ made of cartilage allows to surround and protect vocal folds
- Held in place by ligaments and muscle
- When pulled tight, vocal folds vibrate at high frequency/ less tension, low frequency
- In high pitch vocal fold open and close more frequently
Organism
Way of hearing
Mammal
Fish
- Sound travels faster in water than air ears on inside rather than out
- Sound passes easily through body to two internal ears
- Ears filled with fluid and lined with cilia
- Cilia detect movement of fluid caused by vibrations transmitted
Swim bladder:
- Air filled with air and easily compressed
- Bladder detects sound sends signal to ear where hair cells detect it and send to
brain for interpretation
Neuromasts:
- Detect movement
- Have hair cells line inner ear and use it to detect sound
Insects
Insect
Air, solid- ground or
leaves
Tympanic membranes,
hair cells
Sensory cells
Mechanoreceptors
Fish
Liquid- water
Mammal
Air or liquid
Cochlea
Main role of ear is to convert incoming vibrations into electrochemical signals to be sent to brain
External Ear
Middle Ear
Inner Ear
Structure
Description
Function
Pinna
- Seen as ear
- Comprises folds of skin over
cartilage
Ear canal
Tympanic
membrane
Ear ossicles
Oval Window
Round Window
Cochlea
Organ of Corti
Auditory nerve
Sound energy in a sound wave hit side of head pinna collects and channels
vibrations down into ear canal
Middle Ear
Inner Ear
Bones are attached to each other but are not fixed in one position
As they vibrate in time with the tympanic membrane --> act as a lever
Increase force of vibrations on the oval window (to improve quality of low
frequency vibrations)
Hairs near centre of cochlea detect low frequency vibrations and hairs near
outer spiral of cochlea detect high frequency vibrations
Vibrations that are transmitted being transmitted through the ear cause
sensory hairs to move up and down simulate nerve cells
Describe the relationship between the distribution of hair cells in the organ of Corti and the detection of
sounds of different frequencies
- Humans hear sound within a frequency as low as 16 Hz and as high as 25 000 Hz
- Adults have smaller frequency detection range loose ability to detect higher frequencies
- Most adults detect up to 20 000 Hz
- Animals can hear a variety of frequencies that exceed that of humans
- Lower frequency sounds travel (up to a few km) further than high pitched
- As sound waves travel through a medium molecules o medium move back and forth
- As the propagate waves give energy to the medium therefore lose energy themselves
- Loss of energy means sound can only propagate a limited distance
- Low frequency waves moves less molecules than a high frequency wave
- Gives less energy to medium and thus travels further
- Although waves that lose energy have decreasing amplitude, wavelength and frequency remain the same
Elephants:
- Use low sound frequencies infrasound
- Used to communicate over long distance
Bats:
- Use high frequency sound ultra sound to communicate in their physical environment
- Do not travel as far as infrasound; they are less prone to distortion
- Important: bats have poor eyesight and use echolocation to position their prey
- Sound waves into environment and detect echo of wave once it bounces back off objects
Frequency range of different animals:
Animal
Frequency range Hz
Humans
16- 25 000
Dogs
20 45 000
Cats
20 64 000
Mice
1000 95 000
Elephants
5 11 000
Bats
Outline the role of the sound shadow cast by the head in the location of sound
7. Signals from the eye and ear are transmitted as electro-chemical changes in the membranes of
the optic and auditory nerves
- Neurons are responsible for communicating messages from one part of the body to another --> coordinate
bodily functions (e.g. catching a ball OR digesting a meal)
Structure of a neuron:
- Neuron: elongates cell with specific structures (see table below)
- Electrical impulses are passed from one neuron to another
- Do not make physical contact with each other
- Space between neurons is called synapse
- Electric impulse carries message along neuron --> once reached the end, it is converted to
neurotransmitter
- Neurotransmitter travels across the synapse to next neuron
Structure of a neuron:
Structure
Function
Dendrite
Cell body
Axon
- Long projection that conducts electrical signals away from the cell body
Myelin Sheath
Axon Terminal
Identify neurons as nerve cells that are the transmitters of signals by electro-chemical changes in their
membranes
Structure of a nerve:
- Neurons are bundled together to form a single nerve
- Axons of nerve cells form the fiber that becomes a nerve
Type of neurons:
- Peripheral nervous system: sensory, motor and interneurons
- Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
Sensory
Neuron
Motor
Neuron
Interneuron
Example: photoreceptors in eye receive stimulus from the environment that light
intensity has increased. Then send this information to the brain
