ISLAMIZATION IN PAKISTAN 1977-1985: THE ULAMA AND THEIR PLACES OF LEARNING

ISLAMIZATION IN PAKISTAN 1977 - 1985 THE ULAMA AND THEIR PLACES OF LEARNING
Author(s): S. JAMAL MALIK

Source: Islamic Studies, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Spring 1989), pp. 5-28
Published by: Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20839926
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ISLAMIZATION INPAKISTAN 1977-1985

THE ULAMA AND THEIR PLACES OF LEARNING
S. JAMALMALIK
INTRODUCTION
its
has been developing
As a dependent
country Pakistan
in pursuance
of
and implementing its development
strategies
policies
in the demands
re?ected
the aspirations
raised by the m?tropoles
as defined by the world system theory1. The
of the worldmarket
of
the creation
before
of
had
determination
started
process
Pakistan.
of
and administrative
Not only was
the economic
set-up
on
the
but
also
colonial
India
British
perceptions
developed
At the
educational
system rendering it to a 'dependent, education51.
as represented
in the ci?iit
same time the traditional
education
was neglected
for religious
mad?n?A (schools
education)
by State
This
tradition was
and
thus became
authorities
marginalized3.
The
of Pakistan.
the
rulers
further pursued
theologians
by
was
not
of
them
the
('Ulama')?since
directly part of the
majority
of metropolitan
the representatives
by
strategies
implemented
more conservative
and individualis
interests and demands?became
to
formal
the
the
secular
functional
tic,
approach
leaving
the
sector.
of the mama',
education
The dysfunctional
education
anything to their
policy-makers
thought, could hardly contribute
the dirii
and progress.
of national
process
Accordingly
conception
had
outdatedness
madan?A and the 'Ulama' were considered
outdated;
no place
in modernizing
Pakistan.
However, both, the dirit mad?/U&
as well as the formal education
functions in a
display particular
The
have
been
dXrii
mad?ni?
serving the purpose
system.
dependent
of absorbing a large part of the society that is not able to afford
In this regard one may mention the high ratio of
formal education.
outs*
from
the
formal sector going into religious schools. Thus
'drop
sector of education
fulfilled certain functions. But
the marginalized
a high degree
could be
it also
which
of potential
inherited
if needed,
mobilized by the State by introducing certain measures,
as well as in economic crises.
in political
stood
Haq
In contemporary
Pakistan
these measures
as part
of the Islamization
under
process
of
the high degree
which
itself re?ected
can be
General
under
Zia ul
in
depehdence
Islamic
Studies,
28:1
(1989)
as well as in normatic
economic
terms. Even if the Islamization
seem
to
be
it was reducible
to
might
something very indigenous,
or.
one
the
hand
and
the
to
State's
desire
control
symbolisms
on the other; both in
autochthonous
and autonomous
institutions
order to trickle down its ideology.
display
The paper
is mainly based
the theorems given above.
It is divided
1.
2.
3.
on
empirical
data
which
will
into three periods:
the AyubianEra (1958-1969)

the Bhutto Era (1971-1977) and
the Zia Era (1977-1985).
The measures
undertaken
by the three regimes are high
those of the last one are dealt with at
lighted while
length.
the proposals
of a National Committee on VhCL HaddA?A
Accordingly,
the equivalence
of the dwZ
(NCDEM), the curricular developments,
madd/L?? certificates
with those of the formal sector of education,
the lak?t
issue and the reactions
of the 'Ulama' vis ? vis these
measures
are elaborated.
It has been assumed that the dm? maddMA
and the 'Ulama' are realizing new functions and are
displaying new
in the wake
of the massive
State
intervention.
developments
the approaches
of all the different regimes are charac
However,
terized
State
intervention
and
the
towards
by
tendency
centralization
and unification
thus reflecting a continuity of State
interests.
THE AYUBIAN ERA

(1958-1969)
The Ulama of
themselves
organize
Pakistani
state until
in the 1950s.
seem not to have

Pakistan
felt the need
to
and their places
of learning vis ? vis the
1959 although a few minor attempts were made
In
1959 the Government had promulgated

the 'West Pakistan
1959' not only to "improve the quality of
Waqf Property Ordinance
but also
to curb the Ulama's
Waqf properties"*
and to
position
establish
over
Government
rule
these
autonomous
institutions.
since
there was no monolithic
However,
block of 'Ulam?' to face
the official
threat from a common platform,
groups of religious
scholars
formed according
to different schools of
thought, schools
that had emerged mostly in 19th
century British India5.
In Pakistan
four main organizations
The Deoband?s
founded
in Multan in 1959.
The Brelw?s the "Tanzim
Ghazi Khan in 1959.
the
"Wafaq
al-mad?iU
of dZrii maddA?? emerged:

aZ-mad??t>
al-'atatwyyah"
al-'aiatiyyah"
?n Dera
Islamic
Studies,
The
28:1
(1989)
Ahl-i-Hadith
founded
the
"Maikazl
jam'?jyat
HadZth" in Lyallpur (NowFay?al Ab?d) in 1955.
Khl-i
came together under the

