UNIT - 1

History of Computers
1. The earliest mechanical computing device was the Abacus, named after the
Chinese scientist Abacus, during 1200 A.D.
2. Later during 1614 a Scottish nobleman John Napier developed a tool called
Napiers Bones as an aid for multiplication.
3. By 1642, the French philosopher and mathematician, Blaise Pascal developed a
rotating wheel calculator, the predecessor of the later desk calculator.
4. By 1822, the Father of Computers Charles Babbage invented a Electronic
Machine.
Why learn about Computers and Information Systems?
Computers and information systems are the tools that allow you to transform data
efficiently and effectively into information and distribute it to where it is needed. If used
properly they can also improve your productivity. Productivity refers to the amount of
time and resources required to gain a desired result. In recent years, the growing use of
computers has brought the benefits of these tools to anyone who wants to take advantage
of them.
Preliminary Definitions:
Data: are raw facts that convey little meaning by themselves and hence need further
processing.
Information: it is the result of processing, gathering, manipulating and organizing data in
a way that adds to the knowledge of the receiver. Both data and information might take
any form such as text, picture, audio and video.
Technology: the application of scientific knowledge to benefit humanity
Electronic device: a device that is made up of semi-conductor materials (materials that
fall between conductor and insulators).
Computer: An electronic device that has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. A
computer consists of hardware and software.
Hardware: the physical part of a computer that can be seen and touched.
Software: Instructions that direct the operation of a computer.

Information Technology

System: A collection of components organized to accomplish a specific function or set of

functions. A computer-based information system collects, processes, transmits and
disseminates information in accordance with defined procedures.
Information and Communications Technology, also called Information Technology
(IT) is the study, design, development, implementation, support and management of
computer-based information systems. IT deals with the use of electronic computers and
computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit and retrieve information,
securely.
An information system has three basic functions:
to accept data (input) ,
to convert data to information (process), and
to produce and communicate information in a timely fashion to users for decision
making (output).
Features of computers
Storage capacity
Computers help to save space and economy by storing very large amount of data. Data
stored on paper that filled the shelves of a registrar office can be stored in a single
computer with larger storage capacity. This saves space, money to buy paper, ink, and
shelves. This also helps to have backup (copy) of the data and put it somewhere else for
security purpose. Now day computers can store data in multiples of tens of gaga bytes.
You can also put multiples of hard disks in a computer to increase its storage capacity.
Speed
These days, computers process tasks in very short period of time. They can accomplish
tasks in Nanoseconds or less. So they can perform very repetitive activities in slice of
time.
Accuracy
Once well programmed, computers accomplish tasks accurately. The perfectness of the
set of instruction that drives the system determines the accuracy of their activities.
Reliability
Now a days computers are used in sensitive areas that need very high reliability. For
example hospitals are using computers in patient diagnosis, monitoring patient
operations. They are also monitoring activities in industries that may cause failure or
success of the company. Computers are also used in nuclear plants that need very high
care and its failure may cause the destruction of a continent or the whole world. In
general computers are becoming reliable devices even in life and death situations.
Note- that the failure of computers in sensitive areas also causes very great destruction.
Information Technology

Versatility
Computers accomplish various types of tasks at the same time or at different time. For
this reason they are called versatile. For example, you can listen music while you are
writing some text. Computers can be used for transaction processing, computers can be
used for designing, they can be used for communication, etc.
Applications of Computers
People use computers in many ways. In business, computers track inventories with bar
codes and scanners, check the credit status of customers, and transfer funds
electronically. In homes, tiny computers embedded in the electronic circuitry of most
appliances control the indoor temperature, operate home security systems, tell the time,
and turn videocassette recorders (VCRs) on and off. Computers in automobiles regulate
the flow of fuel, thereby increasing gas mileage. Computers also entertain, creating
digitized sound on stereo systems or computer-animated features from a digitally
encoded laser disc. Computer programs, or applications, exist to aid every level of
education, from programs that teach simple addition or sentence construction to programs
that teach advanced calculus. Educators use computers to track grades and communicate
with students; with computer-controlled projection units, they can add graphics, sound,
and animation to their communications (Computer-Aided Instruction). Computers are
used extensively in scientific research to solve mathematical problems, investigate
complicated data, or model systems that are too costly or impractical to build, such as
testing the air flow around the next generation of aircraft. The military employs
computers in sophisticated communications to encode and unscramble messages, and to
keep track of personnel and supplies. Nowadays computers are used almost everywhere.
Generations of Computers
First Generation Computers:
The First Generation Computers are used between 1945-55.
Used Vacuum Tubes as components for the Electronic circuit.
Punched cards were the main source of inputs and Magnetic drums were used for
internal storage.
Operate in a speed of milliseconds (1/1000) and could handle more than 10,000
additions each second.
Very large in size and also produce more heat.
Most applications were scientific calculations.
Example of First generation Computers are ENIAC Computers.

