Professional Documents
Culture Documents
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Keywords:
Leadermember exchange (LMX)
HRM process
High performance work systems
Job performance
Hotels
China
a b s t r a c t
This paper provides insights into the relationship between leadermember exchange (LMX) and
employee job performance. An integrative model that includes work engagement and human resource
management (HRM) consistency, dened as the extent to which various HR practices are viewed as
consistent with one other, was developed to explain this relationship. Results from a hierarchical linear
model based on 298 employees (survey data) and 54 supervisors in a large luxury hotel in southern China
indicated that LMX was positively related to employee job performance. Moreover, as expected, work
engagement mediated this relationship and HRM consistency strengthened the inuence of LMX on work
engagement. Important research and practical implications are discussed.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Globalization has encouraged more intense competition among
service organizations and according to Schneider and Bowen (2010)
organizations need to go beyond customer expectations in order to
win the service game. Fullling customers variable and idiosyncratic needs is difcult and relies on the co-ordination of highly
motivated employees. Sub-optimal performance of any part of the
value chain is likely to reduce customer evaluations of service quality (Fantazy et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2012). Front-line employees
who frequently interact with customers need to be sensitive and
proactive regarding customer requirements. Back-stage employees
those with limited or no interaction with customers are expected
to provide effective support to front-line employees. Engaged and
well performing employees therefore become a key element in
maintaining service excellence.
Research shows that immediate managers (team leaders or
supervisors) can signicantly inuence employees work motivation and job performance (Gerstner and Day, 1997; Ilies et al., 2007;
Liden et al., 1993). In this study we use LMX theory to explore the
inuence of the supervisor, arguing that supportive supervision, as
The authors thank Min Li for facilitating data collection and Zhixue Zhang, Li Ma
and Xin Wei for comments on an earlier version. This research is supported by NFSC
and the number is 71032001.
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Xiaobei.li@gsm.pku.edu.cn, xiaobei.li@gmail.com (X. Li).
0278-4319/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.01.002
1060
2. Conceptual framework
2.1. LMX, work engagement and job performance
Contemporary hospitality organizations face a challenge of combining service efciency with service quality 24 h a day. This is
particularly the case for luxury (ve-star) hotels where high levels
of employee discipline and application of systematic routines are
required to execute tasks efciently while service quality requires
information and sensitivity to customer requirements and exibility in interacting with customers (Enz and Siguaw, 2000). It is
managements role to encourage and co-ordinate employees in
order to deliver seamless, quality service (Schneider and Bowen,
2010). In this paper we argue that it is the supervisors relations with employees that are crucial to maintaining employee
enthusiasm and that this enthusiasm is aimed at providing service
excellence by a set of supportive HR policies that are consistently
communicated to employees (Fig. 1).
LMX studies indicate the importance of the role supervisors
play in shaping employees work attitudes and performance.
High-quality exchange relationships between supervisors and
employees involve respect and mutual inuence while low-quality
exchange relationships are characterized by strictly contractual
exchanges and one-way, downward inuence. The supervisor is
the most immediate and salient superordinate (Janssen and Van
Yperen, 2004). In a high quality exchange relationship the supervisor as leader supports the subordinate by giving trust and emotional
support (in-group). In the low quality exchange relationship supervisor and subordinate contribute nothing extra than their job
1061
their behaviors tend to be in line with personal rather than organizational goals, weakening the relationships between LMX and work
outcomes (engagement and performance) valued by the organization. In addition, the inconsistency mentioned above may increase
employees work stress as a result of cognitive confusion (Bowen
and Ostroff, 2004) thereby reducing engagement.
So far, we have argued that HRM consistency strengthens the
relationship between LMX and two work outcomes (engagement
and job performance) and that work engagement predicts job
performance (part of H1). We further expect that the interaction
of LMX and HRM consistency affects job performance through
employee work engagement. This is because both supervisor support and HRM offer both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to
engage employees in their work, while at the same time, high HRM
consistency helps employees reciprocate supervisor behavior in the
form of superior performance. Therefore, we offer the following
hypotheses:
H2. HRM consistency strengthens the relationship between LMX
and work engagement.
H3. The relationship between the interaction of HRM consistency
and LMX on the one hand and job performance on the other hand
is mediated by work engagement.
1062
Table 1
Means, standard deviations, reliabilities, and correlations between variables.
Mean
S.D.