The Shi'ah
d?ni mad?ris
"Ma$??-?
naz?iat-i Mi
ah madan?A-i 'aiabiyyah"
in Lahore in 1958.
The Jam?'at-i
Islami has been organizing
its religious schools
since 1982 under the "Mt?tat
with
al-mad??b
al-?Mmiyyah"
its centre in Lahore. One may assume that the incentives
of
the Jam?'at display
the politics
of the "R?bitat al-'?Jlam al
the Muslim World League.
?t?nUyyah11,
of the din? mad?ris have
These newly formed organizations
to political
affiliations
parties which recruit their members mostly
school of thought.
from the students of their respective
were
to update
main tasks of these organizations
the
to unify
to
the
and
the dim
mad?ris
organize
not
in
did
succeed
All
the
four
systems.
organizations
of
the
failures
and
their
demands
Rather,
programmes.
enacting
of the religious
show the incapability
these mad?ris
as were felt by
schools and theorganizations
Ulam?' to tackle the 'challenges*
the Islamic avantg?rd?.
is a product
of colonial
This avantg?rd?
i.e.
the
traditions and pursues
interests,
integrationist
integrating
structures.
into colonial
A considerable
Islamic value-system
part
an isolationist
of the 'Ulam?' on the other hand seem to pursue
norms6.
the
of
colonial
approach
rejecting
integration
The
curricula,
examination
In the curricular
field these developments
implied that the
a
of their being backward,
had
the perception
adopted
since
the
colonial
cultivated
penetration
perception
being
among the 'islamic avantg?rd?*.
especially
Ulama
to the formation phase

of the d?ni mad?ris not
Analogous
a
was
the
but
also
Ordinance
1961
only
Auqaf
promulgated
to modify and
to modernize
the religious
elaborated
strategy
schools attempting to convert the *Ulam?' into 'modern mullas'. This
further pursued by the setting up of the 'Advisory
strategy was
in
Council of Islamic Ideology'
and the 'Islamic Research
Institute'
to make
Islam
The
intention was
and
I962
I960
respectively.
of time".
compatible with the "challenges
of the d?n? mad?ris curriculum a
the reconstruction
Regarding
was
a new
National
set up' to elaborate
Committee
syllabus.
to
to
this
committee
of
the
the
'Ulama' were
According
report
while the task was to "... widen the
take "full part as citizens..."
outlook of the Dar al-'Ulum students and to increase
their mental
This was,
horizon".
if
however,
"unneccessary
only
possible
were
reduced
from the current
syllabi.7
non-religious
subjects"
i.e.
The
included
level
6 to
(classes
12)
subjects
secondary
Arabic
Social
Modern
Grammar,
Sciences,
Mathematics,
English,
Modern Arabic
(at the cost of
Rehtorics, more Had?th and Qur'?n
Islamic
and certain books on

Philosophy,
Logic)
to
level
15) included Modern
(classes
13
Hadith.
Studies,
Islamic
Law.
Philosophy,
28:1
(1989)
The highest
English and
notion of Islam by the

implied a different
approach
a
at
and
notion
aiming
implementing modernity
bureaucracy,
was
not only
education
Thus, religious
development
strategies.
to Qur'an Hadith and Fiqh but implied the teaching of
confined
modern subjects. The underlying policies
of these attempts were not
?
to
like
curtail
the
influence
'Ulama's
through State agencies
only
to integrate
them to a certain
the Awqaf Departments,
but also
the Government
the nation "help(ing)
degree. They should modernize
and
the society
farms,
fertilizers,
opening
poultry
by selling
the
to farmers'1 etc.8,
seeds
indicating
distributing
high yield
was
"Green
Revolution".
the
overall
that
of
the
time,
strategy
at
at
least
These
aimed
i.a.
45 thousand
reaching
strategies
in more than 400 dini mad?ris.
students and teachers
This
THE BHUTTO ERA

