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AN INTRODUCTION TO
SOCIOLOGY
Introduction
Society is created by people, and it also provides space to those who create it. In day-to-day
life, people think about human society in general and of a society in which they live in particular.
Renaissance and industrial revolution in Europe questioned the traditional basis of construction of
human society and re-structured it by focusing upon a new value system. What binds the people
together? What are the processes, which keep people a social entity? How does society survive?
These are matters of the construction of society, which is, in fact, a web of social relations. This
motivated the sociologists to think in a disciplined way about the structure and process of society.
In this lesson, we will discuss the meaning of sociology i.e., definitional aspects, the nature of
sociology, i.e., its character emerging out of the characteristics of social relatives, and subject
matter of sociology, i.e., the topics, which we study in sociology.

Objectives
After studying this lesson you will be able to:

Explain the meaning of sociology;

Deliberate upon the nature of sociology;

Discuss the sociological perspective;

Describe the scope and subject matter of sociology; and

State the relevance of sociology in our day to day life.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. Who was the first researcher to use the term Sociology for the first time?
A: Auguste Comte
2. From which words the term Sociology has been derived?
A: Socius (Latin word) and Logos (Greek word)
3. Who has opined that Sociology is going to reveal the role of societal laws in
controlling the development and change of society?
A: Auguste Comte
4. Who developed the systematic study of society and frankly adopted the word
Sociology?
A: Herbert Spencer
5. Name the sociologist, who opined that defining sociology on the basis of the scope is
difficult?
A: Auguste Comte
6. Who said that, Sociology is a study of Social Phenomena?
A: Emile Durkheim
7. Who said that Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretative
understanding of social action in order, thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of
its cause and effects?
A: Max Weber
8. What is the Knowledge acquired by making use of scientific methods known as?
A: Science
9. What is the aim of scientific research or investigation?
A: To develop objective knowledge which is free of bias and prejudice.
10. Among the sociological perspectives, which is the traditional scientific perspective?
A: Positivistic perspective
11. Who propounded the Positivistic perspective?
A: Auguste Comte
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12. What was the emphasis of Positivism?

A: Neutrality and Objectivity
13. Who are the founders of Functionalist perspectives?
A: Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim
14. From which Sociologists work has Phenomenology (Interpretive perspective)
stemmed?
A: Max Weber
15. What does Functionalist perspective study about?
A: Order and stability in the society
16. The Stable norms, values and roles constitute together to form _________
A: System/ Institution
17. Symbols, signs, language, religion, rituals, beliefs and artifacts all together are
known as _________
A: Culture
18. What is the instrument of shaping human life called?
A: Culture
19. How does culture transmit from one generation to another generation?
A: Socialization
20. With which science is Social structure compared ?
A: Human anatomy
21. Social organization is compared with which science?
A: Physiology
22. What is social organization?
A: Social organization refers to the inter-relation of various groups in the society.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What is Sociology?
A: Sociology is composed of two words. The word Sociology is derived from the Latin word
Socius (Companion or Society) and the Greek word Logos (Science). The meaning of
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Sociology is the science of society. In other words, Sociology is the study of social
phenomena.
2. Explain the nature of Sociology?
A: a) Sociology is a scientific discipline.
b) It involves objective and systematic method of investigation and evaluation of social reality
in the light of empirical evidence and interpretation.
c) It tries to explain the societal perspectives with the help of matter, science and data.
d) Human behavior as subject matter of Sociology is flexible and dynamic.
3. Write about the goals of Science.
A: There are three goals of science. They are:
a) Science explains, why something happened.
b) Make Generalizations that is to go beyond the individual cases and make statements
apply to collectivity.
c) Predict and specify about the future with the available knowledge.
4. Write about the methods of Positivism?
A: The methods of positivism depend upon the methods of natural sciences. They are
1) Identification of problem
2) Collection of data
3) Explanatory hypothesis
4) Method to test hypothesis
5) Analysis of results
6) Re-test if necessary and
7) Interpreting results: report.
5. What is Functionalist perspective?
A: 1) Functionalist perspective is also known as functionalism and structural functionalism. It
presents a functionalist view of sociology.
2) The founders of Functionalist perspective are Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim
3) This perspective believes that the society would remain in balance or equilibrium if the
needs are met.
4) The functionalist perspective focuses on order and stability in the social system.
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6. What is Conflict perspective?

A: 1) According to the Conflict theorists, the competition is unavoidable due to scarce
resources. Due to this there will be inequalities in the society.
2) These groups will form alliances or cooperate with one another and compete to control
over the scarce resources.
3) Karl Marx is the main proponent of this theory. He focussed on the conflict between the
Bourgeoisie (Owners of production) and Proletariat (those who worked for owners).
7. Write about Phenomenology.
A:

1) This perspective mostly stems from the works of Max Weber.

2) Phenomenology is concerned with the understanding of human behaviour from the actors
own frame of reference.
3) It stresses the need to understand the subjective interpretations of actors.

8. What is the importance of Sociology?

A: Sociology has much practical relevance in our life.
1) It helps us in understanding the social circumstances.
2) It helps us in understanding the cultural values.
3) It provides self-enlightenment and helps in modifying or changing lifestyle.
4) Helps in implementation of special programmes and in understanding its consequences of
adoption of policies.
5) Helpful in doing research.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Sociology has the qualities of a science. Support.

A: Sociology is a science, as it is objective and is based on rational knowledge of social reality
and applies scientific method. Johnson has opined that sociology has all qualities of being a
science. Some of them are:
i) Theoretical: It attempts to summarize complex observations in abstract logically related
propositions, make proposals, and interpret and to inter-relate sociological data in order
to explain the nature of social phenomena.
ii) Empirical: Observing the world with reasoning, framing hypotheses, test the facts on the
basis of empirical evidence.

iii) Cumulative: Sociological theories can be strengthened day-by-day by extending, refining

the older ones and producing the new ones.
iv) Non-ethical: Observes the values, beliefs with neutrality. Social actions are never judged
as good or bad. They merely explain the social actions.
2. Explain about Positivism
A: i) Positivism is the traditional method of sociology. This was proposed by Auguste Comte
who is the regarded as the father of sociology.
ii) Auguste Comte has opined that, the principles which are used in natural sciences can be
utilized in developing sociology.
iii) Just like the behavior of matter/material, the human behavior too depends on the principle
of reasoning.
iv) Comte has stressed the need of objectivity and neutrality in research.
v) In the Positivism school of sociology, there are two dominant theoretical perspectives.
They are:
a) Functional; and
b) Conflict.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. What is the scope of Sociology? Or Write about the scope of Sociology

A: Sociology studies the human society in a scientific and objective way. Sociologists study the
social action in the society. It studies social processes (competition, cooperation), social
relations (Teacher, student relations, relations between wife and husband), social structure
(Family, nation), etc.
The scope of Sociology is very wide. It studies or elaborates all the issues like economic,
political, morals, religious, social issues, institutions, groups and division of social relations
pertaining to the human life. It tries to explain the forms of all the issues related to human life.
There is no consensus about the subject matter of sociology. Inspite of this, sociology
primarily aims at studying the following:
Social Organisation: Social organization refers to inter-dependence of different aspects of
society (groups, communities and collectives).
Social Structure: Social structure refers to the pattern of interrelations between individuals,
who form various religions, values, roles in order to satisfy social notion/order.
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Social Institution: Social institution is a procedure, practice and an instrument; hence a

semblance of a variety of customs and habits accumulated over a period of time.
Culture: Culture refers to symbols, signs and language, besides religion, rituals, beliefs and
artifacts. Culture is social and it is guiding force in everyday life.
2. Explain different perspectives of Sociology.
A: The Sociologists have employed various sociological perspectives in order to study about the
specific problems about society and social behavior. There are two main descriptive
perspectives in sociology. They are:
i) Positivism
ii) Phenomenology
These perspectives can be used to think and access the behavior of the individuals in day-today life in the society.
i) Positivism

Positivism is the traditional method of Sociology. This perspective has been developed by
Auguste Comte, who is regarded as the father of Sociology.

Auguste Comte has opined that the principles and methods which are used in developing/
organizing the natural Sciences can be employed in developing Sociology.

Comte believed that just like the behavior of natural sciences, the human behavior is based
on the principles of accuracy and objectivity (karyakarana).

- Positivism or scientific methods are based on natural sciences.

Positivism has stressed the need for neutrality and objectivity in research. There are
two major perspectives of Positivism. They are:
a) The Functionalist Perspective
b) Conflict Perspective
a) The Functionalist Perspective

The founders of the functionalist perspective are Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim

The society would remain in balance or equilibrium if the basic or the primary needs are
met.

Functionalist perspective focuses on the process of order and stability in society.

b) Conflict Perspective

Competition is inevitable or unavoidable due to scarce resources. They opined that social
inequalities will exist in the society due to competition.

Groups with alliance co-operate with one another and compete for the control over the
scarce resources.

Karl Marx has described the conflict between the capitalist and the working class.

ii) Phenomenology

This perspective has been strengthened and supported by Max Weber.

There is difference between the principles and methods of natural sciences and Sociology

Phenomenology studies the actions and reactions in the daily life through the view point
and observations of the actors (people).

Sociological perspectives study the social realities and various aspects of society.
Sociological perspectives play a key role in analyzing and understanding the scope of society
and Sociology.

1
Understanding Indian History
Indroduction
History as field of study, is of utmost importance among social sciences. It lies at the base of all
concepts, theories and inferences found in different social sciences and hence a study of historical
background is indispensable for an understanding of the conceptual content of different Social Sciences.
History is the study of past events and is the mirror of men progress. It helps us to understood
those processes that enabled the early humans to successfully conquer their environment and develope
the present day civilization. It is not just a study of battles and kings as is normally understood by some.
It is an analysis of society, economy and cultural trends over a long period as reflected in available
sources. History deals with man and his times; man is dynamic and time progresses in a linear way;
prevalent values keep changing in accordance with the needs of the society and depending up on the
civilization and cultural levels of the society. Therefore, the actions and reactions of human beings can
not be reduced to predictable quotients. The job of a historian is ascertain the fact through cross
checking if different historical evidences. Further the explanations of human actions and reactions vary
from historian to historian because human perceptions are not uniform. A historian should defferentiate
the fact from the fiction. How ever, myths which are based on oral traditions of the society may contain
memories of past happenings.

Essay Questions
1. Explain the sources for Indian History ?
A.

Unlike the other countries, Indias has abundant sources

Sources are mainly two kinds i.e. Archaeological sources and Literary sources.

Archaeological sources are three kinds, i.e., monuments, coins and edicts.

Monuments and artifacts of different kinds - tools, pottery, furniture etc.

Coins issued by kings of different dynasties and those of foreign origin found in different parts
of India.

Inscriptions established by various kings are other main source for Indian History.

Literary sources are also two kinds i.e. religious and secular Literature.

Religious literature is again of two kinds i.e. domestic and foreign.

Vedic literature, Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, Past vedic ritual literature, upanishads.
Relegious books of Jainism and Buddhisum i.e., Tripitakas, Jatakas are the main relegious
sources for Indian History.

Manu smriti, Kautilya's Artha Sastra, panini's Ashtadhyayini, Kalidasa's writings, kalhana's
Rajatarangini, Harsha's "Harsha charitha" and Sangoma literature etc are also the important
sources for Indian History.

Some more foreign accounts i.e., Megastaneese, Ptolemy, Fa-hsien and Hsuan Tsangs writing also supplemented the indigenous Literature.

Short type Questions

1. Explain Meaning and Definitions of History.
A. History is the mirror and records the clear picture of the evolution of man's progress.

History is derived from the greek word historia which means research, enquiry and observation.

After understanding the history by many historians, history in broad sense is every thing that
ever happened.

According to Aristotle "History is an account of unchanging and uniform past".

Renier's definition of history is the story of men living in societies.

According to Lord Action "history is the unfolding story of human freedom".

2. Epigraphy : The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy. Inceriptions are available to us on

hills, caves, rocks stone pillars and metal plate. The language on those inscriptions reflect contem
porary conditions of that period. They stand for victory celebrations, appreciation charts and
political matters.
3. Puranas - They are 18 in number. They contain worldy and secural knowledge. They deal with
creation of genealogy of Gods and raising of history of royal dynasties. Vishnu, vayu, matsya
puranas are some of the important puranas.
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4. Vedas : They are the main sources for both Aryan civilization as well as Ancient India. They are
four in number. Rigveda, Yajurveda, Atharvanaveda and samaveda. Of the vedas Rigveda was
first one. They are the symbols of sacredness. They are the standard sources for knowing about
Aryan culture and society.
VI. One Ward Answer Questions
1. What are the Upanishads ?
A. Concluding portions of vedas are called Upanishads. They discuss the philosophy of Atma and
paramatma.
2. Define Paleography ?
A. Style of ancient Writing.
3. Which dynasty issued the first gold coins in India ?
A. Kushans
4. Which chineese traveller refer to the glory of Nalanda University ?
A. Huan Tsang.
5. What is the use of C 14 dating ?
A. It helps in dating the bones or wood found in archaeological excavations.

2
The Geographical Setting and Pre-Historic
Cultures of India
Introduction
History of any Country (or) region cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography. The history of the people is greatly conditioned by the geography and environment of the region
which they live. The physical geography and environmental conditions of a region include climate, soil
types, water resources and other topographical features. These determine the settlement pattern,
population spread, food products, human behaviour and dietary habits of a region.
Geographically speaking the Indian subcontinent in ancient times included the present day India,
Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Pakistan. On the geographical diversities the subcontinent can be
broadly decided into three main regions. They are (i) Himalays (ii) The River plains of N.I (iii) The
peninsular India.

Objectives

The main objectives of this lesson are

explain the physical divisions of Indian sub continent

recognise the distinct features of each region.

Under stand the importance of each region

Understand the environment of the region.

define the term pre history, the pre historic cultures and micro liths.

explain the Neo-lithic age and its characteristics.

To understand the difference between Paleolithic and Neo lithic periods and

learn about prehistoric art.

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Essay Questions
1. Assess the influence of the geographical features of India on its history ?
A. The sub continent of India has three distinct features, a long east - to - west stretch of Himalayan
Mountains, the Indo - Gangetic plains and the Deccan penisula.

Himalayan mountains in the north, Bay of Bengal in the east, Indian ocean in the south and the
Attantic ocean in the west are the natural boundaries of India.

Geographically India is in the Northern hemisphere between 804' and 3706 north latitude and
6807' and 97025' east longitude. Distances: North to South - 3214 KM (1997 miles)
East to West - 2933 KM (1822 miles)

The Himalayan mountains run west to east to a distance of 2400 kms. The mountain range has
three parallel rows in between which eleven mountains peaks soaring to height of 20000 feet
or more; the tallest among them Mr. Kailasa also known as Gauri Sankar Peak. The other
important mountain peaks are kanchana Janga, Dhavalagiri and Nanda parbat.

In the North west there is a mountain line starting from pamir and running in a northwestern
direction.

Amidst the Himalayas lies Kashmir often described as "heaven on the earth".

The perennial rivers that shaped the history of India are the Indo- Gangetic plains, form in the
Himalayas.

South of the Vindhya mountains, lies a central plateau flanked on the East and West by mountain ranges.

Deccan plateau has many rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Penna and host of other
rivulets to flow East word to merge in the Bay of Bengal.

The Vindhya - Satpura mountains and the western and Eastern Ghats had thick forests which
were the habitats of Munda, Bhil, Gond, Santhal, Savara and other tribes.

The Eastern and western coast carried on a lucrative trade with the Roman empire, Malaya
and South Eastern countries.

Shorts Essays
1. How is history related to other Social Sciences?
A.

History is described as mother of all social sciences

History is closely related to different social science.

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It shares knowledge with sociology on studies like family, tribe, race, society, customs and
traditions, religion and culture.

Political Science draws from history on concepts relating to the origins and forms of the states
and governments.

Economics and history share knowledge on formation of economic institutions, concepts,

their workings and merits and demerits.

Literature comes into the history as one if its sources.

Public Administration depends on history for a historical background to its theories.

History also draws upon psychology and Anthropology.

2. What are the views of Karlmarx on history as a Social Science ?

A. Karlmarx who has applied the dialects of Hegel formulated valuable principles for the writing and
study of social sciences.

He studied history through dialectical approach and drew inferences.

Marx opinion, society is a class-ridden institution such as 'the haves' and 'the have nots'.

Dominant classes exploit the weaker classes and that lead to a class war. Class-war is a
feature of class ridden society.

The remedy lies in the establishment of a class less society.

Marx also says that economic factors are the governing factors in all social processes.

3. What were the chief features and uses of the tools used during the Paleolithic period ?
A. Hand axes, cleavers, choppers (chopping tools), the flake tools or chipped pieces and burins
and scrapers were the main tools of lower middle and upper Paleolithic ages respectively.

In hand axes, the butt end is broader and the working edge is narrow. These were used for
cutting the trees or digging the roots.

The cleavers had a bifaced edge. These were meant for splitting objects like the trunks of
trees.

The choppers were the massive core tools with a unifacial working edge and were used for
chopping purposes.

The burins were like flakes or blades. The scrapers were also made of flakes. These tools
served the purpose of obtaining barks of trees and skins of animals.
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4. Describe the geographical distribution of Neolithic sites ?

A.

IV.

Neolithic sites were spread over almost all the regions of Indian Subcontinent.

In the North Western region Mehrgarh is a classic site in the Kanchi plains of Baluchistan.
The excavations at Mehrgarh revealed the evidence of houses built by Neilithic people. These
were bult of sun dried bricks.

The evidence of cultivation of crops like wheat, barley and cotton were discovered.

Burzahom and Gufkral in Kashmir Valley form an important feature of Neilithic culture.

The Belan vally along the vindhyan plateau has many Neilithic sites.

Chirand in Bihar, Sanganakallu, Brahmagiri, Maski, piklihal, Halluru in Karnataka, Utnur,

Nagar juna Konda, Budihal in AP and pyampalli in Tamil Nadu have many sites of Neilithic
age.

One Mark Questions

1. What are the two important relegions which took birth in middle Gangatic plain ?
A. (a) Jainism and (b) Buddism.
2. The Kaveri delta is famous for which crop ?
A. Rice - paddy
3. Which region is known as the 'bread basket of the subcontinent.
A. Punjab and Sindh in Indus plains.
4. Which region supplied iron ore and timber to Magadha ?
A. Chotta Nagapur
5. What source has been given to the tools of the Mesolithic age?
A. Microliths
6. Who coined the term ' Neolithic'?
A. John Lubbock.
7. Rock painting was distinct feature of which period ?
A. Mesolithic period
8. Point out the main subjects highlighted in prehistoric rock art?
A. Hunting, fishing, food- gathering, child birth, rearing of a child and Burial ceremony.

3
The Harappan Civilization
Introduction
For a pretty long time it was believed that the history of Ancient India started with the Aryans and
their culture. But excavations started by archeological survey of India under the leadership of D.R.
Sahani and R.D Benerjee at Mohanzodaro and Harappa proved that belief to be erroneous. On the
basis of the archelogical findings the Harappan civilization has been dated between 2600 BC - 1900
BC and is one of the oldest civilization of the world. It is also sometimes referred to as the 'Indus
valley civilization" because in the beginning majority of its settlements discovered were in and around
the plains of the river Indus and its tributaries. It is the first urban culture of India and is contemporary
to other ancient civilizations of the world such as those of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Our Knowledge
about it is based only on the archeological excavations as the script (Sarpalekhanam (or) Brahmi script)
of that period has not been deciphered yet. This civilization comes under chalcolithic age and culture.
These were basically rural in nature. This civilization came to an end after Aryans invasions and natural
calamities.

Objectives

explain the origin and extent of the Harappan civilization;

describe the characterstics of the Harappan civilization which includes Town - planning, Great
bath, citadal like structures and seven layers of the city of Mohenzadaro;

discuss the Harppan relegious beliefs;

Explain how and why did civilization decline,

Identify the chalcolithic Communities outside the Harappan Zone.

Explain economic condition and settlement pattern of these chalcolithic Communities.

Essay Questions
1. Describe the important features of Harappan civilization ?
A.

The most interesting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its town-planning. Towns were
built according to plan. Main streets ran North to South and East to West, intersecting at right
angles. Houses were bult in square and rectangular blocks. Each street had a common well
and each house had a well and baths. Utility was the main concern in the construction of
Houses.

Drainage System : It was elaborate and well laid out. Every house had drains, which
opened in to the street drains which were covered with man hole briks or stone slabs. This
shows that the people were well acquainted with the science of sanitation.

Great Bath : The most remarkble feature of the Harappan civilization was the construction
of Great Bath. It was sourrounded by carridars on all sides and is approached at either end
by flights of steps in north and south. A thin layer of bitumen was applied to the bed of the
bath to ensure that water did not steep in. Water was supplied by a larger well in an adjacent
room. There was a drain for the outlet of the water.

food habits : The people of Harappan civilization used rice, wheat, barly, beans, dates,
vegetables, Milk, fish, Muttoon etc.

Dress and Ornaments : Cotton and wool were used by both Men and Women. Bangles,
Ear rings, nose anklets and neckles etc were main ornaments of that day.

At both Harappa and Mohenzodero on the west side, huge elevated platforms were raised
and enclosed by citadel structures.

Indus Valley people were belonged to racial composition of proto - Austroloid, mediterranean
Mongoloid and Alpine sects.

Indus people, pursued the twin - occupations of agriculture and trade and commerce. At one
side they produced cereals, sorghum and sesamum and the other side they had trade contacts
with Mesopotamia.
Script : Their script was not yet deciphered. They had pictures in their script. Their script is
called brahmi lipi on Sarpalekhanam or boultroprodon.
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Indus people used to worship female gods like. Mother goddess, Male god pasupathi was
also worshipped. Animals like bull snakes trees like pipal, neem were worshipped.

Decline : Even though it was not clear how the great culture was dis appeared. It was
belived that due to Aryan invasions or in natural calamities it was destroyed.

One Mark Questions

1. Where was the Great Bath discovered ?
A. Mohenzodaro
2. Harappa is located on the banks of which River ?
A. Raavi
3. Which place was the chief source of copper for the Harappan people ?
A. Khetri mines in Rajasthan.
4. Harappans used clothes made of which meterial ?
A. Cotton, Wool.
5. How was the Harappan Script Written ?
A. Right to left.

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4
The Vedic Age (1500 BC - 600 BC)
Introduction
After the downfall of Harappan Civilization we found Archeological evidence of the arrival of
new people known as Aryans or Indo - Aryans on the out skirts of the Harappan region. In this lesson,
we shall study the circumstances under which Aryan people arrived and also learn about the main
features of their culture as depicted in the literature called the Vedas. Who were the Aryan's ? What
was their original habitat ? If they originally belonged to a region other than India, how, why and when
did they arrive in India. These are some important questions to be addressed to, initially.

Objectives

Learn about the vedic text and the nature of their contents;

Learn about the Aryans and identify the region from where they migrated;

Locate the regions inhabitated by the early vedic (1500 BC to 1000 BC) and the later vedic
people (1000 BC - 600 BC);

explain the importance and impact of the use of iron implements which began in later Vedic
period and;

identify the changes which appeared in the economic, social, religious and political structures and
institutions of the vedic people over a period extending from 1000 BC to 600 BC.

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Essay Questions
1. Write about the rigvedic culture ?

The Literature which explained about Aryans is called Vedas. The foremost veda is called
rigveda. They are four in number but in can be devided in to two catagories. First one is
Rigveda and the second was later vedas.

Rigveda is a collection of hymns used at the sacrificial rituals where 'Devas' (the Bright and
the Rediant) were Worshipfully addressed.

From Rigveda we learn that the Aryans initially settled in the region watered by the Seven
rivers. (Sapta Sindhu) The five rivers of Punjob, Sind and Saraswathi.

The chief of the Aryan clans was called 'Rajan' and the area under his control was called
'Janapada'. The Rajan was aided by two popular class assemblies known as Sabha and
Samithi. The Rajan also aided by 'Senani' (head of the force), purohita (priest) and Gramani
(Chief of a village). Rajan took care of protection of clan and prosecution of battles against
rival clans. His income came from Bali and Bagha. Rajan had no Judicial function to perform.

Vedic economy : Cattle rearing was their main occupation and they are Pastoralists. But it
does not mean that they did not aware of agriculture. Apart from cattle rearing, people were
engaged in many other economic activities. Hunting, Carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot making, metal smeltry etc were some of such activities. Which they were practised.

Early vedic Society : Family was the basic unit of Rigvedic society. It was patriarchial in
nature. Monogamy was the usual form of marriage but the chiefs at times practised polygamy.
Family was part of a larger grouping called Vis (or) clan. One or more than one clans made
Jana or tribe.

The warriors, priests and the ordinary people were the three sections of Rigvedic tribe.

During early vedic period women enjoyed respectable position. Women get married at a
proper age and could choose a husband of their own choice. Women of Rigvedic period
could take part in the proceedings of the Tribal assemblies called 'Sabha' and 'Samiti'

The Rigvedic gods were generally personifications of different aspects of natural forces such
as rains, storm and sun etc. Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, pushana, yama, soma are
some importants gods.

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Short Questions
1. Explain the system of exchange during the early Vedic period ?
A. Apart from cattle rearing and small scale cultivation, early Aryan people were engaged in many
other economic activities. Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot - making, metal - smeltry
products were exchanged through barter system. However, cows were the most favoured medium
of exchange. The priests received cows, horses and gold ornaments as fees for performing
secrificial rituals.
2. Describe the main cultural traits of Aryans ?
A. Originally the Aryans seemed to have lived some where in the steppies streching from southern
Russia to Central Asia. Aryan Culture was known as Andronovo culture situated in Siberia. This
culture flourished in the second millennium BC. During the period between 1900 BC and 1500
BC we get in these regions, evidence of horses, spoked wheels, fire cult and cremation which
formed important part of Aryan life in India. Apart from these, the artifacts and ceramics also
suggest movement of people from central Asian region to South Asian region.
Short Questions
1. What do you understand by the term Veda ?
A. Sacred knowledge
2. Explain the term vedanta ?
A. Philosophical discussions.
3. List the rivers included in the Collective term Sapthasindhu ?
A. Sindhu, Jeelam, Chenab, Raavi, Beas, Sutlez, Saraswathi.
4. Who is known as the 'lord of plough'?
A. God Indra.
5. How did inequalities appear in the early Vedic Society ?
A. Concentration of larger share of war booty in the hands of chiefs and priests.

13

6. What was the nature of the later vedic family ?

A. Joint family
7. Explain the composite term Varnasrama darma ?
A. Brahmacharya (Student life), Grihastha, (house holder) Vanaprastha (hermitage) and Sanyasa
(forest life) together with varna, it came to be known as varna - ashrama dharma.
8. What do you understand by the term ' gotra'?
A. Descendant from a common ancestor .
9. What were the purpose of Yajnas ?
A. To establish authority of chiefs over people and to reinforce territorial aspect of polity.
10. What were the function of the coronation rituals ?
A. To establish the authority of the chiefs.

14

5
From Janapadas to Empire
Introduction
We know that agriculture activity was started in the later vedic period on the Ganga basin. Now,
in this chapter we will discuss how the agrucultural activity increased and how the settled life led to the
rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas in North India in the 6th century B.C. We will also discuss the factors,
which enabled Magadha to defeat all others to rise to the status of an empire later under the Mouryas.
During the Mouryan period we have witnessed first time economic and cultural progress. How over
the Mouryan empire collapsed within fifty years after the death of Ashoka. We will also analyse the
factors responsible for this decline. This period is also known for the rise of many new religions like
Jainism and Buddhism. We will be looking at the factors responsible for the emergence of these
religions and also inform you about their main doctrines.

Objectives

Explain the material and social factors which were responsible for the rise of Mahajanapadas and
the new religions in the sixth century B.C. ;

Analyse the doctrine, patronage, spread and impact of Jainism and Buddhism;

Trace the growth of Indian polity from smaller states to empires and list the sixteen Janapadas;

Examine the role of Ashoka in the consolidation of the empire through his policy of Dhamma;

recognise the main features like administration, economy, society and art under the Mouryas and;

identify the causes of the decline of the Mouryan empire.

15

Essays questions
1. Factors responsible for emergence of Jainism and Buddhism ?
A

The 6th century B.C is known as an era of second urbanisation in the sub continent.

and it occupies valuable place not only in India but also in the world.

The Vedic religions were expensive and violent.

Common people were forbidden to perform rituals and scrifices.

Sudras had no place in the social order and they were not eligible to avail education.

The social rivalry between the Aryans and non-Aryans and the social unrest was another
cause.

The improvement in agriculture and development of trade, money and urbanisation had an
impact on the society and due to these changes traditional equality and brotherhood gave a
way to inequality and social conflict.

Brahmanical domination was also led to rise of new religions started by Kshathriyas.

2. What are the main teachings of Jainism and Buddhism ?

A. Jainism :

Vardhamana Mahaveera is regarded as the founder of Jainism and he was born in 599 BC in
Bihar. He was 24th and last theerthankara of Jainism. He believed that the main goal of
human life is the purification of soul and attainment of 'nirvana' through three Rathna or three
Jewels i.e., Right faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct, which can lead to liberation.

Right conduct means observance of five great vows; ahimsa, sathya vachana, asteya, aparigraha
and brahmacharya.

The main distinguishing feature was the concept of anekantavada or Syadavaa means attain
truth through various angles.

Jainism emphasis on extreme form of penance, austerity and strict non - voilence and
discipline.

Jainism used mass language of prakrit to spread its message.

3. What are the main teachings of Buddhim ?

A.

Gautama Buddha who was born in 566 B.C at Lumbini was the founder of Buddhism. He
16

attained the true knowledge i.e. enlightenment at Budhgaya and delivered his first sermon at
Saranath which is knows as dharma - chakra - pravartana. He also established his samgha
there. He died in 486 BC at the a age of 80 at Kusinager in Eastern U.P.

Buddha asked his followers to refrain from the worldly pleasures and asked them to practice
strict abstinence and asceticism. This philosophy of Madhya marga (or) middle path is reflected in all the issues related to Buddhism.

Buddha teachings are mainly depend on the concept of four noble truths and astanga
marga.

Dukkha, dukka samudya, dukkha nirodha and Dukkha nirodini are the four noble Truths.

If one want to get rid of suffering one has to conquer the desire. This removal of desire can be
achieved through eight fold path. Right faith, right resolve, right speech, right action, right
living, right effort, right thought and right self concentration.

Buddha also used pali language spoken by masses to propagate his teachings.

Buddha allowed lower varnas and women to join the sangha. Buddhist councils over different period played significant role in propagation of Buddhism.

3. What are the main attributes of Ashokas policy of Dhamma ?

A.

Asoka is considered as one of the greatest kings in Indian History.

He is praised not so much for his militaristic activity but for his policy of Dhamma.

He became Budhist after the Kaligna war.

Ashoka turned himself towards the propagation of Buddhist Dhamma.

To propagate the Budhist Dhamma he engraved them on rocks, pillars and caves throughout
his vast kingdom.

The aspect of Dhamma which he emphasised was a code of morality rather than a system of
religion.

He was not mere preacher of morals but he followed the law of piety in his private life.

He was the responsible for called the Third Buddhist Council and appointed special officers
called Dharma Mahamatras to enforce the Dhamma.

Ashoka issued an ordinance forbidding the slaughter of animals. He built hospitals both for
men and women. He planted trees, dug wells and constructed rest houses and water sheds
for the convenience of travellers.

Asokha ruled his people as a father towards his children.

17

Short Questions
1. What are the Mahajanapadas ?
A.

During the 6th century B.C. along the great northern high way from Takshasila in the northwest to the Eastern Ganga ports many state came into existence. Important among them are
Mahajana padas. They are 16 in number.

The 16 Mahajana padas mentioned in the Jaina scriptures are Anga, Magadha, Vajji and
Malla in middle ganga plains, West of them kasi, kosala and vatsa, still further west kuru,
panchala, Matsya and surasena; kambhoja and Gandhara in the north west, Avanthi and
Chedi are in central Indian region and Asmaka in the south, Vajji, Malla and were confederacies of clans.

2. Describe the contribution of Mouryan rule in the field of Art ?

A.

The Mouryan period provides the earliest examples of ancient Indian art and architecture.

Ashokan pillars at Rampurva, Lauriya Nandangarh and Saranath present excellent examples
of stone sculptures.

Our national emblem comes from the Ashokan pillar at saranath near Benaras.

All these pillars are circular and monolithic and all made of Sand stone found at chunar in U.P.

The Ajivaka caves are regarded as 'marvels of worksmanship'. The Mouryan art is typically
Indian both in spirit and workmanship.

Short Questions
1. Who was the founder of the Ajivaka sect ?
A. Makhali Goshal.
2. How are Mahayana and Hinayana different ?
A. Mahayana adopted Sanskrit as its language and started worshipping Budha in the form of an
idol, while Hinayana continued to follow pali and treated Budha as a guide.
3. In whose rule was the second Buddhist council held ?
A. Kalashoka

18

4. Who is the author of Indica ?

A. Megasthenes
5. What was the function of the Dhamma mahamathras ?
A. To take care of Brahmans and all other kinds of Monks.
6. Jataka : Collection of Budhist Stories about the previous births of the Budha.
7. Samaj : Religious and merry making congregation of common people.
8. Chauri : A hairy fan waved to and from around a king or religious object.
9. Thirthankara : Traditional prophets in Jainism :literally 'for - maker'.
10. Nirvana : Extinction of human desire.

19

6
Post Mouryan Developments
Introduction
In around 187 BC the Mouryan empire met its end. In this chapter we shall study the political
and cultural development in the Indian subcontinent from the end of the Mouryas to the rise of Guptas
i.e. from BC 200 and 300 AD. During these five hundared years we see not only the rise of multiple
political powers in different parts of the subcontinent but also the introduction of new features in art,
architecture and religion.

Objectives

To analyse the political conditions after the decline of the Mouryan empire ;

to understand the conditions which favoured for central Asian rulers ;

the growth of trade between the Roman world and India and its impact ;

important features of various schools of art and sculpture which emerged during 200 BC - 300
AD and ;

the early history of South India and the significance of the Sangam literature.

Essay questions
1. Who were Kushans ? How would you asses their countribution to India?
(or)
Achivements and Services of Kanisha ?
A. The Kushans, originally belong to western China, and yuezhi -chis sect. The prominent rulers of
the kushans were kujula kadphises and kanishka.
20

Kanishka ascended the throne in 78 AD and stated the era called 'Saka era'.

Kanishka conquered many regions and extended his empire from central Asia to North India
and included Varanasi, Kaushambi and Sravasti in Uttar Pradesh.

He integrated Central Asia with North India as part of a single empire which resulted in the
intermingling of different cultures and increase in inter regional trading activities.

He annexed the Kashmir and founded a city 'Kanishka pura'.

He adopted Budhism by Asvaghosha and Convened the Fourth Budhist Council at Kundala
vana. It was in this council that Buddhism got split into two schools - Hinayana and Mahayana.

He patronised many scholars including Aswaghosa, Vasumitra, Charaka and Acharya

Nagarjuna. During his period Gandhara school of Art came in to existance.

2. Write a short note on the achivements of Gauthamiputra Satakarni ?

A.

Gautamiputra Satakarni was the 23rd and greatest kings of satavahanas.

It was critical moment not only for the Andhras but for the whole of South India when he
came to power.

In the prasasti of Nasik inscription of his mother Balasri, he is described as the "destroyer
of sakas, yavanas and pahlavas ... the restorer of the glory of the satavahana family, the
elavator of his family to high fortune ...."

He conquered kukura, Anupa, Assaka, Vidharba, Aparakuta and Kuntala.

He is also credited with the extension of satavahana dominions by defeating Nahapana, the
Saka ruler of Western India.

His empire included Godavari region, Berar, Malwa, Gujarat, Konkan, Kathiwar and Kuntala.

He won the title of 'Ekabrahmana' for his patronage of vedic relegion and for protecting the
Brahmins.

Arabian Sea in the west, Rajaputana and Mukhalingam in the North and North East, Bay of
Bengal in the East and cuddalore in the south were the boundaries of his kingdom.

He organised an efficient administration and levied equatable taxes and took the greatest care
in welfare of his people.

He was a great scholor and proclaimed himself as a champion of arthudox.

21

Short essays
1. Gandhara Art.

Gandhara is located in the north western part of India and to the right and left of Indus river.

As it was ruled by sakas, pahlavas and Kushans, a mixed culture was existed which was
known as 'Gandhara Art'.

The statues of Buddha and Bodhisatva were made in the the style of Gandhara Art in the
different postures.

It was the result of blending of the Indian and Greek - Roman style.

The greek features of depiction of transparent garment droped in Greako - Roman fashion
and curly hair, muscled body in Gandhara sulplure came in to existance.

The Gandhara Artists had the hand of a Greek and the heart of India.

2. Sangam Literature :

The term 'Sangam' refers to an assembly or meeting together of Tamil poets.

All the three Sangam's took place at different places under the patronage of the pandya kings
of Madhurai.

Poems in Sangam Literature were composed on two broader themes and later put together in
eight collections called 'Ettutogai'.

This literature belongs to 300 BC to 300 A.D.

A remarkable feature of the sangam literature is its vivid portrayal of the contemporary society and culture of Tamil Region and its peaceful and harmonious interaction with the northern
(Aryan) culture.

1 or 2 Marks Questions
1. Who was Kharavela ?
A. Kharavela was the ruler of the Chedi dynasty which ruled over Kalinga around the second
century B.C. His achivements were recorded on an inscription, known as Hatigumpa inscription,
situated in the Udayagiri hills near Bhuvanaswar in orirsa.

22

2. Who was Charaka ?

A. Charaka was court poet of Kushan king Kaniska. He was considered as father of Ayurveda,
who wrote a book on medicine called 'charaka Samhita'.
3. Who was Heliodorus ?
A. Heliodorus was an envoy of the Greek ruler Antial kidas, king of Taxila in the court of Kashiputra
Bhagabhadra, a shunga ruler.
4. What was Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha ?
A. Uttarapatha was land route which connected northern and eastern parts of India with the north
western fringes i.e. pakistan and further beyond.
Dakshinapathc was a land route which connected peninsular India with western and norther
part of India.
5. What were "guilds" ?
A. Communities of merchants and artisans.
6. Differenciate between a Chaitya and Vihara ?
A. Within the Budhist architecture both Chaitya and Vihara were rock-cut structures. Chaitya was
used as a shine and vihara as the residence for monks.
7. What was "sthupa" ?
A. Stupa was Budhist place of worship, as it has relics of Budha or Budhist Monk.
8. Which are the five tinai or eco-zones noted in the Sangam poems ?
A. Kurinji (hilly area) : Palai (arid zone); mullai (pastoral tracts); marudam (wet lands); and neital
(Sea Coast).

23

7
The Guptas and their Successors
(A.D.300-750)
Introduction
India witnessed the rule of Guptas after the decline of Kushans in North India. The rulers of this
dynasty were able to establish a vast empire that covered almost the entire north India. They operated
from Eastern UttarPradesh and Bihar which was very fertile. They could also exploit the iron ore of
Central India and Bihar to their advangtage. Their period was marked by great progress in art,
architecture and literature and marked as 'golden period' in Indian History. They ruled up Circa A.D.
550. After their Collapse there emerged various regional kingdoms in north India. South India too
witnessed the rise of two important Kingdoms under the Chalukyas and the pallavas during AD 550750.

Objectives

Explain the rise of the Gupta and the political achivements of Gupta rulers ;

Emergence of regional kingdoms after the fall of the Guptas ;

Analyse the nature of the Gupta and post - Guta politicial structure ;

notify social and economic changes from AD. 300 to 750;

identify cultural developments with special reference to art and literature;

learn about consolidation of Brahmanical tradition and the emergence of Pauranic religion; and

list the developments in science and technology.

24

Essay Questions
1. Give an account of the Gupta administration ?
A.

The Gupta dynasty was established by Shrigupta and came to high light by chandragupta 1,
Samudra gupta and started decline after chandragupta II in AD 515.

Inscriptions of Gupta emperors, their coins, account of Fahien and the literature of the Gupta
period throw much light on the system Gupta administration.

The Guptas followed the monarchial form of governement and kingship was hereditary. The
pompous titles such as maharajadiraja, parambhattaraka, parameshwara etc were adopted
by imperial Guptas. The king was assisted by council of Ministers and officials like sandhi
vigraha, ranabhandagarika, Mahapratihara etc.

For the sake of administrative convenience, kingdom was divided into many provinces called
"Buktis". 'They were kept under Uparika. Buktis were sub-divided into Vishyas and
Vishayapati. Grama or village was the lowest unit of Administration headed by gramadyaksha.

Land revenue was the principal source of Income to the state which was normally 1/6 of the
produce. Duties at ports, ferries and fortified stations were also collected.

The Judicial system was far more developed under the Gupta rulers than in earlier times. For
the first time civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated.

The guptas maintained a strong army which was well trained and well equipped.

The most notable movement of the age was the gradual displacement of Buddhism by a
modified form of Brahmanism. Most of the Gupta rulers were the workshippers of Lord
Vishnu. But the Guptas followed a policy of religious tolerence.

The Gupta period was marked by a great out burst of literary activity. Pataliputra, Vallabhi,
Ujjain, Kashi, Mathura, Nasik and Kanchi etc were became important centres of learning.
The Nalanda University became famous all over Asia. The universities provided both religious and secular education to the students.

Remarkable progress was made in the field of astronomy, medicine, mathematics and other
sciences. Aryabhatta has been accepted as the greatest scientist and mathematician of the
age. He wrote Aryabhatiya. He was the first Indian astronomer to discover that the earth
rotates on its axis. The theory of zero was formulated during this period. Varahamitra was

25

another scientist and astrologer of this age. His work 'Brihat Samhita' is an encyclopaedia of
information in various branches of knowledge.

Science of medicine, metallurgy also progressed during this age. Nagarjuna, the great Buddhist scholar was the student of medicine, chemistry and metalurgy. Brahma gupta, the
author of "Brahma Siddanta" was also belongs to this age.

The famous iron pillar near Delhi belongs to this period.

2. Why is the Gupta age considered the Golden age of art and literature ?
A.

The huge body of religious and secular literature was compiled in this period.

The two great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha were finally completed in the 4th
century.

The Gupta period marks the beginning of the writing of the literature known as puranas.
major puranas were written during this period.

The literature in Gupta period was written in Sanskrit. The greatest of the poets was Kalidas
who lived in the Court of Chandragupta II. Meghadutam, Abhignana Sakuntalam,
Raghuvamsham, Kumar Sambavam and Ritusamhara are the famous books written by him.

Sudraka's Mrichakatakam and vishakadatta's Mudrara kshasa were the famous dramatics
of that period. Thus the Gupta period was considered as the golden age in the field of Art
and Liturature.

Ajanta cave paintings, the famous Mahabalipuram rath temples are also creation of this period.

Short Essays
1. Write about Harshavardhana ?
A.

He belongs to the pushya buti dynasty who had their capital at Thaneswar.

This dynasty became influential and powerful with the accession of Harshavardhana in AD
606 when he was 16 years of age.

He united the kingdom with the help at his widowed sister Rajyashri and shifted his capital to
Kanauj.

26

He brought punjab, UP, Bengal, Bihar, under his control, but he was defeated by chalukya
ruler pulakesi II.

He died in AD 647.

His court poet Banadhatta's Harshacharita and chinesse traveller Hsuan Trang's Si-yu - ki are
major records for his regime.

Small Questions
1. What is the importance of the Allahabad pillar inscription in the history of Samudra
gupta ?
A. It gives detailed account of samudraguptas' period.
2. Which group of family did Toramana belong to ?
A. Huna
3. Name the two dynasties that emerged in North India after the decline of the Guptas ?
A. Pushyabutis at Taneswar, Maukharis at Kanauj.
4. What was pulakesi II known as ?
A. Dakshina patheswara
5. Who were the Kumaramatyas ?
A. High level Central officers.
6. What is Stridhana ?
A. Presents received by the bride at the time of her marriage.
7. Where do we find the first epigraphical evidence to 'Sati'?
A. Eran in M.P.
8. What were the gupta coins known as ?
A. Dinaras
9. Who was Andal ?
A. Alvar women saint of South India.
10. Name the text written by Varaha Mihira ?
A. Panchasiddantika
11. Eulogy : A formal expression of praise for someone who has died recently.

27

8
India between A.D. 750 to A.D. 1200
Introduction
The period between AD 750 and AD 1200 is referred to as an early medieval period of India
History. It is also considered by historians as a "dark phase"During this period the entire country was
devided into numerous regional states which were busy fighting with each other. But India wintnessed
a growth of new and rich cultural activities in the field of Art, literature and language. Infact, some best
specimens of temple Architecture and Indian literature belong to this period. Thus, far from being
'dark' it may be treated as a bright and vibrant phase of Indian History.

Objectives

Identify the various regional kingdoms which emerged between AD 750 and AD 1200;

examine the nature of state ;

highlight the social and economic changes;

evaluate the cultural activities and;

assess the significance of India's contacts with southeast Asia during 8th to 12th centuries.

Essasy Questions
1. Name any three dynasties which were involved in the 'Tripartite struggle" ?
A.

Tripartite struggle means struggle among three powers. These were Gurjara pratiharas in
North India, palas in Eastern India and Rastrakutas in South India.

These powers were constantly fighting with each other with a aim to set up their control on
Gangetic region in northern India.
28

Pratihara dynasty was founded by Nagabatta in the region of Malwa in 8th century. The
famous king in this dynasty was Vatsaraja. He extended his empire and his policy of expansion brought him in conflict with Dharma pala, the pala king of Bengal and Bihar.

Soon Rastrakuta king Dhruva from South India jumped into the fight which was known as
"Tripartite struggle ".

2. Trace the process that led to the 'Samantas' becoming an integral feature of the political structures of kingdoms in the early medieval period ?
A.

The state structure of this period has often been described as 'decentralized' political system.

Decentlized polity means there is of course a king as the main authority at the top, but he
shares his rule with other small chiefs called feudatories or the 'Samantas'

Samanta basically refers to a king who has been defeated but his kingdom has been resotred
to him but with the condition that he will countinue to accept the over lordship of the conquering king and also pay regular tribute to him in cash. He may also be asked to help with military
assistance in times of need.

As these chiefs enjoyed freedom of administration over their regions they were quite powerful

3. Trace the major cultural achievements during the early medieval period ?
A.

The new regional kingdoms led to the emergence of new regional cultural zones such as
Bengal, and Orissa, as well as Andhra, Karnataka and Tamilnadu in South India.

The various cultures that form an important part of our regional cultures today took their
shape during this period.

The literary works in the regional languages were often composed under the patronage of the
new regional rulers.

Though the regional languages flourished, the sanskrit retained a position of importance among
the elites as a language of learning.

Another important activity that received royal patronage was that of temple building. The
temples served as representatives of the might and glory of the kings who had bult them .

The three types of temple architecture which evolved during this period are known as the
Nagara, Dravida and Vesara styles.

29

There was also great improvement in the art of making sculptures in this period. An important
contribution of chola artists in this respect was the branze images of Nataraja.

4. What are the salient features of Chola Administration ?

A. The village administration of the chola's was described in details in "Uttarameru" inscription.

The village administration was also called as local self government.

According to K.A.N. Sastri there are two types of assemblies in the village. They are
1. Ur - all the land lords of the village were members.
2. Sabha - the brahmins were members in the Sabha.

Election proccedure : The members of the executive committee were elected by the people.
Each village divided into number of wards known as 'Kudumbam'. The qualifications to be a
member were as follows
1. He must be of 35 to 75 years of age
2. He must be well versed in vedas and must be a resident of the village
3.He must own his own property and must not have committed the sins like theft, bribery,
adultery and other criminal offences.

The names of persons nominated for selection were written on scripts of palm leaves called
'Kuda volai'. On the day of election the villagers met at a public place and the members of the
executive committee were called 'Variapperumakkal' or "Alummakkal".

Village Committees.
30 members who are elected in this way would be working in different sub committees called
Gardens, schools, the collection, tanks and choultries and temples.

The organization of these 'little Republics'. the tiny states at the base encouraged the communal life of the people. It developed a sense of civil duties, fostered a sense of liberty and
guaranteed a high standerd administrative efficiency.

Short Questions
1. Who was the pratihara ruler who received praise from the Arab Scholar ?
A. Mihira Bhoja (Gurjara Pratihara King)

30

2. Who founded the Vikramashila University ?

A. Dharmapala
3. Which Chola king acquired the title 'Gangaikonda' and why ?
A. Rajendra 1 as he was the conqueror of Ganga.
4. What was the main factor for the growth of Rajput Class ?
A. Extension of agricultural activities in Rajastan.
5. What is the most important Countribution of cholas to the art of Sculpture ?
A. Bronze image of Nataraja.
6. Mention the two important temples in South East Asia ?
A. Angarval (Combodia); Barabudur (Java).

31

2
EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
OF SOCIOLOGY
Introduction
In the previous lesson, you have learnt about the nature and scope of Sociology. In this
lesson you will study the emergence and development of Sociology in the West and in India.

Objectives
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the causes for the origin of Sociology as a subject of study;
Describe the history of development of Sociology in the West; and
Describe the history and development of Sociology in India.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. Which book was written by Aristotle?

A: Ethics and Politics
2. Which statement of Aristotle has sown the seeds of Sociology?
A: Man is a social animal.
3. Name the French philosopher who classified the societies?
A: Montesquieu.
4. After which revolution Sociology emerged as a subject?
A: French Revolution, 1789.
9

5. The Father of Sociology (Auguste Comte) was the disciple of ___________________.

A: Claude Henride Saint Simon.
6. Which Sociologist has identified "three stages of human society"?
A: Auguste Comte.
7. With whose efforts evolutionism has become popular throughout the world?
A: Herbert Spencer (British sociologist).
8. What is the three volume work of Herbert Spencer?
A: Principles of Sociology.
9. Who is credited for developing Sociology as an independent subject?
A: Emile Durkheim.
10. In comparison to Durkheim, what has Weber analyzed effectively?
A: Social Action.
11. When and where the first Sociology Department was established?
A: North America, 1892.
12. What are views of Spencer on social evolution known as?
A: Social Darwinism.
13. Who established Royal Asiatic Society?
A: William Jones, 1774.
14. Whose lectures were published in Kolkatta with the title Social Organisation?
A: W.H.R. Rivers.
15. When and where the full-fledged Department of Sociology came into existence?
A: Mumbai, 1919.
16. Which book has been published by M.N. Srinivas's works on Coorgs?
A: Marriage and Family in Mysore (1942).
17. Elaborate ICSSR.
A: Indian Council of Social Science Research.

10

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. Write about the stages in development of human society as propounded by Auguste

Comte.
A: Comte has identified three stages in the development of human societies. They are:
1) Theological Stage: This is the first stage, the explanations of various phenomena were given
in religious terms.
2) Metaphysical Stage: This is the second stage, where the explanations were philosophical.
3) Positivism: This is the final stage in which every phenomena is explained in scientific terms.
2. What is the effect of French Revolution on Sociology?
A: 1) After French Revolution (1789), sociology has emerged as a subject.
2) It brought changes in family and social life.
3) It has brought tremendous socio-political changes in society.
4) The social thinkers of that time were motivated for building a new society.
3. Write about Lester Word?
A: 1) The Sociology of Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer was strengthened by Lester Word.
2) He made the distinction between pure and applied Sociology.
3) He argues that scientific processes could bring about social betterment
4. How did Karl Marx influence Sociology?
A: 1) The ideas of the German social thinker, Karl Marx (1818-1883) influenced Sociology.
2) His theoretical perspectives have given new dimensions for social relations.
3) Marx argues that every society begins with slavery.
4) In capitalist society there are two classes. (Owners of means of production and labour class).
5) Marx believed that conflict was the initiator of social change.
5. Where is the expertise of Sociologists utilized?
A: 1) Planning and development programmes, The Census organization, The Central Social Welfare
Board, the Office of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes, the Tribal Research Institutes, and
institutions associated with the Community Development Programmes.
11

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Describe the contributions of Herbert Spencer in the development of Sociology.

