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Environmental Communication

Exam 1 Review
Happe
HEADS UP!!! There are still some questions that are not fully answered! If youre reading
through and notice this, please contribute to make the answer complete! It looks like this totally
filled out but there is still information missing! Make sure youre paying attention to this! Dont
depend of just the information posted to be enough for the exam!
Note: for each of these you should also answer the following questions: What is an
example? Why is this an example?
Chapter 1:
What do we mean when we say language is a form of symbolic action?
The book defines symbolic action as the property of language and other acts to do something
as well as literally to say something; to create meaning and orient us consciously to the world.
Essentially this formal definition means that language helps to construct the reality by which we
all think and act with regards to particular rhetoric. An example of this is reality TV wilderness
shows like Man vs. Wild. Shows like these help to construct words like nature and wild in
particular ways that mold how we think and talk about them. This is an example because
viewers of this show may think of Bear eating bugs for instance when they hear the word
nature. This connection is made because that is how the show symbolically portrays the word
nature, which in return, causes the viewers of the show to associate the word nature with those
actions. (Added by Amber Johnson 1:21 PM)
Define and explain both the pragmatic function of language and the constitutive
function of language. Why is it important to distinguish these two functions?
The pragmatic function of language uses pathos and considers whether or not advocates (and
opponents) use paths in appropriate ways where the constitutive function considers how the
language of proponents and opponents constructs nature in a particular way. Its important to
address and distinguish between these two functions because they define language as a
symbolic action. To elaborate: pragmatic function PERSUADES people to think and act. An
example would be to getting together a pr campaign for a environmental campaign, shapes our
attitudes to serve interests. Presumes Intentionality. Constitutive function CONSTRUCTS the
reality of by which people think and act. Does not presume intention. An example would be the
animal or nature shows we see on tv-Bear Grills.(Added by Amber Johnson 1:21 PM)
Define and explain the concept public sphere
Public sphere is defined as a realm of influence that is created when individuals engage others
in communication-- through conversation, argument, debate, or questioning-- about subjects of
shared concern or topics that affect a wider community. Public sphere is not just words, but also
visual and nonverbal symbolic actions. Public sphere does not have to be formal, but can also
be in everyday conversations. Examples include sit-ins, banners, film, etc.

Identify, describe, compare and contrast two of the voices/interests of the green
public sphere. How do they participate in the public sphere? How does their
participation demonstrate the importance of a green public sphere?
There are seven major points of view in the green public sphere including: citizens and
community groups, environmental groups, scientists and scientific discourse, corporations and
business lobbyists, anti-environmental journalism, media and environmental journalism, and
public officials and regulators. Two of these voices/interests include citizens and community
groups and m

wn officials and attempt to organize their neighbors to take action when environmental change
is needed. They are one of the most common and effective sources of environmental change.
Media and environmental journalism on the other hand not only act as their own voices in their
coverage of issues and events but also conduits for other voices, like citizens and community
groups, who seek to influence public attitudes. Media and environmental journalism have a big
role in agenda setting and influencing the publics perception of the salience or importance of
issues. These two voices participate in the public sphere by sharing their opinions and
broadcasting opinions of others with hopes of shaping the concerns and topics of the
community. Their participation demonstrates the importance of a green public sphere because
they are vital in introducing and supporting environmental initiatives. An example of these forces
at work is the recent protests at the White House regarding the tar sand pipelines from Canada.
Citizens and community groups protested and were even arrested and the media and
environmental journalists covered the events, although in this case not heavily, in order to bring
awareness to the issues at hand. To elaborate: One can see the voices and interests as
rhetor/text relationship. The voices or the rhetors are the citizens while the interests and the
texts are the community group.(Added by Amber Johnson 1:22 PM)
Chapter 2:
What are the 4 main antagonisms that opened up space for new types/modes of
environmental communication? What was the rhetorical significance of each of these
moments in the history of environmental communication in the US?
1.) Preservation and conservation of nature versus human exploitation of nature
Early American settlers held a belief that it was Gods will that man exploit nature
for his proper ends. This idea began to change in the 18th century when the view of nature as
exploitable began to be challenged in three ways, Romantic ideals in art and literature, a search
for U.S. national identity and transcendentalist ideals in writings of people such as Henry David
Thoreau. Transcendentalism as a philosophical perspective proved to be important for the
reevaluation of wild nature. In the 1880s arguments for the preservation of nature began to
arise. Preservation sought to ban commercial use of these areas to preserve wild forests and
other naturals areas for appreciation, study and recreation. John Muir, one of the leaders of the