Effector cells carry out response to the stimulus detected by original sensory neuron
E.g. if message is sent by photoreceptors informs the brain there is too much light
hitting the retina, the motor neuron sends message to muscles around the iris to
constrict pupil so less light enters the eye
Found in CNS
Communicate with other neurons rather than the rest of the body
Example: they communicate between sensory neurons and motor neurons as well as
between themselves
Define the term threshold and explain why not all stimuli generate an action potential
- Nerve cells have different electrical charges across cell membrane to generate an electric signal
- Voltage across the cell membrane created by the charge difference: membrane potential
- Cell not sending any message: resting and is known as resting potential
- During resting period there is an overall negative charge inside the neuron: -70mV (millivolts)
- Due to more negatively charged organic ions and fewer charged positively charged sodium ions (Na+) and
potassium ions (K+) on inside of cell membrane compared to outside
- Sensory neuron may be stimulated by a variety of stimuli (e.g. pin prick, change in temperature or mild
electric shock)
- If stimuli is intense --> causes sodium channels in cell membrane to open
- Due to difference in charges across cell membrane, positively charged Na+ ions rush into the cell to
equalize membrane potential to 0mV
- If membrane potential is higher than -50mV it reaches threshold and an action potential is generated
- Split second later- momentum of Na+ ions cause inside of cell to become positively charged to about
+30mV
- Due to too many Na+ ions rushing in at once causing membrane potential to rise, the sodium channels
close and K+ ions rush out of cell
- K+ ions are propelled by high positive charge inside the cell
- As soon as membrane potential moves back beyond -30 mV, the potassium channels close
- Action potential: if the stimuli is strong enough, the charge with be transmitted along the axon to the axon
terminals
- In doing so --> becomes an electrical message
- If stimulus is not strong enough to change membrane potential above -50mV there will be no action
potential
- Therefore, not all stimuli generate an action potential
- Action potential is always conducted at the same strength and speed
- Action potential itself does not travel but begins at each new section of the axon
Identify those areas of the cerebrum involved in the perception and interpretation of light and sound
Composing structures
Function
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata
The cerebrum:
- Largest part of the brain
- Contains small grooves or folds rich in blood supply
- Dived in to many sections - lobes
- Areas that perceive and interpret light and visual images sent from retina are located in the occipital lobe at
back of the brain
- Hearing is perceived in the temporal lobe
- Speech is interpreted in the parietal lobe in Wernickes area
- Speech is formed in Bocas area in frontal lobe
- Explain, using specific examples, the importance of correct interpretation of sensory signals by the brain
for the coordination of animal behaviour
- If the brain does not correctly interpret a signal, it is unable to make a coordinated response
- Brain contains neurons that a responsible for receiving stimuli from the environment and coordinating a
response via motor neurons
- It is coordinated response to stimuli that involves more than perceiving a signal and responding to it
- As signals do not arrive at the brain on their own and need to be interpreted alongside other signals, their
combination reflects the way you interpret them.
- Example: sound signals can be interpreted differently depending on accompanying visual stimulus
- Visual and auditory stimulus can complement each other to direct interpretation a certain way
- Activity of brain in relation to stimuli is studied through positron emission tomography (PET)
- PET notes where blood is flowing when a person is given a different stimuli
- Example: different sound produce different activity of the brain suggesting theyre interpreted differently
- Sound like music: blood flow to the right side of the brain is increased,
- Sound like speech: the left side of the brain receives more blood.
- Interpretation can be subjective
- Brain makes sense of incoming sensory signal due to memory of past experiences
- Some behaviors are innate while others are learnt
- Learned responses gained from interaction and experience within environments that enable appropriate
interpretation of electrochemical signals
- example: People who have suffered from a stroke that has damaged part of their brain often have to
relearn tasks as simple as brushing their teeth. This is because they have lost their previously learnt
experiences and have to learn how to re-coordinate them.