A: 1) The idea of evolution was carried forward in the works of British Sociologist, Herbert
Spencer.
2) He wrote a three volume work entitled "Principles of Sociology" (1876, 1882, 1896). It was
a mile-stone work.
3) He has contributed for development of Sociology as a systematic science.
4) Spencer was convinced that societies evolve in the same manner as animal species. As
generations pass, the most capable and intelligent (the fittest) members of society survive,
while the less capable die. Over time societies become more differentiated and complex. This
principle is called as the survival of the fittest.
5) He has supported the Darwins theory of evolution. Spencers views on the evolution of
societies is known as Social Darwinism.
2. Describe the role of Durkheim in development of Sociology as an independent
discipline.
A: 1) The credit for developing Sociology as an independent discipline and science goes to Emile
Durkheim (1858 1917), a French Sociologist.
2) He explained the importance of social facts in understanding the human society.
3) Social facts are objective and exist in the consciousness of the collectivity.
Examples of social facts are rules of marriage, laws, ritual performance, etc.
4) Social fact is exterior to human mind and but it constraints human behaviour.
5) His work on Suicide is a mile stone work in Sociology.
6) The impact of Durkheim on British Social Anthropology was tremendous.
7) His important works are:
i) Division of Labour in Society
ii) Suicides
3. Write about the contributions of Max Weber in development of Sociology.
A: 1) Max Weber, a German Sociologist influenced the development of Sociology.
2) He has elaborated on the concept of Social Action.
3) Social Action is an act, an individual performs to which he assigns meaning.
4) Weber was interested in studying the factors that gave rise to capitalism in Western Europe.
12

5) He said that Protestantism played a central role in generating the work ethic.
6) He has also made an important contribution to Sociological methods.
7) Much of Webers Sociology was a reaction to Marxs thoughts.
4. Explain the phases of growth of Indian Sociology.
A: The growth of sociology in India is divided into three phases. They are:
1) First Phase : 1769 to 1900 - the foundation of Sociology was laid down during this phase.
2) Second Phase: 1901 to 1950 Sociology became a profession, a university subject.
3) Third Phase: Began after Indias independence, was marked by programmes of planned
development, increased interaction of Indian sociologist with their foreign counterparts,
availability of money for research, and intensification of research and publications.
5. Explain the contributions of M.N. Srinivas in the development of Indian Sociology.
A: 1) M.N. Srinivas's work on Coorgs which was first published in 1942, under the title Marriage
and Family in Mysore is a mile stone work in the development of Indian Sociology.
2) After independence the studies on rural societies have increased. M.N. Srinivass edited
volume, Indias Villages (1956) is one of the prominent studies.
3) He studied a village in Karnataka and gave the concept of dominant caste.
4) The caste that controls economic resources as well as exercises decisive political dominance
is dominant caste.
5) The study on Coorgs led M.N. Srinivas to give the concept of 'Sanskritisation'.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Write in detail about the emergence of Sociology in West.

A: 1) Sociology does not have a long history but has a long past.
2) Some scholars trace the origin of Sociology from economics of Kautilya and politics of
Aristotle. For example the statement of Aristotle reflecting that man is a political (i.e. social)
animal sowed the seeds of Sociology.
3) Some others trace it to the writings of French scholars. Montesquieu offered a classification
of societies including the simplest ones of hunters and food gatherers.
4) Sociology as a subject emerged after the French Revolution in 1789.
5) The French Revolution brought about a tremendous socio-political change in society, leading
to a disruption of family life and other social relations.

13

6) Claude Henride Saint-Simon said that for bringing about changes in society, we must study all
its aspects so that we know where the problem actually lies.
7) This line of reasoning was further developed by Saint Simons disciple, Auguste Comte (17981857), who is also known as the Father of Sociology.
8) Auguste Comte who gave Sociology its name, identified three stages of human society.
9) The idea of evolution was carried forward in the works of British sociologist, Herbert Spencer.
Spencers view on the evolution of societies is known as Social Darwinism. He wrote a three
volume work entitled "Principles of Sociology" (1876, 1882, 1896). It was a mile-stone
work. He has contributed for development of Sociology as a systematic science.
10) The Sociology of Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer was strengthened by Lester Word.
He made the distinction between pure and applied Sociology. He argues that scientific
processes could bring about social betterment.
11) Emile Durkheim's work on suicide and Max Webers work on Social Action are important
contributions in the development of Sociology.
12) Karl Marx believed that through conflict, social change can be brought.
Gradually, the departments of Sociology were started in the nineteenth century and in the
beginning of the twentieth century in West. The first department of Sociology in North America
opened in 1892 at the University of Chicago.
2. Describe the foundations of Sociology in India.
A:

1) Britishers during the course of exercising their rule in India, realized that for smooth
administration, it is important to acquire the knowledge of Indian society and culture.
2) Information was also required about affluent families and their customs, which could be used
for revenue collection. If local societies were administrated according to their laws and customs
there would be peace and harmony. Hence their laws and customs needed to be recorded in
detail. This prompted the origin of Sociology in India.
3) William Jones has founded the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1774, the aim of which was
to study nature and man in India.
4) After this several social scientist studied about caste system, inter-relations between various
castes, demography, etc. in India.
5) The British government conducted the First All-India Census in 1871.

14

6) During nineteenth century, Max Muller, a German scholar translated several classical Indian
texts into German, which were later translated into English.
7) During the last decades of the nineteenth century, Henry Maine in both his books, Ancient
Law (1861) and Village Communities in the East and West (1871) referred to the writings on
India.
8) Both Karl Marx and Max Weber works were central to the development of Sociology and
they also made use of information from India.
3. Describe how the Sociology has developed as a profession in India.
A: 1) Sir Herbert Risley in his book People of India (1916) is one of the first one to take note of
the tribe-caste continuum.
2) Professional Sociologists and Anthropologists from Europe started working in India.
3) W.H.R. Rivers published his monograph in 1906 on a pastoral community of the Nilgiris, the
Todas.
4) During the first two decade of the twentieth century, L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer and S.C. Roy
made the major contribution. Iyer wrote on castes and tribes of Cochin and Mysore.
5) A full-fledged department of Sociology came into existence in Bombay in 1919.
6) S.C. Roy founded the first journal of Anthropology and Sociology titled Man in India in
1917.
7) Ghurye founded the Indian Sociological Society in 1951 and started its journal entitled
Sociological Bulletin.
8) M.N. Srinivass work on the Coorgs in 1942 entitled Marriage and Family in Mysore is one
of the renowned work.
4. Describe the development of Sociology after Indias independence.
A: 1) After Indias independence, Indian Sociologists and Anthropologists came in contact with
their counterparts in the United States of America. Several collaborative projects of Indian
and American Sociologists began.
2) More teaching and research positions were created as Sociology and Social Anthropology
became university subjects.
3) The popularity of these subjects increased with the beginning of planned development in India
in which Sociologists took an active part.
15

4) After 1950, several studies on rural societies were taken up. Several monographs came into
light and the prominent names were of S.C. Dube and M.N. Srinivas.
5) M.N. Srinivas studied a village in Karnataka and gave the concept of dominant caste. The
caste that controls economic resources as well as exercises decisive political dominance is
dominant caste.
6) S.C. Dube studied the inter-relationship between planned development programmes and social
and cultural factors in some villages in western Uttar Pradesh.
7) The study on Coorgs led M.N. Srinivas to give the concept of "Sanskritisation" in 1952.
8) Louis Dumont, a French Sociologist studied the Paramalai Kallar of Tamil Nadu and discussed
their social organization, especially their marriage system.
9) Dumont in his book Homo Hierachicus, discussed the basic principles and characteristics of
caste system.
With all the above efforts, Indian Sociology and Anthropology have been able to make a
mark at the international level.

16

3
RELATION BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY
AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
Introduction
In the first two lessons, we have learnt about Sociology meaning, scope and history. In this
lesson we will discuss the relation between sociology and other social sciences, based on the scope
and subject matter there is relationship between Sociology and other social sciences like History,
Political Science, Economics, Social Work, Psychology and Anthropology. Sociology is treated as
an independent science. As all the social sciences are concerned or related with society, these
subjects are inter-related.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will know the following:
You will know the special scope of sociology; and
You will understand the relation between Sociology and other social sciences.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What does History study?

A: It studies about past, which people have already lived.
2. What did Historians study during the Ancient period?
A: Inscriptions
3. Compared to which subject, the nature of Sociology is limited?
A: History
17

4. Sociology aims at macro level but studies at ______________________ level?

A: Micro.
5. Which method is employed by the Sociologists to study the society?
A: Comparative method.
6. Which social science is known as the science of government?
A: Political Science.
7. Which science studies the state and other organs of power in a systematic way?
A: Political Science.
8. Which kind of societies are studied by Political Science?
A: Complex, advanced and modern societies.
9. Give the example for stateless Societies?
A: Nuer of Sudan.
10. Which science is more developed of all the social sciences?
A: Economics
11. Which aspects are studied by Economics?
A: Production, distribution and exchange and consumption in society.
12. What is the process of striking a balance between the resources and needs known
as?
A: Economization or Science of Economic Studies.
13. What is the similarity between Economics and Political Science?
A: Economics and Political Science (both) focus upon a specific institution of modern society.
14. In developing economy, what kind of role is played by economics in making decisions
in making profits?
A: Rational decisions.
15. What is Social Work?
A: Social work is the application of technology and ideas for the upliftment and improvement of
human society.
16. Which subject lies between Sociology and Social Work?
A: Applied Sociology.
18

17. Which science studies the biological and Socio-cultural aspects of human beings?
A: Anthropology.
18. Which branch of Anthropology studies the pre-historic past of mankind?
A: Archaeological Anthropology or Pre-historic Archaeology.
19. Which science studies the mental structure of the individual and behaviour?
A: Psychology.
20. How are social processes learnt?
A: Language.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. Write the differences between Sociology and History.

A: 1) History is the study of past and Sociology studies the present society.
2) Historians are concerned with specific societies and sociologists are concerned with the
study of contemporary societies.
3) Sociology is an observational, comparative and generalizing science and history bases
itself on an analysis of documents.
2. What are the differences between Political Science and Sociology?
A: 1) Political scientists begin with macro-units and generalize about them. Sociologist study
micro-units, systematically compare them, and then reach common propositions.
2) Political institutions are part of every society and thus are important in Sociological
analysis.
3. Which aspects have been considered by the Economist for the maximization of gains
in the economic system?
A: 1) The relationship between demand and supply in a society;
2) The rational use of resources for fulfilling ones needs; and
3) The issues of economic development.
4. Describe the relationship between Sociology and Economics.
A: 1) Economists collect the data from government publications, Census reports, proceedings of
the banking institutions, economic survey reports, etc. These data pertains to macro-level
situations. But Sociology studies at the micro-level.
19

2) The Economist uses the deductive approach whereas Sociologist uses the inductive
approach.
3) Sociology is not as quantitative as is Economics.
5. What is meant by "pure science" and "applied science"?
A: 1) Pure science is concerned with acquiring knowledge about the working of society and
leading a philosophical dialogue on it. Eg: Sociology.
2) Applied science is application of the knowledge for the improvement and development of
society. Eg: Social Work.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Write about the relationship between Sociology and Political Science.

A: 1) Political science is known as science of government or the science of polity or politics.
It studies the state and other organs of power in a systematic way. Sociology is the study
of society.
2) Political Science generally studies the complex, advanced and modern societies. But
Sociology studies all types of societies.
3) Each society has its own procedures to handle the cases of the breakdown of rules and
customs. Sociology supplements the understanding of Political Scientists by providing
information about the mechanisms of social control in simple societies.
4) From Sociological perspective, political institution is one of the institutions of society and
should be analysed in relationship with other institutions. Political Science specifically
studies about the political institutions.
5) Both Sociology and Political Science aim to reach general propositions about the political
systems but the way in which they accomplish this task is different.
6) Political Scientists begin with macro-units and generalize about them. Sociologists study
micro-units, systematically compare them, and then reach common propositions.
2. Write about the relationship between Sociology and Economics.
A: 1) Economics primarily studies three aspects. They are production, distribution and
exchange and consumption in society.
2) The process of striking a balance between the resources and needs is called
'economization' or 'the science of economic studies'.
3) Sociologists examine the relationship between economic institutions and other institutions
in the society.

20

4) Sociologists look at the social aspects of economy whereas the Economist look at the
economic consequences of peoples action.
5) Economics studies at macro-level where as Sociology studies both at macro and microlevel.
3. What is the relationship between Sociology and Social Work?
A: 1) The relation between Sociology and Social Work is like the relation between a pure
science and an applied science.
2) Social Work is essentially an American interest. It grew out of a concern for human
welfare.
3) To remove the gaps in the society, knowledge alone is not sufficient. It has to be put to use.
Social work is a product of this background.
4) Sociology generates holistic knowledge about society. It also discusses the possibility of
applying this knowledge. Social Work is dependent upon Sociological insights.
4. Write about the relationship between Sociology and Anthropology.
A: 1) Anthropology studies the biological and socio-cultural aspects of human beings. There are
four branches of Anthropology. i) Archeological Anthropology or pre-historic Archeology
ii) Social Anthropology iii) Linguistic Anthropology and iv) Physical or Biological
Anthropology.
2) Out of the above said branches, Social Anthropology is most closely associated with
Sociology.
3) The division of labour that traditionally developed was that Sociology concentrated on the
study of complex, modern and urban-industrial Societies, whereas Social Anthropology
studies tribal, peasant and pre-literate societies of the world and those societies that were
largely untouched by the forces of civilization.
4) Sociology is study of ones own society, while Anthropology earned the reputation of
being the study of other cultures.
5) Both Sociology and Anthropology are comparative in nature.
6) Both Sociology and Anthropology study different types of societies, but they have
respective methods of studying.
7) Anthropology focuses on primitive societies, whereas Sociology focuses on civilised
societies.
21

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Describe the relationship between Sociology and History.

A: 1) The relationship between Sociology and History is connected with another question,
whether Sociology is a science of society like one of the natural and biological science or
a kind of history writing.
2) Sociologists of the nineteenth and early twentieth century thought that Sociology was a
natural science of society. However later on Sociology was termed as social science.
3) Historians are concerned with specific societies. They tell about the system that prevailed
in a society at a particular time. The comparisons of historians are of limited scale.
Historians rarely attempt to generalize about human society as a whole.
4) Sociology is principally concerned with the study of contemporary societies. Sociologists
collect data (primary data) using several methods. They purely do not base themselves on
the data collected by others.
5) The data collected by Sociologisst are more comprehensive than the historians.
6) Sociologists in order to understand the contemporary society, refer the historical material
for understanding social and cultural change.
7) History studies about the past. Sociology pertains to present. History does not study about
the present society, but Sociology studies about the past societies.
8) Sociology is an observational, comparative and generalizing science. History bases itself
on an analysis of documents.
2. Describe the relationship between Sociology and Psychology.
A: 1) The individual and society are the two main concepts in social sciences. Psychology
focuses on the study of the individual.
2) Psychology tries to understand why an individual behaves in the manner he does. It studies
psychic facts. The individual acquires the knowledge of the behavioural patterns from the
society.
3) The individuals despite being from the same society behave differently. Individuals in same
situation may behave and respond differently.
4) Individuals imbibe language in the process of socialization. The proficiency to use the
language depends on the personality and the psychic facts.
5) The concepts of status and role act as link between Psychology and Sociology.
6) The individual in the society, occupies a social position and behaves in accordance to the
position. The individual performs the role, in accordance with the expectations of the
society.
22

4
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Introduction
Social research is concerned with the explanation of human behavior. Data of some kind will
play an important role in such explanations and to this end the social scientists have devised methods
and techniques for the systematic collection of data. Methods are processes and principles by
which we approach the problems and seek answers. Every method has its own techniques, and
techniques are tools for data collection. Here we will discuss most widely used research methods
and techniques.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
Discuss different research methods, mainly historical, comparative, experimental, functional
and empirical methods; and
Explain the different techniques of data collection viz. observation, case study, survey,
questionnaire and interview.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. Which method is used to study the origins, development and transformation of social
institutions?
A. Historical Method.
2. Which discipline influenced the earliest social scientists to a great extent?
A. History of Philosophy.
23

3. Whose works can be considered as examples of first phase of historical method?

A. August Comte and Herbert Spencer.
4. Whose works can be considered as examples of second phase of historical method?
A. Max Weber
5. Which method is used to compare the similarities and differences between two
societies or communities?
A. Comparative Method.
6. What is studied using cultural method?
A. Society
7. Which is the popular writing of Murdock?
A. Social Structure.
8. Who first used the Comparative method?
A Evolutionary Sociologists (Emile Durkheim was the first to set it clearly).
9. Indirect experiments can be done using Comparative-Historical method? Who
said this?
A. Emile Durkheim.
10. Who formulated the Behaviour Patterns?
A. Emile Durkheim.
11. Which is the most common used method in sociological research?
A. The Experimental Method.
12. Which method has developed in Anthropology and Sociology as a reaction against
the methods and claims of evolutionists?
A. Functionalist method.
13. Who coined the term dysfunction?
A. Robert Merton.
14. How should be the language of the Questionnaire?
A. Words and phrases should be simple and familiar.
15. What is the conversation between a researcher and respondent called?
A. Interview.
24

16. What are the types of interview?

A. 1) Structured Formal Interview
2) Unstructured Informal Interview
3) Semi Structured Interview
17. What is the intensive analysis of a social unit called?
A. Case Study
18. What are the methods of data collection?
A. 1) Observation

2) Survey

3) Questionnaire

4) Case Study

5) Interview

19. How does the researcher specifically sees and analyses social events?
A. Observation
20. What is the main objective of Social Survey?
A. Provide information

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What are the sources of information for Historians?

A. Written records of all type, laws, Public records, reports, business and commercial
documents, news papers, historical diaries, letters, genealogies, travelers account and
literature in all forms as well as physical survivals in the form of buildings and artifacts.
2. How is Comparative method used?
A. 1) This method has been developed extensively by Anthropologists.
2) It is used especially to understand changes and developments in social systems
3) This method helps in studying different types of groups and societies in order to determine
analytically the factors that lead to similarities and differences in specified patterns of
behaviour.
3. What is the focus of Functionalism?
A. The functionalist method focuses on social system as a whole, how they operate, how they
change and the social consequences they produce.
The central concern is with the source of order and stability in society. The focus is on:
a) The way social institutions help in maintaining order in social life.
b) The way structural arrangements in society influence behaviour.
25

4. Write about Empirical Method?

A. 1) This method deals with collecting data from the field.
2) It helps to study the social realities pertaining to social life.
3) The various techniques associated with this method are observation, survey, and
experimental case study.
5. What are the differences between functionalism and functional analysis?
A. 1) Functional analysis requires from the researcher that he/she explains or analyzes his
observations of recurring phenomena in terms of their consequences for the wider social
system within which they exist. In this context, functional analysis is a method of
sociological and anthropological enquiry which consists of examining social and cultural
items by locating them in a wider context.
2) Functional method is primarily traced with Emile Durkheims work in nineteenth century
and Talcott Parsons in twentieth century. The functional method deals with the
interrelationships between the various parts of the society and the changes which happen in
these interrelationships over a period of time.
6. Write about Case Study.
A. 1) Case Study method studies social phenomena through the analysis of an individual case.
2) In this an intensive and exhaustive study is done on a particular unit of the society. A social
unit like an individual, family or an organization can be studied.
3) The techniques of case study are observation, interviews, questionnaire, press reports,
letters, diaries, etc.
7. Write briefly about Questionnaire.
A. 1) Questionnaire is a list of questions which are formed to get information from respondents.
2) To study certain specific social fields questionnaire is the only method.
3) The main aim of the questionnaire is to collect the required information from the
respondents.
4) This can be sent through posts, e-mail, etc. also.
8. What kind of questions should be there in a questionnaire?
A. 1) The questions should be easily understandable.
2) The questions should be clear.
3) The language should be simple (colloquial language).
26

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Write about the Historical method.

A. 1) Historical method is used to study events, processes and institutions of past civilizations for
the purpose of finding the origins or antecedents of contemporary social life and thus
understanding its nature and working.
This is one of the important methods to understand and analyze social changes.
2) This method helps to understand the evolution of social institutions, its development and
the changes occurred in these institutions. This method is based on the idea that our
present forms of social life, our customs and traditions, beliefs and values and our ways of
living as such have their roots in the past and that one can best explain them by tracing them
back to their origins.
3) Utility and wide acceptance of the historical method have resulted in one of the fields of
Sociology known as Historical Sociology which studies societies of the remote as well
as of recent past to discover origins and find explanations for our present ways of life.
4) The historical method is manifested in two principal forms. The initial social philosophers
were influenced initially by Philosophy and then by Biological theories
The second form of historical method can be seen in the works of Max Weber.
5) This method also helps in understanding and studying the role of historical changes in
shaping of social structure.
2. Write about Experimental Method.
A. 1) Experimental Method is mainly used by natural scientists. Experimentation in social
sciences normally involves the testing of a hypothesis about the relationship between an
independent variable (cause) and a dependent variable (effect).
2) Experiments are usually set up so that the scientist controls the introduction of possible
independent variables. In the natural sciences, such control is enhanced by use of a
laboratory. Any change in the participants behaviour should be the result of the change
introduced by the experimenter.
3) These difficulties have led to some Sociologists adopting variations on the experimental
method. The experimental method uses the social world as the laboratory.
4) The researcher, usually using official statistics, compares a before and after situation in a
social group where a change has taken place with one where it has not.
3.

Write about Functionalism as proposed by Herbert Spencer.

A. 1) The 19th Century Functionalist theory was based on biological system as presented by
biological sciences.
27

2) Herbert Spencer used "Organic Analogy" and conceived of a society as a biological

system, a greater organism, alike in its structure and its functions. Just as a biological
system has interrelated tissues and organs that function together, similarly society has
several parts which are dependent on each other though every organ has its independent
function.
3) The Sustaining system of human body (mouth, stomach, intestines) are compared to farms,
industries etc.
4) The Distributing system of human body (blood vessels, heart) compared to transport,
communication, railways, bankers, etc.
5) The Regulating system of human body (nerves, motor mechanism) compared to Govt.,
priests, rulers, etc.
6) Robert Merton opposed the functionalism proposed by Spencer
4. Write about Interview Method.
A 1) Interview Method can be called as the process of talking in more purposive and
systematic manner than our day to day gossiping with each other.
2) It is a face to face interpersonal role situation. There are some kinds of information which
is virtually impossible to be obtained by any other means.
3) Structured Interview: It is based upon structured set of questions and thus is highly
standardized in the form or content.
4) Unstructured Interview: No set of structured questions. It is mostly used in exploratory
situation and the questions are not necessarily preplanned, structured or ordered.
5) The respondents are free to narrate their experiences and incidents of life.
5. Explain the Social Survey method.
A. 1) Social survey is a systematic and comprehensive study of a particular community with a
view to analyze a social problem with a diagnostic purpose in mind so that it is
accompanied by certain set of recommendations.
2) The purpose of survey is to provide information. The techniques of survey are interview
schedule and questionnaire to elicit the information and analyze and interpret using
statistical measures.
3) It is used as an alternative for experimental method and participant observation method.
Surveys may be used in case study research.
4) The different types of surveys used by Sociologists are:
Descriptive: To describe what exists and to identify the needs.

28

Explanatory: To identify the changes and their causes.

Predictive: To predict future changes and possible effects of new policies.
Evaluative: To evaluate the results of past policies.
6. Write about sources of data collection
A. 1) The data serves as the basis for analysis without which no specific inferences can be made.
The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of the
study.
2) Data forms the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. The scientific process
of measurement, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant
data and their accuracy.
3) The sources of data may be classified into two types. They are:
Primary Sources: Original sources from which the researcher directly collects data
that have not been previously collected.
Secondary Sources: These sources consist of already compiled data and have been
compiled for any other purpose. Ex. Census reports, annual reports on currency and
finance published by RBI etc

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Write in detail about Comparative Method?

A. Comparative method is as old as Aristotle and was used in study of political systems.
Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Taylor, Frazer, Weber, Hobbhouse, Ginsberg, G.P.
Murdock, S. F. Nadel made it sufficiently popular. Though this method was first used by
evolutionary Sociologists, Emile Durkheim through his writing "The Rules of Sociological
Method", established the significance of this method.
In this method different societies are compared or different groups within the same society
are compared to show whether and why they are similar or different in certain respects. By
such comparisons of differences as well as similarities found in the ways of life of people of
different groups and societies, one can find clues to mans social behavior.
According to Emile Durkheim, direct experiments are out of question in Sociology, we are
compelled to use the method of indirect experiment, i.e. comparative method.
In 'Division of Labour', Durkheim compared the legal systems of different societies at the
same time and at different levels of development. This method was used in establishing
29

correlations between crime and urbanization, between family size and social mobility,
between social class and educational attainment, between urban living and divorce or
delinquency rates etc.
This method uses both Historical method and Cross-cultural method to refer the
comparisons of contemporary cultures.
2. Write about Functionalist Method.
A. 1) Functionalist Method is one of the major methods in Sociology. It has its origins in the
works of Emile Durkheim, who was especially interested in how social order is possible or
how society remains relatively stable.
2) Functionalism interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability
of the whole society. Society is more than the sum of its parts; rather, each part of society
is functional for the stability of the whole society.
3) The different parts are primarily the institutions of society, each of which is organized to
fulfill different needs and each of which has particular consequences for the form and shape
of society. These parts depend on each other.
4) The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists
in the 1940s and 1950s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the
inner workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the
functions of human behavior.
5) Among these American functionalist, Robert K. Merton, divided human functions into two
types: "Manifest Functions and Latent Functions".
6) Functionalism has received criticism for neglecting the negative functions of an event such
as divorce.
3. What is Observation? Write about types of Observation.
A. 1) Observation is a systematic viewing of specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the
specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study.
2) Observation is used in exploratory research to gain insights into the problems which can be
later tested by other techniques of data collection.
3) It can also be used to verify and extend the generalizations or theories formed on the basis
of other studies.
4) Types of Observation:
i) Participant Observation: In this method the observer takes on the role of member of
the group in disguise and participates in the different activities of the group at the same
time observes the behavior or activities of other members of the group, who are
completely unaware of the procedure.
30

ii) Non- Participant Observation: This is applied when the observer collects facts in the
most formal manner without complete participation. Often the observed persons are
aware of the investigation going on. It is often used in small group research situation.
iii) Quasi Participant Observation: It involves limited amount of participation in the
community activities. It is difficult for the observer and the observed to maintain the
quality of complete non participation.
iv) Systematic, Structured and Controlled Observation: This is one in which the
observer knows in advance as to what aspects of behavior or activities of people are
relevant for the research work and therefore plans the manner of observing and
recording of events much before the actual data collection begins.
v) Unstructured, Uncontrolled Observation: The things to be observed are not
prefixed and the observer is more or less in a free situation. The things to be observed
is decided in the field at the spot of observation thus giving greater opportunity for
decision making.
vi) Natural and Laboratory Observation: The natural observation is made in natural
settings whereas laboratory observation is made in laboratory
vii) Open and Hidden Observation: In open observation the identity of the researcher
and purpose of research are known to the observers. In hidden observation both these
remain hidden from the people under observation.
viii) Direct and Indirect Observation: In direct observation the observer plays a passive
role i.e. there is no attempt to control or manipulate the situation. The observer merely
records what is happening. Indirect observation is one in which the direct observation is
not possible owing to either death of the subject or refuses to take part in the exercise.
This is usually used by Criminologists.
ix) Covert and Overt Observation: In covert observation the subjects are unaware that
they are being observed. The researcher participates in all the activities and usually this
type is unstructured type. In overt observation the subjects are aware that they are
being observed.

31

5
SOCIETY, COMMUNITY,
ASSOCIATION AND INSTITUTIONS
Introduction
Sociology is science of society which focuses on certain basic units to understand how human
beings live and carry out their activities. These units provide the basis for understanding
relationships between individual life and social processes. In this lesson we shall discuss certain
basic concepts used by Sociologists to understand social life. These are 1) Society, 2) Community,
3) Association and 4) Institution.

Objectives
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
Understand the concepts and definition of society and community;
State the similarities and differences between society and community;
Explain the concept of association and institution;
State the distinction and relationship between association and institution; and
State the importance of these concepts in the study of social life.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What does Society mean to a common man?

A. Collectivity or a group of people.
2. Name the book written by MacIver and Page.
A. Society
32

3. According to Sociology what is the meaning of institution?

A. It is a set of patterned behaviour
4. What is the common meaning of institution?
A. System
5. Write about the characteristics of Society?
A.

Uniformity Diversity

Reciprocal and mutual dependence

Cooperation

Conflict

6. Give an example of Community

A. Students Community.
7. What are naturally formed groups called?
A. Society or Community.
8. What are the groups that function on the basis of written laws?
A. Association.
9. The groups which are organized for specific purpose or objective are known as____
A. Association
10. What is the difference between institution and association?
A. Institution is a set of patterned behaviour whereas association is a group of people organized
for a particular purpose.
11. According to Social philosophers how many institutions are important for the
progress of the society?
A Six institutions.
12. What serves wider ends of people?
A. Community.
13. What are types of Communities?
A. Rural, Urban, Tribal, National, International, etc.
14. What are the reasons for weakening of rural communities in India?
A. Population explosion, Modernization and Industrialization.
33

15. What is the major difference between society and an association?

A. Association is based on written rules and regulations whereas society is based on norms and
values.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What is the similarity between society and community?

A. 1. Society and Community are social groups which have formed naturally. However
community is based on common interests.
2. Both serve wider ends.
3. Members of both have sense of belongingness.
2. Write the differences between society and community.
Society

Community

Society is abstract

Community is relatively concrete

Definite geographical area is not necessary

It is necessary

Society is larger than community

Community is part of society

The objectives and interests of society are more

extensive

Relatively less extensive

Common interests are not that necessary

It is necessary

3. What are the reasons for weakening of traditional communities in India?

A. 1. British rule
2. Population Explosion.
3. Educational System.
4. Industrialization.
5. Information and Communication system.
6. Transportation System.
7. Changes in traditions and rituals.
4. What are the characteristics of association?
A. Association is a group of people organized for a particular purpose or a limited number of
purposes. According to Mac-Iver an association is an organization deliberately formed
for the collective pursuit of some interests or set of interests which its members share.
34

To constitute an association
A group of people should be there.
These people must be organized i.e. there must be certain rules.
They must have a common purpose.
Examples: Political associations- BJP, Congress, etc.
Students associations- ABVP, NSUI, SFI, etc.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Write about Community life in India.

A. Indias community life is predominantly rural in nature.
The environment of the rural society is different from urban society.
The fundamental occupation is agriculture and other occupations are subsidiary to it.
Relatively homogeneous population due to similarity of the occupation and lifestyles.
Traditional and rigid system of social stratification (caste).
Poverty and illiteracy.
Establishment of traditional Panchayats.
Division of labour based on Caste system, and mutual cooperation and social solidarity.
2. Write the differences between Society, Community and Association.
Society & Community

Association

These are naturally formed groups

These are formed for a specific purpose

or goals

These are stable and exists for longer period

These groups may be for short period

These groups are based on social relationships

and members may have diversified interests.

These are special interest groups with

members having common and specific
interest

These groups work on the basis of traditions

and customs

These groups work on the basis of

written rules and regulations (law)

3. What is an institution? Write about primary institutions which exist in all the
societies?
A: 1. The concept of social institutions is one of the most important aspects of study of Sociology.
It can be understood as the established patterns of behavior, which governs the behavior
of the individuals.
35

Characteristics:
1. Institutions are strongly related with the collective activities and relationships between the
people and hence are social in nature.
2. Social institutions are found in all the societies, all over the world and in all time periods and
thus are universal in nature.
3. Institutions prescribe the ways of doing things in different situations and relationships and thus
are standardized norms for the behavior.
4. According to Sociologists, every society comprises of 6 basic institutions. They are:
a. Economic Institutions (Agriculture and Industries).
b. Social Institutions (Family and Kinship).
c. Political Institutions.
d. Education and Socialization.
e. Religion.
f. Expressive Institutions (Music, Dance, etc).

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. What is Society? Write about the basic characteristics of society?

A: 1) Society is an aggregation i.e. collection of individuals who are subjected to the same
external conditions.
2) Society is a collection of interacting individuals sharing the same way of life and living in the
same territory. The building blocks of societies are statuses, roles, groups and institutions.
Society is a web of social relationships.
3) Sociologists have identified certain important characteristics for the functioning of the
society. They are:
a) Likeness and differentiation.
b) Inter-dependence.
c) Co-operation and conflict.
a) Likeness and differentiation: According to Mac-Iver these two are the important
characteristics of the human society. Likeness is similarity of culture, tradition, life-style,
etc among the people living in a society. Likeness is not sufficient for the existence of the
society. People in the society are different from each other in terms of caste, class,
occupation and education. This is called differentiation. These two play a vital role in
safeguarding the social harmony.
36

b) Inter-dependence: The members of the society are inter-dependent on each other for
the fulfillment of their needs. This inter-dependence leads to social relationships. An
individual may not satisfy all his requirements on his own. Thus, for the smooth
functioning of the society, inter-dependence is important.
c) Cooperation: Cooperation is observed at every level of society.
Eg: Relationship between wife and husband, between neighbours, etc.
d) Conflict: Groups can enter into conflicting relations if their interests are opposed to
each other.
Eg: Conflict between the landlords and landless labourers.
2. What is Community? Write about its characteristics
A. According to sociologists, whenever the members of any group, small or large, live together
in such a way that they share the basic conditions of a common life is known as community.
Eg: Neighbours, Village.
Characteristics of Community:
i) Community refers to an aggregate of individuals.
ii) It is associated with a locality.
iii) The members of the community have strong community sentiments or a sense of
belongingness or we feeling.
iv) Community as a group of people is created spontaneously over a long period of time.
v) Therefore it has more permanence or endurance than those groups which are created with
a purpose.
vi) Community serves wider ends.
vii) A community is usually associated with a specific name.

37

6
SOCIAL GROUPS

Introduction
In the previous lessons we have learnt about concepts like society, community, association
and institution. It must be clear by now that these terms refer to groupings that help us to make sense
of how human beings live. However we use the term social group specifically to convey how people
live with each other as a coherent whole. Social groups are the basic units where human beings live,
lead their life and enter into meaningful interactions. Sociologists use this concept in understanding
the functioning of the human society.
You must have realized that human beings living in society do not live in isolation. They need to
have people around them with whom they can share their problems, ideas and experiences. They
look for human company. Therefore, human beings are social animals. They live in society. But we
have said earlier that society is abstract. It cannot be seen but only realized through existence and
operations of various social norms which regulate and orient individual behaviour. Therefore, the
question before us is if we cannot see society what meaning does it convey to us? It is in this
context that the concept of group assumes significance.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
Define the concept of social group;
Understand the characteristics of social group;
Understand the types of social groups; and
Distinguish group from society, institution and community.
38

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What is a collection of people who interact with one another and have certain mutual
relationships called?
A. Social Groups
2. How many people comprise a social group?
A. Two or more than two. Two member group is called as Dyad.
3. Give an example of a functional group?
A. Viewers watching a game with lot of interest.
4. What is the group called which can cause revolutions?
A. Class.
5. With which the Sociologists have compared group?
A. Social Bricks.
6. Give an example of a social group.
A. Cricket Team.
7. What are the reasons for change in group formation?
A. Joining of new members in the group or leaving of old members.
8. What is collection of groups called?
A. Society.
9. What is a two member group called?
A. Dyad.
10. What is a three member group called?
A. Triad.
11. Who categorized the groups into Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft?
A. Ferdinand Tonnies.
12. What are the types of groups based on rules of social engagement?
A. Formal and Informal groups.
13. What are the types of groups based on relationships between people?
A. Three types Primary groups, Secondary groups and Tertiary groups.
39

14. Give an example of Secondary group.

A. Red Cross Society.
15. Give an example of horizontal group
A. Peer group.
16. What are the groups which comprise of social classes and different economic status?
A. Vertical group.
17. What is the In-group consciousness called?
A. Ethnocentrism.
18. What is the other name for Out group?
A. They group.
19. Give an example of ephemeral or chance group?
A. A person who meets at bus stop.
20. What are groups called in which the membership is voluntary and mobility is
possible?
A. Open Group.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. Write in brief about social groups.

A. 1) Social group is a collection of people who interact with each other on a regular basis.
2) Social group is any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationships
with one another.
3) Group is guided by the norms and values.
4) Groups are dynamic and are influenced by the individual personalities and in turn influence
them.
5) Sociologists study and describe the social groups in a scientific manner.
2. What is a crowd? Write about types of crowds.
A. 1) Crowd is an aggregate of people at a certain point of time. For example we see many
people who have gathered to see the street play in our neighborhood. This collection forms
a crowd.
40

2) The crowds can be classified into two types:

a) Active Crowd: People clapping upon seeing something interesting while watching
match.
b) Passive Crowd: Number of people shopping in a local market.
3. Write about Tertiary groups.
A. 1) Tertiary groups combine of many groups having similar characteristics and the contact or
interaction is only notional in character.
Eg. Confederation of labour unions which comprise large number of unions
4. Classify the groups on the basis of size.
A. Some Sociologists have suggested that size can be taken as a criteria for classifying the
groups. They are:
a) Dyad: Two people forming a group.
Eg: Husband and Wife forming a group.
b) Triad: Three or more people form a group
5. How many groups are categorized by German Sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies?
A. Ferdinand Tonnies has categorized the groups into two. They are:
1. Gemeinschaft (Community)
2. Gesellschaft (Association)
6. Classify Groups on the basis of its characteristics.
A. Groups can be classified into Open and Closed groups on the basis of its characteristics.
1) Open groups: These are the groups where membership is voluntary and mobility of
members is possible. For example Class system.
2) Closed groups: The membership is restricted and mobility is relatively difficult. For
example Caste group
7. Write about Reference groups.
A. In society some groups are reference group and model group. A group that is used as the
frame of reference for evaluating ones own behavior.
Inspite of not being the member of this group, the individual takes it as a model for his own
actions and behaviour. This group is called as a reference group.
For example: 1) for landless agricultural labourers landlords can be reference groups
2) For educated unemployed the salaried groups is the reference group.
41

8. Write two differences between a group and an institution

A.

Group

Institution

1) Collection of people

1) Set of patterned behaviour

2) Temporary

2) Permanent

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. What are the differences between social group, social category and crowd?
A. 1) Social group is a collection of people who interact with one another and have certain
feeling of unity, which is not present in a crowd and less in category.
2) In a social group there is mutual awareness and interaction which is not present in the
crowd.
3) Social group is much more enduring than social category and crowd.
4) In social group, the members have group consciousness which is not present in crowd.
5) The members of the group have we feeling which is not present in crowd.
6) Category is an aggregate of people having common characteristics. For example people
with same income. They are different from the group since in category direct interactions
are lacking. Crowd may not have such a similarity.
2. What is Primary group? Write about its characteristics.
A. 1) Primary group is a social group characterized by face to face relationship, mutual aid,
intimacy and companionship.
Eg: Families or small village.
External features of Primary Groups:
Small size;
Face-to-face interaction; and
Physical proximity
Internal features of Primary Groups:
We feeling;
Altruism good will for the group;
Spontaneous growth;
Enduring character;
Relations as ends and as means;
Dominance of informal social norms and inter-personal relations with emotional
bondage.
42

3. What are secondary groups? Write about its characteristics.

A. In the secondary groups the relation between the individuals are impersonal, face to face
contact is not present.
Eg: a political party, caste and trade unions.
External features of Secondary Groups:
1) Large in size. Eg: Red Cross Society.
2) Indirect relation: The members communicate with each other by indirect means.
Eg: Letter, fax and telephone, etc.
3) Goal-oriented: The main function of this groups is to fulfill a specific need.
4) Impersonal relation: The members need not meet face to face and still perform their job.
5) Option of membership: Membership is not compulsory. One can become a member of
Rotary Club or Red Cross Society.
4. Write about the differences between a group and community?
A.

Social Groups

Community

Groups are formed

Communities exist naturally

Groups are formed with specific objectives

It includes people through out the life span

May be temporary

Communities are permanent

Group is a part of community

Community is collection of groups

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Write about the characteristics of Social groups.

A. The important characteristics of groups are:
1) Number of persons: At least two persons have to be there in a group.
2) Membership Consciousness: Each member is conscious of his or her membership in his
or her group.
3) Organised Structure: Every group is structurally organized.
4) Interaction with a meaning and purpose: Interaction takes place between members
with definite meaning and purpose.
5) Sense of belongingness: There is a we feeling in the group.

43

6) Common goals and interests: Members of a group often share common goals and work
together for their realization. Eg: members of a cricket club are bound with each other to
play the game of cricket to win a match.
7) Group Norms: Each group has its own rules or norms, which the members are expected
to follow.
8) Comparative enduring character: Each group possesses relative permanency.
9) Nomenclature: Largely each group is known by a name.
10) Specific culture likes language and symbols: Each group possesses specific rules of
behaviour, specific styles of interaction and language and symbols to communicate.
11) Reciprocal Relations: The members of a group are reciprocally related to each other.
2. Write the differences between Primary and Secondary groups.
Differences between Primary and Secondary Groups
Characteristics

Primary Groups

Secondary Groups

Size

Small

Large

Duration of Interaction

Persists over time

Short lived

Nature of proximity

High: face to face

Low

Nature of interests

Diffused

Specific

Nature of relationships

Close

Impersonal

Found more in

Rural Society

Urban Society

3. Describe about group formation.

A. There are several bases for group formation. Some of them are:
1) On the basis of structure, groups can be classified into two types. They are:
a) Horizontal Groups
b) Vertical Groups
a) Horizontal Groups are the groups with people belonging to same category and social
status and they do not give significance to hierarchy. They have similar socio-economic
living conditions.
Eg: Peer group
b) Vertical groups are the groups with people of different classes and economic status. The
interaction is based on conscious sense of hierarchy. Eg: Caste System, Class system

44

2) On the basis of feelings groups can be classified into two types. They are:
a) In Group
b) Out Group
a) In Group refers to that aggregate of members who interact with a sense of intra group
solidarity. In groups always evaluate Out Group based on the cultures. Therefore
superiority, inferiority dimensions occur and this consciousness is called ethnocentrism. In
groups are "We Groups".
b) Out group is "they group".
For example member of one caste are "in groups" and for them the members of other
castes are "out groups".
3) On the basis of duration of contact, groups can be classified into two types. They are:
a) Ephemeral or Chance groups: Eg: people meeting in the bus stop.
b) Enduring groups: Eg: Peer group friendship.
4) On the basis of the nature of groups, it can be classified into two types. They are:
a) Open Groups: These are the groups where membership is voluntary and mobility of
members is possible. For example Class system.
b) Closed groups: The membership is restricted and mobility is relatively difficult. For
example Caste group
5) Reference groups: The reference group is in contrast with the membership group. While
latter refers to a group a person belongs to reference groups are those whose norms and
standards one emulates. Reference group is that one that one wants to join and which an
individual looks upon as a model.

45

7
SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL
SYSTEM
Introduction
In a high school, students change every year, some students pass out and some enter a new
class. A new student gets transferred from another school; someone drops out, being unable to
continue study because of financial difficulties, but the school as a social system continues to
survive. We tend to take most patterns of behaviour (brushing our teeth, eating, breakfast, going to
school) so much for granted that we usually do not pay attention to them. But it is precisely these
activities that provide clues to the structure of human societies. If we examine our daily lives, we see
the extent to which social structure influences our behaviour. Our schools or employers determine
when we should sleep or wake up; or when we should eat or take rest from work or studies. Most
often our parents and the demands of the job market help to shape our goals or success in life.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
Define social structure;
Explain their chief characteristics;
Describe the bases of social structure (need, role and status);
Explain the meaning of social system; and
Explain the bases of social system.

46

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What guides our behaviors and views constantly?

A. Social Structure
2. With how many people social system is arranged?
A. With two or more than two people.
3. What is the most important aspect of social structure?
A. People.
4. What is the position occupied by an individual in society called?
A. Status.
5. What is the expected behavioral aspect of status called?
A. Role.
6. What are the basic forms of social organization?
A. Groups, Associations and Institutions.
7. What is the arrangement of persons in institutionally controlled or defined
relationships called?
A. Social structure.
8. What are types of Status?
A. 1) Ascribed Status

2) Achieved Status.

9. What prescribes the rewards and punishments or penalties in the society?

A. Mores.
10. What are the products of experience and cultural training?
A. Sentiments.
11. Write about types of sentiments.
A. Sentiments may be of various types- intellectual, ethical, religious, etc.
12. Write about types of sanctions.
A. Positive sanctions and Negative sanctions.
13. What are the means used to attain the ends in the social system?
A. Facilities.
47

14. What are the important aspects of Social Structure?

A. System (Organisation) and Status.
15. What are the bases for ranking an individual?
A. a) Evaluation made of him.
b) His act in accordance with the norm.
16. The divide and rule policy of British created strong sentiments among which
communities during colonial rule?
A. Hindus- Muslims

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What is basis of division of social structure?

A. 1. Sociologists explain and classify social structure on the basis of social values.
2. Some other Sociologists explain in terms of goals achieved in a structure like family, school
or army as the soul of social structure.
3. Sociologists have often included the study of associations, groups and institutions in
analysis of social structure.
2. Write about the definitions of social structure.
A. 1) Structure refers to the way, parts of anything relate to one another.
2) Structure means an ordered arrangement and stable internal relationship of parts.
3) It is an arrangement by which human behaviour is restricted and directed.
4) Structure refers to patterns of organisation which dictate human behaviour.
3. Write about the ranks in social system.
A. 1) Rank is equivalent to standing.
2) It includes the importance an individual has for the system in which a rank is accorded to
him.
3) An individual is given rank on the basis of two factors. They are
a) Evaluation made of him.
b) His act in accordance with the norm.
4. What is the meaning of social organizations?
A. 1) The term organization means arrangement of persons or parts which are interrelated or
interdependent.
Eg: educational institutions, churches, political parties, etc
48

2) Everyone has to perform a role and at the same time coordination of social relationships
exists.
3) Organisation asserts on the coordination of social relations.
5. What is the role of goal or objective in social system?
A 1) Objectives create social system. Members along with relevant social structure of a social
system expect to accomplish a particular goal or objective through appropriate action.
2) The human needs, goals and ends determine the nature of social system.
3) Primarily human beings are united to accomplish the basic needs of life. For Eg: Food,
clothing and shelter.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. What is meant by social system? Write about its characteristics?

A. System is an orderly arrangement. It signifies patterned relationship among the constituent
parts of structure which is based upon functional relations and which makes these parts active
and binds them in unity.
Characteristics :
1) Social System refers to the orderly arrangement of parts or components of society.
2) There exists a systematic relationship between the parts.
3) Arrangement of these parts should create a pattern.
4) There is a functional relationship among the parts of a system.
5) All the parts create a new entity when they are functionally related.
2. Write about status and role in social system
A. 1) In a social system each individual has a status. There are two types of status. They are:
a) Achieved Status
b) Ascribed Status
2) The ascribed status is conferred upon an individual by the group or society. Eg: Nationality
and Caste.
3) The achieved status is that which is achieved by an individuals efforts. Eg: a person may
belong to lower caste but can achieve higher status on the basis of his economic
achievement.
4) The roles of the individuals changes in accordance with the changes in the status.
49

5) In a social system an individual has to perform certain roles in accordance with their
statuses.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Write about the characteristics of Social structure.

A. Social structure is created from the inter-relationship and organization of human beings, who
are organized for pursuing certain common objectives and aims. To fulfill the aim, social
structure must be based upon certain principles. They are as follows:
Elements of Social Structure:
1) Normative System: Normative system renders the society with the ideals and values. The
institutions and associations are inter-related according to these norms. The individuals
perform their roles in accordance with the accepted norms of society.
2) Position System: Position system refers to statuses and roles of the individuals. The
desires and aspirations of the individual are varied. Proper functioning of social structure
depends upon proper assignment of roles and statuses.
3) Sanction System: For the proper enforcement of norms, every society has a sanction
system. It may also be understood from the perspective rewards and punishments or
penalties a society prescribes.
4) A system of anticipated responses: Every day we hear the words like work ethics.
The anticipated response system calls upon the individuals to participate in the social
system. It points to the fact that individuals must realize their duties and should make their
efforts to fulfill them.
2. Explain the bases of Social structure
A. To understand the function of social structure, we need to understand is bases. They are :
a) Need to pursue a goal: The main constitution of social structure is human being. Human
beings have diverse attitudes and interests. Social structure develops on the basis of interrelationship between its constituent parts. A pursuit of common goal lies at the root of such
interrelationship. For instance family or kinship system is a part of social structure.
b) Preparedness to accept ones roles and status: Every social structure bestows to its
members a fixed status and role accordingly. A status is socially defined position in a group
or society. A role is the behavior in accordance with the status of the individual. A status
may carry with it many related roles. Statuses are determined by customs, traditions and
conventions of society. These statuses gives birth to different institutions, agencies and
patterns.
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c) Norms: Norms are customary, unwritten rules. Norms are the standards by reference to
which the behavior is judged and approved or disapproved. Norms are related to the
factual order.
Mores are looked as extremely important and the violation of which results in severe
punishments. These are strong ideas of right and wrong which require certain acts to forbid
others from doing it. Mores are used to denote behavior patterns which are not only accepted
but are prescribed.
3. Write the characteristics of social system.
A. 1) Social systems consists of two or more individuals with an established pattern of
interaction
2) The interaction should be meaningful.
3) Social system is a unity. Here, various parts like institutions, customs, traditions,
procedures and laws are arranged in an integrated manner.
4) The parts of social system are related on the basis of functional relationship.
5) Social System is related with culture. Cultural system determines the nature of mutual
relationship and interaction between these two systems.
6) Social System has an environmental aspect and is related to a particular time, territory, and
a particular society. Thus, it is dynamic.
4. Write about the bases of social system
A. The important bases of social system are:
1) Beliefs and Knowledge: Any proposition about any aspect of the universe that is
accepted as true may be called as belief. Belief is the basis for social action.
2) Sentiment: Sentiments are closely related to beliefs. A sentiment denotes what we feel
about the world. They are the products of experience and cultural training. Sentiments can
be of various types religious, ethical, intellectual, etc. They also have historical and
cultural legacy.
3) Goal or Objective: Social system has goals or objectives. Members along with relevant
social structure of a social system expect to accomplish a particular goal or objective
through appropriate action.
4) Norms: They are the standards of behaviour for determining what is right or wrong,
appropriate or inappropriate in a social relationship. Every social system possesses norms
which the individuals are obliged to follow.
51

5) Status and Role: In a social system each individual has a status. The status can be
categorized as achieved or ascribed. The ascribed status is conferred upon an individual
by the group or society. The achieved status is that which is achieved by an individuals
efforts. For example a person may belong to lower caste but can achieve higher status on
the basis of his economic achievement. In a social system an individual has to perform
certain roles in accordance with their statuses.
6) Ranks: Rank is equivalent to standing. It includes the importance an individual has for the
system in which a rank is accorded to him. An individual is given rank on the basis of two
factors. They are : a) Evaluation made of him; and b) His act in accordance with the norm.
7) Power: It refers to capacity to control and deprive others. The power relations influence
the social structure to a great extent.
8) Sanctions: It refers to rewards and penalties given out by the members of social system as
device for inducting conformity to its norms and ends. Sanction can be positive or
negative. For example death penalty is negative sanction; rehabilitative effort for the
convict is a positive sanction.
9) Facilities: It is the means used to attain the ends within the system. Individuals in a social
system should be provided with adequate facilities to enable them to perform their roles
efficiently. The goals and objectives of the study are realized through the utilization of
facilities.