preservation movement, wrote essays that evokes a sublime response from readers through his
description of the rugged mountains and valleys of the Sierra Nevada. By 1890, the effects of
Muirs essays resulted in the creation of Yosemite National park. Preservation and the efforts
associated with preservation began to soon class with a competing idea that sought to manage
Americas forests and other natural resources for efficient and sustainable use. These
preservation efforts were influenced by the idea of utilitanarianism, what would bring the
greatest good to the greatest number of people. The efforts of conservation promoted a plan of
being wise and efficient with the use of natural resources. The term conservation is principally
associated with Gifford Pinchot, President Theodore Roosevelts chief of the Division of
Forestry. An example of conservation would be managing public forest lands as a source of
timber. Pinchot instituted a sustained yeild policy, according to which logged timber lands were
to be reforested after cutting, to ensure future timber supplies.
2.) Human health versus unregulated business and manufacturing activity
By the 1960s people began be concerned with the effects of environmental
pollutants on human health. The main concerns people focused on at that time were pollution by
factories, refineries, abandoned toxic waste sites, exposure t pesticides used on crops as well
as radioactive fallout from above-ground nuclear testing. In 1962, Rachel Carson was credited
with voicing the first public challenge to business practices that effect the natural environment in
her book, Silent Spring. Although Carson received credit of being a pioneer in the field, there
were earlier voices, beginning in the 1880s- 1920s various others warned of the dangers to
human health from poor sanitation and occupational exposures to lead and other chemicals. On
January 1, 1970, President Richard Nixon signed the National Environmental Policy Act which
requires every federal agency to prepare an environmental impact statement for any project that
will affect the environment.
3.) Environmental justice versus a vision of nature as a place apart from the places
where people live & work
This section is rather lengthy about studies and what not but I would guess that with this
third point it is talking about how people are attached to regions and places and how important
there are to certain groups. Like we associate coming from the South. The rhetorical
significance of the environmental justice movement was that it redefined the term environment
due to the studies that came about- and then it also coined the phrase environmental racism,
linking environmentalism with civil rights and social justice.
4.) Health of the global commons (and climate) vs. business as usual growth
i.
Across the globe, tons of local and regional
groups have challenged dominant practices in their societies. These
groups defend against corrupt politics and climate change, corporate
predation and the death of oceans, governmental indifference and
pandemic poverty, industrial forestry an farming, and depletion of soil and
water.
ii. there is a growing recognition of the limit or
inadequacy in societies economic systems. this concern is that the health
of the global commons is threatened by business as usual growth.
iii. there have been several warnings about global
warming. in response, a global climate justice movement has emerged,
urging local and world leaders to take immediate action.

iv. the concepts of nature and the environment are


highly contingent, that is, they are subject to redefinition as new voices
and interests contest prevailing understandings of our environments.
Why are such antagonisms necessary? Why were new views being espoused
considered radical at the time?
Important to transforming prevailing beliefs. These people advocated thorough or complete
political or social reform. There is always a need to go against the grain and for the controversy
aspect-the concepts of nature and the environment are highly contingent. That they are subject
to redefinition as new voices and interests contest prevailing understandings of our
environments.
What does Cox mean when he writes that there is no objective environment apart from
language? Why does this then mean that language is rhetorical?
Hey guys, I see this in the lecture notes, but I cant seem to figure out the answer to this
question. Any clues?!
Its not in the lecture notes its from the book: Here is my answer...
Since were human beings we are symbol-using animals and the symbolic attachments and the
way language mediates our relationship with the environments is important in shaping our
perceptions, actions, etc. There is no environment apart form language because the
environment wouldnt exist if we didnt talk about it and use signals to represent the particular
parts of it. An example of this would be the word nature. Nature isnt something that is tangible
that you can hold in your hand but instead its a realm of things that we have defined through
rhetoric. This means that language is rhetorical because it has the power to in a sense create
things and defined what they are through certain words and expressions.
Maybe add the following:

It is through different differing social and symbolic modes that we


understand and engage this world, infuse it with significance, and act
towards it. Environmental communication is constitutive that is, our
communication "helps to constitute, or compose, representations of nature
and environmental problems themselves as subjects for understanding."
(p.58)
The environment is something that we know partly through language and
other symbols, then different linguistic and symbolic choices are possible,
and these choices are a more specifically rhetorical perspective to study the
different ways in which journalists, scientists, corporations, environmentalists
and citizens attempt to influence our perceptions and behavior toward the
environment.
In addition-comes from page 58-Environment now signifies a wide range of
concerns, from wilderness, air and water pollution, and toxic wastes to urban
sprawl, global climate change, and the quality of life where people live, work,
play, and learn.