21.48
9.47
.54
2.82
.65
4.25
3.96
1.95
3.83
4.70
4.13
9.42
.49
.84
.47
.70
1.10
1.16
.97
.75
.21**
.01
.03
.21**
.08
.11*
.04
.12*
.06
.01
.05
.33**
.06
.08
.05
.09
.11
.15**
.16**
.09
.04
.07
.09
.01
.45**
.11
.05
.01
.02
.05
.13*
.12*
.04
.07
.01
.48*
.19*
.35*
.02
.13*
.35**
.12*
.09
.01
.19**
10
Note: Employee N = 298; Job performance was rated by the supervisor; S.D. means standard deviation; Gender (0 = male; 1 = female); Employment status (0 = temporary;
1 = formal).
**
p < .01.
*
p < .05.
3.2. Measures
Previously applied, validated scales were used to measure the
different concepts included in our survey. The questionnaires were
administrated in Mandarin after being developed in English. Two
bilingual Chinese persons back-translated the two survey independently (Brislin, 1980). In addition, a 15 employee pilot study
(excluded from the main survey) was undertaken resulting in revisions to the phrasing of some questions. Response items ranged
from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree. The six-point Likert
scales were chosen as a way of addressing Chinese peoples tendency to conceal positive emotions and hence select midpoints of
a range (Lee et al., 2002).
Leadermember exchange (LMX). LMX was measured by LMSX,
a shortened four-item scale developed and validated by Bernerth
and colleagues (2007). Two example items are Voluntary actions
on my part will be returned in some way by my supervisor and If
I do something for my supervisor, s/he will eventually repay me.
The scale had high reliability (Cronbachs = .82).
Following past research (Sun et al., 2007; Li et al., 2011), we
measured the content of HR practices using the 15-item high
performance work practices (HPWS) scale used in a study of Chinese hotel employees (Li et al., 2011). The scale covered four HR
practices: training (four items); internal promotion (three items);
employee participation (four items); and performance-oriented
rewards (four items). Two sample items include HR practices here
help me a great deal to develop my knowledge and skills. and This
company prefers to promote from within the company. Each HR
practice demonstrated high reliability (Cronbachs alphas are .86,
.77, .78 and .76 respectively). HRM consistency is measured by the
inverse of the average deviation (within-respondent agreement)
of the above-mentioned four HR practices (Sanders et al., 2008; Li
et al., 2011). A higher score denotes higher HRM consistency.
Work engagement was measured on a ve-item work vigor scale
(Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). Example items included At my work,
I feel bursting with energy and When I get up in the morning, I feel
like going to work. The reliability value is acceptable (Cronbachs
= .76).
Job performance was measured by asking supervisors to rate
employees performance on the nine items from Grifn et al.s
(2007) role-based performance scale. Three dimensions were evaluated: task prociency (the extent to which an individual meets
role requirements that can be formalized), task adaptability (the
extent to which an individual adapts to changes in a work system
or work roles) and task proactivity (the extent to which the individual takes self-directed action to anticipate or initiate change in
the work system or work roles). The reliabilities of the different
sub-scales were high (Cronbachs alphas are .88, .75, and .83). Sample items included Carried out the core parts of his/her job well
and Come up with ideas to improve the way in which his/her core
tasks are done. Following other studies, we computed an overall
job performance score for each employee as an average of the three
dimensions (Salanova et al., 2005; Zacher et al., 2010).
Based on the proposition that employees personal and employment characteristics are likely to inuence their work outcomes,
the following characteristics were included as control variables:
age, gender, type of labor contract (permanent vs. temporary), educational level (from junior middle school to masters degree and
above), and workplace tenure (in months). Furthermore, following previous studies (Beugelsdijk, 2008; Doellgast, 2008; Ramsay
et al., 2000; Sanders et al., 2008), we calculated the HPWS index
(the average of the four HR practices).
3.3. Analysis
Data for this study is hierarchical in nature because employees
worked under different supervisors and each supervisor evaluates the job performance of ve to six employees. Therefore, we
used hierarchical linear modeling (HLM; Raudenbush and Bryk,
2002) when testing hypotheses related to job performance (H1 and
H3). HLM enabled simultaneous control of the effects of withinand between supervisor-level data (Raudenbush and Bryk, 2002).
The procedure has two steps. First, for each supervisor (level 2),
relationships at level 1 were estimated among level 1 variables,
analogous to ordinary least squares regression analysis at a single
level. Then, parameter estimates (intercepts for each supervisor)
generated from the rst step were used as outcome variables in
level 2 in order to examine supervisor-level effects. The Log likelihood statistics is a model t index similar to chi-square statistics.