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8
SOCIAL NORMS AND VALUES
Introduction
When teacher enters in the classroom, the students are expected to show their respect by
standing up. Drinking too much alcohol, cheating in a test are not accepted and considered harmful
in almost all the modern societies. On the other hand childrens obedience towards their parents is
considered absolutely necessary in modern societies. In Sociology these are known as norms and
values. In this lesson we will read about norms and values and their importance in understanding
society.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
Explain norms and process of their formation ;
Describe the importance of norms in society ;
Discuss different types of norms ;
Explain and describe normlessness ;
Explain what do Sociologists mean by values ;
State traditional and modern values and value conflict ; and
Describe relationship between norms and values.

53

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What are the standards used to judge the behavior?

A. Norms.
2. What are the group conceptions of relative desirability of things called?
A. Values.
3. What are the definite elements which guide the behaviour of people in contemporary
society?
A. Norms.
4. What are the group shared symbols and expectations called?
A. Norms.
5. Give an example of formal positive sanction.
A. Presentation of bravery awards to citizens.
6. What is meant by Mores?
A. Behaviour patterns which are not only accepted but prescribed by the society.
7. What preserves our culture and transmits it to the next generation?
A. Customs.
8. What binds people together in a cohesive group?
A. Mores.
9. What preserves our culture and transmits generation to generation?
A. Customs.
10. Write the usages of customs.
A. Customs act as effective means of social control and provide the background for formulation
and establishment of rules.
11. On what principles traditional Indian society was organized?
A. Hierarchy, Pluralism and Holism.
12. What is hierarchy?
A. Hierarchy means an order of the units on the basis of superior-inferior gradation.
54

13. What is the relationship between an individual and group called?

A. Holism.
14. What emphasizes the equality of opportunity?
A. Democracy.
15. What are the values related to literature, art and culture called?
A. Aesthetic Values.
16. What are the values related to religion and other situations of society called?
A. Moral values.
17. Which values are scientific and logical in nature?
A. Rational values.
18. Which value has strong impact on the individual which he cannot violate?
A. Dominant value.
19. What is referred as higher order norms?
A. Social Values.
20. How many values related to Indian society has been put forward by Radhakamal
Mukherjee?
A. Two.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What is Normlessness?
A. (i) Normlessness is a type of detachment from existing social norms or rules.
(ii) The existing social norms contradict with each other or face a collapse and people feel
detached from their own fellows.
(iii) This is a state when there exists lesser consensus or lack of certainty on values and goals.
There is little commitment to shared norms and lack societal guidelines for personal
conduct.
(iv) Social control becomes ineffective and the society is threatened with disorganization. This
is called anomie.
2. Write the relationship between norms and values
A. (i) Values may be defined as a measure of goodness or desirability. They provide general
guidelines for conduct.
55

(ii) The higher order norms are called norms.

(iii) Values are cherished only through observance of norms.
(iv) Norms incorporate value judgments since the judgment of an action is done on the basis of
its value.
3. What is meant by Secularism?
A. (i) Secularism means respecting and tolerating the practices of other communities particularly
religious communities.
(ii) Secularism is an important value in India.
(iii) It is not only non-interference in the affairs of other religious communities but also
develope a positive appreciation of their distinct lifestyle.
4. What is meant by pluralism?
A. (i) Pluralism implies tolerance of others style of life while preserving ones own.
(ii) It is one of the significant Indian values which facilitated the accommodation of several
religious communities.
Eg: The religious tolerance inherent in Hinduism.
(iii) Though there are multiple paths and faiths its ultimate goal is same.
5. What is meant by Holism?
A. i) Holism assumed relationship between an individual and a group.
ii) The group has primacy over the individual.
iii) The individual is expected to perform his duties, claim rights while always keeping in mind
the community interests.
Eg: Responsibilities of the individuals in the joint family.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. What are social norms? Write its characteristics.

A. a) Norms are generally known as correct or proper forms of behaviour.
b) They are specific prescriptions of how an individual should behave to be consistent with
the values in the contemporary society.
c) Norms can be seen as reflection of values.
d) All human groups follow definite types of norms, which are always backed by positive or
negative sanctions.
e) Sanctions can be formal or informal.
56

Social norms have the following characteristics.

i) Norms are parts of society.
ii) Norms are positive and negative both.
iii) Norms are formal and informal.
iv) Norms have situations.
v) Norms are related to sanctions.
2. What are Values? Write about its significance.
A. 1) Values are broad ideas regarding what is desirable, correct and good that most members
of a society share.
2) Values defines social preference, specify societal choice.
3) Values provide a vision for future action.
Importance of values:
a) Values provide stability in group interaction. The members of the society share the
common values.
b) Values bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities. The rules are accepted
and followed because they embody the values.
c) Values help to bring about some kind of adjustment between different sets of rules. Eg: The
value of equality in India.
3. Write the importance of social norms?
A. 1) The concept of social norms constitutes the very foundation of social structure.
2) Norms govern the behaviour of individuals and their mutual interactions.
3) They act as guides to our behavior.
4) They help us to mend our ways and regulate our daily life.
5) Norms are indispensable parts of our life.
6) Norms helps us to reduce the burden of taking decisions at every moment.
7) Norms give cohesion to society without which social life is not possible.
8) The collective and co-operative life of people is made possible because of norms.
4. Write about types of norms?
A. 1) Norms are of different types. They vary in severity and durability. There is no standard
classification of norms. However some of the types are as follows:

57

a) Prescriptive norms dictate what people should do

b) Proscriptive norms dictate what people should not do.
2) Some norms pervade in entire society and some are less pervasive.
a) Communal norms pervade the entire society
b) Associational norms are less pervasive and are there in certain groups only.
3) All the norms may be subsumed under three major concepts:
a) Folkways;
b) Mores; and
c) Customs.
5. Write about traditional values
A. 1) Traditional Indian society was organised on the principles of hierarchy, pluralism and
holism.
2) Hierarchy: It means order of the units on the basis of superior-inferior gradation.
For example Caste System
3) Pluralism: It implies tolerance of others style of life while preserving ones own.
It is one of the significant Indian values which facilitated the accommodation of several
religious communities. Though there are multiple paths and faiths its ultimate goal is same.
Eg: The religious tolerance inherent in Hinduism.
4) Holism: Holism assumed relationship between an individual and a group in which the latter
has primacy over the former. The individual is expected to perform his duties, claim rights
while always keeping in mind the community interests.
Eg: The members giving importance to collective interest in joint family.
6. Write about value conflict
A. 1) Values may often conflict with one another.
2) In complex societies there are multiple values which overlap with each other and in some
cases oppose each other.
Eg: the right to dissent, conformity, respect for authority and respect for elders are the
values which conflict each other.
3) Some of the values are potentially conflicting in nature. When they are pervasive, it
becomes impossible to pursue some without violating others.
4) There are less value conflicts in small homogeneous societies than in large heterogeneous
ones.
58

5) There is no basic contradiction between the traditional value of pluralism and the modern
value of secularism, since the tolerance of others style of life is basic to both. The two
values are different.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. What are values? Write about its characteristics.

A. Values are broad ideas regarding what is desirable, correct and good that most members of a
society share.
Characteristics:
1) Value is a matter of faith and belief.
2) Values are abstract as they have cognitive elements.
3) Values are normative in nature.
4) Values are general ideas which people share.
5) Values are related to the emotions and sentiments.
6) Values are the bases for the choices of things.
7) Values are relatively permanent.
8) Values bring cohesiveness in society.
9) Values are motivated for public welfare.
10) Values have hierarchy in order.
2. Write about types of values?
A. 1) Values are generally observed in all the societies. Values are humanistic in nature and are of
different types. Radhakamal Mukherjee discusses two types of values related with Indian
society.
a) Firstly, values are worldly in nature which may be observed in day to day life.
b) Secondly, supernatural values are related to the salvation of the human being.
2) The general types of values are :
a) Moral Values: Every society has different types of moral values.
i) They are not scientific.
ii) They are related to religion and general situations in the society.
Eg: respecting elders, not telling lies, not stealing etc
59

b) Rational Values:
i) They are scientific and logical in nature.
Eg: hard work is an important value of modern society.
c) Aesthetic Values: These are related with music, art and culture
Eg: Fairness among women is an important criteria for their beauty in Indian society.
3) All the above values represent two categories of values. They are:
i) Dominant Values: The value which has a strong impact on the mind of the individual
and the violation of such a value is not possible.
ii) Variant Values: The value in which a person has the freedom to behave according to
his desires and choices.
3. Write about the values in modern society.
A. 1) The values that modern Indian state pursues are embodied in the constitution of India.
These values are:
a) Democracy ;
b) Secularism ; and
c) Socialism.
2) Though the value package is western in origin it has adapted to Indian scenario very well.
a) Democracy:
i) It emphasizes equality of opportunity.
ii) Democracy assumes the existence of autonomous and independent individuals capable
of participating in decision making process. For example adult citizens of the country
voting their representatives
b) Secularism:
i) It means respecting and tolerating the practices of other communities particularly
religious communities.
ii) Secularism is an important value in India.
iii) It is not only non-interference in the affairs of other religious communities but also
developing a positive appreciation of their distinct lifestyle.
c) Socialism:
i) It implies that production, distribution and exchange of material sources of community
is arranged in such a manner that they can serve the common good. It opposes the
concentration of wealth in few hands and decries monopoly.

60

9
STATUS AND ROLE
Introduction
The task of sociology is to examine and analyze the nature of the fundamental order that
society exhibits. A part of this task, we have now accomplished. We have noticed in our earlier
lesson on norms and values that the order and regularity of social interaction are attributed to the
existence of norms and values which guide and canalize the relations that people have with one
another. It is the norms and values that give predictability to these relations and interactions, from
them into a patterns and thus give a structure to society. We now wish to discuss another
phenomenon, intimately related to the norms and values, which also contributes to the order that we
find in society. This is the phenomenon of social position: status and role.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of social position;
Define status and discuss its types; and
Define social role and discuss its types.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. Who said that status and role are the two sides of the same coin?
A: Ralph Linton.
2. Who has simplified the distinction between status and role?
A: Ralph Linton.
61

3. Which status helps in defining the person socially?

A: Master status.
4. With the development of which sciences the concept of status has been broadened?
A: Modern Anthropology and Sociology.
5. Which are the two parts of social positions?
A: Rights and obligations.
6. What is associated with duties?
A: Roles.
7. What is associated with obligations?
A: Status.
8. The son of a priest trained to be a priest. What kind of role is it?
A: Ascribed role.
9. An individual becoming a teacher. What kind of role is it?
A: Achieved role.
10. What is the combination of various roles associated with occupying a particular
status known as?
A: Role set.
11. From where the concept of role has originated?
A: Theatrical context.
12. Which status is assigned by birth?
A: Ascribed Status.
13. Which status is associated with the potential of the individuals?
A: Achieved Status.
14. What describes the social stratification?
A: Status.
15. The conflict which arises between different roles occupied by the individual is known
as ___________________.
A: Role conflict.

62

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. Write briefly about social position.

A: 1) An individual has a Social Identity in a given group or society. Social positions may vary in
nature or may be much more specific.
2) Social positions have two parts, one consists of obligations and the other consists of rights.
It also consists of various norms associated with it.
3) Social position is a status-role entity.
2. Describe the meaning of social status.
A: 1) A status is a position in a particular pattern. Each individual has many statuses in society.
2) The status of any individual is the sum total of all the statuses which he occupies. It
represents his position with relation to the total society.
3) There are two meanings of Status. They are:
a) Relational term: Status is a position occupied by the individual in the society.
Eg: Wife and Husband.
b) Participatory status: Status is a position in social system, which exists independently
of the particular individuals who occupy them. Social system is greater than the
individuals. People are associated with statuses only through their participation in social
systems that include them.
3. What is role-set?
A: 1) The combination of various roles associated with occupying a particular status in known as
role set.
2) Sometimes role conflict occurs when people are confronted with contrary or
incompatible role expectations in the various social roles they occupy in their lives.
3) There are no roles without status and no status without roles.
Eg: An individual who has the status of a teacher, behaves differently with the student,
family members, principal, etc.
4. Describe the variety of responses to resolve or minimize the effects of role conflict.
A: 1) The first is to choose which role is more important and then violate the expectations
associated with the other role.
2) Leave the role with the conflicting statuses.
3) Role segregation separate various role-partners from one another.
4) Maintain a role distance.
63

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Describe the concept of status and role.

A: 1) The concept of status and role has a great significance in Sociology (social sciences).
2) The distinction between status and role is simplified by Ralph Linton. According to him, if
you occupy a status, then you play a role.
3) Linton said that status and role are the two sides of the same coin.
4) Statuses and roles are derived from social patterns and are the integral parts of these
patterns.
5) Roles are associated with obligations.
6) Statuses are associated with rights.
7) Every individual occupies various social positions. These positions are called as status.
2. What is status? Write its characteristics.
A: The social honour or prestige which a particular group is accorded by other members of a
society. Status groups normally involve distinct styles of life patterns of behaviour which the
members of a group follow.
Characteristics:
1) Status is the result of needs and interest of society;
2) Status has some degree of authority over others;
3) Status is relative;
4) Status may also indicate social stratification;
5) Status has certain privileges and immunities, such as the right to use certain premises, the
services of the secretary, etc.
6) Status has some degree of prestige;
7) Status may also have right to remuneration; and
8) Status cannot be isolated from role.
3. Write different types of statuses.
A: There are two types of statuses which people occupy. They are:
1) Ascribed Status
2) Achieved Status
64

1) Ascribed Status:
a. In ascribed status the social position is assigned by birth.
b. Ascribed status is permanent.
Eg: sex, caste, nationality, etc.
2) Achieved Status:
a. Achieved status is one which is chosen or achieved.
b. It is acquired by ones own efforts.
c. Inheritance, biological factors or other factors do not determine this status.
Eg: Getting Ph.D. degree.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. What is social role? Describe its characteristics.

A: Social role is the expected behaviour of an individual occupying a particular social position.
The idea of social role originally comes from the theatre. In every society individuals play a
number of different social roles, according to the varying context of their activities.
Characteristics of Role:
1) Role is a dynamic aspect of the status;
2) Role exists in status;
3) Role cannot be isolated from status;
4) Role is not found in vacuum. It has a strong cultural aspect;
5) The normative aspect of role is culture;
6) Role is relative;
7) The collection of roles which goes with a given status is known as role set;
8) Social norms regulate and organize the behaviour of the individuals; and
9) Roles provide an important part of guidelines and directives necessary for an ordered
society.
2. Write the various types of roles.
A: 1) The roles of individuals in the society have been divided into two types. They are:
a) Ascribed roles
b) Achieved roles
65

2) Ralph Linton has made the distinction between ascribed and achieved roles.
a) Ascribed Roles:
i) A role that an individual acquires automatically at birth, or on the attainment of certain
age.
ii) The most universally ascribed role is ones sex role, male or female.
iii) In these types of roles, birth is the basic influence.
Eg: priests son will be trained to be a priest.
b) Achieved Roles:
i) A role that an individual has because he/she has either chosen or earned it.
ii) It is the result of his efforts and his action.
iii) These roles are gained by personal efforts.
Eg: General in the army, doctor or an engineer and so on.

66

9
Establishment and Expansion of the Delhi
Sultanate
Introduction
The rulers who ruled substantial parts of the North India between 1206 AD to 1526 AD were
sultans, Delhi as their head quarters. These rulers were Turkish musalmans of Afghan region. They
established their rule in India after defeating the Indian ruling dynasties which were mainly Rajputs in
Northern India.
The rise of Islam is a very significant event in the history of the world. It originated in Arabia. The
Arabs were responsible for propagating Islam beyond the frontiers of Arabia. When the powers of the
Arabs declined, the Turks took its cause and made it the foremost religion of Asia.
These sultans ruled Indian more than 300 years. The last of Delhi sultan, Ibrahim Lodi was
defeated by the Mughals under the leadership of Babur in 1526 AD who established the Mughal
empire in India. In this lesson we will give you a detailed account of the process of conquest, expansion
and consolidation of Delhi sultanate in India.

Objectives

Describe the early invasion on India from the North-West region by the Arabs.

Nature of attacks by Mahmud Ghazni.

Describe the nature of Muhammad Ghori's invasion.

Identify the factors that helped the establishment of Turkish rule in North India by the Muhammad
Ghazni.

Provide an account of the expansion of Delhi sultanate under the Mamluce Sultans.

32

Describe the expansion of sultanate by khiljis and Tuglaks.

Outline the challenges faced by the sultans in consolidating their rule.

List the causes of the decline of the sultanate.

Essay Questions
1. Explain the greatness of Balban?
A.

Ghiyas-Ud-din Balban was the greatest among the rulers of the slave Dynarty. He belongs to
the family of Ilbari Turks. He was bought by sultan Iltutmish. He started his career as a
water-carrier, later enrolled in the 'Corps of forty slaves'. His great services against the
Mongols earned for him the tittle of 'Ulugh Khan' or 'powerful' lord which made him to marry
Nazir-Ud-din's daughter. Saintly Nazir-Ud-din practically left the real authority in the hands
of Balban and after his death Balban ascended the throne of Delhi without any opposition.

As a king Balban realised that as long as 'chihalgani' was strong there was no safety for his
position. Thus, he took stringent action and destroyed them completely.

During his period Mongols used to make frequent raids on India. To meet it he placed his
sons Muhammad and Bugrekhan over the provinces of Samana and Multan which were
prone to the Mongol attacks.

Balban has been regarded as capable ruler. He enhanced the dignity of kingly office and
elavated the moral tone of the court. He maintained a magnificent court and patronized
eminent literary men, historians and poets. It is believed that he offered a grand reception to
Madvacharya, exponent of Dvaite philosophy.

During the year 1246-1252 AD he put down the khokas in the punjab, reduced the Doab to
obedience and ravaged Mewar and Ranathambore. he led victories expeditions against Gwalior,
Chanderi and Marwar.

2. Write about Alla-Ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 AD)?

A. Ala-Ud-din was a nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-Ud-din Firoz. He was brave, intelligent and
ambitious. He was made the governor of Kara in 1192 AD and Oudh. Being an ambitious young
man, he invaded and plundered Devagiri. The wealth of Devagiri enabled him to plot against his
uncle and bring about his assassination. Later he proclaimed himself as the sultan of Delhi and
sons of Jalal-Ud-din were blinded.

Conquests : He decided to revive Balban's policies of ruthless governance and curb the powers
of the nobles and interference of Ulema in the matters of the state. He felt there the were four
reasons for these rebellions;
33

1. The inefficiency of spy system.

2. The general practice of the use of wine.
3. Social intercourse among the nobles and inter marriage between them and
4. The excess of wealth in the possession of certain nobles.

Market reforms
These reforms obtained the good name and fame to khilji. Ala-ud-din maintained a huge army
and paid his soldiers in cash. In order to enable the soldier to live on the pay fixed by the sultan
he controlled and regulated the price of cloth, sugar, grain and other necessities of life. To Carry
out his regulations, he appointed a controller of market. Defaulters were severely punished.
Grain was stored to meet emergencies.

Sultans revenue reforms were aimed at the improvement of state finances. Land revenue was
the chief source of income. The Hindus had to pay 50% of the produce as tax. Jizya, grazing
and house taxes were collected from the Hindus.

Short Answer Questions

1. Who was Mahmud Ghazni? Why did he invade India?
A. Mahmud Ghazni was son of Sabuktigin, the founder of Ghazni dynasty and Turkish Slave
commander.
Ghazni was attracted by Indian prosperity and wealth. Ghazni invaded India 17 times during
1000AD - 1206 AD. Even though he was succeeded in acquiring India, he did not wish to
establish an empire in India. Ghazni's raids on India were only to acquire the famous wealth of
India.
2. Qutbuddin Aibak (1206 - 1210AD) : He was a Turkish slave and had risen to high rank in
Muhammad Ghoris army. After Ghoris death, the control of his Indian possessions was passed
on to Aibak. He was the founder of Delhi sultanate. He was brave, faithful and Generous. Due
to his generosity he was known as 'Lakh Baskh'.
3. Sultana Razia (AD 1236 - 40) : Razia was the daughter of Iltutmish. She was the first ever
women ruler in the history of Muslim rule in India. Iltutmish did not consider any of his sons
worthy of the throne. She got killed after she was defeated by the nobles. Thus her reign was a
brief one and came to end in 1240 AD.

34

Small Answer Questions

1. What was the one major difference between the invasion of Mohammud of Ghazni and
Muhammud of Ghori?
A. Mohmmud Ghazni was interested in plundering the wealth of India where as Mohammad Ghore
wanted to establish Turkish rule in India.
2. Why was 'Group of forty' (Turkani-i-chahal gani) founded by Iltutmish?
A. To support monarchy.
3. Why was the capture of Rana Thambore necessary?
A. The capture of Rana Thambore was necessary to break the power and morale of Rajputs.
4. What was the political motive of Muhammad's transfer of capital?
A. a. To maintain control over Deccan.
b. To establish centrally located capital.
5. Why were Mongols attacked the Delhi Sultanate?
A. Changes in central Asian politics and the plunder the riches.

35

10
Establishment of the Mughal Rule
Introduction
After the decline of Delhi sultanate, India witnessed the emergence of various regional powers.
Therefore when Babur invaded India in 1526 the central power of Delhi sultanate had substantially
weakened and there were a number of independent Kingdoms. The Delhi and adjoining regions were
under sultan Ibrahim Lodi. Other important Kingdoms were Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal, Bijapur, Golconda,
Ahmednagar, Berar, Mewar and Vijayanagar empire in South India, Besides a larger number of smaller
autonomous chiefs were also ruling in different parts of the country.
In this lesson you will study the conquest of India by a new ruling dynasty - Mughals. Mughals
build one of the biggest Islamic empires in India. They were led by an able military commander and
administrator from central Asia named Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur. His successors were successful
in establishing an all India empire gradually. They organised an efficient administrative machinery and
encouraged the progress of a cultural movement. It ultimately added to the glory and richness of Indian
civilization.

Objectives

Know the circumstances under which Babur invaded India;

Describe the reasons for the success of Mughals against Indian rulers;

List the challenges faced by Humayun after Babur's death;

Analyse the circumstances that led to the success of Shersha, Afghan ruler;

Describe the events leading to recapture of India by Humayun;

36

Give an account of the expansion and consolidation of Mughal empire under Akbar;

Describe the territorial expansion upto the reign of Aurangzeb and;

Analyse the challenges faced by the Mughal empire in India.

Essay Questions
1. Trace the establishment of the Mughal rule in India under Babur?
A. Babur is founder of Mughal rule in India. He was born in 1483 to Qutulgug Nigarkhan and Umar
Shek Mirza. Babur traced his lineage from Timur from fathers side and to Chenginzkhan the
distinguished conqueror from mothers side. Babur ascended the throne in 1494 Farghana at the
age of twelve after his father death. But Babur had to face a lot of resistance from the nobility
itself and finally lost both Farghana and acquired samarkhand to the Uzbeks.
Having lost his peternal dominions, he become a Vagabond and moved from place to place
like a king on the chess-board. As the found the throne of vacant due to the death of his
Uncle, Ulugh Beg Mirza, he usurped the throne of Kabul in 1504 without a fight. Later in
1507, he assumed the title padusha or emperor which had never been borne by any Timurid
before him. The conquest of Kabul was a turning point in the life of Babur because his
wondering career came to an end.
When all his attempts failed to realise his life's ambition of conquering central Asiatic dominions
Babur thought of trying his luck in India. He led three expeditions in 1519 and 1520 against India
and occupied Bajour, peshawar, Sialkot and Kandahar. At the invitation of Davlat Khan Lodi
and Alam Khan Lodi, he undertook the fourth expedition of India in 1524 and conquered Lahore,
Dipalpur and Jallundar. However due to the sudden hostility of Daulatkhan, he decided to
invade in 1525. After subduing punjab, Babur advanced towards Delhi and met Ibrahim Lodi on
the historic field of panipat where Ibrahim Lodi was killed and Babur occupied Delhi and Agra.
The battle of panipat did not end the task of the Babur in India. The victory at panipat made him
the master of Delhi and Agra but he had no hold over Hindustan. In order to achive the over
Lord ship of Hindustan he had to face more formidable powers like Rajputs and Afghan military
generals. However, Babur could able to defeat Rajputs and Afghan rulers in the wars of Kanwaha
(1527) Chanderi (1528) and Gohogra battles (1529) within a couple of years and estabilished
his mastery over Hindustan.

Babur died in 1530. Still the rulers of Gujarat, Malwa and Bengal enjoying substantial military
power and were not suppressed. It was left to Humayun to face these regional powers.

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2. How did Akbar establish Mughal Supremacy in the Deccan?

A.

If Babur started the Mughal dynatsy in India, it was Akbar who extended and established
Mughal Supremacy in India.

Akbar ascended the throne in 1556, at the age of thirteen after the death of Humayun and
continued as a ruler upto 1605 AD.

The first major achievement of his regency period was the defeat of Hemu and the Afghan
forces, who were posing a serious threat to the Mughal empire in the second battle of panipat
in 1556.

Akbar started a policy of expansion after over overcoming, initial problems and consolidating
his hold on the throne.

The first step that Akbar took after the dismissal of Bairam Khan was to put an end to the
conflict within the nobility.

Akbar started his policy of expansion in central India by invading Gwalior, Malwa, Burhanpur
and Gondwana. After that he invaded Rajput kingdoms and defeated Rana Pratap at Haldi
Ghat.

After annexing almost North India, Akbar concentrated his interest on South India and annexed Ahmednagar, Khandesh and Bijapur.

In addition to conquests. Akbar has introduced so many reforms which includes benevolent
dictatorship, provincial administration, Mansabdari system, renowed revenue administration,
efficient Judicial administration, Rajput policy and tolerant religious policy (Din-i-Ilahi).

Akbar also constructed so many buildings. He was a great builder. His regime saw for the
first time the fusion of Hindu-Muslim or persian styles of architecture. Fatepur sikri, the
dream city of Akbar built in honour of chisti, Jodhpur palace, Birbal is house, Buland Dharwaja,
the forts of Agra and Lahore etc. were important among them.

3. How far Aurangazeb was responsible for the down-fall of the Mughal empire?
A. The Mughal empire founded by Babur build and consolidated by Akbar reached the zenith of its
glory during the early years of Aurangazeb. But it was on the path of its disintegration during the
closing years of Aurangazebs reign. After the death of Aurangazeb it was on decline. Several
causes were responsible for the downfall of the Mughal empire. They were
1. Aurangazeb's responsibility i.e. his religious policy towards Rajputs, Marathas and Deccan
states and defects in his character.

38

2. Aurangazeb's successers are weak and ineffecient.

3. There was no established law of succession to the Mughal throne. The sword and not the
principle of Justice became the grand arbiter of right.
4. The Mughal nobility which was noted for integrity, ability and self sacrifice lost all its vigour
and degenerated in a body of selfish crooked, debauchers.
5. There was no unity and solidarity in the Mughal nobility. Further they were divided into three
groups of fractions viz Irani by Sadat Khan, Turani by Asaf Jah and Hindustani headed by
Sayyad Brothers.
6. The Moghals failed to realise the importance of maintaining a strong navy to protect the vast
empire from the European encroachments.
7. The other important factor was the financial bank-ruptacy. The sound financial system set up
by Akbar was not continued by his successors.
8. The invasions of Nadirshah and Ahmed Shah Abdali gave a death blow to the shaking Moghal
empire.
9. Taking undue advantage of confusion created by the foreign invaders, the Moghal subedars
asserted independence. Thus Bengal under Alivarthi Khan, Oudh under Sadat Khan and
Hyderabad under Nizam-Ul-Mulk were slipped from the Moghal authority.
10. The rise and growth of British power finally brought the Moghal empire to a close. In the
Battle of Buxar in 1764, Shah Alam II, the Moghal emperor was not only defeated but also
forced to sign the treaty of Allahabad. Bahadurshal was the last king of the dynasty. He and
his sons participated in 1857 revolt, then arrested and sent to Rangoon where he died in
1862.

Short Essay Questions

1. Write about Nurjahan?
A.

Nurjahan was the most fascinating women ruler of Indian History. She was highly mastered
both the polity and diplomacy. Above all she was ambitious and had a great lust for power.
As such she played a very remarkable role since her marriage in 1611 AD. With Jahangir, not
only in his career but also in Moghal History.

Nurjahan's original name was Meharennisa. She was the daughter of Mirja Ghias Beg a
native of Persia. In the mean while Meharunnisa grew up into a hand some maid and got
married to a Persian Sher. After his death, Meharunnisa's marriage with Jahangir was quite
controvercial.
39

After her marriage with Jahangir she became powerful in Jahangir regime and organized
'Nurjahan Junta' for acquiring power.

2. "The reign of Shah Jahan sounded the death knell of the empire" explain?
A. Shah Jahan was the most magnificent of Moghal emperors. Being a great conqueror, he was a
good administrator and affectionate husband, a patron of Arts and letters. But smith thought that
Shahjahan was a failure both as a man and as a monarch. But neither of the views is absolutely
correct. The regime of shaljahan not only marked the climax of Moghal rule but also the tendencies
of decay.

The scholars who held that the regime of shahjahan was 'a golden age' in Moghal history put
forth the following arguments in support of their view. 1. Peace and order, 2. Administrative
stability, 3. Economic prosperity, 4. Literacy glory and Artistic excellence.

2. Sounded the death knell of the Moghal empire : The scholars who contend that the
regime of shahjahan sounded the death knell put forth the following arguments. 1. Administrative defects. 2. Military weakness, 3. Economic poverty, 4. Religious bigotry.
3. Was Shershah a fore runner of Akbar in the field of land revenue system? Discuss?
A.

Shersha was the first Muslim monarch in Medieval period to introduce a land Revenue system
mainly intended to promote and safeguard the interest of the farmers. This was called the
Ryatwari system'.

In land Revenue system of shershah, land survey, division of land on the basis of fertility,
fixation of land revenue, payment of land revenue either in cash or in kind, given the pattas to
obtained qabuliyats from peasants were the important measure taken by shersha. The tax
had to be paid to either to the govt or to govt employees by the peasant.

Akbar indeed scrupulously followed Shershas by introducing some changes in the same
Ryathwari system. The same survey and measurement and division and share and division of
land revenue, fixation and payment was followed. But with more scientific manner which
would benefit to the Ryoth more.

To sum up, Akbar land revenue system was better than that of shershah. The measures taken
by Akbar for the welfare of the farmers were better than Sher Shah.

III. Short Notes

1. Bairam Khan : He was the most able, loyal, wise noble of the Moghal period. He was primarily
responsible for the existence of the Moghal empire in its early days. He accompanied Humayun
in exile and finally recovered Kabul and Hindustan for his master.
40

On the death of Humayun, he proclaimed Akbar as the emperor of Delhi and played a key role
in second panipat war. Akbar had a great love for him and called him "Khan Baba" affectonately.
As Guardian and regent of Akbar, he maintained law and order in the infant kingdom. Though
loyal and able, he was disliked by many. His harsh arrogant nature, shia faith, popularity excited
the ill-will of not only the other nobles but also the relatives of Akbar. Finally Bairam Khan over
throned from Guardian post and was killed by an Afghan on the way to Macca.
2. Din-i-illahi : Din-i-illahi was a new religion promulgated by Akbar. It contained the best principles
of all the religions. It was based on the principle of universal tolerance. Its teaching were
(a) Sacrifice of property, life and religion for the sake of emperor. (b) Prohibition of meat eating
or rating. As a true liberal, Akbar neither compel anybody to embrace the new religion or
propagate like Buddhism of Asoka.
3. Raja Todar Mal : He started his career under Sher Shah. After the fall of Sur dynasty, he
joined the services of Akbar as an ordinary clerk and soon rise to the high position i.e. Revenue
Minister by virtue of his merit. He was the chief architect of the Bandobast system of Akbar.
He was also a good general. Due to his efforts, the Hindus took great interest in the study of
Persian and soon they became the great Persian teachers. He died in 1589.

Small Answer Questions

1. What was Babur's strategy at the battle of panipat?
A. Babur effectively applied the Rumi (or) Homan method of warfare (or) Araaba.
2. Why did Humayun failed to defeat shershah?
A. Humanyun failed to defeat Sher Shah because his brother Hindal Mirza, who was supposed to
provide supplies for his army, declared his independence.
3. Name the lady ruler who fought with the Moghals? Which was the territory ruled by
her?
A. Chand Bibi; Ahmednagar
4. Where was Shivaji coronated? What was the tittle that he took?
A. Raigarh, 'Chatrapathi'.
5. Which Moghal commander brought the Ahom Kingdom under Moghal court?
A. Mir Jumla.
6. Who was the ruler from Deccan who defeated the Moghal forces under Jahangir?
A. Malik Ambar.

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11
Emergence of Regional States in India :
Twelfth to Eighteenth Century
Introduction
There are twenty eight states and six union territories in India today. Each of these states has a
specific language, geography, food and culture that make the culture of India rich and full of varieties.
Have you wondered how these different states and the regional cultures developed? Were they like
this from time immemorial? When we go back to history, we realise that these states existed in different
forms under going a constant process of change in different periods of time.
In this lesson, you will study the history of various regional states that existed from 12th to 18th
century. Some of the regional states of this period are today a part of one single state. For example
Jaipur, Jodhpur and Udaipur that existed as independent regional states in the medieval period are all
today districts of the state of Rajastan. Some of regional states are now a part of more than one state.
For example the Vijayanagar empire (1336-1565 AD) is now a part of the modern states of Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. There are some regional states that had the same names as those of
the modern states today, but were different in terms of areas they covered. For example, the modern
states of Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir and Orissa existed from 12th and 18th century under same names,
but their respective geography today is different from what it was in the period between twelfth and
eighteenth century.

Objectives

Give brief account of different regional states from twelfth to eighteenth century.

Understand the meaning of the term regional states.

42

Understand the nature of relations between the regional states and the Delhi Sultanate and the
Moghal empire.

Appreciate the relations between various regional states.

Describe the political ideas and organisations of these regional states.

Explain the economic and cultural conditions in the regional states.

List some of the primary sources or documents of that time that gives us information about the
regional states.

It is very difficult to provide account of all the regional states in one smaller lesson only a few of
them have been selected here for the study.

Essay Questions
1. Trace the development of regional states from 13th century to 18th century in India?
A.

The rise of regional states from 13th to 18th century is due to internal weakness of Delhi
sultanate and decline of Moghal empire.

Agriculture and agricultural activities played a very significant role in the development regional
states. Where ever good agricultural activity took place, it not only fed the population but
generated a large surplus that could be sold and wealth could be generated.

Trade and trading activities, overland as well as maritime, also provided an important source
of revenue. This led to the rise of powerful sections in the society.

Some times, some memoers of this powerful section asserted themselves and acquired political power and became kings and established ruling Dynasties.

This led to laying the foundation of the states.

2. How Bengal was able to assert its independence so easily?

A.

Bengal was an important regional kingdom under the Palas in the 8th century and the Senas in
the 12th century.

Bengal was the eastern most province of the Delhi sultanate. The long distance, uncomfortable climate and poor means of transport and communications made it difficult for the Delhi
sultanate to control this province.

Therefore, it was easy for Bengal to assert its independence in 14th century itself.

43

3. Describe Amara - nayaka system of administration?

A.

One of the important characteristics of Vijayanagar administration was the Amarnayaka system.

In this system, the commander of the Vijayanagar army was called the Nayak.

Each Nayak was given an area of administration. He was responsible for expanding agricultural activities in his area. He collected taxes in his area and with this income maintained his
army, horses, elephants etc.

They sent tribute to king annually. They were a powerful section that challenged the vijayanagar
authority after 1565 AD.

4. What was unique about Mahmud Begarha and why is he considered and important
ruler of Gujarat?
A.

Gujarat was a fertile and prosperous province. It had flourishing sea ports and was famous
for its handicrafts.

Perhaps the most important ruler of Gujarat was Mahmud Begarha. He was called Mahmud
Begarha as he had captured two powerful forts or garh, Girnar and Champaner.

He founded a new town called Mustafabad at the foot of a hill. He ruled for 52 years. He
was also a great patron of art and literature. His court poet was Udayaraja, who composed
poetry in Sanskrit.

Mahmud Begarha led an expedition against the Portugeese who had settled on the western
coast. He died in 1511.

Short Answer Questions

1. Who was Mahmud Gawan?
A.

He was an Iranian by birth and first reached Deccan as a trader. He was granted the tittle of
'chief of the Merchants' or 'Malik-ul-Tujjar' by Bahamani ruler Humayun shah.

Later on he became a wazir and was given the tittle of 'khwaju-i-jahan'.

2. Who is referred to as Akbar of Kashmir?

A. One of the greatest rulers of Kashmir, Zainul Abidin has been described by some scholors as
Akbar of Kashmir and Bud shah (or) the great king of Kashmiris.

44

3. List any four characteristics of Regionalism in India?

A. Language, religious affiliations, interaction through trade and commerce, regional arts schools.
4. Which Bhakti religious developed in the regions of India during Medieval times?
A. Namdev, Raidas, Tukaram and Gurunanak.
5. Temple of Tirupathi was developed during the region of which king?
A. Krishnadeva Raya.
6. Regional states in 18th Century have been divided into how many categories?
A. 1. Founded by Moghal nobles.
2. Watan Jagirs.
3. Rebelled from Mughal authority.

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12
Administrative System and Institutions
Introduction
A new ruling class emerged in India with the Delhi Sultanate introduced a new administrative
system and new institutions. But during Moghal rule some of these underwent changes and a few new
ones got introduced. A few of the administrative institutions had their roots in Arab and central Asia
from where the new ruling group came. While some others were Indian origin. A significant feature of
these was that many of these got transformed and in due course of time developed as suitable to Indian
context.
The new administrative system and institutions contributed in the consolidation of the Sultanate
and Moghal empires. The ruling class kept changing during this period. These institutions were used by
various rulers for other purposes also. The rulers from time to time included people from various social
classes in the administrative apparatus in order to have social harmony. It was natural on the part of
these social classes to stake claim in the system of governance and various rulers readily accommodated them in the system. In this sense these institutions also emerged a tool to contain any kind of
social conflict in the society though there were various other measures also that were used by the rulers
for this purpose.

Objectives

Know about the nature and composition of Sultanate and Moghal ruling class;

Understand the administrative structures of the Delhi sultanate ;

Recall the main administrative department of the Sultanate period ;

Describe the provincial and local administration under the sultanate;

46

Discuss the main features of the iqta system;

Analyse the market control policy of Alauddin Khalji;

Know about the central and provincial administration of Moghals;

Discuss main features of Jagir system;

Trace the evolution of Mansabdari system and ;

Understand administrative structure under the Marathas.

Essay Questions
1. Discuss the administrative reforms of Delhi Sultanate?
A. Delhi Sultanate established in the year 1206 AD by Qutubuddin Aibak and ended after 1526
AD when the Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last emperor of Delhi Sultanate.
1. Administration : During the Sultanate period the administrative apparatus was headed by
Sultan who was helped by various nobles and the religious intellectual groups of Ulema.
Sultan was central figure in the administrative set up and head of the civil administration
and supreme commander of the Army. He made all the appointments and promotions. The
position of Sultan was always under pressure from the powerful group of nobility and Ulema.
He was also assisted by different ministers i.e. Diwan-i-wizart, Diwan-i-Arz, Diwan-i-insha
and Diwani-i-Rasalat etc.
2. Provincial Administration : For the Administrative convenience, the entire empire was
divided in to various institutions i.e. Iqta's, Shiq's etc, under various officers. The village was
the smallest unit of administration. Khut, Muqaddam and patwari were officials in village
administration.
3. Market reforms : Sultanates especially Alla-Uddin khilji under took various stringent measures to control the prices in a systematic manner. He fixed the prices of all commodities from
grain to cloth, slaves, cattles etc. An officer (Shehna) was in charge of the market to see that
no one violates the royal orders. Barid and Munihiyan were also appointed. Any how these
reforms did not last long and after the death of Allauddin these reforms got disappeared.
2. Trace the evolution of the Mansabdari system from Akbar to Aurangazeb?
A. Akbar was not the innovator of Mansabdari system. Its traces can be seen from the times of
Delhi Sultanate itself. However, Akbar not only regularised and systematised and made it as
scientific as possible.

47

The word 'Mansab' denotes rank, dignity or office. The holder of a mansab was called 'Man'
'Sabdar'. His main duty was to render military or other services to the emperor whenever
required.

Its features:

Each Mansabdar had to maintain according to his rank.

The appointment, promotion and dismissal of Mansabdars rested at emperor's will and pleasure.

The salaries of Mansabdar can be paid either in cash or in Jagir's.

In turn Mansabdar had to discharge both civil and military duties.

Defects :
1. It did not provide any contact between the emperor and the soldier
2. Since the soldiers are recruited by the mansabdar, they were more loyal to the Mansabdar.
3. It lacked the homogenity, no classification of troops and there was a possibility of becoming
more corruptive.
Merits
Inspite of its defects, it was an improvement over the medieval military system. It combined the
advantages of the both federal system and tribal leadership and it was through this system the
loyality of the people (Mansabdari team) was ensured to the Moghal empire.
3. Discuss the main features of "Maratha administration" ?
A. The rise of Maratha power was a significant phenomenon in the history of the Deccan. This was
very much influenced by the administrative system of the Moghals and Deccani states.
Central Administration : The king was at the helm of the affairs. For the administration sake,
it was divided into eight departments headed by ministers who are called 'Ashta Pradan'. Peshwa
Waquai-navis, Majumdar, Dabir, Surnvis, Pandit Rao, Nyayadeesh and Sar-i-naubar are eight
ministers.
Provincial Administration : For administrative facility empire was devided into Prants, sub
Prants, Pargana Turfs, Mojas and villages etc. The lowest unit of administration was village under
Kulkarni and Patel. The police officer in rural area was called Faujdar and in urban area was
called "kotwal".

48

Revenue administration : Shivajis land revenue system was that of ryotwari. He abolished the
system of taking of farming and established a direct contact between the government and the
ryot. In addition to ryotwari, shivaji collected the chauth and Sardeshmukh taxes from neighbouring
states.
Military administration : Shivaji was a great military genious. Since he had to fought with arch
rival Moghals, he maintained well organised and deciplined force. He is cavalry consists of the
Bargis and the Silhadars. The Bargis were supplied with horses and arms by the state and the
Silhadars had to find their own equipment. In addition to infantry, Navy, forts, artillery forces
also.
Religious tolerance : Though an orthodox Hindu, Shivaji was liberal exponent of religious
tolerance. He recruited even the Muslims into his army and treated them with due respect and on
par with Hindus.
Shivaji was described by R.C. Majumdar as "an enlightened ruler of the people."

Small Answer Questions

1. Who was Fawazil?
A. Fawazil was the balance of the revenue income of the muqti was which send to the sultan after
meeting his army's expenses.
2. Who were Banjaras?
A. The Banjaras used to transport food grains from the country side to the city. During time of
Allauddin Khilji, they formed themselves in a body and settled on the banks of Yamuna.
3. Who was Mutasaddi? What were his duties?
A. The Mutasaddi was the governor of the port. He collected taxes on merchandise and maintained
a custom house. He also supervised the mint house at the port.
4. What is Jat and Sawar?
A. The Zat denoted personal rank of an official and the Sawar indicated the size of contingents
maintained by the mansabdar.
5. What is the Jagir System?
A. The area assigned by the Moghals is called 'Jagir' and its holders are Jagirdars.

49

13
Economy
Introduction
The people in medieval India persued diverse range of economic activities to earn their livelyhood.
The sphere of their works varied from agricultural to artisanal production, trade and commerce and
associated commercial and financial services. These activities underwent various changes through out
the course of this period. The state mobalised its resources through collection different types of taxes
for its survival and expansion.
In this lesson, you will learn about various ways and means of production, mobilization of resources by the state and the trade and commercial activities. In the section on agricultural production,
we will discuss extent of cultivation, crop pattern and means and methods of irrigation. Under the
taxation system, land revenue administration, role of landed intermediaries in the revenue administration
and burden on peasantry will be analysed.
In the section non-agricultural production, you will learn about a wide variety of medieval Indian
crafts, technologies of production involved therein and organisation of production. You will also earn
various aspects of the medieval Indian trade and commerce like commercial classes such as the sarrafs,
merchants brokers etc. and commercial practices such as, bill of exchange (hundi), brokerage, insurance etc.

Objectives

Know the extent of cultivation; main crops grown; means and methods of irrigation in India;

Analyse revenue system of Medieval India;

Know the role of landed intermediaries in the revenue collection;

50

Discuss the production of various articles of craft;

Appreciate how non-agricultural production was organised;

Describe inland and foreign trade;

Know the main commercial practices and personnel of trade and

Describe the currency system of this period.

Short Answer Questions

1. What do you understand by persiah wheel? How did it function?
A.

A number of artificial devices were used to lift water from wells during the medieval period.
The foremost among them were pulleys and persian wheel.

Persian wheel began to be used in India from the sultanate period.

It was the most advanced water lifting device of this period. In this method, a garland of pots
was attached to the rim of a wheel, a gear mechanism was also attached to it and with the help
of animal power this wheel was made to rotate.

2. Name some of the canals constructed by firoz shah Tuglaq for irrigation?
A.

The Delhi sultans, in particular Ghiyasuddin and Firoz Shah promoted Canan irrigation.

Firoz shah Tuglaq laid the largest net work of canals. Important among them were
(a) From Sutlej to Ghaggar,
(b) Opening from the nadvi and simur hills to Arasani
(c) From Ghaggar, reaching up to the village to Hiransikera and
(d) Excavated from yamuna and extended upto Firuzbed.

3. Identify various stages of land revenue assessment in its most elaborate form?
A.

During the medieval period different methods of revenue assessment and collection were
used.

The first and most simple and basic method was Crop Sharing or Batai. In this method, out
of the total produce the state share was collected by designated official.

The second method known as Kankut. In this method the measurement was important. Land
was first measured after the productivity of land was estimated to fix the revenue demand per
unit of measured area.

51

The third method was called zabt. In this method the assessment was done on the basis of
measurement. Based on yields the share of the state was decided.

The Moghal land revenue administration was organised at the Farghana level. Amin was the
head of surveying party whereas the Amil was incharge of revenue collections.

4. What was 'Karkhana'? How did it function?

A.

There were various units in craft production. One among it was karkhana or Royal workshop. These karkhanas were part of the royal establishment.

These units produce commodities for the consumption of the royal household and the court.
Generally, expensive and luxury items were produced here.

The Karkhana's employed skilled workers who worked under one roof and where supervised by state officials.

Two kinds of karkhanas were existed.

5. Who was Sarraf? What role did he play?

A.

Sarrafs was one of the mercantile community which played an important role in the medieval
period economy and society. It also engaged in monetary transactions.

Sarrafs employed three distinct functions.

(i) Money changers - in this role a sarraf was considered an expert in Judging the metallic
purity of coins as well as their weight. He also determined the current exchange rate of
specific coins.
(ii) As bankers, they received deposits and gave loans on interest.
(iii) As traders, they dealt in gold, silver and Jewellery. Besides, they also issued hundis or
bills of exchange.

6. Briefly comment on the role of landed intermediaries in revenue collection?

A.

In addition to the state officials, various categories of intermediaries existed between the
peasants and the state. They played a crusial role in land revenue realization.

They claimed revenue exemptions on their lands or a share in land revenue in turn for the
service rendedred by them.

Before the sultanates, raja, rajaputra, ranaka and Mahasamanta etc. were hereditary right
holders connected with land.

52

During the sultanate period, intermdiaries like Khuts (small land lords), Muqaddams (village
head man) and a group of intermediaries such as Rai, Rana, Rawats etc. were played an
important role.

During the Moghal period Rais, Ranas, Rawants and other such intermediaries referred as
Zamindars.

7. Brifly Comment on the currency system of medieval India?

A.

The silver and copper coins were in circulation for cash transactions.

Under sultanate the pure 'Silver Tanka' with fluctuating proportion of silver was the main
coinage.

The Jittal and Dang were copper coins.

Under Shershah for the first time the purity of metals in coinage of gold, silver and copper was
established. The Rupaya of silver came to be used as the basic coin for transactions. It was
178 grains. The same was continued under Akbar with minor fluctuations under his successors.

Small Answer Questions

1. What was a Hat?
A. Hat was a periodic local market, held on fixed days in a week. In these markets local people
purchased their articles of daily use.
2. Who were Muqaddams and Patels?
A. The Muqaddams and Patels were village headmen in north and south India respectively who
Where responsible for collection of land revenue and maintainance of law and order in their
respective villages.
3. Name four important centres of Diamond production?
A. Golconda, Bairagarh, Panna and Khokra.
4. What were Polaz, Parati and Chachar Lands?
A. Polaz : Land from which two crops raised every year.
Parati : Land to be left uncultivated for some time.
Chochar : Unfertile land brought to cultivation once in 3 to 4 years.
5. Qabuliyat : A deed agreement taken from peasants which made him to promise to pay land
revenue to the state as per Patta specifications.

53

6. Dadni : a form of artisanal production where in an artisan was provided with necessary raw
material and advanced money by such merchants who trade in these commodities.
7. Tanka : Standard silver coin of Delhi sultanate.
8. Karwanis : Merchants who moved together in large number and specialized in transportation of
grain from rural areas.
9. Dastur : Revenue circle; division of territory into revenue circles for the purpose of land revenue
assessment. Each circle was called a dastur.
10. Bohra : A leading mercantile community of Gujarat.

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14
Cultural Developments in Medieval India
Introduction
The medieval period is considered as an age of great cultural synthesis in India. During this
period a new phase of cultural development was initiated. The Turks and Moghals introduced fresh
ideas and helped in giving rise to new features in the areas of religion, philosophy and ideas, language
and literature, styles of Architecture and use of building material, painting and fine arts, music and
performing arts.
India already had a very rich cultural tradition in all spheres. But the synthesis between different
(Hindu and Muslim) cultures gave birth to new philosophical and religious traditions, ideas, forms and
styles in almost all spheres of culture. In this lesson you would be introduced to these new cultural
developments in some important spheres. We will focus on

New religious movements like Sufism and Bhakti Movement.

Rise of Sikkism as a new religion ;

Growth of Urdu and Persian language and literature ;

Growth of literature in various Indian languages;

The architecture of the sultanate and Moghals with regional variation.

New forms of music.

The Moghal painting and other new styles that emerged in India.

Objectives

Know the philosophy and practices of various orders of sufis in India ;

55

Discuss the philosophy and practices of various orders of Bhakti saints in India;

Trace the rise of Sikhism, its practices, institution of Gurus and Khalsa panth;

Describe various styles and forms of painting in medieval India;

discuss the rise of new languages and the growth of literature in medieval India ;

Discuss various schools of music and dance styles in medieval India and;

Describe main styles, materials used and techniques adopted in medieval architecture.

Essay Questions
1. Discuss some of the important aspects of sufi teachings?
A.

'Sufism' is a term used to refer to mystical religious ideas in Islam. It had evolved in to a well
developed movement by the 11th century.

Sufi movement was the result of the effect of Hinduism on Islam. It emphasises the realisation
of God. It regards the relation of god with man, as the infusion of the devine into human soul.

The Khanqah (the hospice) was the centre of activities of the various sufi orders. It was led
by shaikh, peer or Murshild (teacher) who lived with his murids (disciples).

By the 12th century the sufis were organised in silsilahs (orders). It meant Chain and it
represented signifying an unbreakable chain between the peer and the murid. With the death
of the peer his tomb or shrine, the dargah became a centre for his disciples and followers.

The principles of sufism were greatly influenced by Hinduism.

1. Search and love for the supreme reality is common to both Hindus and Muslims.
2. The conception of God and Soul as one of beloved and the lover, peculiar to Hinduism
was accepted by sufism in India.
3. Pacification and non-voilence were adopted by sufism.
4. The sufis were also adopted starving and torturing of the body from the Hindus, Jains
and Buddists.
5. Sufi saints Like Hindus are organised in to various orders or silsilas. Chisti and Suhrawardy
are popular in India.
6. Love and liberalism are the key notes of sufism and Hinduism.