Define and explain the rhetorical perspective.


focuses on purposeful and consequential efforts to influence societys attitudes and behavior
through communication, including public debate, protests, news stories, advertising, and other
modes of symbolic action (pg 58)
(Added by Sarahtemple Stevenson 9/21 4:39)
What is metaphor and why is it considered a rhetorical trope? What are some examples
from environmental rhetoric?
metaphor: carrying over (or transference) of meaning from one word to another
a trope is a figure of speech. Figures of speech, mother nature.

What is genre and why do we study it to understand how language is rhetorical? What
are some examples from environmental communication? Use the film Food, Inc. for
examples of genre.
genre: distinct forms or types of speech that share characteristics distinguising them from
other types of speech.metaphor: carrying over (or transference) of meaning from one word to
another
a trope is a figure of speech. Figures of speech, mother nature.
a) apocalyptic rhetoric
b) jeremiad: refers to speech or writing that laments or denounces the behavior of people or
society and warns of future consequences if society does not change its ways (pg 61)
c) melodrama- ex. Trade Secrets documentary
(Added by Sarahtemple Stevenson 9/21 4:34)
Define and explain dominant discourse and insurgent discourse.
dominant discourse (the taken for-granted)-bravado for Growth is good for the country, taking
on a stance that is decursive tradition that has sustained attitudes of human dominance over
nature.
insurgent discourse (those which challenge dominant discourse)
(Added by Sarahtemple Stevenson 9/21 4:29)
How is common sense an example of symbolic legitimacy?
For example, that health care delivery should be market-driven; that environmental change
should be consumer-driven/based on individual behavior.
Why do rhetors employ visual rhetoric? How is visual rhetoric an example of both the pragmatic
and constitutive functions of language?
visual images persuade, usually more pathos-driven
their meaning changes over time...? i dont know if thats answering the second part of the
question?
(Added by Sarahtemple Stevenson 9/21 4:26)

What is a condensation symbol?


a word or phrase that stirs vivid impressions involving the listeners most basic values (pg 67)
images of polar bears and global warming
(Added by Sarahtemple Stevenson 9/21 4:20)
Chapter 3:
How does Cox define public participation?
the ability of individual citizens and groups to influence environmental decisions through
1) access to relevant information,
2) public comments to the agency that is responsible for a decision, and
3) the right, through the courts to hold public agencies and business accountable for
their environmental decisions and behaviors (page 84 a nice breakdown of public participation)
(added by SarahTemple Stevenson 9/21 3:09)
Public Participation is the belief that those who are affected by a decision have a right to be
involved in the decision-making process. This has been especially true of environmental
decisions in recent years. (p. 84)
Define transparency. Why is it so important? How is it achieved?
one of the strongest norms of democratic society
How transparency is typically achieved:
1) open meetings of government bodies (controversy of Vice President Dick Cheneys
Energy Task Force)
2) public access to documents related to said meanings, decisions
(added by SarahTemple Stevenson 9/21 3:09)
One of the strongest norms of democratic society is the principle of transparency. Simply put,
this is the belief in openness in government and a right of citizens to know about information
important to their lives. Internationally, this principle gained recognition in the Declaration of
Bizkaia, which proclaimed that transparency requires access to information and the right to be
informed...Everyone has the right of access to information on the environment with no obligation
to prove a particular interest. This recognition also illustrates the growing importance of
information--and who controls it--in shaping environmental policies. As Hays noted, political
power lies increasingly in an ability to understand the complexities of environmental issues, and
the key to that power is information and the expertise and technologies required to command
it. As a result, the most interesting political drama of recent years has been the continues
struggle between the environmental community and the environmental opposition over the
control of information (p. 85)
This is achieved through Sunshine laws, which require most government bodies to hold
meetings in public, have access to documents (notes)
Example: Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) 1966- example of a Sunshine law. Passes

because right of public comment (by way of publication of intended action in the Federal
Register) was not sufficient; need records, documents relatefd to the decisions of federal
agencies.

