Functional Optimisation Of Artificial Hands For

Robotics And Prosthetics Applications

No Author Given
No Institute Given

Abstract. This paper reviews key methods used to develop anthropomorphic robotic and prosthetic hands and identifies their strengths
and weaknesses. We review the human hand functions, capabilities and
anatomy as well as artificial hands construction and propose a method
suitable for both applications. The method takes as input application
requirements and constraints and produces as output a design that can
achieve the required functions whilst satisfying the given constraints.
Keywords: functional optimisation, robot hand, prosthetic hand

Introduction

The human hand is considered the most dexterous and sophisticated manipulator
currently existing. Robotics developers naturally look towards the human hand
for inspiration when designing robotic end-effectors. This inspiration varies from
imitating its shape to attempting to replicate its functionality.
However it is still a challenge, if it is at all possible, to replicate the human
hands versatility. Due to technological limitations, artificial hands developers
have always made compromises. Depending on the application, these compromises vary from aesthetical compromises such as non-anthropomorphic shapes
to functional ones such as leaving out sensing.
Currently, developers of artificial hands follow two approaches. Either they
aim to replicate most of the human hands motion capabilities, which results in
control complexity unsuitable for many applications. Or they develop the hand
specifically for a certain application, usually using a design method suitable
for that application only. Therefore it is not always possible to simply combine
different methods to produce a hand that carries out multiple unrelated tasks.
After reviewing the literature, we also noticed that most methods are only
suitable for one type of applications, either robotics or prosthetics. Additionally,
most methods focus on motion capabilities and the resulting grasping performance, with little to no attention to non-prehensile tasks and active sensing.
We propose a single method to design artificial hands for robotic and prosthetic applications. Starting from a set of application requirements and constraints, the method takes into account the role of different components in sensory, prehensile and non-prehensile tasks and identifies an optimal combination
of components to achieve the requirements whilst satisfying the constraints.

Literature Review

Prosthetic Hands Cipriani et al. used information from interviews with amputees and the analysis of and grasps used in Activities of Daily Living (ADLs)
to define the design goals of a modular prosthetic hand [1]. Their method identifies 6 key prehensile and non-prehensile functions required in a prosthetic hand
but excludes one (extension grasp) due to technical complexity. Vinet et al. performed an ergonomic analysis on the human hand motion during prehensile tasks
to guide the design of a prosthetic hand that focuses on the role of the thumb
in grasping functions [12]. They focus on grasping functions only.
Pons et al. used questionnaire results from amputees and rehabilitation professionals and knowledge of the human hand anatomy and taxonomies to design
a dexterous prosthetic hand [10]. They focus on grasping functions and claim
that only four or five grasp types are required in a prosthetic hand. Kamikawa
and Maeno analysed the force distribution of cylindrical and spherical grasps
performed by human subjects to design an underactuated prosthetic hand [8].
Robotic Hands Grebenstein conducted a comprehensive analysis of the human
hands anatomy and motion capabilities to identify key components required to
design an anthropomorphic robot hand that provide human-like grasping capabilities [6]. They emphasise the impracticality of copying the human hands
anatomy and suggest to replicate its motion capabilities using equivalent mechanical components. They design a dexterous robotic hand which is verified to
be able to reproduce Cutkosky and Feix grasps ([2][5]), however they assume that
motion capabilites lead to the human hands hidden functions and ignores
sensory functions.
Saliba and Axiak reviewed the anatomy and sensing capabilities of the human
hand to extract guidelines for designing a dexterous robot hand [11]. They took
into account important features such as thumb twist but does not explicitly consider hand functions. They claim that fully unconstrained joints are not needed
to achieve dexterity and implements the circumstantial distal joint coupling [3].
In contrast, Faizura et al. claim that the motion of all joints is necessary for a
fully functional robot hand and develop kinematic and dynamic models of the
human hand to guide the development of a multifingered robot hand [4].
Prosthetic and Robotic Hands Zolo et al. determined design requirements
for prosthetic and robot hands from the study of the human hand anatomy and
capabilities [13]. They include grasping, sensory exploration and gestures in a
list of hand capabilities, but later they focus on evaluating grasping performance
only. Furthermore, the designed hand lacks tactile sensors and is integrated with
a forearm unit that limits its usability as a prosthetic hand for transradial amputees.
Parada Puig et al. propose a method based on the systematic product design
method to design artificial hands for robotic and prosthetic applications [9].
The method considers requirements of different applications and the human

hands biomechanical and sensory capabilities. However the method focuses on

anthropomorphic appearance and dexterity but no systematic method is used
to evaluate grasp performance.

Proposed Method

In this paper we propose a method that consists of two main stages. In stage
one, the initial design stage, human hand functions are identified. Next, tasks or
activities that represent these functions are selected. Then, the anatomy of the
human hand is reviewed to understand what happens within the hand during
performing those tasks.
Robotics and prosthesis hands and solutions have been also reviewed and
evaluated to determine whether new solutions are required. It is important to
evaluate compatibility of existing solutions as it affects the concurrent implementation of multiple functions. This stage concludes with an artificial hand
model with motion, sensory and contact surface capabilities equivalent to that
of the human hand.
In stage two the model is optimised for a given application to minimise control complexity. Model components are systematically evaluated against listed
functions to determine the involvement of each component in each function. Depending on control signal availability, less effective components are either coupled
or disabled. Finally, the design is re-evaluated using simulation and prototypes.
3.1