56

2. What were the similarities in the teachings of various Bhakti saints?

A.

The Bhakti movement in Indian History represents a movement that popularized devotional
surrender to personally conceived supreme god.

From the eight century onwards the vaishnavite and saivite saints started the Bhakti movement in India called Bhakti cult.

Bhakti movement aimed at purification of religion and liberation of masses, from the priestly
class. A lot of Bhakti literature was produced in almost all the Indian languages specially in
Hindi, Bengali Marathi and Sanskrit.

There are similarities in the teachings of the various Bhakti saints.

1. Most of the monotheists belonged to the low castes and were aware that there existed a
unity in their ideas.
2. All of them were influenced by the vaishnava concept of Bhakti, the Nath panthi movement and sufism. Their ideas seem to be a synthesis of the three traditions.
3. The Bhakti Saints refused any formal association with the organized religions of the time.
They rejected the authority of the Brahmans and attacked the cast system and practise
of idol worshipping.
4. They composed their poems in popular languages and dialects spoken across north
India. This enabled them to transmit their ideas among the masses. It helped their ideas
to spread rapidly among the various lower classes.

3. Highlight the important aspects of the teaching of Gurunanak?

A.

Gurunanak was born in 1469 at Talwardi near Lahore. He was a religious preacher of saintly
disposition. He preached the unity of God.

The teachings and philosophy of Gurunanak form an important part of Indian philosophical
thought.

His philosophy consists of three basic elements; a leading charismatic personality (the Guru),
idealogy (Shabed) and organization (sangat).

Teachings of Gurunanak
1. Gurunanak evaluated and criticized the prevailing religious beliefs and attempted to establish a true religion, which could lead to salvation.
2. He denounced the idol worship and did not favour pilgrimage nor accept the theory of
incarnation. He condemned formalism and ritualism.

57

3. He denounced the caste system and stood for the equality of all men. He argued that the
caste and honour should be judged by the acts or the deeds of individuals.
4. He advised people to follow the principles of conduct and worship; sach (truth) halal
(lawful earning), khair (wishing well of others), niyat (right intention) and service to the
lord.
5. His teachings constitute the basic doctrines of sikh religion. They were complied in the
form 'Granth Saheb'.
6. Nanak was from the Khatri mercantile caste whereas his followers were mostly rural
jats.
4. What were the important features in the new painting styles that emerged under the
Moghals?
A.

Paintings in medieval India entered a new phase under the Mughals. They altered the character of painting across north India.

Though the Quran prohibits painting, the Moghals except Aurangazeb had a great liking for it.
Like architecture, in Moghal painting too there was a happy blend of Indian and extra-Indian
elements.

The early origins of the Mughal school of painting can be traced to Kabul. Though Babur and
Humayun had a taste for painting but it received a great impetus under Akbar. Mir Syed Ali
and Abdur Samad were patronized by Akbar.

Akbar patronised about 100 Hindu and Muslim painters. Among them Abdur Samad was a
renowned painter. He won the title 'Sweet pen' (Shirin Kalam) for his outstanding skill. Infact
Akbar maintained a National school of Indian painting which attracted painters from all over
the country. The famous paintings of the age were changiznamah, Zafarnamah, Ramanama,
Naladaman and Kaliyadaman etc.

The paintings reached its zenith during the reign of Jahangir. The paintings was freed from the
Persian influence and became essentially Indian in character under Jahangir. He also patronised
both the Hindu and Muslim painters.

Since Aurangazeb was a puritan, the art of painting declined with the death of Jahangir.

Among the important features of the paintings of this period are restricted movement of the
figures, fineness of lines of drawings and flat dipiction of architectural columns.

The Moghal paintings are also marked with a naturalism and rhythm, the clothing of the objects assumed Indian forms and the use of subsidiary scenes in the back ground.

58

The two most common themes in Moghal paintings of this period are specific events in the
court and the portraits of leading personalities.

5. Write about the greatness of Ranjit Singh? (1780-1889) ?

A. Ranjit Singh was a great warrior and states man. He was born at Gujran wala in november 1780
AD. He was the son of Man singh, the Sardar of Sukarchakia MISL. He ascended the thrown
at the age of 12 years
His conquests : Ranjit Singh defeated the group of 11 misles. With this victory ranjit prestege
was increased.
Treaty of Amrit Sar (1809) : He concluded a treaty with the British in 1809. According to this
treaty the river Sutlez became a boundary line between the Ranjit singh and the British.
Administration: He was very good administrator. For the administrative convenience, the
kingdom was divided into provisions, paraganas, taluqs and villages.
Rajot singh maintained a vast army. He was the first ruler to pay salaries to soldiers.
He was the creator of sikh nation state, so Ranjit singh was rightly called the 'Lion of Punjab'.

Short Questions
1. The Chishti Silsilah : This order was established in India by Muinuddin chisti. The fame of
Khwaja Muinuddin grew after his death in 1235. The chisthis believed in

Love as the bond between god and individual soul,

the tolerance between people of different faith,

acceptance of disciples irrespective of their religious beliefs.

attitude of benevolence to all.

association with Hindu and Jain Yogis and

use of simple language.

all these enabled sufis to maintain a loyal and dedicated following.

Small Answer Questions

1. Who was AL-Ghazali?
A. An important sufi who reconciled Islamic mysticism with Islamic orthodoxy.

59

2. Who was chaitanya?

A. He was an important Bhakti Saint from Bengal.
3. What do you understand from the term Khalsa?
A. A Sikh having a direct link with the Guru.
4. Name of two important works of Ziaudin Barani?
A. Fatwa-i-Jahandari and Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi.
5. Name the Musical instrument created by Amir-Khusru?
A. Sitar
6. What is a true arch?
A. A style of arch making that emerged in the medieval period. The centre stone was important in
this.
7. Name a few monuments associated with early forms of Indo Islamic architecture?
A. Quwwat Ul Islam Mosque, Qutub Minar, Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra.
8. Name some of the decorative styles used in medieval architecture?
A. Calligraphy and Geometric shapes.

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15
Understanding Eighteenth Century India
Introduction
The eighteenth century in India was characterized by two critical transitions which altered the
structure of power and initiated important social and economic changes. The first was the transition in
the first half of the century from the Moghal empire to the regional political orders. The second was the
transition in the polity, society and economy.
In the 18th century English East India company steered its way to the position of political dominance. The decline of Moghal authority gave rise to the emergence of a number of independent kingdoms. In this chapter we will study the emergence of these independent kingdoms in different parts of
the country. The aggressive British policies affected the economic situation. The agricultural and non
agricultural production was altered. The commercial activities also under-went changes. These also be
discussed in the chapter. The socio and cultural scenario of 18th century will also be analyzed.

Objectives

Analyse the factors for the fall of Moghal empire and rise of the regional polities ;

Explain the major political powers that emerged during this period;

Distinguish the regional variations within Indian economy of the period ;

Identify the features of society and culture in 18th century ;

List the issues involved in understanding the 18th century .

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Essay Questions
1. Describe the causes for the downfall of Moghal empire after the death of Aurangazeb?
A. The Moghal empire founded by Babur, built and consolidated by Akbar reached Zenith of its
glory during the early years of Aurangazeb. The unity and Stability was shaken during the long
and strong reign of Aurangazeb. After his death the Moghal authority weakened and it was on
decline. Several causes were responsible for it. They were
1. Aurangazeb is religious policy of transform the whole of Hindustan into an Islamic state resulted a great apathy against Aurangazeb. His Rajput and Deccan policy also created a great
resentment among the Rajput and Deccan rulers.
2. Aurangazeb's personnel defects such as suspicion, in tolerance, espionage, over-centralisation
and oppression etc. created enemies for himself.
3. The successors of Aurangazeb were weak and incompetent. Thus the absence of strong ruler
to wield power at the centre, the provinces went their own way to become independent.
4. Since there was no established law of succession as in Hinduism, the sword and not the
principle of Justice became the grand arbiter of right. Thus there was not only ruined the
prestige and moral of the Moghals but also gave wide scope to the disturbing elements to take
undue advantages of it.
5. Just like the masters, Moghal nobility became a pack of cowards, which further disintegrate
the Moghal authority.
6. The Moghals failed to realise the importance of maintaining a strong navy to protect the
empire from the European encroachments.
7. It is unthinkable that an empire can survive without sound finances. The sound financial
system setup by Akbar was not continued by his successors.
8. Foreign attacks specially, Nadir shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali added an insult to an in Jury.
9. The rise and growth of British power finally brought the Moghal empire to a close.
2. Describe the significant changes in the economic sphere in 18th century India?
A.

The Indian economy before the British conquest of India was marked by the self-sufficient
village economy on the one hand and towns which were the seats of Indian handicrafts on the
other. The Indian products enjoyed world-wide reputation.

After the conquest of India by the British, the Indian economy was transformed into a colonial
economy. Its nature and structure was determined by the needs of the British economy.
62

Every step taken by the British i.e. either the expansion of the Railways or the revenue settlements etc. was primarily aimed to accelerate the process of economic drain from India.

Economic consequences of the British rule on India : In the beginning the company mainly
bent on Indian goods for their prosperous European trade. In turn the Indian artisans and crafts
man had plenty to enjoy. But the industrial revolution that broke out in England brought the
sudden and quick collapse of Indian handicrafts, which created death knell to the Indian economy.
1. Decline of Indian handicrafts and the ruin of artisans and craftsman.
2. Progressive ruralisation or deindustrialisation of India.
3. Impoverishment of the peasantry.
4. Commercialisation of Agriculture and stagnation and deterioration of agriculture.
5. Poverty and famines etc. were some its consequences.
3. Why is there a debate on the nature of 18th century?
A.

The debate on the nature of eighteenth century has engaged historians of Moghal India as well
those interested in colonial studies.

Early Moghal studies view the over all changes in the shadow of Moghal political collapse and
project the period as 'dark ages', thus the Moghal political crisis is seen to be accompanied
by economic and social break down as well.

This again resulted in two arguments around "Continuity versus change".

Indian historians argued that colorial Conquest of India during mid eighteenth century as a
point of departure for Indian History. So the basic issues pertaining to eighteenth century are
two-whether the fall of Moghal empire initiated the fall of socio-economic structure as well
and secondly whether the arrival of colonialism was a fundamental break or not? Was the
18th century a dark age or was it a period of economic boom? Did it mark a sharp break or
was it a period of continuity and change? How British power in India expanded during the
18th century?

These and other questions concerning the nature of politics, society, economy, religion and
culture made the study of history of 18th century highly debatable.

Traditional historians viewed that India's 18th century as a dark era of warfare, political chaos
and economic decline sandwiched between stable and prosperous Moghal and British hegemonies.

63

But, above said view was severely criticised by recent generation of Indian historians, who
have emphasized the continuities between the earlier Moghal and later British states and the
constellation of small successor states that emerged with the ebbing of Moghal power. The
political turmoil which affected the whole century, forces one to ask whether the fall of the
Moghal empire led to a break of the central political authority triggering the phase of anarchy
firstly leading to the rise of regional kingdoms which paved the way for dominance of British
colonialism.

Short Answer Questions

1. Who were popularly known as 'Sayyed Brothers?' Mention a few of their achievements?
A. Abdulla Khan and Hussian Alikhan were popularly known as Sayyed Brothers.
Achievements :
1. They held the position of 'Vazir' and 'Bakshi' respectively under Moghals administration
2. They suppressed the sikh revolts and tried to conciliate the Rajputs.
3. They abolished repressive tax like 'Jazia'.
4. They were more influenced under Farruk Siyar Court.
2. Write about chin Kilich Khan
A.

The founder of Hyderabad 'Nizam-ul-mulk' original name was chin kilich khan.

He had played a key role to dislodge the Sayyed Brothers and held the position of the 'vazir'
under Moghals.

Later on he was deputed as Subedar of Deccan 'Subha'.

By taking advantage of Moghal disintegration, he declared independence state of Hyderabad

in 1724.

3. Bengal independence:
A.

Bengal became an integral part of Moghal during Akbar period.

During Aurangazeb period Murshid Quli Khan had appointed as Diwan of Bengal, but with
the growing weakening of the central authority he declared independence to Bengal but used
to sent tribute to the Moghal emperor.

In 1739, Ali vardhi Khan who deposed the family of Murshid made himself the Nawab of
Bengal.
64

The successor of Ali vardhikhan, Siraj-ud-daulal had to fight the English company over the
trading rights and defeated in plassey war in 1757, which paved the way for subjugation of
Bengal as well as India.

Small Answer Questions

1. The ruler of which country invaded India in 1738?
A. Nadir shah of Iran invaded India during 1738-39 AD.
2. Chauth : 1/4 of the income
A. Sardesh mukhi : paid by Desaswami, Desa sai and Desh mukh to Sardesh Mukh. It is 1/10 of
the income. Both taxes were collected by Shivaji.
3. Name the various ruling dynasties of the Marathas confederacy?
A. Bhonsles of Nagpur, Gaikwads of Baroda, Holkars of Indore, Sindhias of Gwalior and Sivajis
successors constituted as Maratha confederacy.
4. Who was Ahalya Bai ? What was her main achievement?
A. She was the widowed daughter in law of the Holker ruler Malhar Rao. She consolidated the
power of the Holkers and brought great glory to it.
5. Name Major colonial port cities, that replaced earlier commercial centres?
A. Colonial cities like Bombay, Madras, Calcutta replaced earlier commercial centres.
6. List the major social evils prevalent in 18th century India?
A. Women of the upper classes had to follow Pardah. Child marriage, Polygamy and Dowry were
other social evils in the society. But the most cruel and worst social evil was the custom of Sati.

65

10
COOPERATION, COMPETITION
AND CONFLICT
Introduction
By now, you are familiar with some of the basic concepts used in Sociology such as society,
community, group, individual and association. In fact, they provide the basic structure of society.
Society is not static. It is ever changing. Changes came through the interaction among the members
of the society. The interaction reflects in the activities of human beings in society through contact and
communication. In this context, there are certain mechanisms by which individuals and groups carry
out activities, according to their needs and requirements which are known as Social Processes.
Co-operation, competition and conflict mark the basic principles of various types of activities
performed by the individuals in the given context.
Did you ever realize that you cannot see society? You can only see the individuals interacting
with one another. Behind these interactions, there is a meaning or purpose. This is expressed in a
variety of ways in inter-personal relationships with friends, family members, neighbours,
acquaintances and strangers in the term of co-operations, competition and conflict.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of social processes;
Identify the manner in which individuals and groups carry out their activities;
Describe the nature and types of social interactions;
State the basic concept of co-operation and its nature;
67

 Explain the basic concept of competition and its nature;

Describe the basic concept of conflict and its nature; and
Explain co-operation, competition and conflict as a social continuum.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. Explain the elements of co-operation.

A: 1) Co-operation is goal-oriented and conscious form of social interaction. It involves two
elements. They are:
a) Common end, and
b) Organized effort
2) All the individuals have a common end.
Example:- Celebration of festivals.
3) The underlying principle of division of labour makes co-operation possible.
2. Write the differences between competition and conflict.
A: 1) Competition is the struggle between individuals or group of individuals, who are not
necessarily in contact and communication.
2) Conflict arises, when an individual or group seeks to attain its own ends in ways which
obstruct the attainment of the same ends by others.
3) Individuals or groups follow rules in competition, but in conflict there are no primary rules.
4) Earlier Sociologists did not consider conflict as a social process. Later it was pointed out
that conflict is not pathological (conflict is accepted as a social process).
3. Briefly explain types of conflict.
A: 1) Conflict can be manifest (overt) or latent (covert).
2) Conflict can be personal or corporate.
3) Conflict can be purely temporary (ephemeral) or perpetual (enduring).

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Do you agree that social process is a social interaction

A: 1) Social process has a wider connotation (scope).
2) It is based on traditions, mores, morals and instincts.
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3) Social process is concerned with different changes in life of the group. It depends upon the
nature of interaction.
4) Interaction refers to an action done in response to another action. It becomes social
process when interaction is repeated.
5) Social process is a manner, in which the relations of the members of the group together
acquire a certain distinctive character.
6) The members of the society, bound together in a system of mutual influence is described as
social interaction.
2. Explain various types of Conflict.
A: 1) Conflict can be of various types. They are (i) War (ii) Feud (iii) Litigation and (iv) conflict
of impersonal ideas.
2) War results from a deep seated antagonistic impulse in man.
3) Feud is an intra-group form of war caused by some injustice alleged to have been done by
one group to another.
4) Litigation is a judicial form of conflict.
5) Conflict carried out by the individuals for an ideal (not for themselves) is called the conflict
of impersonal ideas.
Sociologists have given various classifications of conflicts. They are:
a) Manifest (overt) and Latent (covert)
b) Corporate conflict or personal conflict
c) Temporary conflict or Perpetual conflict.
3. Explain co-operation, competition and conflict as a social continuum.
A: 1) Co-operation, competition and conflict are the basis for all forms of social interaction.
2) Individuals co-operating, conflicting with one another depends on the situation.
3) The three forms of interaction can be observed in the societies throughout the world.
4) The nature and intensity of the interaction will be based on social and cultural situation.
From the above mentioned reasons, their presence is universal and considered as social
continuum.

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IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Explain various types of co-operation.

A: 1) Co-operation generally means working together for a common objective.
Eg: collecting funds for organizing social activities.
2) Co-operation can be divided into direct and indirect co-operation.
3) Individuals performing similar activities together are called as direct co-operation.
Eg: Doing farming collectively, praying or worshipping together.
4) Individuals performing different or dissimilar activities / tasks towards a common goal is
called indirect co-operation. In this each individual has specialized roles to play.
5) Co-operation can also be classified into:
i) Primary co-operation ii) Secondary co-operation and iii) Tertiary co-operation
6) The co-operation found in primary groups (family, peer groups/friends) is called primary
co-operation.
7) Secondary co-operation is found in the secondary groups (government, industrial houses,
etc) where people co-operate for certain interests.
8) The tertiary co-operation is found when individuals or groups who otherwise compete with
one another, come together and co-operate with each another for a specific purpose.
Eg: Co-operation obtained between different political parties for a short time span.
2. What do you mean by Competition? Write the characteristics of competition.
A: Competitions is also a form of interaction. It is a struggle between individual or group of
individuals.
1) Competition is impersonal struggle. Competition refers to interactions without social
contact.
2) Competition is mainly an unconscious activity but at times conscious competition also
takes place.
3) Competition is universal. No society is devoid of competition. The magnitude and the
degree of competition vary from society to society.
4) Competition is regarded as conducive to progress. It is conducive to economic and social
progress.
5) At times competition can be vicious both for individuals and groups. It may create
emotional disturbances.
6) Competition refers to both associative and dissociative dimensions of social progress.
70

3. What do you mean by Conflict? Write the characteristics of conflict.

A: 1) Conflict is another form of social interaction. It is a process of opposition.
2) It is inherent in every society or social system.
3) The process of conflict arises when the norms and values of one group come in clash with
that of the other or when a group struggles for its own values and objects against others.
4) Characteristics of Conflict
a) The nature of conflict may vary from society to society, but it is found in every society.
b) Conflict is a conscious action.
c) Conflict primary remains a personal activity. At times it acquires greater intensity.
d) Conflict is a social process, which becomes visible intermittently. It is not a continuous
process.
e) Conflict leads to social change.

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11
ACCULTURATION, ASSIMILATION
AND INTEGRATION
Introduction
In the previous lesson we have discussed some of the social processes as expressed in social
interaction. Imagine a situation when individual members co-operate with each other compete with
one another and engage in conflicting behavior with one another or with opponents. We can say that
co-operation, competition and conflicts are social processes primarily concerned with the nature of
social interaction between individuals or groups. However, there are other forms of social
processes operating in society at large. These are processes of acculturation, assimilation and
integration. Such processes do not describe the nature of individual interaction in given social
situation. On the other hand, they throw some light on the outcome of such interactions at the level
of the entire society and culture. Thus, in brief we can say that the previous lesson describes the
nature of social interaction at the level of individuals or groups; whereas this lesson would deal with
the implications of these interactional processes for society at large. Therefore, this lesson will
mainly focus on those social processes of social and cultural change.
Many cultural traits are common to all societies such as love and hate, pride and prejudices,
sex and ceremonies. The cultural differences are reflected in geography, human ingenuity,
technology, education, conflict of interest, inherited and tradition backed notions. This lesson
explores the concerns and issues relating to different aspects of social processes, a prime concern
for the study of social relations with individuals living in groups with others.

Objectives
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of Acculturation, Assimilation and Integration as processes of culture
change and culture contact;
72

 Explain the nature of factors of these three processes;

Correlate inter-relationships and variations, in these three processes; and
Explain the ways and means to achieve these social processes in different social and cultural
groups.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What do you mean by Acculturation?

A: 1) Acculturation means transmission of cultural elements from one group to another.
2) In the process of acculturation, borrowing of cultural traits reflects influence of dominant
culture.
3) The elements of one culture can influence the other cultural elements.
2. Write the factors which influence acculturation.
A: 1) Education is a strong factor in acculturation.
2) Modern means of transportation and communication.
3) Cultural borrowing which depends upon the borrowers capabilities and capacity to
accept and adopt change.
4) Acculturation is a continuous process.
3. Write briefly about Assimilation.
A: 1) Assimilation means sharing of traditions and intimate participation in common experiences.
2) Assimilation is central in the historical process.
3) The individual accepting assimilation will loose his identity.
4) The idea of assimilation was conceived as acting alike.
4. Write the factors which influence integration.
A: 1) Size of a group: It is easier to integrate smaller groups for many kinds of activity than a
large group.
2) The primary group has greater potential to integrate.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Write the characteristics of Acculturation.

A: 1) Acculturation could be either a conscious or an unconscious process.
2) Acculturation takes place when two or more communities belonging to different cultures
come together and start adopting each others culture traits.
73

3) Acculturation can take place either through direct contact or indirect contact.
4) Acculturation is a pre-condition of assimilation or integration.
2. Write the characteristics of Assimilation.
A: 1) Assimilation takes place without any deliberate or conscious effort. It is an unconscious
process.
2) Assimilation is a slow process.
3) Assimilation occurs when the cultures involved in the process have unequal standing.
4) The impact of assimilation continues for a long time.
3. Write the components of Integration.
A: 1) Sharing of common characteristics.
2) Acceptance and observation of various norms set by the group.
3) Ethnocentrism or a preference for ones own culture.
4) Discipline among the members.
From the above mentioned components, group cohesion and integration are strengthened.
4. Write the characteristics of Integration.
A: 1) Integration is a complex social process in comparison to acculturation and assimilation.
2) Integration requires many structural adjustments in the groups involved.
3) The communities or groups undergo changes.
4) Some institutions retain their traditional features and practices.
5) Integration refers to the process of uniting or linking cultural parts with the whole or
mainstream culture.
5. Explain the similarities between Acculturation, Assimilation and Integration.
A: The three processes i.e. Acculturation, Assimilation and Integration have certain common
points.
1) The basic principles of culture contact are acculturation, assimilation and integration.
2) These form part and parcel of social processes.
3) Borrowing and acquiring of various cultural traits.
4) Transmission of cultural traits and their acceptance and adoption in different degrees and
extent is the common characteristic of all the three processes.
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IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Explain the differences between Acculturation, Assimilation and Integration.

A: 1) Assimilation refers to fusion of culture whereas, acculturation relates to transmission of
cultural elements on a larger scale over a wider area. Integration, on the other hand brings
members together and maintains cohesiveness and solidarity in the group. It brings about
stability in the group.
2) Acculturation is a continuous process as against integration, which is referred to as a
process of organization. As distinguished from these two, assimilation is the end product of
interaction due to social contact.
3) The process of assimilation takes a long period of time. As against this, integration refers
to cultural pluralism, voluntary and incomplete assimilation. This takes place in a short
period of time. Acculturation at times is apparent, and causes quick social change.
4) Assimilation is a natural and unassisted social process. Whereas acculturation and
integration are social processes assisted by culture contact and can be promoted directly.

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12
MARRIAGE
Introduction
You must be aware that marriage is an important social relationship. It is found everywhere in
the world. Through marriage, two persons of opposite sex get social approval to live together as
husband and wife. Marriage marks the beginning of a new phase of life for the bride and the groom.
You must have participated in the joy of festivity associated with a marriage ceremony in any
society.
The significance attached to marriage is reflected in society. The present lesson will acquaint
you with this important social institution.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Define marriage;
Describe different types of marriage;
Explain functions of marriage;
Describe Hindu marriage as a sacrament;
Explain marriage as a contract among the Muslims; and
Explain the changes in the institution of marriage.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What is marriage? Define in one sentence.

A: Marriage permits the men and women to establish a stable relationship with each other in
order to form a family.
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2. What is the primary aim of marriage?

A: Regulation of sexual activities.
3. What is Monogamy?
A: One man or woman marrying only one woman or man at a time is called as Monogamy.
4. What is Fraternal Polyandry?
A: One woman marrying more than one man at a time who are brothers is known as Fraternal
Polyandry.
5. Give the example for Fraternal Polyandry.
A: Draupadi in Mahabharat.
6. Which rule has prohibited the sexual relation among the blood relatives (blood ties)?
A: Incest Taboo
7. Which marriage exists between the children of either two brothers or two sisters?
A: Parallel cousin Marriages.
8. What is Levirate?
A: Widow marries her husbands brother.
9. What are the main objectives of Hindu marriage?
A: Performance of Religious duty (Dharma), Giving birth to children (Praja) and Sex Satisfaction
(Rati).

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What is Polygamy?
A: One man or woman marrying more than one woman or man is called as polygamy.
2. What is the difference between Fraternal Polyandry and Non-fraternal Polyandry?
A: One woman marrying men who are brothers is called as fraternal polyandry. If the husbands
of a woman are not brothers, it is called non-fraternal polyandry.
3. Explain the prohibitive rules in selection of mates.
A: 1) Incest Taboo
4) Hypergamy (Anuloma)

2) Exogamy
5) Hypogamy (Pratiloma)

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3) Endogamy

4. Explain the preferential rules in the selection of mates.

A: 1) Parallel Cousin Marriages
3) Levirate

2) Cross Cousin Marriages

4) Sororate

5. Mention economic functions of marriage.

A: Traditionally, husband used to take the responsibility of earning money and wife used to
manage the family with this income. In modern times, however, it is quite normal to see both
husband and wife contributing to family earnings.
6. What is the importance of Dharma in objectives of the Hindu marriage?
A: In the Hindu marriage, the objective of dharma has been given the greatest importance. It
implies that one must marry in order to fulfill ones socio-religious duties.
7. What is Marriage system?
A: Marriage is an institution for admitting men and women into family life, legitimating off-springs
and establishing other rights and obligations of husband, wife and children.
8. Write the differences between Polygyny and Polyandry with suitable examples.
A: In Polygyny, one man marries more than one woman at a time. Eg: King Dasratha father of
Lord Rama, had three wives. In Polyandry, one woman marries more than one man at a time.
Eg: Draupadi in Mahabharat.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Explain the main objectives of Hindu Marriage.

A: In traditional Hindu society, only a married man gets the right to participate fully in all the
social and religious activities along with his wife.
There are three main objectives of Hindu marriage. They are:
i) Dharma means performance of religious duty
ii) Praja means giving birth to children
iii) Rati means sex satisfaction
2. Hindu marriage is a sacrament. Describe.
A: Hindu marriage is a sacrament. It purifies a person. Marriage is considered so sacred that
there is no provision for divorce in the Hindu texts. The marital rites are performed before the
most sacred God-Agni (the Fire God). A Brahmin solemnizes the marriage by reciting
passages or mantras from the sacred scriptures. The bride and the groom exchange many
promises to remain dutiful and faithful to each other. Well-wishers bless the couple for a
happy married life.
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3. Muslim marriage is a civil contract. Describe. (or) Explain how Muslim marriage is
different from Hindu marriage?
A: Muslim marriage or Nikah is a civil contract between a man and a woman for the purpose of
legalizing sexual relationship and the procreation of children. In this sense, it is different from
Hindu marriage. Muslim marriage is solemnized in the presence of Maulvi (Priest) and
witnesses. The Maulvi recites holy hymns from the Koran and seeks the consent of the bride
and the groom. Muslim marriage is a contract. It can be broken at the will of the husband or
wife. The husband must agree to pay the dower or Mahr to his wife in the event of divorce.
4. Describe various types of divorce among Muslims.
A: Divorce among the Muslims is obtained by a very simple procedure.
1) Talaq: A husband can divorce his wife by pronouncing the word talaq thrice. Husband
pays dower (Mahr) to wife for financial stability.
2) Khula: A wife can also obtain divorce from her husband. Her proposal is accepted by the
husband and this is called as Khula.
3) Mubarat: If the wife and husband separate by mutual consent, such dissolution of
marriage is called Mubarat.
4) Muslim Divorce Act, 1939: Marriage can be dissolved by legal means through this act.
5. Briefly explain the forms of Muslim marriages.
A: There are four forms of Muslim marriages. They are:
1) Nikah: The marriage which conforms to the rules of marriage as laid down in the Koran
the holy book of Muslims. It is also known as Sahi Nikah.
2) Fasid: The marriage which fails to conform to a few conditions initially is called irregular
marriage or Fasid.
3) Muta: Muta is a temporary marriage. This type of marriage contract is valid for a fixed
period of time and after the expiry of this period, marital relation is automatically dissolved.
4) Batil: It is form of marriage in which mating cannot be regularized.
6. What are the changing attitudes in marriage?
A: 1) The marriage has been changed from plurality of partners (polygamy) to one partner
(monogamy).
2) The boys and girls are selecting their mates who may belong to other castes. Inter-caste
marriages are now increasingly accepted by the society and family.
3) The boys and girls besides status, give due importance to comparative merit and their likes
and dislikes while considering the marriage proposal.
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4) The Hindu Marriage Act 1956 has stipulated that the boy must complete 21 years and
girl 18 years at the time of marriage. Child marriages are banned by the Child Marriage
Restraint Act 1929.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Explain the types of marriage based on the number of mates with suitable examples?
A: Marriage can be classified into two main types on the basis of number of mates.
1) Monogamy

2) Polygamy.

Monogamy is the form of marriage in which one man/woman marries to one woman/man at a
time. Lord Rama is the example for monogamy. In Polygamy, one man/woman marries more
than one woman/man. This marriage is sub-divided into two types. They are:
1) Polygyny

2) Polyandry

In Polygyny marriages, one man marries more than one woman. King Dasratha father of Lord
Rama is the example for Polygyny. In Polyandry marriages, one woman marries more than
one man. In this marriage if the woman marries brothers then it is called as Fraternal
polyandry. Draupadi in Mahabharat is the example for this marriage. If the woman married
men who are not brothers, then it is called as non-fraternal polyandry. For example, these
kind of marriages are found among Nayars of Kerala.
2. Briefly explain the functions of marriage?
A: Marriage in society performs the following basic functions:
1) Satisfaction of Sex: Marriage brings the two individuals together and allows them to
have sex with each other in a socially approved manner. It is not allowed to have sexual
relation with anyone else except the spouse. Thus, marriage regularizes sexual relations.
2) Procreation and nurturing of children: Marriage fulfills the functions of producing
children and bringing them. The function of procreation and nurturing of children according
to the social norms can be fulfilled by the family.
3) Economic co-operation and security: The husband and wife, work together at home, in
the field or forest, in the cottage industry or in any other occupation. They support the
family which they have set up and take care of the requirements of children such as food,
clothing, shelther, education, health, recreational needs and so on.
4) Companionship and emotional support: The bride and groom are often not familiar
with each other initially but as they begin to spend their life together, they become each
others best friends. They develop a better understanding of each others social, economic
and emotional perspectives and manage the family.
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3. Discuss the forms of Hindu marriage.

A: In the traditional Hindu marriage, eight forms of marriages were recognized. Out of these, first
four were considered proper and desirable and the last four were regarded as undesirable.
1) Brahma Marriage: In this marriage, a father gifts his daughter to a learned man of good
character.
2) Daiva Marriage: In this marriage, the father gifts his daughter to a Brahmin priest.
3) Arsha Marriage: In this marriage, the groom presents some gifts like a pair of cows or
bulls to the father of the bride.
4) Prajapatya Marriage: A father gifts his daughter to a man after proper negotiation with
his parents. Most of the marriages among the Hindus are performed in this way.
5) Asura Marriage: In this marriage, bride-price is given by the groom to the brides father.
6) Gandharva Marriage: The bride and the groom like each other and marry without
taking the consent of the parents.
7) Rakshasa Marriage: The girl is kidnapped and married without the consent of the
parents.
8) Paisacha Marriage: The girl who is asleep, intoxicated or of unsound mind is forced to
surrender her chastity and later, the girl is given the status of wife.

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13
FAMILY
Introduction
Family is an important social group for an individual and society. Every individual in this world
is a part of one family or the other. All of us are born and brought up in a family. With the birth of
children, the size of family gets enlarged. Sometimes, the family may include a number of relatives
belonging to different generations.
Family is often the focal point, the centre around which our whole life revolves. We begin our
day with the family members, go out to perform our professional and social duties and come back to
be with the family members.
You might have realized that even if you are away from your family due to certain
compulsions, it remains your earnest desire to share every little joy and sorrow with the family
members. The desire to be with the family reflects the strong emotional bond you share with your
family members.
In this lesson, you will get to learn about various aspects of family and the significant role it
plays in an individuals life.

Objectives
Define family;
Explain the sociological significance of family;
Describe its characteristics;
Explain the different functions of family;
Describe the various types of family;
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 Explain the meaning and problems of joint as well as modern family; and
Describe the changes in family and the factors behind these changes.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What is family?
A: A Family is defined as more or less a durable association of persons united by marriage for
procreation, upbringing of children.
2. What is family of orientation?
A: The family of birth is known as family of orientation.
3. What is family of procreation?
A: The family which is set up by the person after marriage is called the family of procreation.
4. What is Matrilocal Family?
A: The newly married couple stays or resides with the wifes parents is called as Matrilocal
family.
5. What is Patriarchal Family?
A: The family in which father is the formal head and his authority is supreme in the family is called
as patriarchal family.
6. What is Matriarchal Family?
A: The family in which the mother is the central figure and her authority is supreme is called as
matriarchal family.
7. What is Patrilocal Family?
A: The newly married couples stay with the husbands family is known as patrilocal family.
8. What is Nuclear Family?
A: The family in which husband, wife and their unmarried children stay together is known as
nuclear family or primary or conjugal family. The size of nuclear family is small.
9. What is Joint Family?
A: The family which is composed of blood and marital relatives of three or more generations and
stay together is known as joint family.
10. What is Neolocal family?
A: Newly wedded couple sets up a new home, independent from either of their parents is known
as neolocal family.
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II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

11. Define live in relationship.

A: Couple living together without marriage is known as live in relationship.
12. Which families are regarded as DINKS?
A: Some married and employed couples are opting not to have children despite financial stability.
They consider children as burden on themselves. These kind of families are termed as DINK
families.
13. What is the meaning of Kibbutz family system?
A: Children staying in children homes away from the parents is known as Kibbutz family system.
14. In which country the Kibbutz family system is observed?
A: Israel.
15. What is Avunculocal family?
A: The married couple resides with or near a maternal uncle of the groom, such families are
known as avunculocal family.
16. What are the three conditions of the joint family?
A: Generation depth, Common rights, obligations and property.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What did you understand about family? Explain in your own words?
A: The family is formed with the living together of a legally wedded couple. It is the congregate of
the social relations between the two people. People acquire the relationship by birth, marriage
or adoption. A family is a kin group based on the institution of marriage, sharing a household.
2. Family is called transfer point of culture. Why?
A: The child learns every aspect of culture in the family. When he becomes adult, he imparts this
knowledge about social norms, customs as well as material aspects to the younger generation.
That is why the family is called as transfer point of culture.
3. Write the Biological functions of the family.
A: The biological functions of the family are gratification of sexual desires of husband and wife in
an orderly and socially approved manner and the procreation of children.
4. Describe the socialization functions of the family.
A: The child in the process of socialization learns the various aspects of material and nonmaterial culture. The child learns non-material cultural aspects like language, customs,
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etiquettes, norms and values, beliefs and social roles. The aspects relating to material culture
like house-building and musical instruments knowledge is also learnt in the process of
socialization.
5. What are the differences between the Matrilocal family and the Matriarchal family?
A: In the Matrilocal families the married couple reside with the wifes family, whereas in the
matriarchal family the mother is the head of the family and exercises power and authority in the
family.
6. What are the differences between Patrilocal family and Patriarchal family?
A: In the Patrilocal families, the wife will stay in the husbands family, whereas in the patriarchal
family father is the head and the power is vested in his hands. The families which are headed
by the male member or father is known as Patriarchal family
7. What are the differences between Nuclear family and Joint family?
A: Nuclear family is the form of primary family. In this form of family the married couple and their
unmarried children stay together. The Joint family is formed by the blood or marital relatives of
three or more generations.
8. Name few institutions which are decreasing the importance of family?
A: The functions of the family have been reduced. New agencies or institutions have emerged to
cater the needs of the members of the family. These agencies cater to only specific needs and
are not holistic like a family. The creche, day care centres for children, old peoples homes,
nursing homes, hotels, restaurants, banks, clubs, etc are the few examples of agencies which
are decreasing the importance of family.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Explain the role of family in shaping the personality.

A: Family plays a vital role in the formation of society by binding men, women and their children
in a stable relationship with each other. It is called the nursery of human nature because the
manner in which the children are brought up in a family decides to a great extent, the way they
react to different situations in future. The family lays down the foundation of human
personality. The person being the member in the family in which he is born, gets the identity of
a son or daughter. Such a family exerts formative influences on his life and personality.
2. Explain the four general characteristics of family.
A: 1) Mating relationship: Marriage allows husband and wife to enter into socially approved
sexual union to satisfy their sex-instinct. Satisfaction of this basic instinct is imperative for a
healthy living.
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2) Common Habitation: Family members usually share a common residence in which

husband, wife, their children and other relatives live together.
3) Reckoning of Descent: Family is a bilateral group. It is made up of husband, wife and
relatives on both sides. But, the children inherit either fathers name and property or
mothers name and property.
4) Economic System: Every family makes provision to look after the economic needs of its
members. Usually, the elders of the family take up jobs and earn money. This money is
spent to meet the economic requirements of all the family members.
3. Explain the primary functions of the family.
A: 1) Biological functions: Gratification of sexual desires of husband and wife in an orderly
and socially approved manner, procreation (giving birth to children) and shape the new
generation in the form of children, provide physical protection, etc are the biological
functions of the family.
2) Economic Functions: Family fulfills the economic needs of its members by providing
them food, clothing and shelter till they become self-reliant. The head of the family takes up
a job, business or occupation and meets the requirements of other members from his
earnings.
3) Socialization of children: It is the important function of the family to bring up the children
according to the culture of the society. In the process of socialization, the child learns the
material and non-material aspects of culture. The agents of socialization of child, i.e. father,
mother and other relatives must be proper and affectionate. Only then the child learns the
norms of society willingly and completely.
4) Psychological functions: Human beings want love and affection of their fellow humans
right from infancy to old age. Individual feels assured that family members are there to take
care of him in good as well as bad circumstances. The individual in turn, devotes his time,
energy and money to his family members.
4. Explain the characteristics of Joint family in India.
A: Joint family has been defined as, a group of people belonging to three or more generations
who live under the same roof, eat food cooked from the same hearth and participate in
common activities.
Characteristics of Joint family:
1) In the joint families, the power to take decisions lies in the hands of head of the family.
Everyone abides by the decision.
2) The interest of the family as a whole is more important than the individuals interest. The
individual has to sacrifice ones personal wishes, likes and dislikes.
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3) Blood relationship gets preference over marital relationship.

4) The family functions on the ideal of joint responsibility. Everyone shares the problems of
other members of the family.
5. Discuss the changes in the family system in modern society.
A: 1) The size of family has been reduced with the impact of urbanization and industrialization. It
is difficult to find large accommodation for large size families in urban areas and the income
of individual is not sufficient to meet the requirements of large families. Hence, families in
modern times consist basically of husband, wife and their unmarried children.
2) The members of nuclear family interact with each other on more equal terms. They no
longer follow the dictates of the elderly blindly.
3) The kinship ties are not very strong in todays families. The family members have become
more self-centered and self-reliant. They do not spare much time, energy and money for
their relatives or kinsmen.
4) Some parents due to heavy work pressure or wish for freedom or abstaining from the
responsibility of children are not taking proper care of their children.
5) Separation has become common with increase in the rate of divorce due to disagreements
between the wife and husband.
6) The family is facing the problems of instability in western societies. Some couples are living
together without getting married as in western countries. Such living together without
marriage is known as live-in-relationship or cohabitation.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1) Describe the characteristics of Family.

A: Family is the basic unit of social organization. It displays some specific features or
characteristics.
1) Universality: There is not a single society in this universe where family is not found. The
reason for its universality is that it performs many functions which are indispensable for the
individual and society.
2) Emotional Basis: Family members are emotionally bound to each other. They provide
love, care and protection to each other and are ready to make sacrifices.
3) Limited Size: A family is basically made up of a husband, wife and their unmarried
children. The membership is confined to those who are related either by marriage or
blood-ties.
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4) Nuclear Position in Social Structure: Family is the basic, or fundamental to all social
groups. In the simpler as well as in the advanced societies, the whole social structure is
built largely on the basis of family.
5) Social Regulations: Family is run according to social norms. Inter-relationships and
interactions among family members are guided by social and legal regulations.
6) Its Permanent and Temporary Nature: The Individual family lasts till the husband and
wife are together. After their demise or divorce, their sons or daughters will establish new
families.
2) Discuss the types of family based on residence, authority and size.
A: 1) Residence: Depending on the place of residence of newly wedded husband and wife, the
families are divided into three types. They are :
a) Patrilocal Family: The newly married wife leaves her parents house and resides with
husbands parents in their house.
b) Matrilocal Family: The married couple stays or resides with the wifes family.
c) Neolocal Family: The newly married couple sets up a new home independent of either
parents.
2) Authority: Families are divided into two types based on authority. They are:
a) Patriarchal Family: Father is the formal head and holds the authority in the family. The
family members accept the authority of the father. Traditional Indian families and
families in China are the example for these patriachal family.
b) Matriarchal Family: The family in which the mother is the central figure and her
authority is supreme, is called matriarchal family. This kind of marriage is found among
Nayars in Kerala, Garo tribes, Khasi tribes of Assam.
3) Size: Family is divided into two types based on size. They are:
a) Nuclear Family: This family is formed with wife, husband and their unmarried children
and is small in size. Nuclear families are more popular in urban areas.
b) Joint Family: The family with three or more generations either blood or marital
relatives living together.

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14
KINSHIP
Introduction
Man is social by nature. He establishes many types of relationships with a number of persons.
The most important of these relationships is known as kinship. You find yourself surrounded by
several kins in your family as well as outside it.
A normal adult male is a son, a brother, a nephew, an uncle and so on. Similarly, a female is a
daughter, a sister, a wife, a mother and aunt, etc.
Such relationships based either on marriage or blood-ties are known as KINSHIP relations.
In the present lesson you will learn about kinship ties and its various aspects.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Define and understand the meaning of kinship;
Describe the different types and degrees of kinship;
Explain the function and importance of kinship;
Describe various kinship terms;
Describe different kinship groups; and
Describe kinship behaviour usages.

89

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. Define Kinship.
A: Kinship is the relation which exists between individuals. It depends upon genetic or blood ties
or adaptation as well as marriage.
2. Which relationship exists between wife and husband and between uncle and nephew?
A: Affinal Kinship (based on marriage).
3. What is Consanguineal Kinship?
A: The kinship based on the blood relations is known as Consanguineal Kinship.
4. In which type of kinship the relationship is based on blood?
A: Primary Kinship
5. What is Tertiary Kin?
A: The primary kin of our secondary kin is known as Tertiary Kin or Third degree kins.
Eg: Father of Grandfather, Mother of Grandmother.
6. Who are called as distant kins?
A: The primary kins of our tertiary kins are called fourth degree kins. They are known as distant
kins.
7. What are kinship terms?
A: The various kinds of words used to address or to refer or identify or categorize the individual
is known as kinship term.
8. What is Elementary Terms?
A: Father, mother, brother, sister, etc. are Elementary terms. These terms further cannot be
broken down or reduced into simpler words.
9. What are Derivative Terms?
A: Kinship terms coined by joining suffixes or prefixes to the elementary kinship terms are
known as Derivative kinship terms. Example: Great grandfather, step-son, etc.
10. What are Descriptive Terms?
A: The kinship terms which are formed by combining two or more elementary terms are known
as Descriptive terms. Example: Wifes sister, sons wife, etc.
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11. What are the Terms of Address?

A: Kinship terms which are used for addressing kins or relatives are known as Terms of Address.
Example: Sister, etc.
12. What are Terms of Reference?
A: Kinship terms which are used for indirectly referring to a person are known as kinship terms
of reference. Example: Uncle, aunty, etc.
13. What is the range of application of Kinship?
A: The range of application of kinship terms depends on the application of term to the number of
individuals.
14. What is denotative or isolative or descriptive range in Kinship terminology?
A: In the Kinship terminology, if the terms of address are more than the terms of reference, then
it is known as Denotative or Isolative or Descriptive range.
15. What is the range of Classificatory term in kinship terminology?
A: In the Kinship terminology, if the terms of reference are more than the terms of address, then
it is known as Classificatory range.
16. Define Kindred.
A: Kindred describes a persons bilateral set of relatives who may be invited to weddings,
funerals or other ceremonial occasions.
17. Give the examples for Unilateral descent groups.
A: Family, lineage, clan, phratry and moiety.
18. Define Lineage.
A: The group which has evolved with Consanguineal blood relatives from a common ancestor is
known as Lineage.
19. Define Clan.
A: Clan is defined as a set of kins whose members believe that they have descended from a
common ancestor.
20. What is Phratry?
A: A Phratry is unilateral descent group composed of two or more clans.
21. What is Moiety?
A: Moiety is a large social group that results from the splitting of society into two halves on the
basis of descent.
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22. Which kinship behavior exists between a man and wifes younger sister or between a
woman and husbands younger brother?
A: Joking Relationship.
23. What is Teknonymy?
A: When two kinsmen do not address each other directly rather through a third person or a
symbol, it is known as Teknonymy
24. Which kinship behavior gives importance to mothers brother or maternal uncle?
A: Avunculate.
25. To whom the Amitate gives much importance?
A: Fathers sister or Paternal aunty.
26. What is Couvade?
A: Husband imitates the behavior of wife during pregnancy and child birth is known as Couvade.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. How many types of Kinship are there and what are they?
A: In Family there are two types of kinship. The kinship which is based on marriage is known as
Affinal kinship. The kinship which exists between Wife and husband, father-in-law and sonin-law are the examples of Affinal kinship. The kinship which explains the blood relation is
known as Consanguineal kinship. The relation between children and their parents, uncles are
the examples for Consanguineal kinship.
2. Among Hindus, how clan is going to regularize the marital relations?
A: Among Hindus, clan is a large kinship group. They believe that one mythical person is
responsible for their birth. Among Hindus, most of the people who belong to one clan do not
marry among the same clan. People with similar clan are treated as blood relatives or brother
and sisters. In this way the clan regularizes the marriage.
3. What are the differences between Patrilineal Descent and Matrilineal Descent?
A: In the Patrilineal Descent, name, property and authority is passed from male to male member
of the family. In Matrilineal Descent, the name, property and authority is passed from female
to female member in the family.
4. What is the relation between Lineage and Clan?
A: The Consanguineal group which is evolved from one ancestor is known as Lineage. In clan,
people from different generations are the members. They believe that they are the
descendants of a common ancestor.
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5. Describe Avoidance Kinship Behavior.

A: In avoidance Kinship Behavior some restrictions are imposed on close interaction of certain
kinsmen. Among Hindus, as a result of such restrictions, certain relatives avoid talking to each
other directly, avoid physical contact and maintain minimum social interaction. For example,
daughter in- laws restricted interaction with father-in-law; son-in-laws restricted
interaction with mother-in-law, wife not coming in front of husbands elder brother, etc.
6. Describe Couvade.
A: Courade is one of the practices in kinship. In this the husband imitates the behavior of his wife.
This practice is in use among Toda tribes of Nilgiri, Khasi tribes of Assam. The Couvade
means husband behaving just like his wife at the time of delivery. The objective of Couvade is
to refrain the husband from active life. He goes on a sick diet and works hard similar to his
wife at the odd time which tries to strengthen their marital bond.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Briefly explain types of Kins.

A: Kins are categorized into three types. They are:
1) Primary Kin: Primary kins or first degree kins are those who are directly related to each
other. These kins may belong to family of orientation i.e. the one in which we are born and
brought up or family of procreation i.e. family of marriage. For example, father, mother,
brothers and sisters, husband, wife are primary kins.
2) Secondary Kin: The primary kins of our first degree kins are our secondary kins. They
are not directly related to us but through primary kins. Fathers father or paternal
grandfather, mothers mother or maternal grandmother are the examples of secondary kin.
3) Tertiary Kin: The primary kins of our secondary kins are known as tertiary kins or third
degree kins. For example, Fathers brothers wife, fathers sisters husband, fathers
mothers brother, fathers mothers sister, etc.
For an individual there will be 7 types of primary kins, 33 types of secondary kins and 151
types of tertiary kins.
2. What is the importance of kinship to an individual and group?
A: Kinship is important for both an individual and group. Kins provide help and security for an
individual all the time. It identifies the individual as the member of a kin group. Kin group
provides the status to the individual. For example, mother, father, brother, husband etc. kin
group help and protect the members of the group at the time of problems. In the same way,
the kin groups share the happiness of its members. Kin group provides the psychological
dependence and strengthens it.
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All individuals learn how to behave in the group. They acquire identity as kin, brothers and
sisters. They co-operate with each other as the member of family. The kin group provides
help in material form or in physical form whenever it is required. The family members who
belong to one lineage take part in all occasions i.e. birthdays, marriage, death etc. The kins
belonging to one lineage feel that they are one.
3. Describe various types of Unilateral descent kin.
A: In Unilateral descent rules, a persons descent is traced through either fathers or mothers
side. It is further sub-divided into two types.
1) Patrilineal Descent: In Patrilineal descent system, a person belongs to the kin group of
his father, inherits his status, name and property.
2) Matrilineal Descent: In Matrilineal Descent system, children of both the sexes (sons and
daughters) belong to their mothers descent. But her daughters only inherit the name, status
and property. Son is also the member of matrilineal group but cannot inherit anything.
4. Discuss various types of Kin Groups.
A: Individuals together form the kin groups. They are family, lineage, clan, phratry and moiety.
1) Family: Family is the smallest kin group. It is basically made up of a man, his wife and their
unmarried children.
2) Lineage: Lineage is a kin group. They have one common ancestor.
3) Clan: Clan is a unilateral descent group. The common ancestor is often a mythical figure or
a supernatural power or a totemic object.
4) Phratry: A pharatry is unilateral descent group composed of two or more clans.
5) Moiety: Moiety is a large social group. When the society is split into two halves, each half
is known as moiety.

IV.

Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. What are the various bases adopted to classify kin terms? Explain.
A: Kinship terms are of various types. Anthropologists have adopted different bases to classify
kinship terms.
a) On the basis of linguistic structure, kinship terms have been classified into three types.
1) Elementary Terms: Elementary terms cannot be reduced or broken down into
simpler words. For example father, mother, brother, sister etc.
2) Derivative Terms: Derivative terms are formed by joining suffixes or prefixes to the
elementary kinship. Examples: grandfather, sister-in-law, step-son, great-grandfather
etc.
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3) Descriptive Terms: The kinship terms which are formed by combining two or more
elementary terms are known as descriptive terms. For example, wifes sister, brothers
wife, sons wife, daughters husband etc.
b) On the basis of mode of use, kinship terms have been classified into two types:
1) Terms of address: Kinship terms which are used for addressing our Kins or relatives
based on generation, gender, etc are known as terms of address. These words are
applicable for only one relative or kin. For example, akka (elder sister), mother, etc.
2) Terms of reference: Kinship terms which are used for indirectly referring to a person
based on generation, gender, etc. is known as kinship terms of reference. For example,
uncle (mothers brother or fathers sister husband).
c) On the basis of range of application kinship is divided into two types.
1) Denotative/isolative/descriptive term: If the terms of address are more than the
terms of reference then it is known as denotative/isolative/descriptive terms. For
example : mother, father terms can be used only for our parents and not for others.
2) Classificatory term: If the terms of reference are more than the terms of address, then
it is known as classificatory term. For example, uncle can be used for mothers brother
or fathers sister husband or mothers sister husband.
2. Discuss various kinship usages or behavior.
A: The definite and stable pattern of behavior is observed among different members of a kin
group. These are known as kinship usages or behavior.
1) In avoidance behavior, some restrictions are imposed on close interaction of certain
kinsmen.
2) Joking relation behavior is observed among certain kinship. In this behavior the relatives
are free to crack jokes, spoil each others objects, etc.
3) In Teknonymy usage, women do not address her husband by their name. Women refer
their husband as the father of her child.
4) Avunculate is the kind of behavior or usage, which gives much importance to maternal
uncle rather than to father. Residing at the mothers residence (matrilineal family), acquiring
property from the maternal uncle are the usages of Avunculate.
5) In Amitate, paternal aunty is more important than mother for the individual. Residence at
fathers residence (Patrilineal family), acquiring property from paternal aunty are the
important usages. This amitate usages or behavior is observed among Patriarchal
societies.
6) In Couvade, husband behaves or imitates his wife at the time of delivery or sickness and
tries to strengthen the marital life.
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15
ECONOMY, POLITY AND RELIGION
Introduction
Societies differ in terms of the number of institutions. Highly developed and differentiated
societies, like those in the contemporary industrial world, have a larger number of institutions than
the simple societies of tribals and peasants. As societies evolve over time from simple to complex
structures, their institutions also get differentiated. Not only do they multiply in number but also
become more and more specialized and complex.
Although the number of institutions varies from one society to another, all societies generally
have four basic institutions, which may be known as universal institutions. These are respectively
known as kinship, economic, political and religious institutions. These institutions do not exist in
isolation, rather there are close connections between them. We may conceptualize a culture as
comprising of institutions that are inter-related. A definition of culture may be: it is an integrated
whole of institutions. In this lesson, we shall study the characteristics of economic, political and
religious institutions of human society.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Describe the basic institutions found in human society;
Explain the characteristics of each of these institutions; and
Understand the relationship between institutions.

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I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What is power?
A: Power is the ability of a person to exercise his will on the others and obtain compliance.
2. Define non-governing elite.
A: The elites who excel in their respective works but do not govern are known as non-governing
elite.
3. Define governing elite?
A: The elite who are part of administration and who exercise power to rule and govern are
known as governing elite.
4. How many types the economic system is divided? What are they?
A: Two types. They are: 1) Food Collection; and 2) Food Production
5. What is Food Collection?
A: Food collection is gathering or collecting food from naturally occurring resources, such as
plants and animals.
6. Who employ the method of improving the fertility of the soil with natural methods
and not with artificial fertilizers?
A: Horticulturalists
7. What is Pastoralism?
A: Domesticating animals is known as Pastoralism.
8. What do we get from animals through Pastoralism?
A: Meat, milk, wool, hide and excreta.
9. What is the exchange of goods among the individuals with same status in the society
called?
A: Reciprocity
10. What is General Purpose Money?
A: General purpose money is a kind of money that can be used for exchanging everything.
11. Define Political System?
A: The system which maintains law and order and supervises the functioning of society is known
as political system.
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12. Which societies are known as Stateless societies?

A: Agricultural or Pastoral societies. These societies do not have king or chief or lord.
13. How is the power and authority identified?
A: Legitimacy.
14. What is Traditional Authority?
A: The legitimacy which is derived from the existing conventions and customs is called traditional
authority.
15. What is legal-rational authority?
A: The authority acquired by abiding to the rules, laws, merit and qualification is known as legalrational authority.
16. Which authority does a person acquire with special characters or charisma?
A: Charismatic Authority.
17. What is the definition of religion given by Durkheim?
A: Emile Durkheim has defined religion as unified set of beliefs and practices pertaining to things
(objects and thoughts) which people regard as sacred.
18. Which religion gives much importance to sacred or purity than God?
A: Buddhism, Confucianism, Jainism.
19. What is Animism?
A: Belief in the existence of soul (anima).
20. What is Religion?
A: Group of individuals with sacred belief towards sacred things, symbols, beliefs, customs, etc
is known as religion.
21. What is Totem?
A: Totem is an object, plant or animal or phenomenon which is considered sacred. Individuals
believe that the totems founded the clans of the people.
22. Who is the founder of Sikh Religion?
A: Guru Nanak Dev.
23. Define Sect.
A: The protest group, who are the followers having faith in a leader (founder) is known as Sect.
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24. Which religious institution is concentrated on individuals experience?

A: Cult
25. What is Division of Labour?
A: Allocation of jobs based on qualifications, skills, categories of age and gender, according to
the material services is known as Division of labour.
26. What is Church (Peethamu)?
A: Church is an institution or organisation which is placed highly in the religion. This is the center
of all religious activities.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. Which societies are considered as Money less societies?

A: The value of goods or services has to be fixed. The value of the goods is measured by money.
Services are procured through money. In some tribal societies, instead of money they use
barter system to exchange goods and services. These kinds of societies are known as money
less societies.
2. How is shifting agriculture done?
A: The farmers cultivate various crops for short period and leave the land idle or fallow for some
years for the nutrients and soil fertility to return. After some time the land is cultivated with all
types of crops. This is known as shifting agriculture.
3. What is Intensive Agriculture?
A: Intensive agriculture is settled method of agriculture. In this method the fields are regularly
cultivated. Organic fertilizers such as dung from animals and humans are used to increase the
fertility of soil. Besides monsoon, agriculturist use irrigation from streams and rivers. Along
with plough, sophisticated tools and technology are also being utilized.
4. What is the difference between reciprocity and re-distribution?
A: The exchange between individuals who occupy equal positions in society is called reciprocity.
Re-distribution is the exchange between the individuals with unequal positions in the society.
5. What is the difference between Market Site and Market Principle?
A: Market Site refers to the physical place where people assemble to carry out exchange, buying
and selling. Fixing or determination of prices based on the forces of demand and supply is
known as market principle.

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6. How will be the requirement of Market in simple and complex societies?

A: In the simple societies, people manufacture the products according to their requirement. That
is why these people do not depend upon market for their daily requirements. The
requirements of the people in the complex societies are satisfied by the market. The families
depend upon the market for the fulfillment of all their needs and wants. If the market is
collapsed, then the societies too collapse.
7. Describe the differences between power and authority.
A:

Power

Authority

1) Exercise of force illegally

1) Rights acquired legally

2) Eg. Robber

2) Eg. Police

8. What is the difference between Charismatic Leader and Charismatic Authority?

A: The Charismatic Leader does not like to exercise power which he has acquired. For
example: Mahatma Gandhi. If the person has acquired power through extra-ordinary
qualities, then it is known as Charismatic authority. Chairman Mao Zedong of China is the
example for Charismatic Authority.
9. What is the difference between Sect and Cult?
A:

Sect

Cult

1) The group of followers

are motivated and trust the
ideology of the leader.

1) The group which is formed by the

belief and experience of the
individual.

2) Example: Arya Samaj in India.

2) Example: Osho Cult, Transcendental

Meditation group.

10. Describe Monotheism (single god) and Polytheism (Many gods).

A: Individuals believing and worshiping one god is known as Monotheism. Individuals believing
and worshipping many gods based on form, names, etc. is known as Polytheism. Christianity,
Judaism, Islam and Sikh religions practice Monotheism (single God).
11. Why the religion has gained universal prominence ?
A: Religion provides answers to all the questions of the individuals, about their life and various
accidental and unanticipated situations. That is why religion is gaining its prominence.

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III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Explain about types of Industrial economy.

A: The Industrial economy is divided into three types.
1) Primary Sector: The economy which depends upon the natural resources is included in
primary sector. Eg. Agriculture, mining, forestry, fishing, etc.
2) Secondary Sector: The secondary sector is concerned with conversion of raw material
into manufactured goods. This sector has been expanded with the development of
technology and machinery.
3) Tertiary Sector: Tertiary sector refers to service industries. It includes occupations that
offer services to others, such as medicine, teaching, managerial and clerical jobs.
Primary sector contributes more in the societies where the industrialization is less. In our
country majority of the people are employed in primary sector. As industrialization
increases, the other sectors of economy also increases.
2. How many types of Exchange are there? Explain.
A: There are three types of exchange in human society.
1) Reciprocity: The exchange between the individuals who occupy equal position in society
is called reciprocity.
2) Redistribution: The exchange between the individuals who occupy unequal position in
society is called redistribution. In contemporary society the process of gifts and the result
between a political leader and his support group.
3) Market: There are two aspects of market. According to the first, market refers to the
physical place where people assemble to carry out exchanges (buying and selling). It is
called as market site. Secondly, the force of demand and supply determines the prices of
goods and services, is known as market principle.
3. Discuss how market was the centre for social activities more than the economic
activities in the simple societies.
A: In simple societies economic transactions are done at the time of ritual occasions or festivals.
Market exists once in a week or every fifteen days. Individuals come to the market to meet
their relatives or friends. The important political announcements were made on the market day
as many people assemble at the market for buying and selling. In such societies on the market
day, the court assembles and judgments are given. The market day is also known as court
day. Matrimonial matters are also finalized on the market day. This way market in the
simple societies is the centre for social activities more than economic activities.
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4. Explain Political system.

A: The system of society which maintains law and order and supervises the functioning of society
is known as political system. One of the functions of political system is to maintain legal order.
In some societies the political system is not observed. In hunting and food-gathering societies,
several types of pastoral and agricultural societies do not have a king or chief or lord. Neither,
they have government or legal systems. Nor the division of society into rich and poor is
observed. These societies are known as stateless societies. The examples of stateless
societies are the Australian Aborigines, the Yako and Ibo tribes of Nigeria, the Masai and
Nandi of East Africa, the Nuer tribe of Sudan. In the stateless societies, the elders or religious
chiefs resolve the problems or conflicts raised between the individuals.
5. Authority is the legitimate power Explain.
A: Power is different from Authority. Legitimacy is the cause for the difference between these
two. Legitimacy means rightfulness, which is obtained through the rules and regulations
accepted by the society. The person who wants to exercise the authority should have
legitimate right. Force is exercised by both the Policeman and robber. The force which is
exercised by police is legitimate and which the latter uses is illegitimate. The state is the
institution which has the power to exercise legitimate violence over a territory. The authority
exercised by the state has legitimacy. Legitimate power is known as authority. The concept of
power do not tell whether it is legitimate or not, because the emphasis is on the exercise of
force and its compliance. In authority legitimacy is important. Thats why the meaning of
authority is the legitimate power.
6. What are types of Authority? Discuss.
A: Based on the legitimacy, authority is divided into three types.
1) Traditional Authority: The authority derived from the existing conventions and customs
is called as traditional authority. For example, after father the son becomes the head of the
state according to rules or traditions of the society.
2) Rational-legal Authority: Rules and prescriptions are impersonal and apply equally to
all. The authority is derived based on the prescriptions, so it consists of principles of merit
and qualification. Rational-Legal authority invites changes in the system.
3) Charismatic Authority: In the present society, when people have lost faith in the system,
trust an individual in order to solve their problems or crises and accept the authority
exercised by the individual and who is identified by the people. In this way an individual or
man with extra-ordinary qualities or charisma acquires authority, is known as charismatic
authority.
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7. Describe any two functions and dysfunctions of Religion.

A: Functions:
1) Religion binds the people in a moral community.
2) It produces we-feeling, oneness among individuals and brings solidarity among them.
3) Religion functions in providing answers to many unanswered questions, provides
psychological support in crisis situations, and helps in keeping the social order intact.
Dysfunctions:
1) In different situations, religion has been used as a pawn in making selfish decisions.
2) In societies with two or more religions, religion instead of bringing people together may
create conflicts between religions or between the believers of different religions.
8. Write the changes occurring in Religion.
A: 1) There has been a reduction in the rituals performed to mark different phases of life, like
birth, marriage and death, etc.
2) The hold of religion on social life has become weak. This process is called secularization.
3) Religion has lost many of its collective functions.
4) Today, a large number of societies have religious pluralism, which means co-existence of
different religions.
5) People of various communities have used religion to suppress people of other communities
and to spread hatred between them. Religion is also being used for political support.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Discuss types of Food production system.

A: Sociologists have distinguished three types of food production system. They are:
1) Horticulture
2) Intensive Agriculture and
3) Pastoralism
1) Horticulture: Horticulturists do not employ the methods of increasing the fertility of the
soil artificially (artificial fertilizers and methods). They give much importance to do
agriculture with the natural objects. The tools which are used are very simple. Digging
sticks, hoes, and axes. Ploughs and Tractor are not required. Horticulturists live in small
groups and migrate from one place to the other very frequently.
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2) Intensive Agriculture: Intensive agriculture is also known as settled agriculture. In this

system of food production the fields are regularly cultivated. Fields are irrigated through
streams and rivers. Plough and sophisticated agriculture tools are used. Technology is
extensively used. With the beginning of this agriculture type, fairly settled large village
communities have developed.
3) Pastoralism: Domesticating and rearing animals is known as Pastoralism. The people
deriving ones livelihood by domesticating animals are known as pastoralists. Pastoralists
obtain meat, milk, wool, hide and excreta from animal rearing. Pastoralists are not selfsufficient just like the people who depend on hunting. According to the requirement people
exchange their produced animal wealth for other material services. Desert and semi-arid
areas are suitable places for Pastoralism.

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16
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Introduction
In this lesson, you will study about inequality among human beings. So far, in earlier lessons,
you have learnt that division of labour is universally found in human societies. Even those societies
that lack specialization and complexity, like hunting and food-gathering societies, do have jobs
allocated to people on the basis of sex and age. Women carry out tasks that are different from those
that men do. Similarly, jobs assigned to people of different age-groups are also different. The tasks
that different people perform in a society are complementary. Because of the work people carry
out, their life-styles acquire an identity of their own. For instance, the house of carpenter will have a
workshop where he does wood-work. The house of a weaver will have a loom.
Therefore, the first principle you will learn here is that no society is completely homogeneous,
where groups look alike, as do the individuals. Rather, what you find in a society is difference.
Womens work is different from that of men. People of different age-groups do different works, and
then, there are groups of people where one is different from the other. One clan is different from the
other because of its association with a different totem. One caste is different from the other because
of its occupation.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Define the concept of social stratification;
Describe the central ideas in stratification;
Explain what is status and its types; and
Describe the caste system.
105

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What is difference?
A: Difference means complementary dissimilarities between the objects or units.
2. Define Social inequality.
A: Social inequality is the process in which the privileges and resources are under the control of
few people or individuals. This results in stratification of individuals or groups as low, medium
and high.
3. From which science the concept of stratification is borrowed?
A: Geology.
4. Define the concept of Prestige.
A: Prestige refers to honour and respect that is associated with social positions or status in the
society.
5. What is Social stratification?
A: Social stratification is one of the forms of social inequality. It refers to the presence of social
groups, which are ranked one above the other, usually with respect to the amount of power,
wealth and prestige their members possess.
6. What is social class?
A: Class is a social group. The members of the group share similar relations with the means of
production.
7. What is Life chance?
A: The individuals life depends on the market situation. Market provides the chances for the
survival of the people. These are called as Life chances.
8. What does the individuals status and role indicate?
A: Status indicates the social position of an individual, role refers to the behavior expected from
that position.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What is the difference between the Ruling Class and Service Class?
A: The class which holds the economic and political power is called as Ruling Class. The class
which does not hold the economic and political power is called as Service class.

106

2. Describe Communist society according to Karl Marx.

A: According to Marx, in human societies two types of classes are there i.e. Ruling Class and
Service class. The last stage in evolution process of human society is Capitalism. In this stage,
conflict arises between the two classes (i.e. ruling class and service class). This conflict is
known as class conflict. The class conflict would culminate in a society where there would be
no classes. This society is called the Communist Society.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Describe how the privileges in the human society are distributed unequally?
A: The human society is unequally distributed based on the privileges i.e. power, wealth and
prestige.
1) Power: Power refers to the degree to which individuals or groups can impose their will on
others and seek obedience from them even in the absence of their consent. When the
exercise of power is legitimate, it is called authority.
2) Wealth: Wealth refers to material possessions such as property, livestock, land,
building, money, jewelry and many other forms of property, that are regarded as valuable
in most societies.
3) Prestige: Prestige refers to honour and respect that is associated with social positions that
individuals occupy. It is also associated with the qualities of individuals and their styles of
life.
2. Write about the concept of Primitive Communism.
A: In the evolution of human societies, the first stage did not consist of classes. In this society,
there was neither law nor state nor any private property. Complete equality prevailed in this
society. This society is defined as having primitive communism. This means that all the
members of the group had equal prestige, authority and right on the resources.
3. Is Social Stratification universal? Describe.
A: Simple societies of hunters and food gatherers usually do not have groups, which are ranked
one above the other. Differences of power, wealth and prestige do not exist in these societies.
All tribes and clans shared similar prestige. All members of these communities have equal
access to resources. As a result, there are no rich or poor people among them. Whatever
inequality exists between them is at the level of sex and age. Women or men may have more
or less prestige depending on the societies. Elders are respected. The solutions they offer at
the time of crisis of conflict may not be binding on the individuals involved, yet they are
respected and followed. From this we may conclude that although social inequality and social
stratification may be found in all societies its intensity and forms may vary from society to
society.
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4. Write about Ascribed status and Achieved status.

A: According to Sociologists, there are two types of status.
a) Ascribed status: Ascribed statuses are given to the individual based on his/her birth in a
particular family, taking birth in a social category or a particular sex category. These cannot
be changed. Once an individual occupies a particular social position because of birth, the
other social positions that he would occupy over time, can be easily predicted.
b) Achieved status: In each society, certain positions are left open to be filled in by
competition. The position which is acquired through competition is known as achieved
status. If a person gets through the Civil Services Examination and becomes a civil servant,
then that status is known as achieved status. For instance, the positions of the best
hunter, the best craftsman, the best gardener, are the examples of achieved statuses. It
can be stated that, in complex societies, achieved status has gained more prominence than
ascribed status.
5. Write the main characteristics of Caste.
A: 1) Caste system is based on the ideas of purity and pollution.
2) Besides occupation, each caste has its own style of living.
3) In a village, a persons caste may be identified by looking at his dress and jewelry, house
types, food habits, and the manner of speaking.
4) Each caste has its own dialect.
5) Each caste follows the rules of endogamy, that is, its members marry within their own
caste. They cannot marry outside their caste.
6) Each caste has its own council, locally called caste panchayat, which takes up disputes and
other matters pertaining to the caste.
7) Each caste has its own complex of gods and goddessess, ritual-complex and folklore.
6. Describe how Caste is different from Class.
A: Caste and Class are two different concepts. A class is defined in economic terms, where as a
caste is defined as a hereditary unit, way of life. When caste is compared with class, the caste
of the individual does not change. But an individual who is born in a particular class can move
to higher class or low class. That is why sociologists say caste as a closed system.
In class system there is scope or possibility for individual mobility. That is why class is
considered as open system. The individual can increase his class by his own efforts, as there
is no need for the individual to depend upon his group. He may work hard, try newer avenues
of improving upon his economic condition and move up from lower class to middle class and
so on.
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16
Establishment of British Rule in India till
1857
Introduction
Commercial contracts between India and Europe were very remote. In the medieval period, the
Europeans carried on trade with India through the land and sea routes, but the capture of Constant
nople by the Iurks in 1453 practically closed these routes to the Europeans. Hence the Europeans had
no alternate except to invent a new sea route to India and other Eastern countries.
The British East India company i.e. John Companay was a joint stock company established in
1600 entered into the East Indies. During these time other trading companies, established by the
Portuguese Dutch, French and Danish were similarly expand in the region. The British company gained
footing in India in 1612 after Mughal emperor Jahangir granted rights to establish a factory in Surat to
Thomas Roe, a representative diplomat of Queen Elizabeth Ist of England.
The formal British rule in India is understood to have commenced in 1757, after the battle of
plassey. Hence forth the British Company transformed from a commercial trading venture to a political
entity which Virtually ruled India. Now it aquired auxillary Governmental and Military functions until its
dissolution in 1858.

Objectives

Learn the European commercial and political stakes in India.

The reasons for the conflicts between the English and the French in India in 18th century.

Know the growth of British power in Bengal.

Understand the expansion of British power in India.

66

Gain knowledge about the Subsidiary Alliances concluded by Lord Wellesley.

Know how the policy of Doctrine of lapse, introduced by Lord Dalhousie led to the expansion
of British power in India.

Essay Questions
1. How the British empire in India was founded?
A. Robert Clive was the founded the British empire in India after the battle of plassey in 1757. It
was the Boxer war in 1764 which consolidated the British power in Bengal and then in India.
Battle of Plassey : Suraj-ud-Dawla a young man of twenty three was hot tempered and head
strong came into conflict with the British. The British offended the young Nawab by giving
shelter to Krishna Vallabh and conspiring with his aunt Ghasti Begum.
At this juncture, inview of the out break of the Carnatic wars, Britishers emerged as winners
and the Nawab of Bengal ordered both of them to stop the fortification of their settlements. The
French responded immediately, but the British defied order. Thereupon Siraj declared war on
the British and occupied their settlements Kasimbazar, Fort William and Culcutta.
Battle of Plassey, 23 June 1757 : After the fall of Culcutta, the officers Siraj imprisoned some
English men, where they died of suffocation. Which known as "Black hole incident". This electrified
the situation and led to war. Compony under the leadership of Clive declared war at Plassey
where Siraj was defeated. The successor of Siraj, Mir Jafar granted a Jagir of 24 paraganas to
the company.
Thus the battle was a decisive one. It revealed the shallowness of the native rulers and the
military domination of the British. In fact plassey was decided not only the fate of Bengal but also
India.
Boxar (1764) : After the departure of clive Vansittar became a governer of Bengal and he was
greedy. He deposed Mir Jafar and placed his son-in-law Mir Kasim on the throne of Bengal.
The friendship between Mirkasim and the British was short lived. Soon differences cropped up,
Mir Kasim demanded that the English should stop the misuse of 'Dastaks'. In turn Britishers
deposed Kasim and replaced Mirkasim on the throne once again.
The deposed Mir Kasim fled away to Oudh and farmed Confederacy with Oudh Nawab and
Moghul emperor Shah Alam II. However the confedaracy of Mirkasim was routed in the battle
of Boxar in 1764 by the British general Major Munro.
The Battle of Boxar was more decisive than Plassey. In this battle, the ruler of Hindustan was
defeated in the hands of Britishers. This eventually assured the ascendency of the British in India.
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2. How did Lord wellesley expand the British power in India? Explain merits and demerits
of the Subsidiary Alliance?
A. One of the methods introduced by Wellesley to transform British power into the British empire of
India was the Subsidiary system. Though it was not new a innovation of Wellesley it got good
name and fame under him.
The money or the territory which was to be given to the British for the upkeep of the army is
called a 'Subsidy'. The whole system came to be called a 'Subsidiary system'.
The features of subsidiary system : A native ruler who joined the system must fulfil the
following conditions.
1. He should disband all his military forces and relay upon the British for internal defence and
external security.
2. He should deal with other states only through the English.
3. He should acknowledge the paramountcy of the British Government.
4. He should not wage war or made alliance without the knowledge of the British.
5. All the non-english Europeans should be expelled from the state.
6. He had to accept a British resident and contingent of troops for whose he had to pay or grant
some territory.

Merits
1. It enhanced the power of British.
2. It enabled the British to throw forward their military strength in advance of their political
frontiers.
3. The British enlarged its army to enlarge its empire in India without spending a single pie.
4. It destoryed the French power and influence in India without blood shed.

Demerits
1. It destroyed the political independence of the Native states.
2. Indian ruler became impotent and careless in his responsibilities as a ruler.
3. The disbanded soldiers became decoits and Pindaris and
4. Misrule is another result of this system.

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Short Answer Questions

1. Doctrine of Lapse : This was followed by a great imperialist and annexanist Dalhousia who
was governer of India from 1848-1856 A.D.
Meaning : It means, whenever a ruler of a Indian dependant state or state created by the Brisith
was without natural heirs, he should not adopt a son without the prior sanction of the British. If
any ruler violated this rule, the adopted son will inherit only the personal property of the diseased
ruler, while the principality or state will be lapsed to the paramount power (British).
Application : But, Dalhousie launched a vigorous application of the doctrine and annexed more
and more territories. The states that annexed to the British dominion by the principle of 'Doctrine
of lapse' were Satara in 1848, Nagapur, Jhansi, Jaipur, Sambalpur, Bhagat, Udaipur and Karauli
etc.
Criticism :
1. This ill fated doctrine of lapse had no Justification in India. It was against the traditions and
customs of the Indians.
2. There was no court of law to decide whether decision taken by the English was valid or not.
3. He followed no scruples in annexing the Indian states.
4. It roused the supsicion, excitement and unrest among the Indian native states.
2. Discuss the methods by the British used to establish their rule in India?
A. The Britishers became Indian rulers within a little bit of 100 years adopting various methods.
The most among them were as follows
1. Wars and Conquests,
2. Subsidiary alliance,
3. Doctrine of lapse,
4. In the name of mal administration,
5. Not paying taxes to British dominion etc.
3. Explain the terms, rule of law and equality before law?
A. Rule of law is also called supremacy of law, means that the law is above every one and it applies
to every one. Whether governor or governed, rulers or ruled no one is above law, no one is
exempted from the law, and no can grant exemption to the application of the law.
Equality before law : Equality under the law or legal egalitarianism is the principle under which

69

each individual is subject to the same laws, with no individual or group having special legal
privilizes. Legal egalitarianism admits no class structures entail seperate legal practices.
Short Essay
1. Dual Government : This system was introduced in Bengal through the Allahabad Treaty of
1765 after the battle of Boxar. As the Diwan of Bengal the company directly collected its
revenue, while the nizamat or the police and judicial powers remained with the Nawab.
4. Effect of the Carnatic wars?
A. The British supremacy was established and the weakness of the Indian regional powers in particular
their inability to make naval interventions and the ineffectiveness of large armies of some of their
powers against smaller European forces became manifest.

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17
Economic effects of British Colonialism
Introduction
British relationship with her Indian colony was one of political subordination, but economic exploitation formed the core of this relationship. This process of colonization was geared clearly to
benefit the mother country, even at the cost of the colony.
The word 'colonialism' was derived from the word colony. The word Colonialism was first used
by communists in 1920. Colonialism may be defined as a "practice of one country conquering, occupying, politically subjugating and economically exploiting another country".

Objectives

Study the three phases of British colonialism in India.

Examine the changes brought by colonial revenue settlements in the Indian country side.

Analyse the mixed impact of colonial capitalist innovations within the colony.

Explain the "drain of wealth" theory propounded by early nationalists and

Understand the distinct nature of colonial 'modernisation' in the colony and that if did not necessarily
imply 'progress'.

Essay Questions
1. What were the revenue policies introduced by the British, and what changes did they
bring about in the countryside in the colony?
A. From Anciant India to even today, agriculture was the chief occupation of the Indians and
land revenue was the main source of income to the state. After the foundation of the British
empire in India, the British introduced the principle of the owernship of land to make revenue
collections easy. Having this motive they introduced primarly three methods of land revenue
systems in India. They were
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1. Zamindari system.
2. Mahalwari system
3. Ryotwari system
1. Zamindari system : It was also called 'Permanent Revenue settlement'. The British obtained
Diwani in Bengal province by the treaty of Allahabad in 1765. Warren Hastings introduced
the systgem of bidding in the revenue collection for a fixed period. As a result a new agricultural
class called Zamindars came into being.
Under these conditions Lord Carnwallis introduced a new settlement called the 'ten
year settlement'. According to this settlement, the Zamindars were made practically the owners
of the land. As long as they pay the revenue regularly they will continue as the owners of the
land. Otherwise their lands will be forfeited. Since the ten years settlement worked well in the
first five years, this was made permanent in 1993. Though collection became cheap and easy
to the Britishers, Zamindars exploited the cultivators and the peasants were reduced to poverty.
2. Mahalwari System : It was introduced in Agra, Oudh, NWFP, Punjab etc. In this system
village was taken as unit in fixation and collection of land revenue. Ryots were the owners of
the land. But Britishers entrusted the collection of revenue in that village to elders i.e.
Mahalwaris.
3. Ryotwari system : It was introduced in Madras, Bombay, Bihar and Assam etc. In this
system the peasant was the owner of the land. He had property right over his land.
The government will fix the land revenue according to fertility of the soil and the produce.
The ryots were pay the land revenue directly to the state or its officers. There were no middle
man between the state and the ryot. As long as he pays the land revenue, he enjoyed
property right over his land.
Though the ryotwari system was better thant he Zamindari and Mahalwari system, but
in actual practice, it did not ensure the welfare of the peasants.
2. What is meant by colonialism? What were its stages?
A. The word colonialism was derived from the word 'colony'. It was first used by communists in
1920. It may be defined as a practice of one country conquering or occupying.
Phases of British colonnialism : Colonial exploitation was carried on broadly through three
phases.

72

1. The first phase (1757 - 1813) of 'merchatalism' was one of 'direct pluder'.
2. The second phase of Free trade (1813 - 1858).
3. The third phase (1858 onwards) was Finance imperialism.
1. The first phase of British colonialism : The basic concept of this stage that the prosperity
and wealth of a country depends upon its foreign trade and commerce. The East Indian
company won the battles of plassey. Buxar and Carnatic and established their hegemony in
Bengal and Carnatic region. After established their hegemony the Britishers adopted number
of methods to loot or drain the wealth of India.
2. Stage of Industrial colonialism or Free trade (1813 - 1857) : The monopoly of Indian
trade accorded to abolished by the chacter act of 1813. As a result the doors of Indian trade
were opened to all the Britishers. Thus, free trade existed; in addition to the broke out of
industrial revolution, the stage of trade and commerce was transformed in to Industrial
colonisation. During this stage the British purchased the raw material from India at a cheeper
rate, converted them in to finished products in English factories and marketed them once in
India at higher prices.
3. Stage of Industrial capitalism (1858 - 1947) : The out come of the Industrial revolution
was the emergence of capitalist class. During this stage the British capitalists invested their
capital in the fields of plantations, railways, industries, factories etc, in India. As such they
purchased the raw material at a lower price, setup factories in India, employed Indians as
cheap labour and sold their products at exorbitant rates. Further Managing Agency system
and the home charges collected from the financiers also constitute the major source of income
to the British.

Short Questions
1. Drain of Wealth Theory : This was propounded by Dadabhai Naoroji. It is also called poverty
in India. According to him poverty in India was the result of steady drain of Indian wealth in to
Britain a British colonial policy.
2. Pindaries : They were aband of free-booters. Their number grew with the entry of the disbanded
soldiers of the native rulers that joined the subsidiary system. Marques of Hastings crushed the
Pindaries menace with the help of Thomas Hislop.
3. Ceded Districts : The modern districts of Bellary, Anantapur, Kurnool, Cuddaph correspands
to the ceded districts. Nizam of Hyderabad accquired these districts as reward for the help
73

rendered to the British during the third Mysore war. In 1801, the Nizam joined the subsidiary
system of wellesley and ceded these districtsd to the British.

Small Answer Questions

1. Which economist propounded the idea of Free Trade or Laisez Faire in the 18th century?
A. Adam smith.
2. How did the commercialization of agriculture cause famine?
A. The production of cash crops were encouraged at the cost of food crops.
3. Bullion
A. Wealth is the form of precious metals like gold and silver.

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18
Social changes in Modern India

Introduction
The Indian subcontinent wintnessed significant social changes during the 18th and 19th centuries.
The on set of British rule, increasing urge for social and religious reform, rise of a middle class, rapid
growth of newspapers in both English and Indian languages, change in physical infrastructure and semipolitical unification of the country were partly responsible for these changes. The end of the Moghal
rule was followed by the strengthening of many regional kingdoms during the 18th century. The gradual
expansion of British rule in this vaccum signified an entirely unfamilier system of governance with long
term repercussions.

Objectives

Trace the broad outlines of cultural policies of British rulers in India;

Examine the nature of the conflict between the orientalists and the Anglicists;

Assess the impact of British rule on educated classes in India;

Explore the evils in the social and religious life;

Explain the background of the rise of a modern Indian intelligentsia.

The reform movements and the issues raised by reformers ;

Identify the stages of the growth of Western education in India and

Identify the stages of the growth of press in India.

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Essay Questions
1. What was the contribution of the orientalists in popularising India's past?
A.

The first generation of British administrators in India were viewed that India had a glorious
past which had subsequently degenerated. These were called 'orientalists'.

Important among them were Warren Hasting, William Jones, Jonathan Duncan, Lord Wellesley
etc.

They were keen to learn and propagate Indian languages and tradition. They thought that
they would ensure a better understanding of India which would eventually strengthen their rule
over this country.

Further to stretch this orgument, the orientalists depicted Indias past in a way that was in
Consonance with the needs of the Colonial administration.

Various institutions came into existed to propagate the India's past. Calcutta Madvarsa (1781)
by warren Hasting, The Asiatic society of Bengal (1784) by William Jones and the Sanskrit
college at Benaras (1974) by Jonathan Duncan were some of them.

There was a strong urge to make local British administrators familiar with Indian culture and
tradition.

Fort william college was founded by Wellesley in 1801 to train the young British recruits to the
Civil services in India was meant to serve primarly this purpose.

Influence of ideas was clearly visible in the administrative and economic policies.

2. What were the important issues raised by the Arya Samaj?

A.

The most propound reform movement in the late 19th century in India was the Arya Samaj in
1875 by Dayananda Saraswathi.

Though, he had no knowledge of English education but he was an eminent scholar in Sanskrit
and wrote Satyartha Prakash (light of the truth). His slogan was 'Goback to vedas' was a
popular one and he wanted to reform the society on the basis of Vedas.

Teachings of Dayananda Saraswathi :

He condemned the idol worshiping and caste system.

He believed in the oneness of god (Monotheism)

He attacked the puranas, polytheism, idolatry and domination of priestly class.

He led a crusade against child marriage.

76

He advocated the 'Suddi Movement' to convert the members of the other faiths into Hinduism
and stood for cultural unity of India.

He was fiercely opposed to multiplicity of castes which he thought was primarly responsible
for encouraging conversion of lower castes into christianity and ilsam.

After Dayanand's death in 1883, the samaj lay scattered. But many a attempts were made to
unite the samaj which includes the founding of Dayananda Anglo Vedic Trust and Management
Society in Lahore in 1886.

3. Identify the important reform movements in the Muslim community during 19th century? What were the issued raised by them?
A.

It is well known fact that revolutionary changes evolved in the Indian society and Indians with
the introduction of English education in India. British rulers were in opined that it would create
a class of Indians who might act was reliable agents of the British emphire.

It was true in case of not only in Hindus but also in Muslim community.

The Reform movement among Muslims date back to 19th century, first by "Farazis' which
arose among the Muslim Peasants. They followed the teachings of Shah Walliulla of Delhi
(1703-63) who talked about regaining purity of Islam and objected to infiltration of nonIslamic customs among Muslims.

Another movement which arose among Muslims of Bengal was the 'Tariqah - I - Moha-mmadiyah'. This was also talked about return to purity. Muslim priestly class (Ulema Class)
in United Provine was also concerned about the decline in power.

Delhi college now present (Zakir Hussian college) was also became a centre for Muslims
reform movement which had began imparting a paralle education islamic as well as English.
This helped to foster a modern consciousness in the Muslim community.

The Muslim reform movement got momentam when Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (181798) took the initiative who rightly thought that the modern education was the most important path
for improvement in the condition of Indian Muslims. He called for the study of European sciences
and technology. In 1866, he formed the 'British Indian' to adopt some positive features of the
English society like its discipline, order, efficiency and high levels of education.
He founded the 'Mohemmadan Anglo oriental college' at 'Aligarh' in 1875 which went
on to become the most important seminary for modern higher education among Muslims. In
1886, Sayyid founded the 'Mohammadan Anglo oriental education conference'. The Muslim
graduates of Aligarh in due course of time provided an able and modern leadership to the
community.
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Short Essay Questions

1. Ramakrishna Mission
Notable Reform movement in Bengal, which spread to other parts of the country was
the 'Ramakrishna Mission of Swami Vivekananda'. Narendranath who later on became Swami
Vivekananda, a great disciple of Swami Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (earlier Gadhadhar
Chetterjee) who accepted Ramkrishna as guru in 1885 established Rama Krishna mission in
1897 to spread Ramakrishna preaches of univesality of all religions and favoured preserving
beliefs and rituals of Hinduism. He pointed out that the present condition of Hindus was due to
their ignorance which was helped by their being a subject race. He attempted to establish Hindu
spirutual supremacy Vis-a-vis the selfish civilization of the west. However, he believed that India
had to learn work ethics, forms of organisation and technological advance from the west.
2. Hunter commission
A. A commission was setup in 1882 under W.W. Hunter to review the progress made in the field of
education following Woods Dispatch. It was confined mostly to secondary and primary education.
This commission made large number of recommendations. It laid special emphasis on primary
education whose control ought to be transferred to district and local bodies. At the secondary
level there should be two streams-one literary education and the other a practical nature leading
to a career in commercial or vocational field. It also recommended the private initiative.
3. Wood's 'Dispatch' proposal
A. After along discussions, the British government in India finally introduced English as medium of
instruction. After then, it started to spread rapidly in Indian people. The wood's Dispatch
proposals are part and parcel of it's extension. Charles wood, the secratary of state, in 1854
prepared some guidelines for the development of English education in India which were popularly
known as 'Wood's Dispatch'.
Its important features

The aim of education in India to be diffusion of European knowledge.

English would be the preferred medium of instruction while vernacular languages preferred to
the masses.

It recommended grant-in-aid for the first time to encourage private efferts in education.

It proposed to establish a 'Department of Public Instruction', headed by a 'Director' at province

level.

It also proposed to set up Universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

It also recommended setting up of a 'Training institute' for prospective teachers.

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One Mark Questions

1. Which act asked the company to spend 1 Lakh Rupees on education?
A. Charter Act of 1813.
2. Briefly examine the motive of Macaulay in spreading English education in India?
A. He thought that spread of English in India would create a class of Indian who whould support
British rule. A class of persons Indian in blood and colour but English in taste.
3. What was the 'downward filtration' theory?
A. It is nothing but moulded the Indians to accept British culture and traditions by the means of
English education. Macauley theory and his thought was behind it.
4. What was the Vernacular press Act of 1878?
A. The Vernacular press Act of 1878 by Lord Lytton imposed strict control over the news papers
published in Indian Languages.
5. What is 'whig political philosophy'?
A. Executive, Legislative and Judiciary should be seperate organs of the governemnt.
6. Custom of Sati
A. Practice of immolation of wife in the funeral fire of husband.
7. Polygamy :
A. Having more than one wife.
8. Monotheism
A. Believe in One God.
9. Underline the importance of 'Asiatic society' in promoting studies on India?
A. It was founded by Willian Jones in 1784 and around 50 years, it was an important centre of
learning and a rare institution to under take translations of nobable sanskrit texts.
10. Who estblished the 'Fort William college'?
A. It was Wellesley in 1801 to train young British recruits in the Civil Service.

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19
Popular Resistance to Company Rule
Introduction
During the initial years of company rule in India there were many a number of up risings and
rebellions. As we have learnt, over a period of 100 years, the company adopted various measures to
transform India into a colony were primarly in the interest of the British. A number of Land revenue
experiments were made which caused hardship to cultivators. Local administration failed to provide
relief and natural Justice to the rural poor.
In this lesson we will learn how the peasantry and tribal people suffered under the colonial Administration and why they resorted revolts. With a brief narrative of important popular uprisings, we
will analyze the nature and significance of these uprisings. The Revolt of 1857 has a major significance
because, for the first time, it brought together people having different ethnic, religious and class back
ground in a unified movement against the British rule.

Objectives

Discuss the background to the popular movements till 1857 AD;

Identify the issues that led to the Revolt of 1857 and ;

Analyse the importance and significance of the revolt.

Essay Questions
1. Discuss the causes of the Revolt of 1857 and its significance?
A. The great revolt of 1857 was the most important episode in the history of modern India. It has
been often called as the 'Sepoy Mutiny', 'the first war of Indian independence', a plot by
both Hindus and Muslims against foreigners and the Great Revolt. There were specific
80

grievances which actually precipitated the people's discontent against the British Raj and led to
the Revolt of 1857.
1. It was said that Dalhousie policies were mainly responsible for the out break of the Revolt.
His policy of annexations and 'Doctrine of lapse' created not only the distrust and discontent
among the Indian princes but also made them to participate in Revolt directly.
2. Dalhousie reforms were also resulted Indians feared that these reforms were meant only to
convert them into christianity.
3. The annexation of Oudh by Dalhousie and the proclamation of Lord canning of abolish titles
and privileges of Bahadur Shah disturbed the both Hindus and Muslims by the feelings of
uneasyness and vague apprehension.
4. As fas as religion is concerned the main aim of the British was christianing the Indians. To
facilitate conversion of Hindus to christianity a number of measures were taken which includes
compulsory reading of Bible in education and made English as official language. This has
regarded by Hindus as an end to their religion and culture.
5. The social reforms such as abolition of sati, Widow remarriage etc. introduced by British
were considered by Hindus as a challange to their religion and culture. In the same way the
introduction of Railways, Telegraph and Postal systems were also created suspicion in the
Indian mind.
6. The ill treatment of sepoys at the time of promotion, payment and priveleges by the Britishers
was the another important cause for great Revolt.
Thus, when the situation was highly inflamable the true story of greased catridges fell as
a spark on it. Though the British assured to with draw the greased catridges, it was of no use.
On march 29, 1857, a sepoy named Mangal Pande murdered an European officer at Meerat
with this the Revolt began.
The importance : Though the Revolt of 1857 was suppressed and failed but it was an important
event in the history of Modern India.

The most important result of the revolt was the passing of the Government of India Act of
1858 by the British parliament. According to it, East India company was abolished and Govt
of India was transfered from the company to the crown. A Secratory of State was appointed
to look after Indian affairs. The Viceroy was replaced Governer general of India.

Lord Canning held a Durbar at Allahabad and announced 'Queen Victoria' proclamation of
1858. Because of liberal reforms in it the Queens proclamation was called "the Magnacarta
of the Indian people".

81

The Army which was the chief instrument of rebellion was thoroughly reorganised.

The mutiny gave an irreperable setback to the Muslim renaissance at Delhi.

The revolt created mutual distrust and rivalry between the English and the Indians.

Short Essay Questions

1. The Santhal Revolt of 1885 : Of all the tribal revolts, the most prominent was the revolt of
Santhals. They were inhabited in Bhagalpur, Rajmahal region of Bihar and Bengal. They were
exploited by Dikus (middle men), money lenders, British servants etc. Their fields were trampled
by elephants.
Unable to bear the insults, santhals revolted in 1855 under the leadership of Sidhu and Kinhu.
Finally with great difficulty leaders were arrested and British took full advantage on the Santhals,
finally in 1917 Santhal revolts were completely suppressed by the British.
2. Rampa Rebellion (1879 - 80) : The tribals of Godavari agency revolted against the exploitation
of a few English officers and Tashildar at Rampa in 1879 under the leadership of Koyakonda
Dora. It took two years for the British to bring the whole situation under control.
3. Enlist any three major causes of the failure of the Revolt?
A.

The rebels had limited supply of arms and ammunitions.

There was a lack of communication and centralized leadership among the rebels.

The British had sufficient resources and also better arms and equipments.

The rebels had failed to enlist the support of other sections specially from mass.

Rebels did not have clear political agenda for future except their distrust on the foreign rule.

One Mark Questions

1. How did Indian peaesantry met the increasing demand of taxes by Britishers?
A. By selling their land-holdings.
2. Which novel immoralize the Sanyasi Rebellion?
A. Anand-math written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.
3. Name any five important leaders of rebellion of 1857?
A. Rani Lakshmi Bai, Tantia Tope, Begum Hozrat Mahal, Nana Saheb and Kunwar Sing of Arrah.

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20
Nationalism
Introduction
The most important event in the history of Modern India was the growth of Nationalism or
national consciousness among the Indians in the 19th Century.
Have you ever wondered when all this may have begun? What is the history of Nationalism?
How old is this idea? Or did people always love their country? Does the word 'nationalism' carry any
other meaning apart from a feeling of loyalty for one's country? These are the questions that we shall try
to answer in this lesson.

Objectives

Trace the history of idea of Nationalism ;

Explain the reasons for the rise of nationalism in Europe;

Relate the growth of Nationalism in India with the struggle against British colonialism;

Trace the emergence of ideas of nationalism in the field of culture in India ; and

Explain how nationalism was expressed in economic terms.

Essay Questions
1. Describe the factors that helped the rise of Indian National Movement?
A. There were several factors responsible for rise of national feelings or nationalism among the
Indians.
They were as follows

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1. British imperialism : British had the credit of uniting political India since a long time which
India and Indians did not enjoy. Even the Moghuls did not achive it permanently. But with the
advent of British imperialism, India became one and the Indians from different parts of the
country began to understood one another and meet to each other. Their centralised control
and uniformity of administration promoted the feeling of oneness among the Indians. Thus the
British imperialism gave political unity to the country.
2. The Western education brought the Indians into touch not only with the liberal and radical
thought of J.S. Mill, Spencer Rousseau, Voltaire etc. but also the Nationalist movements of
Europe.
In the absence of a common language people of India speek many languages, under
which it will be very difficult for them to understand each other. As the British made the
English as official language it enable the Indians to exchange their ideas and thoughts freely.
This linguistic unity paved the way for the national unity.
3. The Socia - Religious Reform moments by many reformers also infused self -respect and selfcondiflence in the Indians. They roused the patrotic spirit and national consciousness amongst
the Indians. They glorified Indias past and encouraged the people to fight against the alien
rule.
4. The Indian press both the English and the Vernacular played a vital role in the national awakening
of the people. These papers not only brought to light the economic and polical exploitation of
the country by the British but also educated them in building up an Independent India. In
1875 there were about 475 news papers in India.
5. The writings of great intellectuals viz Tagore, B.C. chatterjee, Deena Bandhu Mitra did a lot in
rousing political consciousness among the Indians and prepared them for the national struggle.
In fact the novel 'Anand math' became the 'Bible of Modern Bengali' patrotism. It contained
the famous song 'Vandemataram'.
6. The economic exploitation of India brought misery and suffering to the millions of India. The
free trade policy of the British proved very distartrous to Indian economy was transformed
into a colonial economy. India fundamentally remained as country to supply raw materials
and a market place for the British goods.
7. When a severe famine ransacked the country Lytton held imperial durbar at Delhi by sending
huge sums of money. Thus anti - Indian policies of Lord Lytton accelerated the forces of
Indian nationalism in the country.

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8. In the said conditions, the Ilbert Bill controversy became an eye opener to the Indians. It
clearly proved that the Indians could not acecept Justice and fairplay from the English when
their own interests were involved.
9. The wide - spread of discontent led to the birth of political organisations in different parts of
India to ventilate their grievances. In course of time, the Indians felt the need of an All India
organisation to ventilate their grievances on grand scale and to fight against the Britishers. At
this juncture an initiave came from A.O. Hume to establish an All India Association known as
Indian National Congress on 28th Dec, 1885 A.D.
2. How did Dadabai Naoroji and R.C. Datt contributed to the growth of economic nationalism?
A.

The origins of economic nationalism can be traced back to the second half of 19th century
when Indian leaders like Dababhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade and R.C. Dutt began realizing that
the British rule was economically exploiting India and that it was largely responsible for keeping
India under extreme proverty.

They emphasized that British was exploiting India in variety of ways. Initially this exploitation
was confined to heavy taxation of the peasantry and later on as a supplier of raw material for
their industries and markets.

The relevance of economic nationalism was two folds. First it demolished the notion that the
British colonial government was benevolent govt and would ultimately lead to Indias economic
development. Secondly economic nationalism laid the foundation for a powerful nationalist
agitation againt the colonial rule which started under the leadership of M.K. Gandhi in the
20th century.

Short Essays
1. Write about the Brahma Samaj of 1828 ?
A. Brahma Samaj (1828) : Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the founder of the Brahma Samaj. He was
a great scholar and a prophet of the new age. His services marked a brilliant chapter in the
history of Hindu renaissance. Infact he was the "Father of Indian Renaissance".
Principles of the Brahma Samaj

It condemned the image worship and caste system.

It stood for universal tolerance and respect for all religious and scriptures.

It believed in the unity of God.

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It advocated universal brotherhood as honesty.

Besides the religions activities, it also took harity, female education, technical and general
education as it aims.

The other great leaders of the Samaj were Devendranath Tagore and Keshav Chandra Sen.
2. Write about the Prarthana Samaj (1867 A.D.) ?
Prarthana Samaj (1867 A.D.) : Prarthana Samaj was started in Maharastra under the leadership
of Atmaram Panduranga. Justice Ranade, R.G. Bhandarkar and G.K. Gokhale were the other
great leader of the Samaj.

The Samaj aimed at rational worship and social reform.

It thrived for adult education and female education conducting night schools and women's
associations.

It started a Depressed Classes Mission to look after the condition of depressed sections in
the society. Ranade founded 'Deccan Education Society' and 'Widow Remarriage
Association' at Poona.

3. Write about the Theosophical Society (1875 - 79) ?

Theosophical Society (1875 - 79) : The Theosophical Society was founded by Madame
Blavatsky and Col. Olkott of U.S.A in 1875 A.D. Later it speed to India in 1879, having its
head quarters at Adayar, near Madras. It became popular under Mrs. Annie Besant, when
she became it secretary in 1893. It condemned the caste system and stood for the equality of
all religions. Its services to Hindu revival and Social solidarity was remarkable in the
reawakening of India. To quote here "without Hinduism India has no future. Hinduism is the
soil into which India's roots are struck and torn out of that she will invincibly wither as a tree
torn out from its place".

Short Eassy Questions

1. Mention two important features of cultural nationalism?
A.

1. Opposition to some element of the traditional Indian culture and a resistance to the encroachment
of colonial culture in the lives of the people.

2. Name the Indian leader who introduced Ganapati festival in order to reach out to the
people?
A. Bala Gangadhar Tilak

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17
FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Introduction
You are already familiar with the concept of social change and the theories associated with it.
Change takes place in all human societies and at all times. Sometimes, it is sudden as when a
revolution occurs to replace the old order. At other times, it is gradual and hardly perceptible. If
change does not occur on its own, it may be induced by certain factors. Therefore, it is important for
a sociologist to study these factors which either give impetus to or resist change. In this lesson, we
are going to read about the factors of change.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the mechanism of social change;
Identify the underlying causes of social change; and
Appreciate the roles of various factors which bring about change in society.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What kind of phenomena is social change?

A: Complex or Multi-faceted Phenomenon.
2. What does a sociological phenomenon describe about?
A: Marital Relatives.

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3. What should we do to understand social change?