Like R square in regression analysis, pseudo R squares are reported
HRM consistency
H2
Leader-member exchange
H1
Work engagement
H1 (H3)
Job performance
Fig. 1. Theoretical model showing the expected inuence of LMX, work engagement, and HRM consistency on job performance.
1
A mediation effect is said to exist when the independent variable (IV: e.g. LMX)
signicantly predicts the dependent variable (DV: e.g. job performance); the IV
signicantly predicts the mediator variable (e.g. work engagement); the mediator
signicantly predicts the DV; and the effects of the IV on the DV becomes smaller
or non-signicant when controlling for the mediator.
1063
Fig. 2. Effect of the interaction between LMX and HRM consistency on work engagement.
1064
Table 2
Results of hypotheses testing relating to work engagement and job performance.
Models
Work engagement
Job performance
.04
.10
.05
.28**
.18**
.17
.02
7.0**
2
.04
.09
.04
.27**
.20**
.02
.12*
.19
.02
4.1*
4
.01*
.09
.08
.02
.11*
.04
.03
596.5
5
.01*
.08
.08
.02
.17**
.04
.03
591.9
6
.01*
.06
.07
.06
.08
.15*
.05
.01
590.8
7
.01*
.08
.07
.01
.14*
.01
.12*
.08
.03
602.1
.01*
.08
.06
.05
.09
.00
.10
.14*
.10
.02
601.7
Note: Employee N = 298; Job performance was rated by the supervisors; Standardized parameter estimates were given. Employment status (0 = temporary; 1 = formal).
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
and others behaviors. The co-variation principle of attribution theory suggests that if employees perceive their environment (HRM
in this case) as distinctive (it is visible) and consistent, and if other
employees perceive HRM in the same way (consensus) employees
will clearly understand management expectations and associated
rewards. Consequently, their job performance will increase and the
effects of LMX on work engagement and job performance will be
enhanced.
After controlling for HRM content, our results conrmed that
highly consistent HRM messages, measured by within-respondent
agreement, helped employees reciprocate to leaders in ways that
are aligned with the organizations purpose. This may shed light
on why some studies have found a non-signicant relationship
between LMX and employee performance. In short, by including
HRM consistency as a moderator it is possible to see why under
certain conditions (low consistency) the relationship between
LMX and performance is unlikely to be signicant for reasons
outlined earlier. Perceptions of inconsistent HRM practices and
consequent confusion about alignment of employees roles and the
organizations objectives is likely to increase employee stress and
dissatisfaction leading to reduced performance. This is indicated by
Tordera and colleagues (2008)s nding that individual employees
goal orientation strengthened the negative relationship between
LMX and role overload in 33 health care service organizations. In
other words, lacking a clear goal, employees are likely to be more
stressed, perform at a lower level and be more likely to quit (Cho
et al., 2006).
Following this line of reasoning, further research may usefully focus on other aspects of HRM or managerial behavior that
are able to align employees behavior with organizational objectives in studying LMX-relationship outcomes. Candidates include
the extent of consensus between HRM and line management on
organizational values and goals (Bowen and Ostroff, 2004) and jobdesign and feedback mechanisms that align employees interests
with organizational purposes (Gottschalg and Zollo, 2007).
Also noteworthy is the nding shown in Fig. 2 that when LMX
is low, employees perform better when HRM consistency is low
than when it is high. A similar pattern exists when plotting the
joint effects of LMX and HRM consistency on job performance as
indicated in Model 6 of Table 2. One explanation is that the incongruence between the espoused values/goals of the organization
indicated by low HRM consistency, and the enacted values/goals
conveyed through LMX, is less salient when HRM consistency is
low. Employees are therefore less frustrated and their motivation to
work less impaired than if the organizations objectives were more
clearly understood and the incongruence between organizational
objectives and enacted goals more salient. Another possibility is
6. Conclusion
Our study addressed the challenge of extending LMX explanations of job performance by focusing on mediating and moderating
variables in a hospitality setting. LMX was found to inuence
job performance via work engagement while consistency in HRM
communications encouraged employees to respond to favorable LMX relations with increased work engagement and higher
performance.
References
Aiken, L.S., West, S.G., 1991. Multiple Regressions: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
Alleyne, P., Doherty, L., Greenidge, D., 2006. Human resource management and performance in the Barbados hotel industry. International Journal of Hospitality
Management 25, 623646.