Breakdown of stage one

First, prerequisite knowledge is identified and organised. In theory, if all functions and components are covered, this is needed only once. However, since
anatomical and psychophysics studies are still investigating the human hand,
and new robotic and prosthetic solutions are being continuously developed, this
stage should be repeated occasionally to update the method.
Human hand function Psychophysics describes three categories of human
hand functions; active sensing, prehensile functions and non-prehensile functions
[7]. Active sensing pertains to the purposive use of the hand to explore objects,
prehensile functions refers to grasping-related tasks, while non-prehensile functions describe a variety of tasks that does not involve grasping, such as gesturing.
Table 1 summarise the functions included in this research.
Human hand anatomy The human hand consists of a palm, a thumb and four
fingers. The thumb is made of two phalanges, while each finger is made of three
phalanges. The palmar side of the hand is covered by a compliant, relatively
thick and sensitive skin called glabrous skin. The dorsal side is covered by a
relatively thin and flexible skin called hairy skin.

The hand structure is made of bones arranged in five kinematic serial chains.
One chain made of three links - bones - and four chains made of four links each.
The palm covers the first link of each chain.
Contact surface - skin - properties, mainly sensitivity, compliance and roughness, affects the hands ability to move, sense and grasp objects. The hand is
actuated by muscles in the palm and the forearm; forces from forearm muscles
are transmitted by tendons.
Human-like robot hand From the review of the human hand anatomy, we
identify a set of features and components to be implemented in a robotic hand
model that will be used in stage two. These components are summarised in
Table 2 using robotics terminology.
Table 1. Human hand functions
Active Sensing Lateral Motion
Pressure
Static Contact
Unsupported Holding
Enclosure
Contour Following
Grasping1
Power Grasps
Precision Grasps
Intermediate Grasps
Non prehensile Gesturing and Signing
Pointing and Aiming
functions
Keyboard Skills
Finger Tapping
Bimanual Music Skills

3.2

Table 2. Human hand components

Structure

Palm and five digits

integrated with arm
Kinematics
5 serial chains
State sensors Actuator position
Transmission tension
Joint effort and position
Interaction
Tactile array sensors
Temperature sensors
sensors
Actuation
Remote antagonistic
single-acting actuators
Transmission Sheathed tendons
Contact surface Continuous
Variable compliance
properties
Variable friction

Breakdown of stage two

Optimisation criteria is defined by the required functions and the level of control
complexity allowed. This stage may or may not be repeated every time a new
design is required depending on application requirements and constraints.
In theory, if this stage is carried out with all human hand functions as input, it should provide as output a design with maximum capabilities and control
complexity. However, following the systematic steps, it will provide this design
in terms of basic building components required for each function. If these components, along with their respective functions, are listed, one should be able
to select the components needed for any new design without having to repeat
the whole process. However, since the process involves optimisation and uses
a unique model (simulation model or subjects hand, see below) repeating this
stage for each design will probably result in better performance.
1

Cutkosky and Feix grasp taxonomies, used in this research, contains 16 and 33 grasps
respectively. Each grasp is individually evaluated against hand components.

Functional evaluation To evaluate the functional role of each component, a

set of tasks that represent all listed functions or the desired subset are performed
whilst monitoring the states of the components.
This is done in simulation, alternatively it can be done through experimentation with human subjects wearing instrumented gloves. Simulation allows for
evaluating the effect of varying constant properties of certain components such
as links length; this is useful for designing new robot hands. Real life experiments may be less time consuming and more realistic as it will also capture the
effects of unmodelled factors such as subjects behaviour. This approach is more
suitable for subjective applications such as prosthetic hands. Table 3 shows the
expected pros and cons of each approach and their suitable applications.
Two main data sets are collected during each task performance: joints angles
and interaction forces at contact points. Joints and actuators effort data are also
collected in simulation, this is used to identify actuation power requirements.
Since it is challenging to monitor such data in real life experiments, motor effort
is calculated from the collected data and the maximum loads desired/expected.
The two main data sets are processed using principle components analysis to
identify most active components in each task. These components are assumed
to be most important for the function represented by the task. This allows to
evaluate actuation patterns and sensory requirements of each function.

Table 3. Comparison of simulation-base and experimentation-based approaches

Simulation
Can evaluate different dimensions
Unaffected by size variations
Facilitates final re-evaluation
Disadvantages Modelling may be time consuming
Accuracy depends on model quality
Suitable for Robotics applications
Advantages

Experimentation
Fast and accurate
Can capture unmodelled factors
Must eventually be modelled if
simulation is used for re-evaluation
Prosthetics applications

For each function two main sets of results are obtained; motion synergies used
in the task, including their power requirements and the location of interaction
sensors used for controlling these synergies, and the relative importance of the
locations of the interaction sensors based on the variance in the data and their
role in each task.
Contact surface properties are studied separately, either using simulation or
instrumented gloves with varying surface properties. The expected effects are
only related to contact forces and quality of sensor signals, therefore monitoring
the joints angles is not required. Taking into account the task requirements and
the effect on other hand components, a suitable contact surface is selected.
Finally, the modifications are applied to the initial design and re-evaluated
by simulation or prototypes.

Limitation and future work

This paper proposes a method to design anthropomorphic artificial hands optimised for the application requirement and constraints. The method is suitable
for both robotic and prosthetic applications. Currently, the proposed method
does not take into account all functions of the human hand. More functions have
been identified, such as in-hand manipulation and dynamic touch, and will be
added when the necessary information is acquired.

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