A: Take an integrated view of processes of social change.
4. What is use of integrated view of processes?
A: To understand social change.
5. What are the endogenous factors of social change?
A: Endogenous factors are the internal factors which include the infrastructural facilities in society
and the distribution of these facilities among people and peoples access to them.
6. What are the exogenous factors for social change?
A: The factors which are beyond human control in the society like disasters and unexpected
developments in technology are known as exogenous/external factors.
7. What are causes for population growth?
A: In India, improvement in sanitary conditions and medical facilities are the causes for the
increase of population.
8. Which problems arise due to population growth?
A: Pressure on basic infrastructural facilities, unemployment, poverty, growth of slums, change in
social relations, child-labour, increase in crime rate and social tensions, etc.
9. What has grown with the improvement in sanitation and medical facilities?
A: Population
10. In which area the change is observed due to technology?
A: The change is observed in physical environment or material environment or material culture
due to technology.
11. What was the result of the industrial revolution in 19th century which took a definite
form?
A: People came under the influence of external environment. Man tried to control the
environment.
12. What are Cultural factors?
A: Social ideas, knowledge, values, beliefs, inventions and exchanges, which provides the base
for inventions and discoveries.
13. Which changes have occurred in family system due to industrialization and
urbanization?
A: Breakdown of the joint families to nuclear families and evolution of extended families.
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14. How the newly added values and beliefs are causing social change?
A: For example, during the Mughal rule in India, the Sufi writings in Hindi led to the development
of Hindi literature and Urdu evolved as a hybrid language of Hindi and Persian.
15. Name the religion which was propagated by Akbar?
A: Din-i-illahi
16. The process of spreading mores and customs from are society to another society is
known as?
A: Diffusion.
17. Among Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism which pursuit is more?
A: Other worldly pursuit.
18. Protestant belief led to which system?
A: Capitalism.
19. How can we say that there is inter-relationship between religious beliefs and social
system?
A: The evolution of capitalism based on the beliefs of Protestantism.
20. What are the elements of non-material culture?
A: Mores, customs, etc.
21. Which physical or material aspects have paved the way for capitalism?
A: Awareness of physical or material aspects and economic development.
22. Which music tradition was developed due to the close relations of Indian music with
Persian music?
A: Khayal Music Tradition.
23. What are Persian music instruments?
A: Tabla and sitar.
24. Describe the close relation between Indian and Persian architecture.
A: The Indo-Sarcenic style appeared with spacious interiors, massive domes, arches and
minarets.
25. Sufi philosophy is influenced by the Hindu beliefs (mysticism). (True / False)
A: True

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26. Monotheistic ideas of Islam have influenced the Hindu society. (True / False)
A: True
27. Which movement evolved due to mutual influence?
A: Bhakti Movement.
28. Kabir Bhakti philosophy is based on which theory?
A: God is one (theory)
29. What spreads or diffuses the culture quickly?
A: Mass media helps to know the customs and traditions of the people of far of places easily
30. Which new style of music has been evolved with the combination of Folk songs and
Western music?
A: Indo-Pop Music.
31. What will happen if the society does not manage the change properly?
A: There will be discord in the society
32. In which societies more development take place?
A: The societies progress where the non-material culture aspects of culture guide material
changes towards peace and social harmony.
33. Give the example for the new cultural values which is the result of synthesis of old
and new cultural values.
A: Indo-Pop music with the synthesis of Folk songs and Western music.
34. Who has propounded Socialism?
A: Karl Marx.
35. Who are Bourgeoisie?
A: Capitalist or the owners of the means of production.
36. Who are Proletariats?
A: Workers who work for a wage under Bourgeois.
37. Classless society is the nature of which society?
A: Nature of Socialist society.
38. When and where the first Industrial revolution started?
A: Industrial revolution first started in Europe in late 17th century.
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39. What has become the primary object in the process of production?
A: Capital (investment)
40. How women are benefitted with industrialization?
A: The status of women has increased with economic independence.
41. Which has become the primary dimension of measurement due to industrialization?
A: Workmanship.
42. When did Green Revolution start in India?
A: 1960.
43. In India, during which five year plans the large scale industrial projects have
started?
A: Second five year plan.
44. Which nations five year plans were taken as inspiration by India?
A: Russia.
45. What led to food self-sufficiency in India?
A: Green Revolution.
46. Where in India, the green revolution has started for the first time?
A: Punjab and Haryana.
47. What is Formal education?
A: Education which is imparted in a well-defined institutional setting is called as formal education.
48. What is Informal education?
A: The process in which the individual acquires the knowledge in the course of his daily activities
and interactions in his family and in society at large is known as informal education.
49. What makes the society to learn the accepted or desire behavior?
A: Education.
50. Explain how the school curriculum socializes the children?
A: The school curriculum socializes the children about the goals and values of the society and
shapes the individuals according to the changing conditions in the society. It also makes them
familiar with the global problems like wars, poverty, AIDS, unemployment and trains them to
respond to these problems.

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51. Name two individuals who alone have changed the course of the nation and the
society in History.
A: Gandhi and Lenin.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. Explain in one or two sentences about the results of development of special

education and developing technology and transport facilities.
A: It has provided the opportunity to move to far off places and exhibit their skills and find an
employment. Eg: Software Engineers migrating and settling in western countries. Ample
employment opportunities have been created.
2. How the school curriculum has socialized the children?
A: The school curriculum has increased the awareness about the problems of the world i.e. wars,
poverty, AIDs, unemployment, etc. and educated them to respond to these issues. This way
the socialization process has helped to acquire required perspective by knowing the global
problems and the trends of the world in solving these problems.
3. Describe how education is the agent of socialization.
A: Education helps the society to learn the expected behavior. Children learn various aspects like
law, democracy, human rights, etc. and world trends through teaching.
4. What will happen with increasing population?
A: 1) Demand for food increases
2) With the increase in demand for food, India will depend on other nations.
3) Pressure on resources will increase. Due to this pressure, housing and clothing becomes
scarce.
4) It has developed agricultural sector and paved the way to green revolution.
5. What should be done to understand social change?
A: 1) To understand social change an integrated view should be adopted. It helps us to know the
changes that have occurred in all the spheres of social life.
2) This also helps us to know the role of various factors in social change.
6. What are the endogenous factors (internal) for social change? How these have been
useful for social change?
A: 1) Distribution of infrastructural facilities among the people and peoples access to them in
society.
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2) Social change occurs due to the interaction and conflict caused by differential values of the
old and the new. This conflict helps to bring social change in the society.
7. What has been considered important by the Protestants?
A: 1) Hard Work and creation of wealth.
2) Accumulation of wealth, investment of money, valuing time and focus on achievement or
oriented goals.
3) The efforts must be made while living in this world.
8. What is Cultural lag?
A: 1) With cultural diffusion the material aspects of the people or culture change quickly whereas
the non-material aspects like religion, ideology and beliefs change slowly. This
phenomenon is known as cultural lag.
2) The non-material culture does not change as fast as material culture. Thus the gap created
between material culture and non-material culture is known as cultural lag.
9. Laws alone cannot change traditions and beliefs. How can you say that the public
opinion is useful in bringing social change?
A: Public opinion influences the society. Eg: Social evils like Sati (self immolation of women),
child marriages, dowry, untouchability still persist in the society. Due to lack of full support
from the people these social evils still exist.
10. How the sociologists have referred or identified the role of laws in social change?
A: Laws play an important role in social change as:
1) an indicator of change;
2) an initiator of change; and
3) an integrator of change.
11. What are the two characteristics acquired by the society through education?
A:

1) Socialize the individual according to the requirements of the society and facilitate its
development.
2) Education plays an important role in developing the human resources in the modern
economic system, providing special training and skills required for the industries.

12. Define Formal and Informal education.

A: a) Education imparted through well defined institution in known as Formal education.
b) The knowledge which is acquired by the individual in the course of his daily activities and
interactions in the family and in society at large is known as Informal education.
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13. What changes have occured among women due to industralization?

A: Women came outside their domestic limitations and became the part of the labour force or
work force.
1) Women who were harassed have acquired freedom from social restrictions.
2) The status of women has increased in family with economic freedom.
3) The role of women has undergone change.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. What are the problems due to population growth?

A: 1) Urbanization due to population growth.
2) Urbanization has increased the burden on infrastructural facilities.
3) Unemployment, poverty and slums have increased.
4) This has resulted in absence of adequate facilities.
5) Rise in nuclear families and altered social relationships in a perceptible manner.
2. What is the role of elections in social change?
A: 1) Elections themselves throw up a variety of issues, which highlight the problems, goals and
objectives concerning the socio-economic conditions of the village, state and the country
at large.
2) Elections are a form of political communication between the government and the governed
(people).
3) Elections are the means by which the rulers become sensitive to the demands of the
people.
4) The two way awareness and communication, between the electorate and the elected leads
to social change.
3. Which reasons have paved the way to capitalism system?
A: 1) The moral code of Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam did not create the necessary wisdom
and understanding which was required for the development of capitalism.
2) The moral code of the Protestanism has emphasised the this worldly aspects.
3) According to this, the individuals should work hard, accumulate wealth.
4) Invest and value the time.
5) Focus on achievement oriented goals while living in this world.
6) This way it has led to the capitalism system in Europe.
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4. Describe Marxist Perspective.

A: 1) Karl Marx has opined that economic factors are the cause for social change
2) The mode of production determines the social, cultural, religious and the political aspect of
society.
3) The society has evolved from agricultural to feudalism to capitalist society.
4) There are two classes in capitalist society: 1) Bourgeoisie (Capitalist) class and
2) Proletariat (working class)
Bourgeois are the owners of the means of production and the Proletariats are the working
class.
5) The differences between the two classes lead to class conflict which further lead to class
struggle. This resulted in the decline of capitalism and establishment of socialist society
(classless society).
5. What is Green Revolution? Describe.
A: 1) In Europe and most of the west, the presence of agricultural surplus, with high investment
and with more leisure time paved the way to green revolution.
2) In India, green revolution started in 1960.
3) The focus of green revolution is to increase the agricultural output and the strategy adopted
is 1) use of capital
2) technology
3) boost farm yields.
4) Along with soil or land, agricultural credits, machines and seeds which yield more output
are required to increase the agricultural output.
5) Along with this the mechanized farming with irrigation and fertilizers has moved the country
from net importer of food grains to one which maintains buffer stock.
6. How the diffusion is the cause for social change? Describe.
A: 1) Diffusion is an important mechanism of social change.
2) Social change is observed when cultural contact takes place between different societies.
3) Cultural diffusion takes place with prolonged contact and interaction between the people
through travel, trade, wars, etc.
4) With this the other societies will experience and understand the new values, new
discoveries, technology, etc.
5) This leads to conflict between the new and the old values.

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7. What are the characteristics of modern societies?

A: 1) The developing societies which are moving towards modernity are trying to acquire the
cultural characteristics or traits of the modern society.
2) In the modern societies the processes of industrialization, urbanization, migration and
globalization are clearly reflected.
3) The economy in modern societies is predominantly based on secondary and tertiary
sectors.
4) The technology brings different cultures and nations closer and thus the possibilities of
acculturation, assimilation and accommodation are high.
5) The modern societies are characterized by nuclear families and prominence of secondary
groups.
8. What the characteristics of Formal Education?
A: 1) Formal education is an important characteristic of modern education.
2) Consist of regular and recognized schools.
3) Definite and properly spelt out content, and
4) Definite rules and regulations.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. What are the factors of Social change? Describe.

A: Social change occurs due to various factors. Some of the factors are:
a) Endogenous (i.e. internal to the society concerned); and
b) Exogenous (i.e. external to the society concerned).
1) Internal factor refers to the infrastructural facilities, their distribution among people and
peoples access to them.
2) Social change occurs due to interaction and conflict caused by differential values of the old
and the young.
3) Social change occurs due to the interaction and conflict raised between the youth and the
old people, educated and illiterate (uneducated), the urban people and the rural people.
4) The forces of factors which are beyond human control like natural disasters and
unexpected developments in technology are known as External factors.
5) For Example: 1) Demographic, 2) Technology, 3) Sanskritisation (culture), 4) Political
factors, 5) Economic and 6) Education factors, etc.
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2. How does demographic factors lead to social change?

A: 1) Changes in Social demography lead to social change.
2) Changes in population, both in numbers and composition have an effect on society. When
population increases or decreases, there will be change in the size and composition,
gender ratio and economic life of the people.
3) Stress or pressure on resources.
4) There will be influence of money on economic, social, cultural and political areas.
5) The Birth-death rate means the increase in birth rate and decline in death rate are the
causes for social change.
6) There is a co-relation between the population growth and physical health of the people.
7) Population growth leads to food scarcity, which leads to other problems. With this people
become lazy, negligent, are unable to compete, etc. which dilutes the quality of the people.
8) Population growth causes Urbanization which increases the pressure on the resources and
gives rise to social problems like unemployment, child labour, growth of slums, increased
crime rate and social tensions.
3. What are the differences between Industrial societies and Simple societies?
A: 1) In simple societies, people give much importance to physical labour than to capital
(investment).
2) Industrial societies lead to rise of factories as units of production instead of family.
3) Industrial societies use steam, electricity and atomic power instead of energy produced by
human and animal power.
4) In Industrial societies use of machines is prominent instead of human and animal labour.
5) Productions is not only for domestic consumption but also for exchange in the market and
for profits.
6) Transport and communication sectors have improved. Currency based economy came
into existence.
4. What is the influence of technology on Social change?
A: 1) Technological progress has a long lasting change on society.
2) There is a link between the development of human societies and technological
development.
3) Technology has brought change in the environment, which inturn brought the changes in the
life-styles and in society.

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4) The change is first observed in material culture and later in non-material culture.
5) With industrial revolution and industrialization, the societies have taken a definite form.
6) Technology has occupied an exceptional (special) place in the process of production.
7) Man instead of being influenced and controlled by the environment, tried to control the
environment.
8) With complex division of labour, huge production and mechanized system of production
have become a part in the economic system.
9) Large companies and corporations have been established.
10) With the passage of time these have acquired the characteristics of multinational
companies.
11) Modern technology has made the production system to increase the quantity of
production.
12) Modern technology has given birth to companies, corporations, share markets, banks and
the unions of industrial workers.
5. How the cultural factors have influenced social change?
A: 1) Culture has discovered new ideas, knowledge, values, beliefs, inventions and exchange.
2) Change in values or belief system leads to changes in social system. Example:
industrialization and urbanization has broken down the joint families and nuclear families
have become prominent.
3) The conflict between the old and new values may create completely new values or partial
changes in values. Example: During Mughal period, Sufis writings in Hindi developed the
Hindi literature and Urdu has evolved as hybrid language of Hindi and Persian.
4) Din-i-illahi religion has evolved with the synthesis of Hinduism and Islam.
5) Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam have helped in establishing the moral codes.
6) The material culture has brought about major social changes and has influenced the
worldly pursuits.
7) Protestants beliefs have given importance to this worldly pursuits.
8) The idea of hard work, accumulate wealth, investment, has been propounded.
9) Invest money, value their time and focus on achievement oriented goals while living in this
world.
10) This way the capitalism has been evolved.
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6. How the political factors have helped in changing the society?

A:

1) Laws possess political power and the authority to exercise over the people and thus
people conform to laws.
2) Laws ensure a certain degree of uniformity of behavior among the diverse groups of
individuals.
3) Laws seek to mitigate the social evils and to protect the women and children.
4) Laws take up social reforms.
Eg: Abolition of Sati Act, 1829.
Age of girls for marriage (minimum) is fixed from 14 to 18 years.
Age of boys for marriage (minimum) is fixed from 18 to 21 years.
Article 17 of the Indian constitution has abolished untouchability.
5) Public opinion leads to social change. Laws alone cannot change traditions and belief
systems. That is why, despite of laws, evils like sati, child marriages, dowry, untouchability
still persist in our country.
6) Laws: a) an indicator of change
b) an initiator of change
c) an integrator of change
7) Elections and right to vote are important factors of social change.
8) Village, state and national level problems become the primary topic during the elections.
9) Elections are a form of political communication between the government and the governed
(people). Elections are the means through which the rulers become sensitive to the
demands of the people. This way the political factors will bring the change in the society.
7. What are the economic factors of social change in society? Describe their influence.

A: 1) Marxist view or perspective

2) Impact of industrialization
3) Green revolution
Impact of economic factors on social change:
Marx has opined that the economic factors are the cause for social change.
The method of productivity decides the social, cultural, political and religious factors. He
speaks about different types of societies
1) Pastoral or agricultural society Feudalism - Capitalism Socialism.
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2) The society has moved from agricultural society to feudalism, from which capitalism and
from capitalism it has paved the way to socialism.
3) The Capitalist society is divided into Bourgeois (capitalist) and Proletariat (working class).
These two classes are in constant state of conflict which leads to revolution. This
revolution leads to the socialist form of society.
3) In the industrial society the production moved out of households to factories. Capitalist
acquire greater role in the process of production.
4) With the introduction of machines or industrial products in agriculture and industry the
demand for labour increased which resulted in dilution of the religious beliefs and rituals.
5) Green revolution started in 1960 with the focus on wheat and the strategy adopted was to
combine the use of capital and technology to boost farm yields.
6) Provision of land for cultivation, farm credit, machines and high yield seeds.
7) With the Irrigation facilities, fertilisers, machinery in agriculture, the country moved from
net importer of food grains to exporter of food grains.
8. Write the changes which occurred due to the impact of industrialization.
A: 1) Production moved out of households to factories.
2) Capitalist acquired greater role in the process of production.
3) Changes occurred with the introduction of machines or industrial products in agriculture.
4) People started working in industries in various positions.
5) Women force became a part of the labour force.
6) Barriers of religion, belief, etc., crumbled as the demand for labour increased.
7) With urbanization, the transport and communication field have excelled.
9. Describe social changes. Explain green revolution.
A: 1) The status of women has increased with economic freedom.
2) Productivity relations owner, employees ability to work have become the yard stick.
3) In urban areas, the caste system has weakened.
4) The family and the state or nation started controlling the caste groups (people).
5) With increase in urbanization, the industrialists have focused on hospitals, schools, clubs,
day care centres, etc. which in turn decreased the dependency on family.
6) Migration of wage-earners and self-employed to the urban centres gave rise to middle
class. In religion, the idea of democracy, meritocracy and egalitarianism has been
developed.
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Green Revolution:
1) In 1960 the focus was on wheat and the strategy adopted was to combine the use of
capital and technology to boost farm yields.
2) Land for cultivation.
3) Farm credit, machines and high yield seeds.
4) With the irrigation facilities, fertilisers, machinery in agriculture, the country has moved
from net importer of food grains to exporter of food grains.
10. Which changes have occurred due to industrialization?
A: 1) Production has moved to factories along with capital (investment).
2) Along with women, people from various section are taking part in the production process
with the invent of occupations in industries.
3) With industrialization and urbanization the requirements of the labour has been increased,
scope for decrease on faith or beliefs have increased, along with this the transport and
communication sector has increased.
4) Women, people who are exploited, have joined the work have got the economic freedom
by which their status has been increased.
5) The production relations like owner, employee and ability to work became the primary
aspects with industrialization.
6) The caste system has weakened as the workers of all sections started living together, and
the various caste groups and families were brought under control.
7) The process of urbanization has viewed the business in terms of human relations.
Hospitals, schools, clubs, day care centres have decreased the dependency on family.
8) Migration of wage-earners and self-employed to the urban centres gave rise to middle
class. In religion, the idea of democracy, meritocracy and egalitarianism has been
developed.
11. Which changes have occurred due to Green Revolution?
A: 1) Technology, Invest of money, farm credit, machines.
2) High yield seeds, irrigation, fertilizers.
3) Reached from the net importer of food stage to exporter of food.
4) Big business people with big invest development of higher classes, have changed the
relations like owner and employee in industries.
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5) Green revolution was started in Punjab and Haryana. People from Orissa, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh have migrated to other places. The relations among the family members have been
changed due to the migration of the head of the family.
6) The economic inequalities have been increased between different regions as the green
revolution is implemented in few regions.
7) The economic inequalities increased between those who possessed land and landless
labourer especially in the region where the green revolution was implemented.
8) With this revolution the middle class people have benefitted and have emerged as a great
political power.
12. What is the role of education in social change? Describe.
A: 1) Education takes the responsibility in protecting the traditions and customs of the society,
values and beliefs. On the other hand, new ideas and values are initiated and act as the
agent of social change.
2) Education plays a vital role in the emergence of new ideas and values, helps the children to
understand and use them properly, and helps in internalization of the new values in society.
3) Education socializes the children according to the requirements of the society.
4) Education plays an important role in developing the human resources, providing special
training and skills required by the industries, in the modern economic system.
5) Education plays a tremendous role in shaping the individuals according to the changing
situations in the society and in the world.
Eg: Law, democracy, human rights have learnt the worlds path through teaching.
6) With the curriculum, the education is increasing the awareness about the global problems
like war, poverty, AIDs, unemployment and stimulating the people to response to these
problems.
7) Through socialization process the people were made to develop a world view in solving
the problems.
8) Modern education is being updated or revised according to the changes occurring in the
society from time to time.
9) Education plays the role in providing the skills to the people for developing the human
resources and makes the individuals to take up the roles which are required by the society.
In the simple societies these skills are acquired at the family, but in the present societies
people are acquiring the skills at educational institutions.
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10) The profession which requires skills like medicine, engineering, legal system, forensic
science, physical science, botany, agricultural science, are taught in the educational
institutions. These jobs will be filled by the people who possess the required skills.
13. Describe Human resource development and social change.
A. 1) Education is the corner stone for human resource development.
2) In the modern societies, the changes occurred in the production according to the
requirements of the society leading to division of labour as importance for the skills has
been increased.
3) The educational institutes provide the knowledge which is required for various
occupations.
4) The profession which requires skills like medicine, engineering, legal system, forensic
science, physical science, botany, agricultural science, are taught in the educational
institutions.
5) With development of special education, communication and transport facilities, there is a
greater scope for migration to far of places. Eg: Modern education was helpful for the
software engineers to settle in western countries.
6) This way it has changed the global structure and paved the new ways by providing
employment opportunities.
7) It resulted in stratification of people based on education, economic disparities and social
status.
8) Education also brings political awareness. Modern education popularizes the ideals of
democracy, liberty and equality while familiarizing the students with their unique history
and culture.

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18
PROCESSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Introduction
Human society has always been experiencing change. You must also be experiencing such
change not only in your own life but also in the family around you. Some of your family members
must have left their native village and shifted to urban areas. Similarly, some must have changed their
occupations from agriculture to manufacturing and service. Your grandparents, parents, uncles,
aunts and cousins were previously living in large joint families, under one roof. But, now they must
have separated from the large joint family and must be living in smaller units. Therefore, as you see
the changes are witness not only in occupations but also in the family structure.
Till recently, people were seen wearing the traditional dress quite often, but now the
cosmopolitan form of dressing has become common. The same is seen in the materials being used
for these garments. We find that the social institutions too have undergone tremendous modifications
from the times of our forefathers. The recent forms are very different from the way they existed in
the earlier period. When we look at all that is taking place around us, we find every phenomenon
undergoes some sort of change every movement which may not be perceived immediately. Like in
the case of the changing relationship between an employer and employee in an industrial firm.
Therefore a study of social change, its causes and consequences, has become an important
area of study today. In this lesson we are concerned with the following aspects of social change.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Understand meaning of social change;
Explain the terms associated with social change;
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 Recognize the characteristics of social change; and

Explain the theories and patterns of social change.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What is meant by Social Change?

A: Social change means any alterations which occur in social organizations, in structure and
functions of society and in culture.
2. Describe the duration of Social Change.
A: Change can be rapid or gradual, continuous or abrupt, long or short. Some changes occur
within a short time, while others take centuries to be noticed. Green revolution popularized
multiple cropping and high-yielding varieties of seeds within a decade. Whereas, spread of
female education and change in the information technology has brought rapid changes.
3. Describe Evolution.
A: 1) Evolution is an irreversible process.
2) The direction cannot be reversed from the complex stage to the simple stage.
4. What is meant by revolution?
A: 1) Revolution is a form of sudden and abrupt overthrow of the existing social order and system.
Changes come in a short period of time.
2) Basic aim of revolution is liberating the people from an oppressive system.
5. What is Progress?
A: Progress depends on two factors.
1) The nature of the end and the distance at which we are from it.
2) Technical advancement, economical development, etc.
6. What is meant by Development?
A: Development is a planned social change in a direction which is considered desirable by the
members of a society.
7. Write about Kalyug (dark era) in one sentence.
A: Kalyug the dark era, where evil predominates over goodness. Eg: In Hindu Mythology.
8. Write about Vedas.
A: Vedas are the holy scriptures of the Hindus. There are four Vedas. Namely 1) Rig Veda;
2) Sama Veda; 3) Yajur Veda; and 4) Adharva Veda.
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9. Write about Satyug.

A: Satyug is the era in which goodness and truth prevails in Hindu mythology.
10. What is meant by cyclic social change?
A: Cyclical change is a rapid change on a closer look turns out to be a repeating set of activities
that form a cyclical pattern like rhythms of nature, cycle of night and day, etc.
11. What is meant by fluctuating change?
A: When the order of change turns to the opposite direction after leading towards progress is
called fluctuating change.
12. Describe the theory of Cyclic change.
A: The society also has a predetermined life cycle just like the cyclic pattern of the nature.
Eg: Seasons, day and night.
13. Write about the functionalist theory.
A: Societies change but they also tend to move towards equilibrium. The endogenous and
exogenous sources of change take the system from one stage of equilibrium to another stage.
The new structural units and new institutions perform the functions which were performed by
old units.

II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. What is Social Change?

A: Social change denotes as difference (change) in an individual, group and society or any
material object over a period of time or alteration in the structure and functions of the society
or change in culture or change occurred due to the knowledge of technology or due to the
values of the social institutions.
2. What are the changes occurred in family?
A: The joint family system is replaced with the nuclear family wherein the family ties and authority
of the head are gradually weakening.
3. What kind of changes have occurred in the Caste system?
A: 1) In Indian society, the caste is playing a vital role more than the class.
2) There exists no relation between the occupations and the castes. Individuals can take any
occupation of their choice.
3) The upper caste people are taking the jobs, which were earlier meant for the lower castes.

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4. Social change is universal. Describe.

A: 1) The social patterns of life, social institutions and culture keep changing according to
necessities and external conditions.
2) Social change is universal. This process is observed in all castes regions and societies. In
contemporary society change occurs rapidly and frequently.
5. Social change is not uniform. Describe.
A: 1) Although social change occurs in all societies but its rate varies from place to place and
time to time.
2) The process of social change is very fast in the societies where people are ready to accept
new things.
3) Social change depends upon the nature of society, readiness of the people to adapt to new
innovations and emerging social institutions and structure social change.
6. Social change is deliberate. Describe.
A: 1) Many dimensions of social change are deliberately encouraged. Social change is observed
from the period of food gathering, shifting cultivation and finally irrigated to multi-cropping
agriculture.
2) After the industrial revolution, efforts are being made to provide better facilities and
inventing new methods.
3) Social change occurs based on the requirement and dreams of the people. Social change is
inevitable. It can also be boycotted. Social change enters into the society on the
acceptance of its people.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Social change is value neutral. Describe.

A: 1) Social change is value neutral phenomenon. It is not understood in terms of good or bad,
desirable or undesirable.
2) Good and bad are subjective notions and are based on different criteria used by different
individuals, groups and societies.
3) The phenomenon of the world moves according to these.
4) Social change is value neutral with both quality and value. Social change may look good
for the new generation and bad for the older generation. Social change is considered to be
value neutral.

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2. What is Social Change? What are its characteristics?

A: Social change means any alterations which occur in social organizations, in structure and
functions of society and in culture.
Characteristics:
1) Social change is universal: This process is observed among all castes, regions and
societies.
2) Social change is not uniform: It varies from time to time and from place to place.
3) Social change is deliberate: Social change occurs in society on the acceptance of its
people.
4) Duration of change varies: Changes can be rapid or gradual, continuous or abrupt,
short or long. Eg: Green revolution, Industrial revolution.
5) Social change is value neutral.
3. Describe Social Growth.
A: Social growth implies a change in size or quality in the desired direction. Economic, Political,
Cultural and Technological factors play an important role in social growth.
4. Describe Social Evolution.
A: 1) Evolution involves a more intrinsic change not only in size but also of structure.
2) There is increasing complexity and differentiation of structure and functions of society.
3) Increase in interdependence among differentiated parts.
4) Evolution is an expression of continuity indicating a certain direction of change.
The change which moves in one direction is called social progress. Eg: Development of
trade, agriculture, industries, health, education, railway, etc.
5. What is the difference between Revolution and Counter-revolution?
A: 1) Revolution is a form of sudden and abrupt overthrow of the existing social order and
system and replacing new social values in the system.
2) Revolution aims at liberating people from an oppressive system. It puts an end to the
social, cultural, political and economic suffering.
Counter- revolution: These movements aim at restoration and reinforcement of old,
traditional systems.
1) The people and intellectuals emphasizing the study of Vedas.
2) The world showing interest to acquire the knowledge of the Vedas.

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3) Efforts for the restoration of the traditional values. This was meant to create a positive
feeling towards social responsibilities and gender equality. This is known as counterrevolution.
6. Describe two differences between Progress and Development.
A: 1) Progress is the change in a certain direction, always towards some desired goals. It can be
called a realization of cherished values, which are desirable.
2) Progress depends on two factors, the nature of the end and the distance at which we are
from it. Progress of material wealth, individual progress.
3) Development is a planned social change in the direction which is considered desirable by
the members of a society.
4) Development is a value loaded concept that takes into account the socio-cultural and
economic needs of a given society, region and people. Eg: Railway, transport and
communication fields.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. What is social change? What are its characteristics?

A: Social change means any alterations which occur in social organizations, in structure and functions
of society and in culture.
Characteristics:
1) Social change is universal:
a) the social patterns of life, social institutions and culture keep changing according to the
necessities and external conditions.
b) The process of changes is observed in all seasons, regions and societies.
2) Social change is not uniform:
a) Social change varies from society to society, time to time and from place to place.
b) Social change is rapid in the society, where the people are ready to adopt changes (new
changes).
3) Social change is deliberate:
a) The societies have been changing from the food gathering stage to shifting cultivation,
irrigated and multi-cropping stage.
b) New methods and improved facilities are developed based on the requirements and the
desires of the people. These are introduced in the society based on the acceptance of the
people.
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4) Social change is value neutral:

a) Social change is value neutral phenomenon, as it is not understood in terms of good or bad,
desirable or undesirable.
b) Social change is neutral without having nature and value.
5) Duration of change varies:
a) Change can be rapid or gradual, continuous or abrupt.
b) Some changes occur over a period of time and some occur within a short time or
revolutionary changes remove the existing social values and replace with the new values.
Eg: Green revolution, industrial revolution, women education.
2. Describe the differences between Evolution and Revolution.
A: 1) Evolution is the process which takes place in all seasons, regions and in all societies.
Evolution is universal in nature. Revolution may not be universal.
2) Evolution implies a change in size or quality in a desire direction (growth). Revolution is a
form of sudden and abrupt overthrow of the existing social order and system and replacing
new social values in the system.
3) It is a process of growth, increasing complexity and differentiation of structure and
functions of society. In evolution change is a continuous process. Revolution is a
spontaneous change.
4) Social evolution moves in unilinear direction. The stages of evolution move in forward
direction. The direction cannot be reversed. People do revolution when they are
oppressed in order to improve their conditions.
5) Evolution means the development of organisms from single cell to multiple cells. It consists
of different phases. But there are no phases in revolution.
6) Earlier the family members used to construct their dwellings or houses. With the
development in technology and sophisticated equipments, the demand for skill labour has
increased. Eg: Mason, carpenter, is evolution. Revolution aims at liberating people from
an oppressive system. It puts an end to the social, cultural, political and economic
suffering.
3. Describe the differences between Progress and Development.
A: 1) Progress is the change in a certain direction, always towards some desired goals. It will
provide better situations than the existing one. Development is a planned social change in
the direction which is considered desirable by the members of a society.
2) When the expected or desired goals are achieved it is called as progress. It determines the
values of change. Development is contextual and relative in nature.
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3) Technical advancement, economic system, communication system are taken as the

indicators of progress. This progress is there in the view of development.
4) Progress moves from simple stage to complex stage. It also involves many dimensions.
Development is a composite concept. It includes progress in various fields like trade,
agriculture, industry, health, education and so on. Along with this, the welfare of weaker
sections, women, sick, old people, children, unemployed and minorities are some of the
considerations of development. Thus we can say that development is a value loaded
concept.
5) Progress describes the nature of the end and the distance at which we are from it.
Development tries to develop the conditions of various rural people, scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes, women, urban people, etc. This has been taken up for the progress of the
society.
6) Society is developed with transport and communication facilities. With the progress from
cycle motor cycle trains has an impact on the socio-economic conditions of the society.
7) The efforts of the individual to satisfy his requirements or goals leads to progress. It is a
continuous process. With the development of transportation and communication, the
culture has led to exchange of cultures and strata have started mixing and understanding
each other. So, development of communication and transportation is useful for progress.
4. Elaborate on the most frequently found patterns of social change seen in society.
A: The patterns of social change are of three types. They are:
1) Linear change:
a) This type of change shows a straight line progression from one stage to another in a
linear fashion.
Eg: Society gradually moves to higher state of civilization (metropolis, megapolis, etc).
b) Change will be in a linear pattern and moves from stage to another stage. New
inventions, values, etc depend on the past inventions and values.
Eg: After the invention of telephone, it has grown from land line to cordless telephones
and has reached the stage of mobiles phones. This change has followed a linear pattern.
2) Cyclical change: The society also undergoes cyclic changes, just like the cyclic patterns in the
nature, seasons, etc. Eg: Like the seasons, day and night are repeating, birth of societies,
development, construction also undergoes cyclic change.
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3) Fluctuating changes:
a) The changes which have led to progress, with the passage of time may lead to opposite
direction of progress.
b) The change is not consistent. It may go up or go down.
c) Change depends on the favourable and unfavourable conditions.
Eg: The use of fertilizers in agriculture has improved the yield of the crop for some time
and in the later stage it has spoiled the crop yield.
5. Explain the Conflict theory of social change?
A: 1) Every action has opposing reaction.
2) The action between different powers in the society leads to disorganization of the society.
3) Unequal distribution of power and authority is the cause for conflict in the society.
4) The groups with power want to preserve the status quo while the other groups desire to
change it.
5) Result: This results in conflict between the two groups. Conflict leads to changes in
structure and functions of the society.
6) The nature and depth of conflict and resultant change depends on numerous factors.
7) Result: The societies undergo change and come to an equilibrium stage.
8) Every social structure begins with the thesis of its own existence.
After some time, the various internal contradictions prompt a challenge to its structure.
This challenge is called anti-thesis.
9) The conflict between 'thesis' and 'anti-thesis' resolves into synthesis.
10) This synthesis gives a complete new social structure carrying some elements from both
thesis and the antitheses. However, this theory does not explain social stability in
societies.
6. Which theories are used to describe social change? Describe.
A: 1) Evolutionary theory
2) Cyclical theory
3) Functional theory
4) Conflict theory

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Description:
1) Evolutionary theory:
a) Societies are like organisms, which evolve with the same manner as Darwins notion of
biological evolution. The fittest organisms will survive and evolve according to the
surroundings. Societies too develop in the same way.
b) Every stage is advanced and developed from the earlier stage and successively becomes
complex.
2) Cyclical theory:
a) The societies have pre-determined life cycle of birth, growth, maturity and decline just like
human beings. In the evolution of societies, like waves in the ocean the great culture
emerge, rise to heights, only to subside while others raise in their turn.(new civilization and
cultures will evolve).
Day and night, different seasons form of cyclic patterns.

Winter
Autumn

Birth
Sprint

Decline

Summer

Growth
Maturity

Diagram - seasons

Growth of society

Cycle of Day and night.

Just like seasonal patterns, Societies take birth, grow, mature and decline in a cyclic
pattern.
According to Hindu mythology, modern society is in the last stage in which Satyug will
again start after Kalyug is over.
3) Functional theory :
a) Societies change, but also tend to move towards equilibrium.
b) Any disturbance in the system is easily accommodated within the existing structure.
c) The endogenous and exogenous sources of change take the system from one stage of
equilibrium to another stage.
d) The differentiation takes place in the social structure. New structural units will perform the
functions which were performed by old units.
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4) Conflict theory:
a) For every action there is an opposite reaction. These actions and reactions leads to
disorganization of the society.
b) Unequal distribution of power and authority are the causes for conflict in the society.
c) The groups with power want to preserve the status quo while the other groups desire to
change it.
d) This results in conflict between the two groups. Conflict leads to changes in structure and
functions of the society.
e) The synthesis gives a wholly new social structure carrying some elements from both
thesis and the antitheses. However, this theory does not explain social stability in
societies.

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19
SOCIALIZATION AS A PROCESS
OF LEARNING
Introduction
Every society has its own codes of conduct, rules and regulations, and norms and values. You
must have understood by now that every culture clearly demarcates the desirable and undesirable
behavior in different social contexts. How should you behave as a son or daughter, as brother or
sister, as nephew or niece, as host or guest and as friend, are all laid down by the culture to which
you belong. Every culture has its own ways of handling these issues. For example, we show respect
to elders by touching their feet, greet them with folded hands and simply bowing down our heads
before them. While seeking blessings, the daughters in Bengal are supposed to touch the feet of their
parents whereas daughters in Uttar Pradesh are not supposed to touch their feet in similar
circumstances. Where they are regarded as Devi (Goddess) Laxmi. Further, they are offered to
another family in the form of kanya dan (gift of a virgin). There are several such rules, which differ
from society to society. Thus, it is clear that an individual should be aware of such social norms and
cultural expectations so that he could carry out his activities in accordance with the culturally laid
down practices. In this lesson, we will study about the process of socialization.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the concept and meaning of socialization;
Describe its inter-relationship with a) enculturation b) assimilation;
State the different agents of socialization;
Describe the elements of socialization;
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 Understand the role of socialization in personality development; and

Explain the process of socialization in the context of different Indian communities.

I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. What kind of process is socialization process?

A: Life time.
2. What is socialization?
A: Assimilation.
3. What does socialization process protect?
A: Social order.
4. What is internalization?
A: The process through which the infant acquires the knowledge of his surroundings on his own
is known as internalization.
5. What is the process in which the child is made to learn the values, behavior patterns
of the society?
A: Socialization.
6. What are the primary agencies of socialization?
A: Family, Neighbourhood, School and other educational institutions are the primary agencies of
socialization.
7. Through which determined patterns of the society are our actions and behaviors
regulated?
A: Rules and Regulations.
8. How the rewards and punishments are useful in socialization process?
A: They are the Primary agents of Socialization.
9. What are the agencies of Socialization?
A: 1) Parents, Family, cultural factors, prescriptive laws.
2) Friendly relations, peer groups, playmates friends and associates.
Their conformity or deviation, rewards or punishment makes the child to socialize.

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10. What is the primary aim of the socialization?

A: The main aim of socialization is to make the child learn the established norms and behavior
patterns. Condemning the deviant behavior of the child and guiding the behavior of the child
in right direction is done through Socialisation.
11. What are the authoritarian forces of socialization?
A: Family, school, neighbours, cultural factors, values, etc.
12. What are the egalitarian forces of socialization?
A: Friends, playmates, associates, etc.
13. Which factors play an important role in the development of human personality?
A: Child socialization, communication, culture, role identification and role performance. These
elements regulate the behavior of the child in consonance with the norms and values of the
society.
14. What are the elements of socialization?
A: Communication, role identification, role performance. The child identifies his role and
performance his role according to the culture. Culture is an element of socialization which
passes from one generation to another.
15. How are the agents of socialization helpful?
A: Learning.
16. What do elements of socialization regulate?
A: Cultural heritage.
17. For what the rewards and punishment are agents?
A: Socialization.
18. Describe the main factors in the socialization process.
A: 1) Family
5) Social roles

2) School

3) Group

4) Communication

6) Culture

19. In which age the characteristics of personality are acquired.

A: 3-8 years
20. Socialization process is useful to establish which identity of an individual?
A: Self
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III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. Explain the concept and meaning of Socialization.

A: 1) Socialization is a process of owning, adopting and initiating the new born, stage by stage in the
family, community and society.
2) The cultural norms, traditions, values and different cultural patterns of the group influence
the child.
3) These are learnt, imbibed and the child makes it part of his life style.
4) He learns how to perform his role and how to behave and tries to adjust himself to the
social order.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Describe the differences between Assimilation, Enculturation and Socialization.

A: 1) The process of learning socially accepted values, behavior is known as socialization.
2) The members of society have to behave according to the social values. The newly joined
members of the group will know the values of the society through assimilation.
3) The needs of new born infants like food, security, warmth are provided by mother. He
identifies his mother. Slowly, the concept of mother is internalized to the child.
4) In due course, the child knows the difference between himself and his mother, the same
way he internalizes the relations with others and becomes socialized.
5) This way, he will internalize the role of social relations.
6) Enculturation is the process of learning of cultural patterns from one generation to the next
generation. Through enculturation the values, customs of the older generation is learnt by
the succeeding generation
7) Enculturation could take place either consciously or unconsciously or both ways.
8) The older generation invites or induces and compels the members of succeeding
generations to adopt their ways of thinking and behaving. The older generations ensure
that the younger generations do not adopt the cultural practices of other groups.
2. What are the agencies of Socialization?
A: 1. Family:
1) The child first identifies his mother who satisfies all his requirements, then his father, then
the neighbours and other people around him and internalizes their behavior.
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2) The child tries to develop relation with the surroundings by showing anger, screaming
smiles, and movement of arms, hands and legs with happiness, sorrow, angry and
impatience. He tries to change his behaviour according to the response he receives from
his action till he gets the expected results.
3) Slowly the scope will increase. This way the child is socialized by the family.
2) Neighbours:
1) The child (boy or girl) plays with elder siblings and other children of the locality (rural or
urban) and acquires knowledge about physical and social objects available in his
neighborhood.
2) He tries to adjust himself in different situations and also with the members of different
castes, communities, religious and other occupational groups.
3) The individual through his action and reaction with the surroundings tries to identify the
occupation which can give the required resources for his living.
4) He understands how different groups are inter-dependent on each other and the
importance of satisfying their requirements. This improves his behavioural skills and
discipline according to the norms and values of the surrounding groups.
3) School/Institution:
1) By providing learning situations and environment to the child, school/institution helps to
improve discipline and develop his personality.
2) He learns to discover his own needs and needs of the group and conform to the norms set
by the school.
3) Education in the development of human behaviour, provides standards of behaviour and
are regulatory in character.
4) Society:
1) We live in society. All our actions and behaviours are according to the rules and regulations
of the society.
2) Our actions and behaviour should commensurate with traditions, customs, norms and
values prescribed by the society.
3) The person who performs the action and which is acceptable to the society are rewarded,
and punished for the deviant behaviour. Through this the individual is made to learn the
conformed actions.
5) Reward and Punishment:
1) Operates as important agent of socialization.
2) Though symbolic, it tries to say whether it is accepted or unaccepted.
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3) If the action is not accepted, the action can be controlled by beating with the rod or
pointing the rod to the individual.
4) Similarly, an appreciative smile many times serves the purpose which acts like rewards.
3. What is the role of socialization in the development of human personality?
A:

1) The personality traits are acquired by the child during the age of 3-8 years. The infant
internalizes the affection, love, emotions and sentiments and the various roles played during
his growth as son/daughter, brother, sister, students and other roles.
2) Every role has a status, rights and responsibilities. The expressive roles like affection,
angry, etc are also associated.
3) Instrumental roles discipline and provision of livelihood.
In games, the boy plays the role of the head of the family, going to the job, returning home
in the evening as his father does.
Girls perform the role of her mother, takes up the responsibility of the family.
This way the children internalize the role performance and role behavior from
surroundings.
4) As the child grows, the number of role performances also increases. The child deals with
mother, father, sister, brother and other members of the family.
5) In school the child deals with peer groups, teachers, headmaster, groups, villagers and thus
becomes familiar with the occupation of the family and other occupations.
6) At the same time he also learns the skills of the occupation of his father.
7) This way the child performs various roles in the family, group, society and in country.

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20
SOCIAL CONTROL

Introduction
We remember from our childhood days how our parents urged us to eat with our right hand,
to respect our elders and our teachers, to be punctual and to help the needy. Subsequently, we learn
that we should drive on the left side on the road and to obey the laws of the land. Still later, we are
made aware about responsibilities towards aging parents, towards children and professional
responsibilities that come with ones job.
It is clear that our behavior is regulated by family, by prevalent customs and traditions, by
society and by the state, too. The notion with unrestrained freedom will lead to anarchy and a
demise of social order. Therefore, it is considered imperative for any society to maintain order and
progress.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning and need for social control;
Explain the informal means of social control i.e. the role of folkways, mores, customs and
religion in maintaining social control;
Describe the formal means of social control i.e. the role of law, education and state in
establishing social control; and
Explain the agencies of social control role of family, neighbourhood and public opinion.

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I. Very Short Questions

(1 Mark)

1. Define Social Control.

A: Social control refers to the way society controls our behavior, either through norms and
practices or through the state and its compelling forces.
2. Describe the two control methods, which are used to regulate the behavior of the
individuals.
A: a) By adhering to established norms and values of society.
b) By the use of force.
3. What is Folkway?
A: Folkways are norms to which individuals conform. Ex: Matters of dress, food habits,
observance of rituals, forms of worship and method of greeting, etc.
4. What are Mores?
A: Mores refer to moral conduct as distinct from the customary practice of folkways. With this
the social order and relations between the individuals are maintained properly. Eg: honesty,
truthfulness, hard work and discipline, etc.
5. What are Customs?
A: Customs are the long established practices of people. These are accepted by all the people.
These are useful in regulating social life and in binding the people together.
6. Define Religion.
A: Religion is the unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things. Religion fulfills
the spiritual, social and psychological needs of an individual.
7. Why do we create Laws?
A: a) Fear of punishment.
b) Rule conforming habit.
8. What are the types of support to Law?
A: a) Customs

b) Religion

c) Judicial decisions

The moral dimension and the laws supported by legal and institutional arrangements enable
them to bring conformity in human behavior.
9. What do you understand by Government?
A: The state functions through the government, which includes all official agencies and
functionaries. The state achieves its ends or goals through the government.
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II. Short Questions

(2 Marks)

1. Describe the differences between Laws and Customs.

A: 1) Law has a coercive character. So people fear law. Customs are respected and praised.
2) Laws are more general and universal in nature, whereas customs are specific to groups
and clans.
3) Breach of law entails punishment by the state while disregard of customs is frowned upon
by the society.
4) With the growth of the state, laws are formed, while customs existed at all times (older than
laws).
2. What is Public Opinion?
A: 1) Public opinion is commonly used to denote the aggregate view that individuals hold
regarding matters that affect the interests of community. Remote village communities rely
on gossip for information about the happenings around them and to express their opinion
on these subjects.
2) It regulates the behavior of the people of high reputation.
3) Public opinion is very powerful.
3. What are the agencies of Public Opinion?
A: The agencies of public opinion are news papers, radio, television, legislatives, pamphlets and
even the word of mouth, etc.
4. What is Group?
A: Group is a Social institution. All the members of the group have same identity and mutual
relation exists among its members.
5. What is Metaphysics?
A: Metaphysics is one of the stages in the social evolution. The individual in order to know the
truth, mixes the other worldly knowledge to the scientific knowledge.
6. What are Primitive societies or Pre-literate societies?
A: The society that do not have the tradition of reading and writing or the societies prior to the
literate societies are known as pre-literate societies. These societies are also known as
primitive societies.
7. Why do people respect Law?
A: 1) Fear of punishment Punishment by state results in curtailment of essential freedom of
individuals and hence acts as a deterrent.
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2) Rule conforming habit Many individuals believe that adherence to laws is necessary for
their own well-being and prosperity as also for social stability and progress. This is called
the rule conforming habit. The family, educational institutions and religious preachers all
play a role in inculcating and sustaining this behavior.

III. Short Essay Questions

(4 Marks)

1. What is social control? Why it is required?

A: a) Social control is the way in which the entire social order coheres and maintains itself, operates
as a whole, as a changing equilibrium.
b) If it is not done, individual is allowed unrestricted freedom to act and behave, may lead to
anarchy and disorder in the society.
Eg: Traffic movement on roads in the absence of traffic rules and traffic signals, the same
way happens in society in the absence of social control.
c) Social control is used to control or regulate the behavior of the people according to the
established norms.
d) To check cultural maladjustments in the society.
2. Describe the difference between Formal and Informal Control.
A:

1) The formal means of social control from the institutions like the state, law, education and
those that have legitimate power is known as formal social control. The rules and
regulations are important for formal means of social control. In society, social control is
often maintained by informal mechanisms, i.e. customs, traditions, folkways, mores and
religion. These are adopted means by informal groups.
2) Formal means of social control is legitimate and thus people are punished if they violate the
rules. There is no punishment for the violation of rules in the informal means of social
control.
3) Informal control is executed through informal sanctions which may be positive or negative.
Positive sanctions can be smile, a nod of approval, rewards and promotions, etc.
Negative sanctions include frown, criticism, physical threats and punishments. The formal
control is executed through state, law, education and those have legitimate power.
3. How the folkways and mores are helpful in Social Control?
A: 1) Folkways are the part of peoples traditions and customs. Folkways are manifested in
matters of dress, food, habits, observance of rituals, forms of worship and methods of
greeting, etc and these habits persist even when the person moves to a different location.
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2) Mores refers to the moral conduct. Mores influence the value system of a society in the
form of social regulations. Thats why the social order is maintained in the society. These
are prescribed set of conventions to regulate the relationship between the individuals.
These conventions are known as mores.
4. Describe the role of religion in Social control?
A: Religion exercises a powerful influence on its adherents.
1) Religion is the unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things. The
adherents of the religion possess beliefs, practices and mores.
2) The spiritual, social and psychological needs of an individual are satisfied by the religion.
3) Religion has the concept of sin and virtue. These are ingrained in the individuals
personality and guide his decision making during his life.
4) Religious conventions and practices determine marriage, mutual relations among family
members, property relations, rules of succession and inheritance, etc.
5) Religious leaders regulate the behaviour of individuals by exhorting them to follow a
prescribed code of conduct.
6) Community activities like prayer meetings, celebrations of religious events and festivals,
and religious institutions brings the believers together and stregthens the common belief
systems, thereby regulate the individuals behaviour.
5. Describe the differences between Laws and Norms.
A: 1) Law has a coercive character. Therefore, it compels people to act in a particular way.
Customs, on the other hand, are respected and practised because of the senstivity of
traditions and social approval. Laws are universal in nature.
2) Each community or society has its own customs. Customs are specific to groups. But
customs are not universal.
3) Breach of law entails punishment by the state, while by disregarding the customs an
individual is excluded (ostracism) from the society but not punished.
4) Laws have formed with the growth of the state and its institutions while customs are older
than laws.
6. How education is helpful in social control?
A: Along with laws, education has been an important agency of social control.
1) Education teaches the children about the values of discipline, cooperation, tolerance and
integration. Besides imparting knowledge it also teaches ethics and prepares or shapes the
child according to the aims.
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2) Social needs, level of development and change of social norms influence the pace of
educational system.
3) In ancient society the emphasis was on religious scriptures, philosophy and metaphysics.
The social development has resulted in an increased demand for knowledge.
4) At schools, the ideas of democracy, secularism, equality and national goals are
communicated to students. Eg: History, culture, heritage, norms and values are taught
along with those ideas. Thats why education plays an important role in social control.

IV. Essay Questions

(6 Marks)

1. Explain how the family and neighbourhood are helpful in Social Control?
A: Family:
1) Genes and influence of environment has to be taken into consideration to understand an
individual.
2) The child is born with certain inherent capabilities, which either grow or are stunted
(stopped) depending upon the environmental stimuli.
3) Family socialises the child into the norms, values, traditions and customs of the group and
plays a predominant role in shaping the personality of the child.
4) Marriage is seen as an alliance between families rather than between two individuals. Even
in cities, family continues to play a predominant role in shaping an individuals personality.
5) Industrilization has contributed to the split of joint families and for the growth of nuclear
families. Individualism has increased.
6) The functions of the family are taken up by the classrooms, playgrounds, peer groups,
media, etc.
7) Individuals derives his social status from his personal achievements.
8) For marriage along with parents and elders, the brides and grooms consent is essential.
9) Marriages outside caste and religion are increasing.
Neighbourhood:
1) Neighbourhood in villages comprises people normally belonging to the same kin group or
caste. The son-in-law of a family is regarded as the son-in-law of a much larger group. The
status is not confined to the family, but is spread to the entire village.
2) In urban areas or cities the relationships between the neighbours are characterised formally
and the relation is mostly temporary in nature. Sometimes the individuals do not know who
their neighbours are and what they do.