Bakker, A.B., Demerouti, E., 2007. Using the job demands resources model to predict
burnout and performance. Human Resource Management 43, 83104.
Bakker, A.B., Hakanen, J.J., Demerouti, E., Xanthopoulou, D., 2007. Job resources
boost work engagement, particularly when job demands are high. Journal of
Educational Psychology 99, 274284.
Bakker, A.B., Leiter, M.P. (Eds.), 2010. Work Engagement: A Handbook of Essential
Theory and Research. Psychology Press, New York.
Baron, R.M., Kenny, D.A., 1986. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social
psychological research: conceptual, strategic and statistical consideration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51, 11731182.
Bauer, T.N., Erdogan, B., Liden, R.C., Wayne, S.J., 2006. A longitudinal study of the
moderating role of extraversion: leadermember exchange, performance, and
turnover during new executive development. Journal of Applied Psychology 91,
298310.
Bernerth, J.B., Armanakis, A.A., Feild, H.S., Giles, W.F., Walker, H.J., 2007.
Leadermember social exchange (LMSX): development and validation of a scale.
Journal of Organizational Behavior 28, 9791003.
Beugelsdijk, S., 2008. Strategic human resource practices and product innovation.
Organization Studies 29, 821847.
Blau, P., 1964. Exchange and Power in Social Life. Wiley, New York.
Bowen, D.E., Ostroff, C., 2004. Understanding HRM-rm performance linkages: the
role of the strength of the HRM system. Academy of Management Review 29,
203221.
Brief, A.P., Aldag, R.J., 1977. The intrinsicextrinsic dichotomy: toward conceptual
clarity. Academy of Management Review July, 496500.
Brislin, R.W., 1980. Translation and content analysis of oral and written material. In:
Triandis, H.C., Berry, J.W. (Eds.), Handbook of Cross-cultural Psychology. Allyn &
Bacon, Boston, pp. 349444.
Cho, S., Woods, R.W., Jang, S., Erdem, M., 2006. Measuring the impact of human
resource management practices on hospitality rms performances. International Journal of Hospitality Management 25, 262277.
Cohen, S., Wills, T.A., 1985. Stress, social support and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin 98, 310357.
Combs, J., Liu, Y., Hall, A., Ketchen, D., 2006. How much do high-performance work
practices matter? A meta-analysis of their effects on organizational performance. Personnel Psychology 59, 501528.
Cooke, F.L., 2009. A decade of transformation of HRM in China. A review of literature
and suggestions for future studies. Asia Pacic Journal of Human Resources 47,
640.
Deci, E.L., Ryan, R.M., 1985. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-determination in Human
Behavior. Plenum, New York.
Delery, J.E., 1998. Issues of t in strategic human resource management: Implications
for research. Human Resource Management Review 8, 289309.
Delery, J.E., Doty, H.K., 1996. Modes of theorizing in strategic human resource management: test of universalistic, contingent and congurational performance.
Academy of Management Journal 39, 802835.
Doellgast, V., 2008. Collective bargaining and high-involvement management in
comparative perspective: evidence from U.S. and German call centers. Industrial
Relations 47, 284319.
Dunegan, K.J., Duchon, D., Uhl-Bien, M., 1992. Examining the link between leader
member exchange and subordinate performance. The role of task analyzability
and variety as moderators. Journal of Management 18, 5976.
Dunegan, K.J., Uhl-Bien, M., Duchon, D., 2002. LMX and subordinate performance:
the moderating effects of task characteristics. Journal of Business and Psychology
17, 275285.
Enz, C.A., Siguaw, J.A., 2000. Best practices in human resources. Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly 41, 4861.
1065
Erdogan, B., Enders, J., 2007. Support from the top: supervisors perceived organizational support as a moderator of leadermember exchange to satisfaction and
performance relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology 92, 321330.
Fantazy, K.A., Kumar, V., Kumar, U., 2010. Supply management practices and performance in the Canadian hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality
Management 29, 685693.
Farh, J.L., Cheng, B.S., Chou, L.F., Chu, X.P., 2006. Authority and benevolence: employees responses to paternalistic leadership in China. In: Tsui, A.S., Bian, Y., Cheng,
L. (Eds.), China Domestic Private Firms: Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Management and Performance. Sharpe, New York, pp. 230260.
Festinger, L., 1957. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford University Press,
Stanford, CA.