One of the legal rights of the public is the right to know. Describe the Freedom of
Information Act and how it is used by the public to exercise this right.
(example of a sunshine law - require most government bodies to hold meetins in public, have
access to documents.)
FOIA 1966, passed because right of public comment (by way of publicaiton of intended action in
the Federal Register) not sufficient; need records, documents related to the decisions of federal
agencies.
(added by SarahTemple Stevenson 9/21 3:09)
What is the Toxic Releases Inventory? What are some of its limitations? Why has it been
effective in getting industry to reduce the pollution they release into the air, water, and
soil?
TRI- 650 different chemicals are reported; used to require industry reporting for as little as 500
lbs of releases; now only have to report if more than 5,000 lbs.
Limitations of TRI- relies on self-reporting; no control over quantity of data. toxic releases have
decreased but waste pollution has not.
Effectiveness of TRI- ended the silence about toxic releases was huge. some companies on the
worst toxic offenders immediately entered into voluntary programs to reduce their emissions.
several communities began using local data to force more industries to follow suit.
(addedf by SarahTemple Stevenson 9/21 3:22)
What is the Right of Public Comment? How are Environmental Impact Statements
produced and circulated in such a way as to exercise and protect this right? What more
could be done?
Typical forms of public comment include testimony at public hearings, exchanges of views at
open houses and workshops, written communications (emails, letters, faxes, and research
reports), and participation on citizen advisory pane
ls. As implemented by the Council on Environmental Quality, the National Environmental Policy
Act (commonly known as NEPA) requires federal agencies to prepare a detailed environmental
impact statement (EIS) for a
ny proposed legislation or major actions significantly affecting the quality of the human
environment. Such actions range from constructing a highway to adopting a forest
management plan. Regardless of the specific action that is proposed, all EISs must describe
three things: 1) the environmental impact of the proposed action, 2) any adverse environmental
effects that could not be avoided should the proposal be implemented, and 3) alternatives to the
proposed action. (In some cases, a less detailed environmental assessment may be
substituted). They shall be written in plain language and may use appropriate graphics so that
decision makers and the public can readily understand them. (More on p. 94)

Information for what more can be done can be found on p. 9


Chapter 5:
What is the definition of mainstream media? What are some examples?
Network television and cable news, newspapers, news magazines and radio news and shows.
The book says it is important to differentiate mainstream and online media.
What is meant by unobtrusive environmental threats and how does this
characterization of such threats affect media reporting/discourse?
1. threats are unobtrusive because they are remote from ones personal experience (157).
Examples include chemical pollution and climate change (although for latter, may be changing).
2. media compensates by covering these unobtrusive threats in the same way as traditional
news stories, as specific events. For example, will report on climate event or by covering topic
of biodiversity by focusing on charismatic fauna such as pandas, bald eagle.
3. media will also simply wait until there is a major event such as an oil spill (instead of say,
ongoing and multi-faceted issue of ocean pollution), or a significant medical report (example of
report on damage of methyl mercury on children). This, however, oversimplifies matters greatly
- does not foster understanding, which is necessary for productive dialogue about solutions.
Discuss the following aspects of news production, providing examples specific to
environmental reporting: political economy, gatekeeping, and newsworthiness. How and
why do these factors constrain news production generally and environmental news in
particular? (p. 159)
1. political economy:
media political economy refers to the influence of ownership and the economic interests of
the owners of newspapers and television networks on the news content of these media sources
(159)
http://www.cjr.org/resources/
http://www.freepress.net/ownership/chart/main
Examples: September 7, 2011 editorial in the Wall Street Journal discussing alternative theory
of climate change (cosmic rays). New York Times editorial on [ ] criticizing Republican
presidential candidates for calling climate change theory a hoax.
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111904537404576554750502443800.html?
mod=googlenews_wsj
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/07/opinion/in-the-land-of-denial-on-climate-change.html
Example: Beder study showing that most commercial media organizations owned by
multinational organizations with financial interests in other business such as energy. NBC did
little to report on PCB cleanup controversy (GE owns NBC)
2. gatekeeping and the environmental beat

Gatekeeping: The decisions of editors and media managers to cover or not to cover certain
environmental stories illustrates what has been called the gatekeeping role of news production.
Simply put, the metaphor of gatekeeping is used to suggest that certain individuals in
newsrooms decide what gets through the gate and what stays out.
Two reasons why envir

onmental journalism difficult to do:


a) unobtrusive nature of many environmental problems
b) lack of education, training, background especially with regard to environmental science
-this can be a problem with science reporting more generally; especially when relying on
news wires, or simply reporting what is on a press release (for example, press release on a
study published by scientists at prestigious university in prestigious journal challenging widely
held beliefs).
-my interview with Washington Post journalists
c) fewer journalists on the environmental beat
d) fewer investigative journalists
e) reliance on fake news - the case of video news releases
http://www.prwatch.org/fakenews/vnr16
3. newsworthiness: The ability of a news story to attract readers or viewers (p. 160)
a) One driver of coverage is whether or not the story can be framed in terms of conflict.
Crime coverage often characterized in this way: If it bleeds it leads.
b) coverage depends on availability of visual images; Cox says this has hindered coverage of
climate change. But is that still the case? Consider this representative example:
http://abcnews.go.com/International/extreme-flooding-world-caused-climate-changescientists/story?id=12610066
c) image events (yet as we have seen recently, the staging of image events does not always
garner media attention)