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3) In rural areas, the deviant behaviour is disapproved with the help of elders and even
sarcasm. The people fear the societal resistance and try to change their behaviour. While in
cities, the individual actions that affect community are monitored by the neighbours
(collectively).
Eg: a person throwing trash in the open would be pulled up by his neighbours for spoiling
the ambience of the neighbourhood.
2. Describe the role of public opinion in Social Control.
A: 1) Public opinion denotes the aggregate views that individuals hold regarding matters that
affect the interest of community.
2) Newspapers, radio, television, motion pictures, legislations, pamphlets and even the word
of mouth mould public opinion.
3) In remote village communities people rely on gossip for information about the
happenings around them and to express their opinion as they do not have access to
television and newspapers.
4) Now the television has been introduced in village. Adult franchise, Panchayati Raj
institutions and planned development processes have been helpful .
5) In cities, the print and electronic media play a dominant role in shaping public opinion.
3. What are the differences between Law and Norms?
A: 1) Law has a coercive character. Therefore, it compels people to act in a particular way.
Customs, on the other hand, are respected and practised because of the sensitivity of
traditions and social approval associated with them. People have fear towards law and
respect towards norms.
2) Laws are common for all groups and clans. They are universal in nature. Whereas, norms
differ from one community to another. Customs are specific to groups and clans.
3) Breach of law entails punishment. while by disregarding customs an individual is excluded
(ostracism) from the society but not punished.
4) Laws are formed with the growth of the state and its institutions while customs are in use
from the primitive societies to the modern societies . The norms are thus older than laws.
5) International laws came into existence to establish relations such as political, economy,
trade and commerce, military, etc. between the nations.

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21
Indian National Movement (1857-1947)
Indroduction
The history of our freedom movement is not a single homogeneous story. It has several diverse
factors that interline and influence each other and unfold into the narrative of a struggle of our people for
independence.
The efforts of the moderates led to legal and constitutional changes. The zest of the revolutionaries
led to heroic actions and an uncompromising struggle. The mass movement brought to focus by Mahatma
Gandhi led to widespread respons from all sections of the population. We shall study in this lesson
these different movements and see how each affected the other and led to the achivement of the common
goal i.e. independence.

Objectives

Form an overall idea of the Indian National movement;

identify and place chronologically, the various strands of the movement ; and

see how each section of the national movement influenced each other.

Essay Questions
1. Describe the growth of National Movement in India from 1885-1905 AD ?
A. The History of the National movement from 1885 to 1905 is considered as the period of
'Moderate' nationalism. During the first 20 years of its inception, the congress was led by the
Moderate nationlists who were modest in their demands. Noiroji, S.N. Benerjee, Gokhale,
Ranade, Malavya, Wedderburn and A.O. Hune were the some of the eminent Moderates of this
period.

87

The Moderates believed that the stability of the British rule was the sine quanon of India's progress
and the western education, speedy of communications were some of its blessings. They also
believed in the British sence of Justice and fair play and were confident that their grievances
would be redressed.
1. Demands of Moderates : They urged the government to introduce a number reforms. The
main among them were 1. Reorganisation of the legislative councils, 2. Holding simultaneous
examinations for 1CS at London and Calculta 3. Abolition of Indian Council 4. Repeal of the
Arms Act 5. Reduction of military budget 6. Appoinment of Indians to the Commissioned
Ranks etc.
2. Methods : Moderates followed the peaceful and constitutional methods of agitation to achive
their demands. In short they adopted a policy of pray, petition and protest.
3. Achivements : Though the policy and programme of the moderates was regarded as 'political mendicacy' by the Indian youth, they made a noble contribution to the progreess of national movement. By holding sessions, resolutions, petetions etc. they focussed the attention
of the people and moulded public openion and brought many Indians within the fold of congress.
The attitute of the government towards congress movement was aptly said by Ramsay Macdonald
as the attitude of friendship at first and bitter opposition later.
2. Sketch the history of Indian National Movement from 1920-1947 AD ?
A. Mahatma Gandhi was the sole and supreme head of the Indian National Movement during this
period. He skilfully led the freedom struggle, gave it a new turn, imparted a new force character
and meaning. It was only under his leadership that the Indian National Congress was transformed
in to a fighting force and non voilent revolutionery organisation and finally obtained independence.
During this period he led three national wide movements they are as followes.
1. Non Co-operation Movement 1920-22 : After his success in South Africa, he retured to India
in 1915. He took up iniative the cause of Indigo platation workers of Champaran, industrial
workers of Ahmadabad and Khed Satyagraha and succeded. When his request failed against
Rowlat Bill's he organised the country wide hartal which led to 'Jallian Walabagh tragedy'. Mean
while 'Khilafat' movement was organised against the British raj. To undone punjab killings and
restore 'Khalifa', Gandhi decided to launch "Non Co-opertation Movement".
The Programme of Non Co-operation consisted of boycotte of school, colleges, Law Courts
and foreign goods, Surrender of titles. and honorary offices and resignation from local bodies

88

and establishment of national schools, colleges, adoption of swadeshi goods and the use of
private arbitration courts etc.

The movement evoked a great response throughout the country. When the movement reached
its zenith a voilent incident occured at 'chawra chawri' in 1922 which led to the supension of
the movement.

At this crucial time C.R Das and Motilal Nehru came out from Congress party and formed a
'Swarajya Party' to inspire the people in 1923. The Swarajists kept the nationalism alive and
dispelled the feelings of depression and frustration that gripped the people.

Mean while the British government appointed a commission headed by John Simon to enquire in to the working of Dyarchy and political situation in India. Due to its all-white composition, the leaders of freedom struggle boycotted it and it was greated by black flags and
slogans of simon Go Back.

As a rebuff the Simon Commission the congress party appointed committee under the Motilal
Nehru which was knowned as 'Nehru report', demanded ' dominian status'. In addition
Congress Committee assembled at Lahore in 1929 under the leader ship Jawaharlal Nehru
declared 'purna Swaraj' as the goal of the congress.

In accordance with the Lahore decision Gandhi announced 'Eleven points' for the consideration of the British. When this failed Gandhi started his famous march to Dandi to break the
Salt laws.

Gandhi - Irwin pact 1931 :- Mean while British Government convened the first Round Table
Conference of Indian leaders in London to discuss Simon Commission Report and formulate
proposals for an Indian Constitution. But the congress did not take part in it. But the efforts of
T.B. Sapru and M.R Jayakar, resulted to the Treaty of Gandh - Irwin pact in 1931.

In accordance with the Pact Gandhi alone, attended the Second Round Table Conference in
1931. The conference ended in failure due to grant separate electorates to Harijans. Gandhi
ruturned to India and reiterated the Sathyagraha Movement. Mean while the Hindu and
Harijan leaders Came into a Compromise and concluded the 'poona pact' of 1932. The
Third Round Table Conference was convened in 1932 in which Gandhiji and Congress did
not participate.

The Govt of India Act of 1935, provided 'provincial autonomy' in the provinces and 'Dyarky'
at the centre. When the second world war broke out in 1939, the congress protested against
the Linlithgow declaretion of India as enymy country to Germany, there up on all the congress
ministers resigned.
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3. The congress refused the 'August offer' of the British and Gandhiji started the individual
Sathyagraha. In the midst England faced difficult situation in world war and deputed Sir
stafford Crips to win the moral support of Indians. It was welcomed by Indians. But the
Cripps was failed and rejected by all sections of Indians including Jinna. Gandhi described it
as a "post - dated cheque in a crashing bank".
4. Congress Working committee met at Bombay adopted the famous 'Quit India resolution'
where Gandhi delivered a great speech and concluded with the slogan of "Do or Die".
Ofcourse the the movement was suppressed by the British.
5. After the war, the Labour party came to power in England which Committed to policy of
transferring power to India and appointed Cabinet Mission, which consists of three ministers. The mission proposed the interim government, a Constituent Assemble to draft a
new courtitution and a sub-federation of Muslim province in the Federal Union of India.
6. But the formation of interim government and Muslim league direct action Day created a lot ot
Blood shed in India. The congress disgusted with the tactics of the League and its atrocities.
Finally Atlee, British Prime Ministers declared that British would transfer power and quit India.
By the Indian Independence Act of 1947, the Britishers transfered the power on 15th August
1947.

Short type Questions

1. C.R. Farmula (1944)
A. When the conditiones in India after Quit India Movement were favour to India divisions,
C.Rajagapala chari with the direction of Gandhiji prepared a formule for a permanent solution of
Indian politics
Main provisions of C.R. Formula :

The Muslim lague should co-operate with the congress in its demand for independence.

The league should join the interim government.

90

After the war, a commission will be set up to demarcate Muslim majority areas. Thereafter
plebicite will be taken on the basis of adult franchise in these areas to decide the issue of
partition.

Before plebicite, every political party will be given the fullest opportunity to express its view
before people.

In case of some of the provinces wanted separation an agreement will be signed with them
about Defence, Commerce, Communication etc.

If partition was unavoidable, there will be no use of force in transfer of population.

All these terms will be affective only after the transfer of power.

2. Nehru Constitution
A. The Congress Working Committed appointed a Commission under the leadership of Motional
Nehru which created a 'New Constitution'.
Salient features

Dominion status for India.

India was to be a secular state with no state religion.

Complete responsible government i.e. the responsibility of the Executive to the legislature
legistature to have full powers.

To have a Bicameral legislature at the centre.

There was to be the system of joint electorates with reservation of seats.

Seats were to be reserved for Muslims in provinces where they were minority and nonMuslims in North West Frotier Province. Such reservation was to be in accordancewith the
population, with the right to contest additional seats.

No reservations in the provinces of Bengal and Punjab to any community.

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VI. One Word Answer

1. Who announced the partition of Bengal and when ?
A. Lord Curzon in the year 1905.
2. Which popular theatre form was used to spread nationalist feeling ?
A. Jatra
3. What is 'Komagata Maru' incident ?
A. Passengers of the ship Komagata Maru to Canada were turned away by the Canadian Government,
when they reached Calcutta in 1914, passengers clashed with police and 22 people were killed.
4. Annie Besant and Tilak started which movement?
A. Home Rule Movement.
5. What is the importance of Baisakhi Day of 1919 in National Movement ?
A. On this day on the gathering at Jalianwalla Bagh General Dyer and his men fire at the crowd of
unarmed and helpless people leaving 378 dead.
6. On which specific points Non-coperation movement was inititated ?
A. Khilafat wrong, Punjab wrong and Swaraj.
7. When and by whom Swaraj party was founded ?
A. It was founded in 1923 by Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das.
8. Give full form of HSRA ?
A. Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.

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22
The world in 1900 : The 19th Century Legacy
Indroduction
When we learn about the past through books, films, television or the stories told by older people,
we notice the differences and similarities between other times and our own. We are aware that certain
material things and technologies that we use today either did not exist in 1900 or were used only by
small numbers of people. Yet in terms of the organisations of human life we have much in common with
the people of the year 1900. This unit will discuss how people in various parts of the world lived in
1900.

Objectives

Visualize population patterns indifferent regions of the world in 1900 ;

define capitalist industrilization and understand its social consequences;

explain relations of colonialism;

Visualize modern patterns of energy and resources usage ;

analyse the emegence of modern political idealogies and mobalizations.

Essay Questions
1. In what ways did industrialization alter ancient patterns of human existence ?
A. Industrialisation took place in Europe during the early 19th century. This process of industrialisation
began with bringing together of large number of labourers near areas of energy and resources to
produce metals, and to operate machines that turned out finished products at fast face. The
capitalist industrilisation took orgin when huge amount of money required for industry to operate
on a big scale.
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Capitalism means "accumulated wealth and property and those people who have capital" are
called capitalists. Capitalists are directly involved in industrial production, trading, administration
and Banking.
The wealth and property of capitalists came from trade and commerce of small owners. On
the other hand were people - men, women and children who worked in factories and who did
not have any property and were dependent for their livilihood on their labour for which they got
wages. Between them there were members of the salaried middle classes; teachers, doctors,
Engineers, clerks, and in other services.
By 1900 Asian and African cities like Bombay, Shanghai and Dakha also contained large number
of businessmen, shop keepers and other sections of middle classes, as well as industrial wage
labourers. But population here was greatly out numbered by landlords, peasants and agricultrual
labourers in the surrounding villages.
It is also important to note that by 1900 many European countries had maintained colonies under
which many people came under their control.
2. How did industrialization change patterns of global production and trade ?
A. Industrial revolution in Europe brought remarkable changes not only in Europe but also elsewhere
in the world. Most industrialized nations of the Europe in 1900 directly ruled, or controlled
economically, territories a beyond their own boundaries.
The rulers of colonial state tried to prevent Asians and Africans from acquiring advanced
technologies and carefully controlled railways and telegraph networks in their colonies. They
also came down heavily on aspirations for freedom. They replaced the earlier languages of
administration with their own. They also initiated some educational policies with the aim of
assimilating some sections of colonial society with the foreign rule. They also prepared some
sections of them for manning the colonial administration at lower levels. They practiced policies
of devide and rule, restricted the development of modern economic activity and used education
for purpose of creating a social gulf between those educated in the colonial language and those in
the local language.
The impact of colonialism and capitalist penetration altered social relations in the colonies.
They altered the pattern of agriculture to shift its priorities towards the cash crops by which they
made trade.
For example, Indian peasants produced opium that British enterpreneurs exparted to china.
Indian merchants too had a hand in this. In other words both production and trade were geared
to the interest of the ruling power.
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As a result larger number of people around the world came to produce things that they did not
themselves consume, while they consumed things produced else where by others.
Thus the in equalities which riped during the 20th century had the root in 19th century.
3. Explain the main ideologies in the developed and under developed World ?
A. The World of 1900 witnessed a tremendous growth of ideas and competing ideologies or various
sets of political ideas about life and organization of Societies. This was because of result of
economic and social transformations connected with industrialization. By 1900 print media in
western Countries provided information to large number of people, but also shaping their political
views.
Liberalism : It as a set of ideas began to emerge more than 300 years ago when nobles and
people of substantial property struggled to regulate the powers of the rulers.
Liberals believed that individuals have some 'natural rights' and believed that government and
rulers must be made to respect these rights. They thought that formulation of public laws and
constitutions were the best method of creating and enforcing these rights.
Conservatism : They came mainly from land owning and other sections (land - owing classes or
merchants and traders who enjoyed state protection and monopolies which were lost due to free
trade policies) of society who did not like the abolition of privileges and restrictions which
benefited them. For them the whole idea of natural rights were disruptive. To them social order
and stability were more importnat than equality.
Socialism : Socialists represented the interests of the working people and argued that Labour
should be given due importance in the state and should fight for 'egalitarian society'. They were
impressed by Karlmarx and thought that workers would never be fairly rewarded under the
capitalist system. This would happen only if all enerterprises were commonly owned i.e. if the
state owned them for the equal benefit of all.
Marx said that, in a Communist Society when all means of production were held in common and
were not private property, each person will contribute according to his/her capacity and receive
according to her/his needs. Social Justice therefore required abolition of private property. Classes
would also cease to exist 'egalitarian Society'.
Imperialism : It means the process of acquiring or maintaining colonies, territories dependent
on the 'parent' country. i.e. the idealogy of acquiring empire.

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Many inhabitants of the industrialized countries believed that colonialism was beneficial for the
countries that were being ruled and that the inhabitants of the 'back word' countries were being
'civilised' by foreign rule.
Nationalism : Nationalism and national liberation ideology was an explosive force in the world
of the Ninteenth and twentieth centuries. In all parts of the world in 1900 Nationalism filourished
and became importnat forms of mobilization of people. Popular participation in government was
also an important aspect of national movements.
Protest against Colonial policies of the imperialistic - economic exploitation and denial of self
governance - formed the basis for national liberation movements all over the world. National
freedom struggles of the twentieth century thus engaged with ideas about democracy and also
with ideas of how national wealth should be produced and shared. Nationalism and socialism
were to have an explosive impact within 'developed' Europe as well as in the 'Undeveloped'
colonial world.

Short type Questions

1. What are natural Rights ?
A. According to Humanists, every human being has natural Rights along with live. They are right to
resist oppression, accumulate property, freedom of religion, right to express their openions freely
etc.
2. Bourgeoisie : The social class including people with substantial property in the form of the
houses, factories, or bank accounts - capitalists.
3. Print Culture : Means the pattern of Communication and knowledge based on printed texts,
such as books and newspapers, that can be replicated quickly through mechanical means. Print
culture depends on literacy and cheepness of technology of printing. By 1850 print culture
involved tens of millions of people around the world; most of them intowns and cities.
4. C.E. - Common Era. The year one being the year following the birth of Jesus Christ. The
countries in the world follow different calenders, but the 'Christian' calender is the one most
widely used around the world today. 'Twentieth Century' means the century of the 1900s.
VI. One Ward Answer
1. Why was there a significant 'literacy gap' between urban Centers and rural areas by
1900 ?
A. High level of primary school attendance and large circulation of news - papers.

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2. Why were liberals in principle opposed to government regulation of economic activity ?

A. Liberals believed that individuals pursuing self - interest in economic activity would serve the
good of all better than a powerful regulating authority (goverment).
3. Give one example of a country in 1900 where Marxists were very successful in mobalizing
working class people ?
A. Germany, where the 'Social Democratic Workers' party won most votes from the working classes.

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23
World War 1 and the Russian Revolution
Indroduction
The first World War of 1914 - 18, was one of the greatest disasters that ever before to the man
kind. It was not an unexpected tragedy because during 40 years preceding its outbreak, the developments
had been dragging Europe towards a world war. The greatest war that witnessed the first quarter of the
20th Century was the first World War.
World War 1 and Russian Revolution of 1917 were consequences of the developments and
chain of events in the second helf of the 19th and the beginning of 20th century. Both were very
significant experence involving millions of people : they influenced and shaped the 20th century.

Objectives

Identify some of the factors which caused the war in 1914 and discuss whether such factors of
conflict exist in the world today;

Explain why the revolution became possible in the Russian Empire of 1917 and not in any other
country;

analyse the immediate and long term consequences of both the war and the Russia Revolution
and

discuss the meaning of the war and the Revolution and its impact on India.

Essay Questions
1. What are the Causes for the first World War ?
A. The first World war was started on 1 August 1914, when England Joined hands with France
and Russia against Germany. The countries which were involved in the war faught in different
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groups. They were the Triple alliance and Triple entente Countries. It was not a sudden
occurance but it was the result of rivalry among several European Countries. The main Causes
are
1. Aggressive nationalism was the main cause of the war. The national spirit of nationalism gave
rise to the national Chauvinism which created an un healwhy relations between the European
powers. There existed a deep-seated antagonism between Teotonic races and the slow
races. The rivaslry between Germany France regarding Alsace and Corraine, became a
bone of contention.
2. Militarism was another causes of the war. Big - armies, and large navies protended ill to the
peace of Europe. The military and novel officers dominated the affairs of the countries. The
undue importance given to the army made the military generals very powerful which was not
conducive to the maintanance of peace.
3. Secret Alliances : The Vertical division of Europe into secret Alliances was brought the Europeans in to the disatrous world war. 'Triple Alliance' consits of Germany, Austria and Italy
and Triple Entente consists of England, France and Rusia Came into existance. Thus the
Alliances devided the Europe into two camps. This deep seated rivalries untimately brought
out the world war. The system of secred alliances was the causes of modern times.
4. The role of Germany : German's chauvnism and German Kaiser william arrogant and haughty
mentality played a vital role the in outbreak of first world war. Keaiser believed in the philosophy of German Leadership in the world. His attitude towards England resulted in the
ruination of Germany.
5. Economic imperialism of European states led to international confliicts. The desire to capture
markets and the need for raw materials resulted in resentment and bitterness. Germany viewd
with England in capturing colonies. England and france contested for colonial supremacy. As
a result, the war followed.
6. Eastern problem : The Balkan problem was complicated by many issues. They were a Turkish misrule, rivalry between greece, Serbia and Bulgaria for the control of Macedonia, Pan
slavism and the urge of the Austrians and Germans to move towards the East. The Balkan
Crisis led to global conflict of 1914-18 AD.
7. Over Bosnia and Hergegovina : They we given to Austria in the Berlin congress of 1878.
Which she annexed in 1908. Serbia strongly protested against the unilateral action of Austria.
The rivalry between Austria and Serbia burst into the world war.

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8. Immediate Causes : The murder of Archduke Feridnand a heir to the Austrian shrone at
sirajovo by a serbian youth was the immediate cause for the war. Asustria took the advantage of situation to crush serbia. Thus the war started in the Balkan peninsula and it spread to
the entire continent and the world.
2. Main Causes for the out break of the Bolshwike Revolution of 1917 AD ?
A. The Russian Revolution was also called Balswick Revolution or October Revolution or Communist
Revolution. It is milestone in the history of man kind. It has its effects not only on Russian but
also on the whole world. The revolution was inspired by the principles of Marx and Frederick
Engels. The Russian Revolution relieved Russia from the autocratic rule of Romanoves.
Causes of the Revolution :
1. The foremost cause of the Revolution was the autocratic rule of the czars. People were deprived
of civil and political lights.
2. The deterioted Socio -economic condition added to the political autocracy. Eighty percent of
the Soviet population depended on agriculture was dominated by feudal lords. The crop was
meagre, famines became frequent. As there was no support from government, peasant tooks
loan from the money lenders called 'kulaks' for higher rate of interest. As the peasants failed to
pay back debts, atrocities of kulaks on peasants increased. The marxiest ideas influenced the
working class. The mounting dissatisfaction and anger of common people, peasants, workers
prepared them for Revolution.
3. Industrial Revolution : New problems that emerged as a result of Industrial Revolution. Though
revolution started in Russia much later, as a result of it along with capatalist class, working class
evolved in Russia., Their number increased by leaps and bounds. The wages were low and
working hours were high. The families of the workers lived in most unhygenic and wretched
condition. The socialist ideas that spread in Russia under these circumstances, infused consiousness
among workers, consolidated them and ignited them to revolt.
4. Intellectual Causes : Writers and intellectuals played an important role in creating consciousness
among people. They have succeeded in bringing out the autocracy of czars, corruption of the
government and the exploitation of the capatalist class and made the people pro-evolutionary.
Amongest them LeoTolstoy, Maxim Gorky, Ivan Turginev and Anton Chekhor were the most
prominent. The provided the spark that every revolution needs.
5. Influence of political parties : Various political parties played a major role in the revolution.
Nihilists under the leadershipp of Michael Bakunin opined that all the existing institutions in Russia
were rotten and they to be destroyed. The socialists split in to two groups. Menshevics were
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moderates who aimed at gradual change and believed in peaceful means. Bolshevics with extremist
views and they believed in voilent means. They wanted radical changes in the society.
6. Revolution of 1905 : Priar to Bolshevic Revolution of 1917. Revolution of 1905 occured. The
workers at St.petersburg broke into riots on March 11, 1917 under the leadership of father
Gapon. Emperor not only rejected to meet them but also resorted to suppression. Many workers
dies which came to be known as Bloody Sunday. Emperor issued on oct 30, 1905 what is
known as 'Bulguin Constitution'. This is called the Revolution of the 1905. According to it
'Duma' was the established, which elected 'Kerensky' the Menshevik leader was made the dictator.
7. November Revolution : The moderate under the leadership of Keronsky did not satisfied the
majority section of Russian people. Taking advantage of the civil liberties, Lenin and Stalin
returned to Rusia and started organising people for another revolt. In July, 1917 there was an
attempted armed rising by the Bolshivics but it was suppressed.
In October 1917 Lenin had a Cospiratory meeting and on 7th the revolution took Nace. The
kerensky government was overthrown and the communist regime in Russia stated under the
leader ship of Lenin Whose original name was Vlalini ill with Ulvinov.

Short Essays
1. Fourteen points of Woodrow Wilson ?
A. Woodrow wilson, the president of America desired that the treaty of versailes should be drafted
on the basis of Fourteen points. The important among them are
1. to establish an institution for establishing peace in world
2. to establish European states on the basis of nationalism
3. to have a liberal attitulde towards defeated countries.
4. to maintaint the disarmament policy
5. not to have secret alliances and secret agreements
6. providing the right of national self determination to all.
7. Removing restrictions if international commerce
8. Reducing economic inequalities among countries.
2. Describe about League of Nations ?
A. The scale of the year 1914-18, the magnitude of the losses it caused, the suffering of the civil
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population in the war effected areas, the immense financial burden imposed upon victors exited
the minds of states man to think about the steps to be taken to prevent its repetetion. Thus the
League of Nations came in to exist in 1920.
The feague of Nations operated through five agencies. The Assembly, League Council, the
secratarict, The International Labour Organisation and The court of International Justice.
The purpose of this league was to ensure the political independance and territorial integrity of all
the Nations. The member states of the league should resolve their disputes through peaceful
means. In short, it was to prevent recurrence of war, and to promote world peace.
The league did accomplish a greatdeal during its existence for about twenty years. It solved
political, economic and social problems in a peaceful manner. It examined 40 disputes in all.
Although the league failed in the field of disarmament, it achived significant results.
3. Explain the term "sick man of Europe" ?
A. The ottovan Empire of Turkey was known as the 'Sick man of Europe' in 19th and 20th
centuries. The empire, which terorised Europe and Central Asia in the medieval period, started
declining from the 18th Century. By the 19th century, the position of Turkey was condiderable
weak. Even small European states could humiliate Turkey. Therefore Turkey was called as the
'Sick man of Europe'.
IV.

One Mark Questions

1. What were the new weapons used in World war I ?

A. Airplanes, tanks and submarines.
2. What is meant by abolition of private property ?
A. Means of production owned by the state.
3. Capitalism : A system based on rights of property and market; and therefore also private profit,
in which the owner of property derives his/her profit from the expliutation of labour of those who
work on it.
4. Socialism : A system based on state ownership of means of production, so that the labour of
those who work on it can not be exploited for the private benefit of a few, and in which the
political system is such in which the interests of the working people predominate.

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24
The Inter - War period and the Second World War
Indroduction
The first half of the twentieth Century is known in history as the era of world wars. The first
world war was considered by many to be 'a war to end all wars'. Yet, the developments during the next
twenty years, led the world into another war which was more destructive, more widespread and much
larger in scale. In order to under stand the reasons for the outbreak of this war, we need to study the
inter war period from 1919 to 1939.
The end of the first world war did not end the rivalries between to European nation. Even the
peace Treatise failed to ensure peace. The treatise were harsh on the defeated countries and thus
sowed the seeds of future conflicts. They even failed to satisfy the territorial ambitions of some of the
allied powers. In many of the countries strong dictators rose to power and spread the message of
national chaunism. The most important fact was that, imperialism the basic cause of war, was not
destroyed.
The Russian Revolution also divided the world in to two groups - those who favored the revolution
and those who fear effects. They considered socialism to be a threat to their social and economic
systems. Soviet Russia was also anti - imperialist and supported the freedom struggles in the colonies
of Asia and Africa. This chapter will till you how all these combined to create conditions for another
war.

Objectives

Analyze the peace treaties and the changed map of Europe;

trace the rise of totalitarian regimes - Italy, Germany and Japan ;

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explain effects of Great Depression on USA, USSR and Europe;

Correlate aggression and appeasment and

explain the course of War.

Essay Questions
1. Give an account of provisions of the Treaty of Versailes ?
A. The first world was ended with the signing of Germans in paris at Versailes on 11th Nov, 1919.
The important leaders at conference were the U.S. president Wilson, the British prime Minister
Lloyd George. French Prime Minister George Clemencean, Orlando of Italy and General smuts
of South Africa.
The peace treaties were to be based on Wilsons fourteen points, Which promised to bring in an
era of peace, freedom, democracy, self determination. But those points were ignored when the
allies signed the Treaty of versailes with Germany.
1. Germany was blamed as the agresser and forced to accept responsibility for the damage
caused by two Allies during war.
2. Germany was to pay $6,600 million as compensation to them.
3. The German coal mining area in saar valley was put under the control of the league for 15
years, while the mines were transferred to France for that period.
4. The newly created state of Poland was provided a carridor which gave her an outlet to the
Baltic Sea. This corridor is East Prussia from the rest of Germany. The port of Danzig, which
lay in the corridor, was made a free city.
5. The streangth of the German army was to be limited to 1,00,000 and it was not permitted to
have any air force or navy.
6. Germany's colanial possessions were divided amongst the victorious powers.
Germany was made to sign this treaty under threat of invasion. Infact no German representative was invited to attend the conference. So the Germans called it a "dictated Peace".
2. What were the aims of the Nazi policies ?
A. The term "Nazism" was derived from the name of the party which Hitler founded in 1921. "
The National socialist German workers party", for short it is Niziparty. The main philosophy
of Nazism is depicted in his book "MEINKAMPH (my struggle)".

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The first world war put a full stop to monarchy in Germany and the emergence of a republic
under Hulbert was failure to please the Germans. These failures gave birth to Nazism.

Adolf Hilter powerful speeches and his organizational skills made him the leader of the
Naziparty. Like fascists, it had its own army called the 'starm troopers' and 'Brown shirts'.

Hitler began his political career as political agitator after the war. In 1923 he made an unsuccess
ful attempt at coupdetat and was sent to the prison. In 1930, Hitler party secured 230 seats.
but actually Hitler became chancellor on 30th January 1933.

Success of Nazi party : Hilter was an excelldent orator, Eloquent speech was his innate
traite.
Hitler admonished the people that Germany cannot be developed unless a strong man administered in it.
Hitler's main attack was on the treaty of 'Versails' which humiliated Germans. He won the
hearts of the lower middle class.
Hilter turned his party into militant organisation.
He strengthned his party network by providing all important posts to Nazis.
He brutally prosecuted the Jews as they treated as traitors during world war 1.
Trade Unions were dissolved and suppressed the Socialists and Communists.
He solved the economic problems such as inflation and unemployment by constructing plants
and industries.
Hitler glorified wars and preached that the Germans race was superior.
He withdrawned from League of Nations and waged wars which ultimatly brought Germany
in to Second world war.

3. Trace the rise of Fascism of Mussolini in Italy ?

Benito Mussolini, the originator of the idealogy of fascism was born in 1883 to an iron smith.
He edited the 'Avanthi' a social magzine and 'popolod Italia' and propagated his political
ideas. He had a chequered career. At different times he had been teacher, a soldier, a fascist,
a Journalist and social agitator.

He was appointed in1923 as the Prime Minister by Victor Emmanuel III the king of Italy.

Achivements of Fascist Regime : It was one of order and decipline. The state under took
number of public works of utility. The Reign of Mussolini is known for all round development of
Italy.
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Mussolini's greater achievement was the reconciliation brought by him between the church
and and the state.

By the treaty of Lousanne made with Turkey he increased control over the Meditorrean and
Dodacanese and Redejh from Turkey.

He recovered Fiume from Yugoslevia in 1924 after making a treaty with her.

Encouraged by Japaneese attack on Manchuria, Mussolino invaded Abyssiniea which was

obstructed by League and then left League of Nations.

Mussolini, like Hitler helped General Franco of Spain to set up a fascist rule. In october
1935 Italy attacked abbysinia although the attack evoked criticism from many countries, Italy
ultimately occupied it in May 1936. This become major cause for the outbroker of world
war II.

Sailent Features of Fascism : Fascists behaved in actions rathan than words. Their motto was
explained thus "every thing with in the state, nothing against state, nothing out side the state".

Fascists believed in an aggressive imperialism. According to Mussolini "War is to a nation

what meternity is to a woman".

They believed in one party system in the country. All other parties were banned against fascist
party.

They had no faith in democracy, Communism, Liberalism and Socialism etc.

Fascists also opposed to individualism. They put restrictions on the fundamental rights, freedom of holding meetings, speech and expression.

They also put restrictions on press.

But the king was powerless and Mussoline became all powerful. Thus, Mussolini became the
Prime Minister of Italy by adopting a combination of methods like parliamentary, voilent and
pressure tacties.

4. Describe the events which led to the out break of world war - 11 ?
A. Within twenty years of conclusion of the first world war, the second world war was started,
involving directly or indirectly, almost all the countries in the world. This war caused in calculable lakhs of life and property in the world. Though the war brokout in 1939, the Europeon
nations had been drifting towards war for almost a decade. The roots of war lie deep in the
past.

The Treaty of versailes. In this treaty itself the poison of war of 1939 was hidden. The
treaty was a great humilitation to Germany. Due to the treaty Germany was crippled economically and militarily.
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Failure of democracies : It has been seen that democracy as system failed to take firm
roots in Germany and Italy. In a way, this failure was a factor that contributed the outbreak of
the war. The weimar Republic in Germany was a short lived affair. In Italy, after an initial
flourish, democracy collapsed, yielding the place to totalitarian dictatorship, similar to that in
Germany in many ways.

Failure of League : The League of Nations, formed in fulfillment of one of the 14 principles
of wilson, proved itself unequal to the task. The league failed to protect the territorial integrity
and independence of small and big nations of the world. Similarly the League was also failed
to achieve the object of disarmament.

Inflaming of Nationalism by Fascists and Nazis : The dictators cleverly exploited the
national resentment at the verrailes Treaty. They inspired nationalists with the promises of
reviving of the glories of old regions. Adolf Hitler, by a well - orchestrated propaganda, he
infused among the Germans ethnocentric nationalism, pan- Germanism, imperialism and anti Semetism.

Idealogical Conflicts : Countries like Germany, Italy and Japan represented dictatarship
where as Great Britain, France and America represented Democracy. Two idealogies differed in spiritual, territorial and economic matters besides other matters. On the eve of World
War II, the world was divided into two armed camps and a conflict was sure to take place in
these circum stances. Thus Rome-Berlin - Tokyo Axis and Allied powers came in to existance.

Militarism : The Teaty of Versailes disarmed the Germany. It was expectd that the other
powers to would do the same. But no other European Countries were ready to disarm. The
military preperations of the Axis powers forced the democratic states to arm themselves.
After all militarism was found to result in an armed conflict.

German aggression : Since Hitler Came to power, began to act to a set plan in order to
realise his goal of annexing all the Germany populated territories such as Austria, Danzing,
Memel and Sudeton Land to Germany. His Conquests created much havoc in the European
Countries. His agreement with Soviet Russia against his principle was the prime example for
vested interests.
When Hitler attack on poland, Britian and France realised the situation. They decided not to
allow themselves as silent spectators. Soon Britain declared war on Germany and France
allowed the track on the same day. Thus the second world war broken out in a more dangerous way.

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Short Questions

Jimmerian telegram : This was one of the event which was responsible for America to
enter into first world war. When America had been supporting allied countries against central
powers, Germany tried to brought Mexico into the war against U.S.A. So that Germany
could make a counter against USA in American cortinent itself. With that intention, Germany
sent a telegram which was leaked out at Jemmerian by U.S.A which led the U.S.A. to interfere in the first world war.

One Mark Questions

1. Anschluss refers to the union of Austria and Germany
2. The Munich pact allowed Germany to occupy Sudeten land.
3. The popular Front government in spain consisted of socialists, Communists and antifacists.
4. The Anti Commintern pact was signed between Germany, Italy and Japan.
5. Operation See-Lion was possible only if the invation of poland.
6. What is operation Barbarosa ?
A. This was launched on Soviet Union on June 22, 1941 without a formal declaration of war by
Hitler.
7. Commintern : The Communist international set up by the Russian Communist party With member
ship of all communists parties of the world with the purpose of bringing about revolutions all over
the world.
8. Holo Caust : The systematic killing of over 6 million European Jews by the Nazis during and
after second world war.
9. Imperialism : A policy of acquiring and administering colonies or dependent territories e.g.
India was a colony of imperialist of Britain.
10. Totalitarian regime : A system of Government, in which there is a single party dictorship, the
state is all powerful and the individual is subordinated to the state.
11. Cash and Carry policy in which any country can have either men or meterial by paying cash to
the USA.
12. Lend and Lease system. This is followed by U.S.A. during second world war. According to
it America was ready to supply meterial on the basis of Loan.

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25
The Cold War Era and its Politics
Introduction
After the second World War, the allies of the war the USA and Soviet Russia - were engaged in
what has been described as the 'Cold War'. During the war the two countries were on the same side
with Britain and france to defeat the fascist dictators and the imperialist Japan. The two Countries also
signed a five - year non-aggression treaty in 1941, and even as late as Yalta Conference in Feb, 1945
there was some harmony among the two countries. But soon the situation changed Completely and the
USA and the Soviet Union Stood against each other in a 'War like situation' which has generally been
described as the Cold War. The phrase was first used by Bernaurd Baruch and walter Lipmen.

Objectives

describe the meaning of the Cold War;

discuss the factors responsible for the cold war;

point out different issues of struggle;

List the phases of the cold war; and

Compare the Cold war with new Cold War.

Essay Questions
1. What do you understand by cold war ? Trace its factors responsible for the Cold War ?
A. The cold war has been described as "peace time unarmed warfare" between new Super powers.
It was a 'diplomatic war' and not an armed Conflict between the super powers and was based
on idealogical hatred and political distrust. Flemming described the Cold War as "a war that is
fought not in the battle field, but in the minds of men; one tries to control the mind of others".
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The cold war was very different from an open war where the enemies were well known
and the war is fought in the open. In the cold war, war was never declared and diplomatic
relations were maintained among the countries. The cold war did involve some military
confrontation and loss of life, but it was also a psychological warfare aimed at reducing the
enymy's area of influence and increasing the number of one's camp followers.
It was a bi-polar confrontation between the U.S.A. and the USSR but it also involved allies of
the two super powers.
Causes of the Cold war :

The main reason for tension between the two blocks was each one had a different ideology.
The soviet block supported the socialist philosophy while the American block prepared capitalist democracies.

Russian imperialism : was clearly evident in its occupation of many European countries
such as Baltic states, Eastern European States. China became communist. The Comintern
(communist international) was formed in 1947 and became an instrument of spreading Communism in the world.

Communist Revolts : Fearing Russian expansion, there were communist revolts in Greek
and Turkey. Taking advantage of it, America intervened and provided financial help to these
countries.

Problem of Co-existance : Both the blocks realised that the spirit of reconciliation and Coexistence was not possible. They were apprehensive of aggressive designs of the other.
Therefore mutual fear and suspecion led to intensification of cold war between America and
Russia.

2. Describe the Course of Cold War ?

The Cold War started immediately after the Second World War; though signs of it had
started appearing during the war. As a result of the prevailing tension between the two blocks,
a number of plans, schemes and defence treaties were formed. The cold war can be devided
into three phase i.e. first phase, Second phase and detent.

Truman Doctrine (1947) : The American president Truman Doctrine was the beginning of
Cold War. According to it 'America would contain the spread of Communism'.

Marshall Plan (1947) : Russia decided to take the advantage of the preveiling economic
break drawn after second World War in Europe. In order to stop the spread of Communism,
Marshal, the finance secratacy of USA provided financial aid to devastated countries of
Europe. As a result financial condition improved in Europe.
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Moltov Plan : It was introduced by Moltov, the foreign Minister of Russia as a counter to
Marshall plan. As a result of this plan. Russia could retain it's hold over the countries of
Eastern Europe.

Cominform : It was formed by communist countries of western Europe. It is a Communist

Information Bureau. It propagated that America was an imperialist and a war monger and
Russia was committed to peace and democracy in the world.

Berlin Blocade (1948) : Germany after the war suffered division into two seperate Countries. The city of Berlin also devided into four parts under the control of the Allies and Russia.
Russia had cutoff contacts between the military stations and West Germany and city of Berlin
came under blocade. As a result the soldiers of the allies faced several threats but it was
ended after a period of ten Months. This was known in the history as "Berlin Blocade".

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 1949): America and the other western powers
realised that there would be danger from Russian Communism. There fore they formed a
defence orgnisation NATO, on 4th April in 1949. America, Canada, Britain, France,
Holland, Belgium, west Germany, Denmark, Norwary and Finland were its members.

Anzus pact (1951) : It was concluded among America, Austratia and Newzeland. Preventing the Communism in pacific region was its motto.

SEATO (1954) : South East Asia. Treaty Organisation was formed in 1954 among philipines,
Newzeland, Australia, france, Britain and America.

CENTO (1955) : The central Treaty organisation was formed on 24 feb, 1955 among Iran,
Iraq, America, Britain and pakistan to keep away the influence of communism in the middle
East.

Warsaw Pact (1955) : Rassia was pretended that America formed defence treaties all around
him. It was a great danger for his survival. Therefore, the Warsaw Pact was concluded with
Poland, Rumania, Bulgaria, East Germany, Mongolia and Czecho slovakia.

U2 incident : It was a part of the cold war between two blocks. The American aircraft called
U2 entered into the Russian territories to know the military secrets on 1, may, 1960. The Russians
shot down the aircraft and imprisoned the pilot. It created much echo for some time.
Cold War Receding (or) detente : America and Russia tried to weaken each other for about
two decades. At last both of them realised that if another war takes place, the entire world
would be destroyed by latest atomic bomb technology. There fore the seriousness of the cold
war is gradually receding Various attempts were made by the major powers to reduce tension in
the world. The Geneva agreement, the Geneva summit of 1955, Kennedy and Khrucheev talks
in 1961 for reducing nuclear weapon and Gorbachev's preaching of peace and Nixon theory
Detente are the important among them.
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Short Questions
1. Which were the news services set up by the USA and USSR ?
A. Voice of America and Radio Moscow.
2. Which leader coined the famous term 'Iron Curtain' ?
A. Winston Churchill.
3. What does PRC stand for ?
A. People's Republic China
4. When did Berlin wall Collapse ?
A. 1989 - 90
5. What was Detente ? Who was it's author ?
A. 'Detente' was term used for relaxation in East - West conflict. President Nixon of America was
its author.
6. What was NPT ?
A. Nuclear Non proliferation Treaty.
7. What was SALT I expansion ?
A. Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1.
8. What was SDI ?
A. Strategic Defence Initiative.
9. What was 'glasnost' and peristoika' ?
A. Openness and restructuring.
10. Which symbol symbolized the end of the Cold War ?
A. Collaps of the Berlin Wall.
11. Ostpolitik : A policy initiated by the government of West Germany which meant 'a policy for
the East'.
12. Ossification Phase : The initial phase of the Cold War during 1945-47. After this phase the
Cold War began in right earnest.

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26
National Liberation Movements,
Decolonization and Development,
post - 1948 Era
Introduction
During the twentieth century, millions of people living under colinial rule were directly or indirectly involved in 'National freedom' struggles. Between 1945 and 1980 nearly all parts of Asia,
Africa, Occanea (Islands in the western Pacific Ocean). The caribbean that had been under European,
Japanese and American rule won freedom and organised themselves into new, independent nationstates.
During the second world war the imperialist and expansionist goals of the defeated powers,
Germany and Japan were thwarted. Even the victorious colonial powers Great Britain, France and the
Netherlands, were unable to keep their imperial commitments and their leaders faced growing pressure
to 'decolonise' not only from their colonial subjects and national citizens but also from the two new
super powers the U.S.A and the U.S.S.R. Most of West Africa, the phillippines and some other places
achieved independence without much violence after 1945. In Algeria, Indochina, Malaya, Angola,
Mozambique and other places only years of armed struggle by freedom movements led to national
independence.
Political indepedence did not immediately bring all the benefits of calonised people had dreamed
of New states faced problems of economic development and modernisation that they needed to solve
in order to resist 'neocolonialism'. Standards of living in most of new independent states did not match
those of 'developed' countries of western Europe and North America and many people today argue
that forms of colonial domination or old patterns of exploitation still remain in the world of formally

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independent nation - states.

Objectives
After studying this lesson, you will be able to

learn about some national freedom movements;

Analyse global political forces affecting the decolonisation process;

Discuss relationships of dependency and inequality in the post - colonial world and

identify some of the problems of national development and some proposed solutions.

Essay questions
1. How did the 'old' modern revolutions (of the USA and France) and the Russian Revolution of 1917 influenced the national Liberation of movement of the twentieth century?
A. Leaders of National movements of 20th century were inspired by earlier examples of National Liberation and development which had introduced the modern idea of citizenship where
the citizens of nation should enjoy equal rights and responsibilities.

American Revolution of 1776 - 83 : This was one of the three great Revolutions of man
kind. It was followed by the emergence of stable, democratic governing institutions in the
new United State of America. And also gradual extension of rights of full citizenship to all
members of the American nation. It was given the written constitution first time in the world.

There were other reasons why people under colonial rule admired the American freedom
struggle. Americans developed the world's economy between 1865 and 1950 based on
capitalist agriculture, heavy industry and mass consumer spending. Many people around the
world believed that the USA was sincerely committed to self governance through democracy
on a global scale, and that it would act as a force against colonialism, perheps by directly
assisting colonial subjects in their national liberation struggles.

French Revolution of 1789 : It was the first kind of revolution where the Common man,
middle class intellegentia took initiative mainly. The revolutionaries launched a struggle to
spread 'Universal principles' of Liberty, Equality and Freternity to other parts of Europe. This
inspired people in Europe and in the Fench colonies to revolt against French domination in the
name of these principles. The heroic efferts made by French people against Bourban king
16th Lovie encouraged many a Common people.
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Russian Revolution of 1917 : It had a huge global impact. The Bolsheviks argued that
different 'nationalities' all over the world have a right to independence and decide their own
future. It also presented an alternative model of rapd social and economic 'development' different
from that of the capitalist western states.

The soviet leaders gave 'moral' and meterial support to politically and economically - dominated Countries and colonies. It taught the World that small peasants and proletarians shared
the same interest and needed to cooperate to defeat the bourgeoise and the imperialists.
Some colonial leaders visited USSR to study and learn to organise national Struggles.

Thus these the great revolutions became exemplary to many a national leaders of the globe.
2. Why is it fair to say that the chinese revolution of the 20th century has been the greatest in history ?
A. There are several revolutions which had tremendous impact on human being which includes
Russian Revolution, chinese revolution, Indian freedom struggle etc. Among these the chinese
movement led by Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Deng Xiaping etc was knowned as 'the greatest
revolution in History. Because of the following reasons.

Chinese autocratic system headed by an emperor was formally abolished and replaced by a
republic in 1911-12. The Republic was failed to throw off foreign (Japaneese) domination.

Communists led by Mao and others faught against the chinese nationalists, and both groups
tried to expel the Japaneese who excercised territorial and economic a control since 1890.

Therefore chinease Communists launch an agitation which not only forced the Japaneese
French and British out of the most of the 'national territory' by 1949, but also their ooponents
the Goumindang, chineese 'Nationalists; to the island of Farmosa, present day Taiwan - across
a narrow strait from mainland china.

Hong Kong remained a British Crown colony untill 1997. Their ultimate goal remained to
reunify Taiwan with chinese main land, which became a seperate state.

Since 1945 china transforming itself from a peasant majority society dominated by native
elites in to a Socialist state called the People's Republic of China (P.R.C).

A Sociolist state meant state owned industrial enterprises and a policy leading to collectivized
agriculture, with land owned collectively.

However, since 1980, the Communist China people's Party leadership has promoted free
enterprise in manufacturing and Commercial activities. People's Republic China since 1980
has welcomed foreign investment from Countries that are china's idealogical opponents.
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3. What international institutions have been invented to supposedly equalize global trade
and development ?
A. During and after the second world war, the leaders of the Great powers recognised more
equitable global distribution of wealth as essential to world peace and stability. Thus the
global institutions like the U.N.O. the International Monetary fund and the world bank were
established in order to manage conflicts over wealth production and access to trade.

The united Nations organisation was established in 1945, since then the UNO has been
relentlessly struggling to prevent war in the world, preserve peace and achieve economic
socials and scientific development of mankind.

International Monetary Fund (I.M.F) has been established to assist the developing Countries.
The IMF has required governments receiving loans to reduce their deficits, which those governments have often had to do by reducing 'Social Spending'. The I.M.F has also advised
governments to devalue their currencies, which has made their export products cheaper in the
world market.

Short Questions
1. Non-Aligned Movement :
A. The world had been devided into two blocks after second world war and USSR and USA
emerged as Super powers. The clash between two blocks was known as cold war where they
did not directly fight each other (hot war) but instead tried to oppose each other's expansion
through proxy wars. In addition to both, another international organisation known as NonAliegned Movement (NAM) came into existance. NAM meant not to alligned to either of the
block and maintain independence. NAM states include India, Egypt cuba and Indonasia. Despite
pledges of non-alignement some NAM states did become 'dependent' on one or another of the
Superpowers in matters of military defence or in trade and economic exchange.
2. Third World : A term invented during the early 1950s to indicate former colonial territories in
need of 'development'. The first world refers to wealthey capitalist or non socialist states including
UK, USA and Canada. Second World refers (unitl 1990) to the USSR and other Eueopean
states following its path of socialist development : for example Poland and Bulgeria. Third World
Countries which were members neither first world nor Second World but developing Countries.
For example India.

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3. Modernization theory : A theory of economic development introduced during 1950s by

American economist W.W. Rostow. Rostow beleived that economic development and
modernization would involve industrilization, but that this would be preceded by capitalist
agricultural development. Roughly speaking, Britain, the USA and Germany were the examples
to be followed by Third world Countries in their development.
4. Market Socialism : Term used by leaders of the People's Republic china (P.R.C) to describe
their mixed or combined strategy of development since 1980. Instead of strong central planning
and state ownership of resources throughout the country as happened before 1980, capitalists
are allowed to generate profits for their investors, including foreign partners. Special 'free enterprise
Zones' are recognized in which the chinese state allowes capitalism to operate.

Short Questions
1. How did the Second World War radicalize people in colonized countries ?
A. Mobilization of colonized peoples in 'imperial' armies and participation in war industries motivated
colonized people to demand full citizenship rights and national freedom.
2. Name some of the 'Little Dragons' of Asia during the period 1953-1980 ?
A. South Korea, Malaya, Angola, Mozabmbique and Vietnam.
3. W.W. Roastow - modernisation theory.
4. I.M.F. - manages balance of payment problems.
5. prebisch - Defendency Theory
6. Cuba - Fidel Castro
7. Chavez - Venezulan national populist.

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27
Social Transformation
Introduction
This lesson will carry over the changes that came with Colonial expansion and capitalist industrialization in the 19th century into 20th century. We will see the acceleration and deepening of the social
processes that characterised the 19 the century ; some of them quiet irreversable and profound in their
impact on human life.
The last decades of 20th century saw the Collapse of the Socialist Societies in Europe and the
Collapse of the capitalist welfare state well. It saw increasing inequalities between the capitalist countries and within the capitalist countries. We will point towards some of these and the differences in
social transformation between capitalist and socialist societies as well.

Objectives

discuss how development of industrialization of large parts of the world contributed to fundamental
changes in society every where ;

recognise that there were differences in these processes between the advanced countries and
those that won their freedom from colonialism in the 20th century ;

note some of the social changes over time even with in the advanced countries; and

identify the differences between capitalist and socialist Countries.

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Essay Questions
1. Give the main reasons for population growth in western Europe and North America ?
A.

The demographic changes noticed in 19th century countinued in the 20th century also.

The population of world in 1990 was rose to almost three times to at the time of world war
broke out in 1914.

There was a sustained growth in world population throughout the 20the century. There were
certain reasons for population growth in western Europe and Notrth America. They are

better health facilities

decline in infant mortality

expansion of social security systems which allowed for longer lives.

birth rates increasement

However population growth in Europe was negatively effected by the two world wars of 20th
century because.

huge number (187 million deaths) killed,

delayed marriages

disruption of family lives

distruction of industries

Militant age group (20 to 40) distruction

2. What do you mean by Modern class society ?

A.