Gerstner, C.R., Day, D.V., 1997. Meta-analytic review of leadermember exchange
theory: correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology 82,
827844.
Gottschalg, O., Zollo, M., 2007. Interest alignment and competitive advantage.
Academy of Management Review 32, 418437.
Graen, G.B., Scandura, T.A., 1987. Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing.
Research in Organizational Behavior 9, 175208.
Graen, G.B., Uhl-Bien, M., 1995. Relationship-based approach to leadership: development of leadermember exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25
years: applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly
6, 219247.
Grifn, M.A., Neal, A., Parker, S.K., 2007. A new model of work role performance:
positive behavior in uncertain and interdependent contexts. Academy of Management Journal 50, 327347.
Guest, D.E., 2007. HRM and the worker: towards a new psychological contract? In:
Boxall, P., Purcell, J., Wright, P. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource
Management. Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 129146.
Harris, K.J., Harris, R.B., Brouer, R.L., 2009a. LMX and subordinate political skill: direct
and interactive effects on turnover intentions and job satisfaction. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology 39, 23732395.
Harris, K.J., Wheeler, A.R., Kacmar, K.M., 2009b. Leadermember exchange
and empowerment: direct and interactive effects on job satisfaction,
turnover intentions, and performance. The Leadership Quarterly 20,
371382.
Hofmann, D.A., Morgeson, F.P., Gerras, S.J., 2003. Climate as a moderator of the
relationship between leadermember exchange and content specic citizenship: safety climate as an exemplar. Journal of Applied Psychology 88, 170178.
House, J.S., 1981. Work, Stress, and Social Support. Addision-Wesley, MA.
Huang, X., Chan, S.C.H., Lam, W., Nan, X., 2010. The joint effect of leadermember
exchange and emotional intelligence on burnout and work performance in call
centers in China. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 21,
11241144.
Ilies, R., Nahrgang, J.D., Morgeson, F.P., 2007. Leadermember exchange and citizenship behaviors: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology 92, 269277.
Janssen, O., Van Yperen, N., 2004. Employees goal orientations, the quality of
leadermember exchange, and the outcomes of job performance and job satisfaction. Academy of Management Journal 47, 368384.
Kassin, S.M., Pryor, J.B., 1985. The development of attribution processes. In: Pryor,
J.B., Day, J.D. (Eds.), The Development of Social Cognition. Springer-Verlag, New
York, pp. 334.
Kelley, H.H., 1967. Attribution theory in social psychology. In: Levine, D. (Ed.),
Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, pp.
192240.
Klein, H.J., Kim, J.S., 1998. A eld study of the Inuence of situational constraints,
leadermember exchange, and goal commitment on performance. The Academy
of Management Journal 41, 8895.
Law, K.S., Wang, H., Hui, C., 2010. Currencies of exchange and global LMX: how
they affect employee task performance and extra-role performance. Asia Pacic
Journal of Management 27, 625646.
Lengnick-Hall, L.M., Lengnick-Hall, A.C., 2003. HRs role in building relationship networks. The Academy of Management Executive 17, 5363.
Lee, J.W., Jones, P.S., Mineyama, Y., Zhang, X.E., 2002. Cultural differences in responses to a Likert scale. Research in Nursing & Health 25,
295306.
Leiter, M.P., 2010. A meta-analysis of work engagement: relationships with burnout,
demands, resources, and consequences. In: Halbesleben, J.R.B., Bakker, A.B.
(Eds.), Work Engagement: A Handbook of Essential Theory and Research. Psychology Press, New York, pp. 102117.
Li, X., Frenkel, S., Sanders, K., 2011. Strategic HRM as process: how HR system and
organizational climate strength inuence Chinese employee attitudes. International Journal of Human Resource Management 22, 18231840.
Liao, H., Chuang, A., 2007. Transforming service employees and climate: a multilevel,
multisource examination of transformational leadership in building long-term
service relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology 92, 10061019.
Liden, R.C., Sparrow, R.T., Wayne, S.J., 1997. LeaderMember Exchange Theory: The
Past and Potential for the Future. JAI Press.
Liden, R.C., Wayne, S.J., Stilwell, D., 1993. A longitudinal study on the early development of leadermember exchanges. Journal of Applied Psychology 78, 662674.
Macdufe, J.P., 1995. Human resource bundles and manufacturing performance:
organizational logic and exible production systems in the world auto industry.