What are media frames? What do they consist of? How do they function rhetorically to
sustain dominant discourses about economy, nature, and environmentalists?
Media frames are the central organizing themes...the connect different semantic elements of a
news story (headlines, quotes, leads, visual representations, and narrative structure) into a
coherent whole to suggest what is at issue (quoting Rodriguez 2003). Example of framing:
coverage of methyl mercury exposure. Headline: Mercury Damage Irreversable Headline:

Pregnant Women Eating Too Much Fish Frames are often the sites of contention: competing
frames usually at play; example of oil drilling in Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Media frames
can also function rhetorically to sustain dominant discourses about economy, nature, or
enviornmentalists. Example: coverage of radical activists; framing ecotage as terrorism.
Why is the norm of objectivity so difficult to achieve? How is it that journalists can
sometimes produce stories that privilege some voices/interests over others, even
without consciously trying to do so?
There is no such thing as objectivity. Values play a role in the decision to publish a story, where
the place the story, sources that are used. Example: Gina Kolata, science reporter for the New
York Times. Coverage of the Long Island Breast Cancer Study Project: Science vs. Activism
She is a scientist, so obviously she is going to place value on this study because one of the
things most important to her is science. This study will be viewed by her with a skewed
perception. (p. 166)
Why is potentially problematic to produce balanced reporting when reporting on
pressing environmental issues?
When a left and right position are always assumed, journalists sometimes unintentionally
seek out maverick opinions that discount the other side...they do this in order to make sure both
sides are equally represented. Example: global warming- scientists gave examples of acid
rain, then journalists seeked out other opinions to have a full representation of what people
thought about the topic....opinions were taken from other people (not just scientists) and
because the whole picture of both opinions were presented to the public, the maverick opinion
discounted the scientific consensus.

What are some key characteristics of blogs? What are some of their strengths?
Weaknesses? More specifically, how do they reinvigorate environmental communication
in the public sphere?
Ways for newspapers to save money. Ways to get opinions out there without being
criticized/edited. Quick way to get response to an opinion; sparks debate (unlike other outlets in
this sense, cannot talk things through with your TV). One outstanding weakness it seems is that
it is based on a single perspective most of the time, and if people ONLY read the one blog, then
they are not able to get any form of balance. It also reinvigorates environmental communication
in the public sphere by giving an outlet for those who are seriously involved with enviromental
communication.

How has the Internet opened up space for more environmental reporting? Is it having an
impact? A positive one? anyone have anything for this one.....??
I don't know why but I feel like this is more of an opinion type question. A possible response

being that through the Internet people who have the concerns of the environment as a priority,
they can search out news and media about their interests. Most mainstream news media focus
on hard hitting stories like shootings and things of that nature, but when was the last time you
turned on your local news and saw a hard hitting report on a new windmill being installed in
America. Online resources allow for those out their who are interested to report on the events
pertaining to the environment. It has not necessarily been a good thing because of the fact that
the Internet allows for all sorts of news reporting. It does not have to be fact checked and can
even be a personal opinion.

She also mentioned talking about the use of genre in food inc. I feel like this could be used as
an additional question within the long essay. Can someone explain what she means by the use
of genre in food inc.? Food Inc. is a form of Jeremiad in that it laments the present state of the
food industry and warns against further downfall. It urges audiences to take moral action and to
rethink the conditions and to challenge them. It also demonstrates instances of melodrama such
as the activist mother with her deceased two year old son pushing for legislative changes to
restaurant/plant processing regulations.
--She mentioned in class that one example of genre was melodrama when the mothers two
year old died from eating a hamburger--goes through the drama of the mothers great suffering
and then her fight to take on the food industry. (I think she wants us to draw our own examples,
like this one, about different genres that we saw in the movie which appeal to audiences and get
them to take action; she also mentioned something about pathos so you could include how it
appeals to that notion)

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