Industrial revolution brought revolutionary changes in the modern world particularly in the
society.

It made the society into two classes i.e. haves and have nots. In addition it resulted the
existance of capitalist community under which industriliazation was controlled.

Capitalist industrialisation resulted in the growth of modern class society, where two new
social classes emerged, the bourgeoisie and working class.

Social classes which existed before it were transformed and integrated into the capitalist
economy and society.

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pre-capitalist societies were dominated by landed wealth and the landed aristocracy. They
were crucially affected by capitalist industrialization, as and when it emerged in different parts
of the world.

As with changes in population and urbanization, changes in social structures were not uniform
all over the world and not sudden.

3. How did the labour and socialist movements affected Women ?

A. It is well known fact that women has been playing a vital role in modern era. The women position
in modern era not merly confined to kitchen room and house hold areas only.

The expansion of economy in the 20th century along with literacy, opened new avenues for
women, both of the working class and the middle class.

Apart from domestic service women now worked in shops and offices as nurses and school
teachers; These came to be seen as primarly feminine Jobs.

The two world wars opened new possibilities for women as they manned many Jobs left
vacant by men mobilized for war. All this brought a change in the social position and expectations of Women. Suffragate movements became an important aspect of their assertions for
equality.

The real fillip for women's emancipation in the western world came from the rise of labour and
socialist movements, which spoke for all oppressed, and called for the transformation of the
whole society along lines that would ensure equality for all, including women.

Due to various efforts, women formed a good percentage of union members and also of
socialist organisations, although they were not so visible in leadership roles.

In Russia the working class movement had a significant component of women and peasant
women were part of the general revolutionary movement.

By 1990 Women were or had been heads of governments in sixteen states. Their numbers in
the workforce grew dramatically in the Asia, Africa and Latin American Countries. Women
are also participating in not only in the field of Journalism, photography, and also sports and
games.

Short essays
1. Describe the changes in work patterns brought about by Computers ?

As an when the factory system developed work patterns changed. In Europe this was in the
19th century , but in much of the rest of the world only in the 20th century.
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But with the invention of Computers in the latter part of the Century work pattern changed
dramatically. It was believed that with computers it is possible to work from home and
cheaper for them because they need not spend on office maintanance.

These changes were presented as benefiting employees, but in fact have meant that employees never fully get off the job; They can't claim 'leave' and other benefits that employees can
get because they do not work in an office; and no opportunity to form trade unions or share
grievances.

2. Give some examples of how science and technological advances have improved human
life ?

The technological achivement of 20th century made possible great progress and benefits for
mankind.

They made an opportunity to avail themselves the all facilities inproving the standards of life
for all people.

Socialist societies, with all their draw back had been able to create more equal societies,
without the huge gaps that we see between the rich and the poor in capitalist countries.

Yet, globalization and economies of scale have only widened the gaps between the haves and
have nots.

After the collapse of socialism in USSR, the capitalist states every where have unleashed
massive cuts in welfare.

The consequences have been disastrous for the majority of the people of this world.

One word Answer Questions

1. What do you mean by Urbanization ?
A. Shift of population from country side to towns because of industrialazation and greater economic
opportunities in towns.
2. What impact did capitalist industrialization have on employment of women ?
A. Employment outside home, un equal pay, factory discipline.
3. Explain the changes brought about by "out - Sourcing" ?
A. Big trans national Companies shift some of their functions to third world countries, where wages
were low, and where they can bully goverments to ensure that those enterprises remain 'trouble
free' and enjoy tax benefits.
4. How did the factory system change work patterns ?
A. Place, pattern, hours of work, disciplane norms.

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28
Cultural Change in the Twentieth Century
Introduction
The 20th century is often remebered through its land mark events such as the Bolshevik Revolution, the world wars, Fascism and the liberation of Asian and African nations from colonial rule.
All these developments were undoubtedly crucial and left their deep imprint on the contemparary
world. However, it is important to note that society is transformed not just by dramatic occurances but
also many 'slow and long term changes in economy, culture and demography. It was also a period of
numerous such changes some of which were imperceptible to people living through them but which in
the long run, played a major role in giving to the world its present form.
We have seen various developments in the field of demographic explosion, rapid urbanization
and the phenomenal growth of the middle class and working class over the past century.
In addition, cultural transformation i.e. changes in people's values, attitudes, artistic tastes etc
also came during the same period through a slow and long term transformation. In this chapter we shall
try to closely examine some of these cultural changes and also assess whether they are leading to the
evolution of a widely shared global culture today or to more tensions and frictions between cultures.

Objectives

explain the various meanings of the term culture ;

highlight the peculiar features and problems of interpreting culture;

emumerate the major changes which came about in science, art, religion, education, media,
recreation and attitudes and values during the 20th century and

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assess the balance between 'globalization' or creation of an integrated world economy and culture
and continuing resistance to western dominance today.

Essasy Questions
1. Define culture and its attributes ?
A.

Cultures is one of the most complex terms in social science. Not only because it refers to a
wide range of attributes such as customs, habits and values etc which are difficult to measure
or Quantify but also because the term has been used in a variety of ways by different scholars.

Culture can be studied with two different criteria in mind. One is based on artistic and
intellectualy refinement and second is that historically shared on popular traditions. This can
also be identified at different levels; in material objects, practices or in values and attitudes.

According to artistic and intellectual opinion the term 'culture' is frequently used in official
announcements and news bulletins. Here Indian culture is show cased through our classical
and folk music dance forms, literature etc with the usage of the term.

Anthropologists view : They use the term 'culture' to refer to the whole way of life of a
community including its cuisine, dress, work and leisure routines as well as popular customs,
festivals etc.

In this usage the focus is not so much on the exclusive or classical achivements of great artists
and thinkers but on everyday practices which have been traditionally shared or accepted in a
community.

Another interpretation of the term 'culture', that the implicit values, beliefs and attitudes
widely shared or understood in a community that are recognized as the care of any culture.

Incontrast to this concern Archaeologists prefer to focus on material culture or commonley

used artifacts such as pottery, Jewelry, buildings etc of ancient communities whose remains
they try to locate through excavations.

Following these multiple facets of culture we can use the term 'culture' to 'shared values,
beliefs, and customs of a community on one hand and creative works in the arts, literature,
philosophy or science on the other.

2. Un precedented growth of science and Technology in the 20th Century has not been an
unmixed boon. Comment ?
A.

The twentieth century was a unique time of major changes in various fields such as science
and technology, political and economic and social fields.
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Perhaps the most remakable achivements of the 20th century was the phenomenal growth of
science and Technology which affected and transformed every aspect of life from entertianment
and education to transport and communication at a very rapid pace during the period.

In the process of development of science technoligical innovations lay very intricate developments in various scientific realms such as sub Atomic physics, Genetic and Molecular biology
and Space research.

Some of the famous scientist who made major discoveries in these fields were Marie curie,
Albert Einstein, fyneman and Homi J.Bhabha.

As a result of these speed developments and transformations, the world is also becoming
more and more globalised now. This involving increasing integration of most countries of the
world not only in terms production and comsumption of goods and services but also throw
exchange of news, information, ideas and entertainment.

It is also important to note that while contemporary science and technology have offered
numerous benefits to people, at the same time, the apprehension and fear of science and
technology among people has also grown simulteneously. Partly this is due to the incomprehensibility of latest advances in modern science made the people power to manufacture ever
more destructive weapons and to threaten the even to educated layman. The development of
science delicate ecological balance on the earth.

3. Write about 'globalization' ?

A.

Globalization means the growing intergration of the world through increasing cross country
networks of communication, entertainment, business mass media, modern education and secular
political idealogies.

The growth of multinational corparations, the availability of goods and services from across
the globe in the city malls and over the internet, cheap and instant communication of ideas,
news and information across the globe, the emergence of global trends and markets in Fashion, food and entertainment are all indications of the extent of globalization apparant day.

Ofcource, the globalisation did not take place of a sudden. Global trading net works and
flow of medical and technical knowledge can be traced back to earlier periods too.

While these new channels enable global flows of goods, services and information, not only
they disrupted age old cultural patterns and social customs, but are also moulding the entire
world in western habits and values generally, besides further sharpening inequalities between
the rich and the poor across the globe.

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In the extent of globalization, the migration of the great ideals of Liberty, Equality and Democracy in to the non western world have been much more difficult than the contagion of western
individualism, meterialism, breake up of the Joint family and community ties, lone liness, neurosis etc. On top of this, in many developing countries, the problems of rampant poverty,
corruption, criminalization, law lessness or dictatorship still complicate the situation ominously.

4. Despite the fact that most of people in the world still describe themseves as religious,
the role of religion in public life has declined in recent time. Explain ?
A.

One of the principal ingredients of any cuture is its religion. Besides traditional art forms and
folk lore, another major cultural insitution whose role in most societies has got delimited over
the past century is religion.

In both the developed and the developing world predominantly secular out looks and loyalists
such as humanism, nationalism and democracy has inspired vast movements and commitment
amongst people over the past century.

This is not to say that nationalists or the humanists can't be religious at the same time. In deed,
in almost all the countries, most people continue to count themselves amongs believers to this
day. In a 1981 survey of religious beliefs in the USA for example, only about 10% of people
described themselves as atheists.

Yet, the shrinking influence of religion in every day life is also evident in this fact that religion
does not permeat daily practices ranging from greeting, meals, celebrations, public ceremonies etc specially in the cities in the manner it did only a hundred year back.

Secondly, religious values and outlook do not entirely encompass other major social institutions such as the state, art etc as they did earlier and a vast number of our practices today are
actually carried on in a manner quite contradictory to common religious beliefs.

Thus, only a century ago, most marriages even in the west were solemnised in the church and
baptism for every new born was almost mandatory. By 1990, it was discoverd in France that
only 30% of couples got married in church. Divorce and abortion which were prohibited by
the church have become not only legalized in most countries in the west but also increasingly
accepted and destigmatised. We can also seen same kind of trends are visible in many Asian
and African countries too.

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Short Essays
1. What is meant by the term 'Cultural institutions'? Name some major institutions of
culture ?
A. Due to the achivements of scientists and philosophers cultural changes took place in the field of
religion, folk lore, language, education systems and mass media etc. Anthroplogists refer to
these as 'cultural institution or symbol system. These symbols are of historical significance not
only because they address basic human needs for information, entertainment and faith or 'meaning'
in life but also because they have a major role in shaping popular values, beliefs, emotions and
behavior patterns commonly observed in different social groups.
2. In what ways did the linguistic pattern of the globe change in the twentieth century ?
A. One of the principle ingredients of any culture is its language. The 20th century witnessed a
dramatic transformation of the linguistic map of the world as local dialects spoken by the masses
as well as classical language like sanskrit and Latin which had been the priveleged medio of
learning amongst scholars for centuries gave way to select national langualges adopted by regions
to express their emerging national identities.
At the same time, English also has emerged as a major link language of a globalising world.

Small Questions
1. Jargon : Excessive use of technical and unfamiliar terms instead of everyday words in display of
scholorship.
2. What is meant by 'Bilingualism' ?
A. Ability to use and comprehend two languages with equal competence.
3. What is 'modernism' ?
A. A major 20th century aesthetic trend which sought to express inner pains and problems of the
modern society.

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29
Towards the Formation of the State
Introduction
The state is a term we often take for granted. Usually, we associate the state with certain forms
of government. These could be monarchies or republics, or oligarchies i.e. the rule of few. These
distinctions rest on the way power, ie. the ability to influence and control the lies of people is either
concentrated in the hands of a few or shared amongs many.
Those who control states, whom he ideatify as rulers, regulate political relations, and function
through a variety of institutions. These include administrative services, used for a range of functions
such as revenue collection, the army and Judiciary. Rulers also try to convince people that the form of
government that they head is ideal. In other words, they try to legitismize the existence of the state.
States have developed over a long period of time, and indifferent ways. In this lesson we will
explore some of the earliest trends in the subcontinent.

Objectives

distinguish between chiefdom and kingdoms ;

explain the features of early kingdoms ; and

Understand how some of these early kingdoms became powerful states.

Essasy Questions
1. Distinguish between a 'chiefdom' and a 'kingdom' ?
A. Rigveda was probably composed between 1800-1000 BC where the chiefdom was existed.
And during later vedic and after kingdom institution was came into existance. The Raja is

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referred to as the raja of a Jana or a vis. In other words, the raja was not regarded as the raja of
a kingdom or a fixed territory. but of a group of people.

As we have seen, these rajas are not quite like those are familiar with. They have often been
regarded as chiefs rather than kings, and the realm over which they exercised control has
been defined as a chiefdom rather than as a kingdom.

Cheifs are usually chosen by the people, either directly or indirectly, whereas kings are
heroditary.

Chiefs usvally do not have any permanenent adminsitrative mechanism to support them, while
kings may also depend on their relatives for support.

Chiefs do not collect regular taxes, they often depend on gifts, where as kings may receive
gifts, but their major source of revenue is derived from tax collection.

Chiefs do not maintain standings armies; kings may continue to recruit people as militia, but
usually also maintain standing armies.

Generally, chief interact with people in assemblies, where people can express their openions
on important matters. Kings also participate in assemblies, but these tend to be more formal
occasions.

Short Essays
1. What is Rigveda ?
A. Vedas are four and explained about Aryans. Among four Rigveda is fore most and first one. It
is also known as 'early vedic civilization'.
The Rigveda was probably composed between 1800-1000 BC. This is a collection of hymns
addressed to various gods, in particular to Agni, Indra and Soma. Hymns were composed by
members of priestly class. They were usually chanted when sacrifiees were preformed, and
were used to invite the gods to the rituals.
2. Write about 'Gana Sanghas'?
A. Many Janapadas were ruled by indidual rajas, some were under a different form of government,
and were known 'as Gana Sanghas'. Here there were not one, but many rulers. Interestinly,
some times even when thousands of men ruled together each one was known as 'raja'.
These raja 's performed rituals together. These rituals were not like the vedic sacrifices. They
also met in assemblies and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and
debate.

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3. Write about 'Janapadas' ?

A. The term 'Janapada' was derived from the word Jana, which referred to 'people'. It means
where the Jana places its feet and settle down. The land was now named after them. For
example, the land where the 'Kurus' settle down was known as Kuru Janapada.
The leader of the Janapada was 'raja'. Buddhist and Jaina texts provide us with list of 16
'Mahajanapadas'. The sixteen Mahajanapadas are Anga, Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Kasi, Kosala,
Vatsa, Kururpanchala, Matsya, Surasena, Kamboja, Gandhara, Avanthi, Chedi and Asmaka.
Another distinctive feature of the Janapada was that the population living in these territories was
often classified according to varna, the four fold social classification. Almost all the Maha
Janapadas had a capital city. They have built huge forts maintaing big armies and collected
various taxes.

Small Questions
1. Usually the best pastures lands are along Rivers.
2. Which was the most powerful Janapada?
A. Magadha
3. How much tax of the agricultural produce was taken by the ruler ?
A. 1/6 of total income.
4. Name the two powerful rulers of Magadha ?
A. Bimbisara, Ajatasatru and Maha padma Nanda.

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30
Early States
Introduction
In the history of ancient India we may come acrosss many forms of society ranging from urban
civilization of Indus valley to the classical Age of Gupta Dynasty. During this period we see a hierarchy
of centrelized and decentralized governments, some of which are highly organied in their political structure and government while others were merely weakened by internal problems and division of power.

Objectives
After studying this lesson, you will be able to

explain as to how the state system developed in early India ;

distinguish between various kinds of states ; and

Understand how most powerful states emerged.

Essasy Questions
1. What is meant by kinship ? How did the idea of kingship was developed ?
A.

The origin of kingship dates back to Harappan times. Archelogical evidences uncovered a
strong centralized authority in Harappa. The vedic monarehies i.e. the clan - cheap became
the king and was gradually invested with a status i.e. equal to being god. Buddhist and Jaina
thought ignored the idea of divinity and in the original state of nature which create a little bit
chaos.

At this movement, the people gatherd together and decided to electe one among them. i.e.
mahasammata in whom they would invest authority to maintain law and order. Thus, gradually the institution of the state came into being.
130

Later on theories retained the element of a contract between the ruler and the people. According to Brahmanic sources 'the god appointed the ruler and that a contract of dues was
concluded between the ruler and the people. Also prevalent was the theory of 'Matsyanyaya',
when there is no ruler, the strong defeat the weak, just as periods of drought, big fish eat little
fish. Thus, the need for a ruler was view of obsolute.

The existance of the state was primarly dependent on two factors; danda (authority), and
Dharma (in its sense social order). The Artha - Sasta moreover, refers to the seven limbs
(Saptanga) of the state as the king, administration, territory, to capital treasure, forceful authority and allies.

The importance of political notion of the state gradually began to fade, partly because of a
decline of the political tradition of the republics and the proportional dominance of the monarchial system, in which loyalty was directed to the king.

The emergence of Mauryan empire strengthened the political notion of monarchy. After the
decline of Mauryas, the re- emergence of an empire was to take many centuries.

2. Describe the salient features of the Mouryan administration ?

A. Mouryans for first time introduced a definite and effective system of administration in India. The
main sources of knowing their administrative systems are
1) Ashoka's Inscriptions,
2) Atharastra of Koutilya,
3) Indica of Megasthanese.
Important features of Mouryan Administration :

Central Government : The king was the head of the administrative system and he had almost
unlimited powers. He was the head of Justice, law and army.

The king was assisted by council of Ministers were called Mantri Parishad. The most important ministers were Mantri, Senani, Purohita and Yuvaraja.

Provincial adminsitration

For the sake of administrative convenience, the Mouryan empire was divided into Janapadas.
Each Janapada was subdivided into Pradasas. Village was lowest unit of administration Gramani
was head of the village.

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City Administration.
Meghasthanese give an account of the city administration of pataliputra. The head of the city
was Nagarica and he was assisted by a council of 30 members. The council was divided into six
boards of 5 members each.
They looked after

Industries

Facilities to foreigners

Trade and commerce

Sale of goods

Collection of taxes

Revenue Administration
Land revenue was the main source of income. It was collected both in cash and kind. The land
tax was fixed at 1/4 or 1/6 of the gross produced. Besides, the government used to get revenue
from own lands, mines and Naval centres.
Military adminsitration
The Maryans maintained a huge army. It consisted of six lakh infantry, 30,000 cavatry, 9000
elephants and 8000 chariots. The army was administered by a council of 30 members. They
were divided into 6 sub-committies of 5 each. Each sub committee looked after one of the
branches of infantcy, cavalry, elephants, chariots, Navy, Transport and supply.
Judicial Administration
The king was head of the Justice. There were two types of courts to decide civil and criminal
cases. The punishments were very severe, but Ashoka was reduced it to some extent.
Thus among monarchial states Magadha emerged as an important power. It was the largest
and the most powerful political and military empire of Ancient India. It extended from the kingdom
of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plain of modern Bihar and Bengal with its capital city of
Pataliputra.
3. Salient features of Gupta administration ?
(or)
What were the causes for considering the gupta period as the golden age ?
A. The greatest empire in the 4th century AD and which ushered in the golden age of Indian History
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was the Gupta's rule. The Gupta rule lasted for more than two centuries with the theory of the
divinity of kings. The Guptas period has been called an imperial age. Scholars of History
compared the Gupta period to the pericles in Greece, Agustus in the history of Rome and Elizebeth
age in the history of England. The Gupta state was divided into provinces called desa or bhuktis
under kumar matyas.

Political Unity : Gupta rulers took the title of 'Maharajadhiraja' paramarajadhi raja, Rajadhira
Jashri and Rajarajadhiraja and annexed the almost North India. It was a great achievement
of the gupta rulers.

The benovolent administration of the Guptas conferred peace and prosperity. According to
fahier the people were prosperous and happy. They developed agriculture and industries.

Welfare state : They took special care for the construction of public utility works. Hospitals
with free medical aid were provided for the service of poor patients, orphans and disabled.

During Gupta period Hinduism and Hindus's received a great encouragement. For the first
time temples were built. But they showed religious tolerance towards other faiths like Buddhism and Jainism.

During their rule literature received remarkble growth. Sanskrit became a official language.
They have patronized a large number of famous ports and scholars. Samudragupta himself
was poet and assumed the title "Kaviraja".
Harisena was the court poet of him who inscribe Allahabad pillar Inscription.

During the period of chandragupta II, his court was for famous 'Nava ratnas' or 'Nine gems'.
The famous among them are Kalidasa, Viskadatta vishnu sarma etc. Kalidas's Abhignana
sakuntalam' was translated into a number of world languages.

Progress of Science : In the field of science Guptas achived wonderful progress. Aryabhatta
wrote a work entitles "Surya siddhanta" and discoverd the fact that "Earth rotates on oxis
was calculated the duration of the day.
The power of gravitation was discoverd by Brahma gupta. Varahamihira wrote Brihat
Samhita', Susrutha, vagbatta and Dhanvantri were the famous medicines during that period.

Development of Art : The Dasavatartemple at Deogarh, the vishnu temple at Tiguwa, Siva
temple at Bhumra were famous example for the imporoved art during Gupta period. Sanchi
and Saranath places are famous for Buddhist art.

Thus Guptas period regarded as the 'golden age' in the history of Ancient India.

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Short Essays
1. Explain the contribution of pallavas to the culture of South India ?
A. Pallavas who ruled South India made uniqe contribution to the cultural field and the cultural unity
of India was completed by pallava rullers.
Literature : Pallave rullers were great patron's of literature. They made Sanskrit as the official
language and established Ghatikas' to spread education. Kanchi became a great learning centre.
The Bharava, the author of 'Kiratasjuniyam' and Dandi, the author of 'Oasakumar charitha' are
the great poets of pallavas court. Mahendra varma I himself wrote 'Matha Vilasa Prashan'.
Art & architecture : According to V.A. Smith "the history of Indian archeatecutre in South
India being with the pallavas.
The style was one among the most beautiful form of Inidan archietecture. Mahadeve Varma I
introduced the partise of excavations temples of Social rock. Narasimha Varma Constructed the
seven pagadas or stone cars for pandvaas from a single rock.
The shore temple at Mahabalipuram and Kailas Temple at Kanchi were drawn the appreciation
of the foreign art crafts.
2. Gandhara Art
A.

Gandhar is slocated in the North western part of India to the eight and left of Indus liver. It
was ruled by satias, pahlas and Kushans.

As a result, mixed culture was seen here and new school of art known as Gandhara art came
into existance. The statues of Buddha and Bodhisatva, are every made in the style of Gandhara
art in different pasturs.

It is the result of blending of the Indian, greek and roman's style. The greek feature of
depiction of transperent garment dropped in greek roman fashion and curly heir, muscled
body in Gandhara culture.

The Gandhara art had the a tend of the greek and heart of Indian.

3. What are the sailent features of chola Administration ?

A. The cholas state during the imperial period (850-1200) was marked for its uniqueness and
innovativeness of village administration.
The village Administration system was described indetail in the 'Uttar merur' inscription. It was
also called "Local self government".
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According to V.A. Smith, there are two types of Assemblies in the village. Every village was
a self governing unit. A number of such villages are called 'nadu' (or) 'Kottam'.
1. Ur. - all the lard loads of the village were members.
2. Sabha : the Brahmins were members in this Sabha.

Election procedure : The members of executive Committee were elected by the people of
village. Each village was devided into 'wards'. Members should have prescribe defeatures.
They must not exceed 35 years of age, should be resident, and should own property and
must not have committed the sings.

Village Committees : 30 members Committe of the village devided in to six committes. They
were gardens committe, schools committee, tax collection, choultries and Temple's Committee, tanks committee etc. Thus the village assemblies played a cruical role.

One Word Questions

1. Who wrote Artha - Sastra ?
A. Koutilya.
2. Give name of four provincial capitals of the Mouryas ?
A. Ujjain, Taxila, Toysali and Suvarna giri.
3. Who was Megestanese ?
A. A Grek ambassdar visted India and author of 'India'.
4. Fa-hsien chineese contemporary was a Buddhist monk traveled in India and left an account of
his impression.
5. What is 'Utharapatha' and 'Dakshinapatha' ?
A. The region controlled the northern trade route called 'Uttarpatha' and the southerly route called
'dakshinapatha'.
6. 'Aihole Inscription' : it was written by Ravi-Keerthi, a Jain poet. The conquests of pulakesi II
were described in this inscription.

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31
The Medieval State
Indroduction
In medieval India, the emergence, nature and expansion of States will be discussed in this chapter.
The two major state formations discussed here are Delhi sultanate and Moghul empire. The medieval
rulers basically came from outside India thus they had to influence as well as learn from native political
structures. Medieval state may be characterised as a polity headed by a strong ruler, supposted by
hierarchially organized administrature machinery and ligitimized by the authority of religion. The army,
bureaucracy by blood and land revenue remained the basic elements of the state. But each ruler had to
balance the competing groups for power sharing.

Objectives
After studying this lesson, you will be able to

Analyse the evolution of state in medieval India ;

recall the nature of medieval state ;

explain the institutions of medieval state ; and

explain the administration of Akbar and how he was follwer of Shersha.

Essay Questions
1. Explain the important administrative features of Delhi Sultanate ?
A. In the 13th century, a new kind of dynasty domain emerged in North India. Delhi Sultanate had
its origin in Victories by Mohammad Ghauri and established by Qutb-ud-din-Aibak in 1206 AD
and ended in 1526 AD, when Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur at Panipat war.
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The Sultanate was a theocratic State and the king was regarded as a representative of God on
earth. There was no regular Law of succession. The administration was based on the principles
of Koran. The executive work was carried on with the assistance of a Cabinet of four members.
These were in charge of Revenu, war, Local and provincial Government and Markets.
The empire was divided into provinces which were called 'Iqtas'. The head of the 'Iqta' was
called by different names like Nazim, Muqti or wali. They functioned under the supervision of the
central government.
The Iqtas were devided into smaller units called Shiqqs and were controlled by Shiqdars. The
Shiqqs were further divided into parganas. The Amin, the Munsif, the treasurer, the Quanungo
and two Karkuns were acted as officials. Village was the lowest unit of administration under the
head ship of hereditary officers.
The land revenue was the main source of income of the state. In addition to this Jizya was
collected from non-muslim subjects. The sultans maintained an efficient military system. The
cavalry formed the back bone of the army.
The system of Justice was efficient. The sultan was the highest Judicial authority in the empire.
The penal law was so severe. The village assemblies decided cases of their villages. Islamic laws
were enforced in both civil and criminal cases. Normally, the culprits were punished with seizure
of their property and wealth, mutilation or death. The Sultans did not establish a seperate police
department, but their duties were carried out by the military officers.
2. Describe the Moghul system of adminsitration ?
A. After the downfall of Delhi sultanate in 1526 Moghal dynasty was established by Babur. And it
was strenghned by Akbar, reached its peek during Aurangzeb and started its downfall after and
ended in India in 1857 A.D.
Regarding administration, Akbar was the chief architect of the Moghul administration. He not
only took several institutions from Shersha's administration, reformed and perfected them but
also adopted many (foreign elements) Persion and Arabic systems with necessary changes.
Absolute monarchy, Centralized Government, divine origin of kingship and benevolent despotism
were some of the sSalient features of the Moghal polity.

Central Government : The Central government was headed by the emperor. All the
power vested in him. The emperor was assisted by a council of Ministers in his daily administration. Vakil, Wazir, Mir Bakshi, Mir Saman, Muhatasib, chief Sadr and chief Qazi were
chief among them.

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For the administrative Convenience and efficiency Akbar abolished the age old Jagirdari
system and divided the empire into 15 provinces under the subedar (or) Nizam. Again empire was divided into Sarkars, Paraganas and villages. The town administration was looked
after by the 'kotwal'.

The military administration of Akbar was linked with that of the Mansabdari system. He
indroduced it in 1571. The word 'Mansab' is office rank or dignity. They are supposed to
maintain army for law and order. The salaries of Mansabdar can be paid either in cash or in
Jagirs. The appointment, promotion and dismissal of Mansabdars rested at emperors will
and pleasure. It was not heriditary.

The fame of Akbar as an administrator rests on his land revenue administration. Shershah
was the fore runner of Akbar. It was known as the 'Bando bust system (or) 'Ryotywari
system'. The three important features, i.e., measurement of land, classification of land and
fixation of rates are being taken by Akbar. The land tax was fixed 1/3 of the income and the
formers were given the option to pay the land tax either in cash or in kind. They could pay
their tax directly in to the state treasury or state officials. This was known as 'Ryotwari
system'.

Akbar relations with Rajputs was described as Rajput policy of Akbar. He realized that he
could not survive and prosper without the co-operation of the Rajputs and Hindus. It was
mainly for political reasons that Akbar was compelled to follow the policy of compromise and
consiliation towards Hindus.

In general the Moghul Administration was humane and benevolent. " 'administrative efficiency ' reached it's high water mark for the first time under Mohammadan rule" - Dr.Iswari
prased.

Short type Questions

1. Briefly describe the role of Mohammad Ghauri ?
A.

After the fall of Ghaznavides, the Ghori family rose to the prominence. Ghor was a small
mountainous principality between Herat and Ghazni. The first important ruler of this dynasty
was Ghiyas - ud-din Mohammad. He brought Ghazni under his control and appointed as
Governor his brother Muizz-ud-din, popularly known as Muhammad Ghore.

Muhammad Conquests :- Taking the advantage of India disunity, Muhammad wanted to

establish Muslim rule in India.

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Muhammad led his first Indian expedition against Multan in 1175 A.D. and conquered it.
And then uch and lower sindu to his territories . Finally Muhammad Conquered Lohore in
1186 A.D.
Battle of Tarain (1191 and 1192) : After the annexation of Punjab Muhammad had to face
great Rajput confederacy. It was headed by Prithvi raj. The Rajput and Mustim forces met
at Tarain near Taneswar in 1191, where Muslim forces defeated. Battle was faught for second time in 1192 where the Rajputs now met with disastrous defeat. Prithviraj was captured
and killed. Delhi and Ajmir were conquered by Muhammad. This was followed by the
conquests of sasruti, Samana Kuhran Hansi and Kanauj in 1194 by defeating Jayachandra
and in 1195 Bayana and Gwalior.
2. The reign of Muhammad bin - Tughlaq marked both the high point of the Sultanate and
the beginning of its decline ?
A. Muhammad - bin - Tughlaq has been described as a 'freak of creation' by contemporary
writers. His character was a mixture of contradictory qualities. He was a keen student of
mathematics, astronomy, logic, philosophy and poetry. His personal life was marked by his
standared of morality. Though he was an orthodox Muslim, he was tolerent towards other
religions.
Reforms of Sultan :

To improve his fanances the Sultan increased the taxes on the land in the region of Ganges,
Yamuna Doabo Unfortunately the region was affected by famine.

To avoid the constant Mongol raids to the Centrally located capital, he shifted the capital from
Delhi to Devagiri with their belongings. When the Sultan realized the failure of his plans, he
ordered the people to go back to Delhi. The scheme involved heavy finanical loss and created a spirit of revolt among the people.

Token Currency : Mohmmad has been called Prince of Moneyers. One of his earliest
measures was the reform of currency. In order to increase his resources to carry out his
schemes of conquest and administration, he introduced token currency.

He struck vast quantities of copper coins. But he failed to take adequate measures to prevent
illicit coinage. As a result, the country was flooded with bad coins. Ultimately token coins
became valueless. Trade was paralysed. The Sultan realized the failure of his scheme and
withdraw his new coins Instead fold and silver coins were returned to people.

Other reforms
Muhammad bin Tughlaq organised the services of the state on an efficient basis. He
employed the Hindus in high offices of the state. The Department of Agriculure and Industry
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were made efficient. He meted out impartial justice even against the powerful and the great.
He prohibited sati and worked to relieve the distress of the poor.
3. Write a note on the 'Jagirdari System' of the Moghul period ?
In the Moghul period, the land owned by the state or the king consisted of Khalsa and Jagir. In
fact the Jagir land was more in extent than khalsa. The person appointed to the collection of land
revenue in the jagir was called Jagirdar.
The Jagirdars were appointed by the crown and held office during their pleasure. They were
transfered from one jagir to another Jagir. They had no Judicial and police powers. Their office
was not heriditary. They consisted of both the natives and foreigners.
The status of the Jagirdardar depended on the size of the Jagir held by him. The main duty of
the Jagirdar was to collect the land revenue as fixed by the state and to submit accounts of the
collections of revenue to Qanungo. Since there was not security of this office, the Jagirdars
expolited the cultivators by excessive collections.
VI. One Ward Answer
1. India under the Mughal Sharia empire was governed under Muslim law.
2. The first painpat war was held in - 1526
3. Babur claimed descend from both Timur and Genghis khan.
4. Zakat means- tax raised from well to do Muslims for the purpose of charity.
5. Khams or Ghaninath means - the booty taken in war.
6. The silver coin under the sultans weighing 175 grains.

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32
Colonial State
Indroduction
Taking advantage of Indian states during 18th century, European countries not only established
their colonial trade but also strenghten their political power over India states. Initially their political
entry started after defeating Bengal Sultan in 1757 and by the end of 1857 they gained political control
over entire India through various means. The political authority of the colonial state gathered upon
many instruments for preserving and enforcing its power which was a pre-condition for the formulation
of the colonial policy. It is important to know that how the rule over people was legitimized and how
was the power of the colonial state made visible to the common people subjected to foreign rule.

Objectives

Understand the meaning and nature of the colonial state ;

recall the colonial objectives in India;

identify the instruments of colonial control ;

explore the symbols and effects of the colonial rule ;

understand the legacy of the colonial rule.

Essay Questions
1. Describe the meaning and nature of the colonial state ?
A. The colinial state means the assumption of Sovereignty (legally independent power to govern and
control) of a country by a foreign political entity. The colonial state has to design a theory of
Soveriegnty in the special context of the imperial - colonial relationship. This is done through a
two way process (1) Justification of the legal existence of a foreign entity which automatically
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leads to the second process i.e., (2) the subversion of delegitimization of pre-colonial indegeneous
political authoriety.
Nature of colonial State :
The Britishers consolidated their colonial rule in Inda according to their ideas of what a colonial
state could be and modern state with some characteristics.
As in a moderate state, the colonial government had a monopoly of force, a centralized
administration for tax-collection, a centralized legal system, a professional staff of administrators
and bureaucrats and clearly defined territorial boundaries.
Colonial objectives in India
The colonial state was worked with two aims. (1) the complete subordination of the Indian
colony to needs of British metropolis and (2) economic exploitation of the Indian Colony.
But the nature of British interests in India did not remain the same through - out and it changed
according to the requirements of the Mother country and in interest of the different Social group
in Britain.
2. Mention the changes under Colonial State ?
A. The economic, agricultural, industrial and administrative policies of the British created a new
classes of people as well as changes in the Indian Society. The main changes which the British
made in Indian Society were at the top.

They replaced the wasteful warlord nobility by the bureaucratic - military establishment, carefully designed by practical technocrats, which was very efficient in maintaining law and order.

The Permanent Revenue Settlement (1793) introduced by lord Cornwallis created a new
class of land lords called Zamindars. Zamindari system created the tenent class, who had not
property right.

The greater efficiency of governement permitted a great reduction in the fiscal burden and a
biggest share of the national product was available for landlords, capitalistis and the new
professional classes. Some of this upper class income was sent off to the United Kingdom.
but the bulk was spent in India.

A new educated and enlightened middle class grew out of the British rule. The condemned
the evils and injustice of the society and advocated new ideas or principles to enlighten the
people. It was from this class a large number social reformers and freedom fighters came.
They were designated as "new aristo cratic class" by M.N. Srinivas.

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The establishment of industries, expansion of trade and commerce growth of banking system
led to the birth of industrialist (or) capitalist class. This Capitalist system also led to the birth
of working class. The poor peasants and the artisans who lost their livilihood as a result of the
decline of Indian handicrafts constitute the working or labour class.

6. Taking the advantage of poverty in India, money lenders became a Business class during the
British rule.
7. There were no major changes in village Society, in the caste system, the position of untouchbles,
the Joint family system or in the production techniques in agriculture. British impact on economic and social development was therefore limited.
8. Total output and population increased substantially but the gain in per capita output was small
or negligible.
II. One Ward Answer
1. The Mughal Empire declined in the first half of 18th century.
2. By 1835 Persian remianed the official symbol of Mughal dynasty
3. Sir William Jones had translated a great mass of Sanskrit literature and had founded the Asiatic
society in 1785.
4. All the high level posts were reserved for the British and Indians are Excluded.
5. The British army was very much smaller than those of Mughal India, but had better training and
equipment.

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Module-6B
Culture in India

33

Contemporary Cultural situation

Indroduction
Suppose you wokeup one marking to find yourself in a strange land, where people speak a
language you do not understand, wear different clothes, eat food you are not used to. You probably
find it impossible to survive unless you learned their ways of behaviour. These ways of behaviour along
with many other things go into the making of our culture.
As you will see, all of us are born into cultures. This may differ according to our region, religion
and cast or class. As we grow, each one of us absorbs dozens cultural practices almost automiatically.
Many of these practices have been handed down for generations, some of these for centuries, and
some are even millennia old traditions. At the same time, cultural practices are subject to change.
Culture is the collective creation of the society. It is a mould of collective consciousness. It is
based on certain values, which the society evolves, during the course of its history . Culture is an
acquired behaviour in human beings. Culture is not found in birth, but it is something to be aquired. It
is like a house of bricks, arranged beautifully side by side in relation to each other. It is a living organism.
It must change according to the changing conditions.

Objectives

define culture ;

analyse how culture is shaped;

explain cultural interaction; and

critically analyze phenomenon of globalisation.

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Essay Questions
1. Define culture and its implications ?
A.

The dictionary meaning of culture is production, improvement and development. This means
culture includes every thing, which we produce, improve and develop. This is widest sense
meaning.

But in a restricted sense, culture refers to the advance development of human body, mind and
spirit. It also refers to good manners and civilised behaviour. It also includes music, dance,
drama and such other things. It is the sum total of human achivements, material as well as non
-material, capable of transmission.

The cluture is based on training and experience. The literature, religion and social practices of
the people, reveal their culture. Culture is the way of life and Thinking of the society. It does
not have a common accpeted definition.
How culture is shaped : It is the collective creation of the society. It is a mould of collective
consciousness. Culture is a living organism. It must change according to the changing conditions. If it becomes rigid and stagnant, then it gets outdated, old and ultimately dies. It
becomes a dead mass. This means the culture is always changing, absorbing, discarding,
improving and developing.

Like living organism the culture grows, matures, decays and dies. The cutures of ancient Italy,
Greece and Egypt were short lived. Once they were very powerful, but after the advent of
christianity and Islam, they lost their vitality and died. At present they are completely wiped
out. The christian and the Islamic cultures exist on their ruins.

Some cultures are very long lived. They existed, they exist and they will exist for a long
period. They regid not regid and accomodative and adjustable, such as the Indian culture. It
had a great vitality. The foreign influence and attacks could never subdree it beyond recognition. But the new trend only set new trent in it. That is why the Indian culture is immortal.

There are two important sides of culture i.e. the external side and the internal side. The
external side includes political, social and religious institutions. They are the outward
phenomenos and temporary and adjustable. The internal side of the culture consists of spiritual elements. They are the finer sentiments, such as dharma, kindness, piety equality and
Justice. Their importance is universal and permanent. They may change in form, but the
basic idea remains.

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2. The influence of culture on social and economic fields ?

A. Many of our cultural practices are influenced by our social and economic situation. The cultural
objects we produce and use are also often limited by our economic resources. None of us
would have been able to build the Taj Mahal even if we had wanted to. This was only possible
for shah Jahan, the ruler of a large and prosperious empire.
Cultural practices are also influenced by both our social and economic situation. This includes
such things as our tastes and preferences in Music whether we like folk songs film songs classical
Music or Western Pop Music.
In fact most of the splendid forts, palaces, and religious monuments we see were built by rulers.
When they were wealthy. However, although material resources are important, they are not
always decisive. MiraBai left the wealth and splendour of the place of chittoor to embrace a life
of home lessness and freedom to pursue her spiritual goals. Today we remember her songs and
not her husband.
3. Write about cultural interraction ?
A.

Our culture is often shaped though a process of interraction. Cultural interraction means the
mixed cultural out put when people with different cultural traditions come in to contact one
another. Such contact can take place through the expeditions and voyages of merchants or
traders, or when conquerors invoade country. It also occurs when pilgrims or travells vist distant
lands, and when craftsmen and labouring women and men travel from place to place in search of
employment.
Such interactions made the people to learn about the practice of different peoples, and carry
their own ideas and customs to new lands. In the process, the cultural practices of all those who
participate in such interaction tends to change.
Ex: If you look at what we eat day you will notice that it is a mixture of foods which have been
traditionally available, as well as more recent additions. At the same time people in other parts of
the world, such as the USA and Great Britain, have developed taste for Indian cuisine, especially
curries and Kababs.

VI. One Ward Answer

1. Globalisation place in the spheres of the economy and cultural communication.
2. The global village phrsase was coined by Mcluhan.
3. Advertisers sponsors TV programmes.
4. Global communications are dominated by developed countries.
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5. The Stupa at Sanchi is an example of religious architecture.

6. Vedic chants are a form of Relegious Music.
7. Andal was a famous woman saint of Tamil Nadu.
8. Lai Ded is one of the best known Kashmir poets.
9. Bhakti and Sufi saints composed poems in language of common people.
10. Bhakti and Sufi saints compositions were transmitted oraly for centuries.
11. The clothes we wear vary according to rather than according to region.
12. Forts and palaces were built by rulers.
13. Classical : Refers to anything which is considered to have perfect proportions. It is also used to
describe what is usually thought to be excellent.
14. Vedic chants : Vedas are four in number; Rig, Yajur Sama and Atharvana Vedas. These consist
of mantras, many of which were meant to be chanted or sung during sacrifices and other rituals.
15. Meterial culture : Includes things we use in our daily life. These are tangible, i.e. we can see
and touch them, unlike ideas, which form part of our culture, but are intangible.

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34
Cultural Production
Indroduction
Pots and pans, paintings, textiles, literature and food amongst other things are part of our culture.
In this lesson we will look at how some of these are produced, who produced them and who uses them.

Objectives

what techniques were used in the production of paintings and for whom were these paintings
produced ;

the different kinds of textiles and costumes produced in India ;

the rich and varied literature of India which ranges from epics to folk songs; and

the nature of food production and wide variety of foods in the various parts of India.

Essay Questions
1. What do you know of arts of Ajanta and Ellora ?
A.

While early men and women made these paintings for their own needs, in later times paintings
were usually produced under royal patronage which means that kings paid and some times
maintined the painter in order to get them made.

The earliest of these are found at the famous caves of Bagh (M.P), and the Ellora and Ajanta
(in Maharastra).

The themes in Ajanta are drawn from the life of the Buddha, especially depictions from the
Jataka stories which record the many lives of the Buddha.

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There are also some scenes from every day life such as the famous depiction from the Ajanta
caves of the princes engaged in her makeup. The arts of Ajanta and Ellora were patronized by
the Gupta and vakata rulers belongs to the 4th to 6th centuries.
The paintings are remarkable for their unfading colours. It is believed that the Mahabalipuram
cave art of the time of pallava kings who ruled between the 6th and 10th centuries, were inspired
by the artistic techniques employed in the Ajanta and Ellora paintins.
The rock cut temples of Mahabalipuram belong to the period of Mamillan Narasimha pallavan
who ruled in the 7th centrury.
2. Explain the significance of colours in traditional Indian textiles ?
A.

Geographical and climatic factors have greatly influeced the clothing of the Indian people.
North Indian people use both woolen and cotton clothes and South Indian people has a
warm climate, thus people wear only cotton.

Indian textiles reflect culture. Every thing is important - the colours chosen, the designs and
the occasion it is worn.

Red represents fertility and is generally worn by the bride on the occasion of her wedding.
Ochre and white represent purity and sacrifice and are usually warn by spiritual persons and
widows. Block is considered in inauspicious although in South India pregnant women wear
black perhaps to ward off the evil eye.

Colouring was traditionally done with vegetable dyes such as indigo and madder although
now most dyers have switched over to cheaper chemical dyes.

The earliest designs on textiles were geometrical. The depiction of certain types of plants and
animals on textiles from different regions gives us an idea of what those people were familiar
with and also regarded as auspicious.

Different types of textiles require different production techniques. The textile called 'tie and
dye' and known with in different cultural traditions as bandhini, ikat or chungdi is produced by
a process in which the cloth and some times the yarn is tied and dyed.

The Kalamkari means wording (lean) with the pen kalam is a living tradition in Andhra. The
painters were patronized by Daccani Sultans.

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Short Essays
1. Briefly discuss some of the regional Variations of the Mahabharata epic ?
A. A rich range of regional variations exists especially in the re-telling of our major epics the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata. It is well known that while valmiki wrote the Ramayana known as the
'Adikavya' in Sanskrit, Tulasidas wrote the Hindu Version which is popularly known as
'Ramacharita manas'. The court poet of the Cholas called Kumban wrote the Ramayana in
Tamil while the popular folk version of the Ramayana in Telugu was written by a peasant woman
called 'Molla'.
V. One Word Answer
1. Name some of the places where early cave paintings are to be found ?
A. Early cave paintings are found in the caves at Mizapur and Banda in U.P, Bhimbetka and
Singanpur in M.P., the Mahadeva hills of the Vindya ranges and at Bellari in Karnataka.
2. What do you understand by the bandhini technique and where are bandhinis produced ?
A. Bandhini involves a process in which a yarn and some times cloth is tied and dyed.
Bandhini is produced in Gujarat and Rajastan, ikat in orissa and chungdi in Madhurai.
3. What kind of literature do the Vedas represent ?
A. The Vedas written in Sanskrit form a part of our religious literature.
4. What are the staple crops of Inda and how do they shape on food habits ?
A. The staple crops of India are rice and wheat. Rice is the predominant crop in South India and
therefore South Indians are basically rice eaters. Since lot of wheat is grown in North India.
Wheat constitues the staple food of the North.
5. Name some popular dishes of South India ?
A. Idli, Dosa and Upma are some popular dishes of the South Indian cuisine.

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35
Cultural Communication
Indroduction
When you were youngers, your grand parents must have told you stories about kings and queens,
magical events, animals and birds and other tales of long ago. Many of their stories are drawn from
epics and religious texts like the Ramayana or the Bible, or from collections of stories like Panchatantra
or the Arabian Nights. Through these stories, all of us have absorbed many aspects of our cutural
heritage. culture is communicated. Though various means - oral, written, through music and nowadays,
via film and television too.

Objectives

Explain how speech writing & painting help cultural communication ;

List some methods of cutural communication ;

describe how music is used to communicate different ideas; and

explain how a variety of cutural forms were used to speead Buddhism.

Essay Questions
1. Do you agreed that Music was played an important role in spread of culture ?
A.

Culture is an integral part of human existance. There are many forms of cultural expressions.
Among the earliest expression of culture are music and dance.

Along with language, Music and Dance are also expressions of culture. Music her universal
appeal it Folk and classical forms both have enriched the culture as they aslo cerise ideas.

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Early people clapped hands, or beat the earth with sticks for rhythm to accopmpany songs
and dances. Gradually many kinds of drums and instruments came to be used. Garba from
Gujarat, Kathakali from kerala and Gidda, Bhangra from punjab are examples of flok dance.
There were and are still performed to celebrate festive occasions, to mark important Ceremonies, to express various sentiments, and some times even to serve as a channel of protest.

Folk songs celebrate spring, the coming of rains, or the ripening of carn which are all central
to the agricultural cycle. There are also songs of masons and potters. You may have heard
construction workers singing while heaving heavy loadas as a team listen to them carefully the
words are about their work.

Folk music is by its very nature participatory. It evolves along with the people's experiences.
Folk art can therefore be said to be 'consumed' by the same people who create it.

Classical Music is a highly developed form of music since it is based on precise rules. It can
be called the grammer of music singing. It was earlier patrorised by kings.

Bhajans are sometimes related to the experience of the common people. Qawwalis are
specially associated with dargahs, i.e. shrines of venerated sufi saints.

Music like all expression of culture carries ideas. The Bauls of Bengal have traditionally
carried their messages of universal brother hood and unselfishness through thier songs.

Devotional songs express not only the emotions of theworshippers but also draw others into
the fold. Today music serves as an important bridge in the global village. While assimilating
new forms, it is important to rememer not to lose one's own rich heritage of music.

2. What are the various means of communication of culture ?

A.

Language is a basic characteristic of human Society. It is not only a means for people to
understand each other, but is also a vechicle for the transmission of cultural ideas. A shared
language knits people together, but also distinguishes them from one another. The another
language which is shared by people of different countries is Bengal.

The spread of language and culture is influenced by geographical factors. People living in near
by areas usually speak the same similar languages and others have very different another
tongues. cultures tended to evolve in relative isolation and ended up being very distinct.

Spoken language was and remain one of the most important means of Communication. How
ever the invention of writing widened the scope of communication. Initially rulers and wealthy
people had important documents arrange on rock surfaces, stone tables, and copper plates.
Cloth leather, the bark of the tree called bhojapatra and palm leaf called talapatra were used
for writing on.
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There were also epics like the Mahabrarata, popular stories collected in the Jatake tales,
Hitopadesa etc and numerous mythological legends in the puranas, stories from these were
transmitted orally by professional story tellers, bards, and even local temple priests. In the
course of telling stories many variations occured over time.
Printing was another equipment which further developed the spread of paper more in lesser time
and lowest cost. The first News paper in India was published in 1760 in English and this was
followed by many others.
These news papers focussed on providing information about Europe to Englishmen in India.
Many news papers began to appear in the vernacular languages. They were published by
nationalists who had the interest of Indians in mind.
We see thus that news papers and magazines do not nearly give information about events and
occurrences around the world, but also mould our ways of thinking. Ideas and views have of
course been exchanged from time immemorial. What ever is specific to modern forms of
Communication is that the transmission of ideas becomes a one way process. While the owner of
a newspaper can influence the views of its readers, the reader cannot exert a similar influence.

Short Essays
1. How did different culture forms help the spread of Buddhism ?
A.

Religion is one of the features of our cultural heritage. Religious ideas may themselves be
transmitted through the medium of culture.

Buddha's message i.e. middle path between extreme austerity and luxury was Quickly accepted by the common people because he spoke in the common language, Pakrit.

The Buddhists also adopted a number of religious and cultural practices. For example the
worships of trees. Another practice that the erection of circular mounds over the remains of
the dead as a kind of memorial. The greeks were aslo had an old tradition of representing
their gods in human form.

The Buddhists also adopted the tradition of folk staries i.e. birth stories of the Buddha. Known
as 'Jatakas'. Many of these stories were also depited in sculpture.

Buddhist teachers were not the only ones to use a veriety of cultural means to spread their
message. If we look at any of our major religious traditions, including christianity, Hinduism,
Islam and Jainism, we will find that they owe their long lived success to the many ways in

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which their massage has been transmitted through music, painting, story telling and through the
use of a variety of archietectural styles to build centres of worship.

Short Essays
1. What are the Jataka tales ?
A. Jataka tales are belonged to popular Folk Stories. They were also known as 'Jatakas' which
explain about the birth stories of the Buddha. These were regarded as stories about the previous
births and lives of the Buddha. Many of these stories were also depicted in paintings on the cave
walls at Ajanta as well as on the railing sorrounding the sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh.
Ex: The story of cat and the cock. According to "The cat tells the cock that she wants to marry
him. His plan is to get the cock down from the tree and eat him. However, the cock is wise and
refuces to get 'married'. Buddhists identified the wise cock with the Buddhist in a previous birth.
V. One Ward Answer
1. From which script are most modern Indian scripts derived ?
2. The Bauls of Bengal sing songs about Universal brother hood; Unselfishness.
3. What language did the Buddha preach in ?
A. Prakrit
4. Taras were famale divinities associated with what ?
A. Bodi Sattva as fertility cult.

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