Information Technology

Second Generation Computers:

The Second Generation Computers are used between 1956-65.
Used Transistors were the main circuit components. Transistors are solid state
devices made from silicon which is smaller, cheaper, faster, dissipate less energy
and more reliable than vacuum tube but work in the same way as the vacuum tube.
The transistor was invented in Bell Labs.
Magnetic tapes (similar with home tape caste), used for main storage.
Operate in microseconds (1/1000000) with more than 200,000 additions possible
each second.
Business applications became more common, with large data files stored on
magnetic tape and disk. Magnetic disk is a circular platter constructed of metal or
plastic materials coated with magnetic substance.
High-level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during this period.
Batch operating systems were used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic
tape files.
Examples of Second generation Computers are IBM Computers.
Third Generation Computers:
The Third Generation Computers are used between 1966-75.
This generation was characterized by the solid-state integrated circuit (IC). In early
1960s electronic equipments composed of discrete components such as transistors,
capacitors, and resistors.
These and other problems were solved when the IC was invented, an achievement
that revolutionized electronics, starting the era of microelectronics.
Unlike transistors and circuit boards that were assembled manually, ICs were
single, complete electronic semiconductor circuits contained on a piece of silicon,
sometimes called chips. ICs could be manufactured by machinery, which
ultimately resulted in a lower cost. Memory technology improved. By 1969, as
many as 1000 transistors could be built on a chip of silicon.
Computer storage switched from Magnetic Cores to IC boards that provided
modularity (expandable storage) and compatibility (interchangeable equipment).
New input/output methods such as optical scanning and plotters.
Software became more important with sophisticated operating systems and
improved programming languages.
Examples of Third generation Computers are IBM 360 Computers.
Information Technology

Fourth Generation Computers:

The Fourth Generation Computers are used between 1976-85.
Greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry.
Has large-scale integrated circuit (LSI) which has several hundred thousands of
transistors placed on one tiny silicon chip.
In the mid-1970s the development of very-large-scale-integration (VLSI) produced
a chip containing a microprocessor.
VLSI made the microcomputer possible. The Intel 80386 microprocessor followed.
The Intel 80386 is faster and more powerful than its predecessors.
Magnetic disks became the primary means of internal storage.
Computer memory operated at speeds of Nano seconds (billionths of a second)
with large computers capable of adding 15 million numbers per second.
Examples of Fourth generation Computers are Pentium IV Computers.
Fifth Generation Computers:
The Fifth Generation Computers are used from 1986 - till today.
These computers will allow a simple and natural methodology for solving.
The Speed also much more increased and hence we can store more and more data
in G.B.s and T.B.s through multiple Hard disks.
These generation Computers were used in Ultra Large Scale Industries (ULSI).
This generation will begin with the creation and use of a computer with artificial
intelligence (AI). AI indicates the ability to perform humanlike thinking and
reasoning.
These computers will have intelligent processors i.e., processors which can draw
inferences. Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages such
as English, German etc.
The Internet usage and Networking also increased in the Fifth generation of
Computers.
Examples of Fifth generation Computers are Super Computers PARAM (10,000).
4. Types of Computers
Computers have come long way since the first operational computer in 1940s. Divisions
among the types are increasing as technology improves. Let us classify the computers
into three major categories as given below
I. With respect to Method of operation
II. With respect to physical size, speed, storage capacity, and price
Information Technology

III. With respect to their purpose

Types of Computers
With respect to
Method of Operation.
A .Analog Computers.
B .Digital Computers.
C .Hybrid Computers.

With respect to Physical Size, Speed,

Storage,Capacity and Price.
Micro Computers.
Mini Computers.
Mainframe Computers.
Super Computers.