Industrial & Labor Relations Review 48, 197221.
Moss, S.E., Sanchez, J.I., Brumbaugh, A.M., Borkowski, N., 2009. The mediating role
of feedback avoidance behavior in the LMX-performance relationship. Group &
Organization Management 34, 645664.
1066
Nishii, L.H., Lepak, D.P., Schneider, B., 2008. Employee attributions of the why of
HR practices: their effects on employee attitudes and behaviors, and customer
satisfaction. Personnel Psychology 61, 503545.
Ramsay, H., Scholarios, D., Harley, B., 2000. Employees and high-performance work
systems: testing inside the black box. British Journal of Industrial Relations 38,
501531.
Raudenbush, S.W., Bryk, A.S., 2002. Hierarchical Linear Models, 2nd ed. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.
Salanova, M., Agut, S., Peir, J.M., 2005. Linking organizational resources
and work engagement to employee performance and customer loyalty:
the mediation of service climate. Journal of Applied Psychology 90,
12171227.
Sanders, Dorenbosch, K., Reuver, L., R. de., 2008. The impact of individual and shared
employee perceptions of hrm on affective commitment: considering climate
strength. Personal Review 37, 412415.
Sanders, K., Frenkel, S., 2011. HR-line management relations: characteristics
and effects. International Journal of Human Resource Management 22 (8),
16111617.
Scandura, T.A., Pellegrini, E.P., 2008. Trust and leader member exchange: a closer
look at relational vulnerability. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies
15, 101111.
Schaufeli, W.B., Bakker, A.B., 2004. Job demands, job resources, and their relationship
with burnout and engagement: a multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational
Behavior 25, 293315.
Schaufeli, W.B., Salanova, M., Gonzalez-Roma, V., Bakker, A.B., 2002. The measurement of engagement and burn out: a conrmative analytic approach. Journal of
Happiness Studies 3, 7193.
Schneider, B., Bowen, D.E., 2010. Winning the Service Game. Harvard Business School
Press, Boston, MA.
Schriesheim, C.A., Castro, S.L., Cogliser, C.C., 1999. Leadermember exchange (LMX)
research: a comprehensive review of theory, measurement, and data-analytic
practices. The Leadership Quarterly 10, 63113.
Sobel, M.E., 1982. Asymptotic condence intervals for indirect effects in structural
equation models. In: Leinhardt, S. (Ed.), Sociological Methodology. San Francisco,
Jossey-Bass.
Sun, L.-Y., Aryee, S., Law, K.S., 2007. High Performance human resource practices,
citizenship behaviour, and organisational performance: a relational perspective.
Academy of Management Journal 50, 577588.
Tekleab, A.G., Taylor, M.S., 2003. Arent there two parties in an employment relationship? Antecedents and consequences of organization-employee agreement
on contract obligations and violations. Journal of Organizational Behavior 24,
585608.
Tordera, N., Gonzalez-Roma, V., Peiro, J.M., 2008. The moderator effect of psychological climate on the relationship between leadermember exchange (LMX) quality
and role overload. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 17,
5572.
Uhl-Bien, M., Graen, G.B., Scandura, T., 2000. Implications of leadermember
exchange LMX for strategic human resource management systems: relationships as social capital for competitive advantage. In: Ferris, G. (Ed.), Research
in Personnel and Human Resource Management. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp.
137185.
Vaux, A., 1988. Social Support: Theory, Research and Intervention. Praeger, New
York.
Wang, C.-H., Chen, K.-Y., Chen, S.-C., 2012. Total quality management, market orientation and hotel performance: the moderating effects of external environmental
factors. International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (1), 119129.
Wat, D., Shaffer, M.A., 2005. Equity and relationship quality inuences on organizational citizenship behaviors: the mediating role of trust in the supervisor and
empowerment. Personnel Review 34, 406422.
Wayne, S.J., Ferris, G.R., 1990. Inuence tactics, affect, and exchange quality in
supervisor-subordinate interactions: a laboratory experiment and eld study.
Journal of Applied Psychology 75, 487499.
Wayne, S.J., Green, S.A., 1993. The effects of leadermember exchange on employee
citizenship and impression management behavior. Human Relations 46,
14311440.
Zacher, H., Heusner, S., Schmitz, M., Zwierzanska, M.M., Frese, M., 2010. Focus on
opportunities as a mediator of the relationships between age, job complexity,
and work performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior 76, 374386.