With respect to
their Purpose.

General Purpose Computers

Special Purpose Computers

I. With respect to Method of operation

Based on Method of operation computers can be classified into three types
(a) Analog computers
(b) Digital computers
(c) Hybrid computers
A) Analog Computers
Computers that use analog signals for calculating and transmitting data are called Analog
computers. It can be defined as A device that operates on data in the form of
continuously varying physical quantities. The values of the analog signals are
continuously changing with states in between high and low. Analog data is calculated
using the concept of measuring values like magnitude in terms of voltage, length,
current. The analog data is transmitted in a continuous form that closely resembles the
information it represents. Electrical signals on a telephone line are nothing but analog
data representing the original voice. SLIDE RULER is an example of analog computers.
B) Digital Computers
The computers that use digital signals to calculate and transmit data are called Digital
Computers. The word digital is derived from the word digit. The word digit simply
means numeral. The digital signal has only two states in which it can be represented.
They are ON and OFF or HIGH and LOW or 1 and 0. Digital data is calculated using the
concept of counting values. The result obtained from the digital computer is more
accurate when compared to the analog computers. These computers manipulate digital
data and perform arithmetic and logical operations. To facilitate the performance of
digital computers intermediate languages such as BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN,
PASCAL, C, C++, JAVA etc., has been developed.
C) Hybrid Computers
Computer systems that use both analog and digital mechanisms are called Hybrid
Computers. Desirable features of analog and digital computers are combined to develop
Information Technology

a hybrid computer. In a hospital, the intensive care unit, an analog device measures a
patients heart function, temperature and other vital signs, these measurements are then
converted into numbers and supplied to a digital component that monitors the patients
vital signs and signals to a nurses station.
II. With respect to physical size, speed, storage capacity, and price
A) Microcomputers
Are the smallest categories of computer and also called as Personal Computers (PCs).
These computers that can either fit next to a desk (called the Desktop) or can be carried
around (called the Laptop and Notebook/Palmtop). Microcomputers use microprocessor
as its important device. Microprocessor is a chip used to perform arithmetic and logical
operations. These computers can be used either as a standalone machine or connected to
a network. Microcomputers are used for general purpose business applications such as
invoicing, accounting etc.
B) Minicomputers
Are bigger in size, faster in speed, have more memory capacity and expensive when
compared to the microcomputers. Minicomputers can be used for general purpose
applications and as a server for small networks. These computers are relatively small
but expensive computer with somewhat limited input and output capabilities.
Minicomputers use large hard-disk units as online secondary storage.
C) Mainframe
Are more powerful in processing, faster in speed, have large memory, and very
expensive when compared to the micro and mini computers. The word mainframe refers
to mean the Central Processor. Their size varies depending on how many concurrent
users they are serving from a few hundreds to thousands when used in networks and
has the capacity to support many powerful peripheral devices. Mainframe computers are
used by multinational companies or by companies have many branches all over the
country like banks, airlines, insurance, etc.
D) Super computers
Are the largest, fastest, most expensive and very powerful computers available when
compared to the types of computers discussed earlier. They occupy specially designed
air-conditioned rooms and are often used for research and to process complex scientific
applications like weather forecasting, oil exploration, aircraft design, mathematical
research etc. Unlike microcomputers, which generally have only one CPU, super
computers have hundreds of processors. CRAY-I is an example of super computer.

Information Technology

III. With respect to their purpose

A. General purpose computers
A general purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different
programs of instructions
Performs a variety of operations
It is designed to do a wide variety of jobs rather than perform a specific
activity.
It is also called personal computers (PCs)
B. Special purpose computers
Designed to perform one specific task
Instructions is built into, or permanently stored in the machine
Specialization results in the given task being performed very quickly and
efficiently
It is inflexible and cannot be easily used to perform other operations.
Past, it was expensive.
Nowadays, for example, new cars have such devices installed to monitor and
control fuel, ignition and other system.
Hardware and Software :
Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer system. This
includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes all the parts
inside the computer case, such as the hard disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many
others. Computer hardware is what you can physically touch.
Definitions
A computer system consists of two major elements: hardware and software.
Computer hardware is the collection of all the parts you can physically touch.
Computer software, on the other hand, is not something you can touch. Software is a set
of instructions for a computer to perform specific operations. You need both hardware
and software for a computer system to work.
Hardware:
In a computer, hardware is what makes a computer work. A CPU processes information
and that information can be stored in RAM or on a hard drive. A sound card can provide
sound to speakers and a video card can provide an image to a monitor. All of this is
hardware. Hardware is mainly divided into four major Categories. They are:
1. Processor. 2.Memory. 3.Input and Output Devices.
4.Storage Devices.
Information Technology

1.Processor:
The Complex procedure that transforms data into information is called Processing. A
processor, or "microprocessor," is a small chip that resides in computers and other
electronic devices. Processor acts like a brain of Computer. Its basic job is to receive
input and provide the appropriate output. While this may seem like a simple task, modern
processors can handle trillions of calculations per second.
2.Memory:
a) RAM: Not only Software or programs, but also all the data is loaded into the
memory for easy access. This memory is called RAM(Random Access Memory). It is
Volatile (temporary) memory. The measurement of unit of memory is Byte.
1 Bit (Binary Digit) = The value of 0 or 1.
8 Bits =
1024 Bytes =
1024 Kilo Bytes

1 Byte.
1 Kilo Byte (KB)

= 1 Mega Byte (MB)

1024 Mega Bytes = 1 Giga Byte (GB)

1024 Giga Bytes

= 1 Tera Byte (TB)

1024 Tera Bytes

= 1 Peta Byte (PB)

b)ROM: ROM holds permanent data or instructions that can only be read and
nothing can be able to written on it. The information is permanently recorded in it. ROM
contains instructions to get the computer started when it gets ON. It holds instructions as
Graphic Display, Disk Drives, etc., at the time of manufacturing, they built into it.
3. Input and Output Devices: Device is generally used to refer any piece of Hardware.
The Computer accept the instructions and deliver the results to the users, by means of
some devices. Those devices are Input devices and Output devices.
Input devices The Input devices are used to enter the instructions.

Information Technology

Ex: Keyboard- Numbers, Alphabets and Commands.

Mouse- Action of Click. , Joystick, Light pen, Microphones.
Output devices The Output devices are used to see the results of processing.
Ex: Screen or VDU- Visual Display Unit, Printer.

4.Storage Devices: Although all components are ready, but Storage plays an important
role. Storage holds the data required brings into the memory (RAM) a particular program
or data required at that time.
Storage can be differentiated from Memory thus:
1. Storage is Cheaper than RAM.
2. Storage has more space than RAM.
3. Storage is non-volatile, where as in RAM it is a volatile (temporary) data.
4. RAM is faster than storage.
Disk Drive- The device which holds the disk is called a Disk Drive.
Hard Disk Drive is an Non-removable Disk Drive. Where as Floppy and CD-ROM
Drives are removable Disk Drives.
Compact Disks are optical storage devices and can store approximately, 600MB of data.
Where as in DVD-ROM, it can store approximately 4.7 GB of data. The Information on
CD/DVD ROM cannot be changed. But now-a-days, Re-writable CDs and DVDs are
available in the market, so that we can write, Erase and Re-write the data into Disks.
Types of Softwares
Software brings life into the Computer. It is nothing but instructions required to run the
Computer. It guides the Hardware on how to do its job. In Early starting Generations in
1950s, Machine Level Language were used and it is very hard to understand and process.
Later, in 1960s, High Level Programming Languages were introduced and hence the

Information Technology

10

operation of computers become user-friendy nature. Software is mainly categorized into

two types. They are:
1. System Software and

2. Application Software.

1. System Software : The Operating System (O.S.) is required by the computer to

function. The ROM, Keyboard, Mouse, performs functions only if the O.S. is installed in
the computer. The types of operating systems as- Microsoft Windows - NT,Windows95,Windows- 98, Windows- XP, Windows- 7, Windows- 8.
2. Application Software : The Application Software is mainly categorized into two
types. They are:
a) Special purpose application software

and

b) General purpose application Software.

a) Special purpose application software Used for specific task / function to be
performed.
b) General purpose application software Used for general purpose of actons such as
Word, Excel Spread sheets, DBMS, Network, Education and Utilities, Resource
discovery software and Entertainment Softwares.

Information Technology

11