(1971-1977)
a more
the Ulama was
towards
While
Ayub's
approach
to
obscure
the
Islamic
Bhutto
one*
propagate
prefered
aggressive
Socialism pursuing rather a pacifying strategy towards the Maulanas
and Muftis. The Bhutto constitution
being an outcome of mutual
consensus
cf nearly all segments of the society gave a handsome
to the 'Ulama' through the 'Islamic Provisions*.
portion of power
the composition
of Islamic
of the Council
Ideology
Accordingly
(CID was changed: While there had been very few Ulama in this
institution
Bhutto
under
the Ayub regime
their share
during
increased up to 5 in relation
to 8 Seculars'
non-Silam?').
(laymen,
In fact, the CII was to produce yearly reports of its activi
and had to submit a final report after seven years of its
On the basis of that report the Parliament
and the
appointment.
to bring the laws of the Republic
in accordance
Assemblies were
to
with the Shari'ah within two years. Thus Pakistan was supposed
be islamized by 19811?.
ties
the religious
the certificates
of these
schools,
Regarding
as equivalent
to B.A.
to be recognized
institutions were proposed
for the purpose
to
of the d?ni mad?ris
teach
Islamic
graduates
Studies and Islamic Ideology
in colleges.
In order to have access
to other institutions and positions English was made compulsory for
the young maul?nas11.
This compulsion,
however, was rejected
by
the Ulama while
the universities
the
mostly did not appreciate
scheme.
equivalence
The proposals
of the CII in 1975/76 reaffirmed these sugges
tions: There should be total integration
of the d?n? mad?ris with
the formal system while the overall problem of lack of schools was
to be
tackled
as
of the d?ni mad?ris
through the mobilization
Islamic
Studies,
28:1
(1989)
a pragmatic
centres
of learning.
This displayed
rather
than a
approach.
By the end of the Bhutto era the Government
religious
felt the desire to revise the d?n? madaris curricula which could not
to internal pressures
to face.
materialize
due
the regime had
However, an attempt was made to introduce i.a. "the new scientific
to the Imams and Khatibs
and
economic
sciences"
under
the
of
the
Ulama
auspices
Auqaf Department via the newly established
Academy.
THE ZIA ERA

(1977-1985)
ul Haq
With the promulgation

of the Islamic system by General Zia
the Ulama and the dim mad?ris underwent certain changes.
The military regime seemed to have capitalized

from the fact
that
the Pakistan
National
vindicated
Alliance
(PNA),
by a
considerable
'niz?m-e muâf?*,
part of the society was demanding
was proclaimed as
the Islamization
(the Muhammadan order); hence
the only way to adopt.
for the
Islamization
thus being the policy
next years to come, it was a basic requirement
for the regime to
in line with its policy
schools
bring the Ulama and the religious
and to secure their support as constituency
of the islamizing junta.
the regime had been organizing
'Ulama- and Mashaikh
Moreover,
to be one more
Conventions*
from time to time. The Cll was
in
In
the
number
of
Ulama increased
this
fact,
catalyst
regard:
from five in 1974 to eight in 1977 compared with 8 and 6

even more vigorous in
This tendency became
'seculars* respectively.
the composition of the CU in 1981: 11 Ulama vis a vis 8 'seculars1.
National Education Policy 1979 (NEP)

Conference
1977
Just in the light of the National Education
of
which had stressed ideology and pragmatism as the fountainheads
the NEP and Implementation Programme 1979
the education policies,
of our indigenous
the great potentials
to be "recognizing
stated
them". Once more
and patronizing
institutions
steps
integrative
were proposed
and a whole chapter was
by the State functionaries
that the religious
to the d?n? madaris
dedicated
system. Realizing
and
free education,
all
this
"are
schools
(i.e.
boarding
doing
and
on
donations
basis
through
by raising
self-financing
lodging)
other measures without costing anything to the national
exchequer"
the concerned
policy makers set up a five years twidget for the
the financial needs of these
d?n? madaris, heavily
underestimating
income
institutions
only 9% of the madaris1
representing
religious
in 1979.
The National
Committee
on Dini Madaris
and
its aftermath
a committee was set up in order to conduct a

Consequently
once more aimed at bringing the "madrassahs
Its
survey.
proposals
of modern age on the one
with the requirements
in consonance
10
hand
Islamic
Studies,
tenets and spirit of Islam on

and the basic
implying a different notion of Islam and what ought
in the religious
institutions.
28:1
(1989)
the other1'12
to be taught
a modernized
curriculum was produced
Accordingly
granting
least one third of the teaching
time to modern subjects
and
enlarging the time frame. The modern subjects were Islamic History,
General Science, Economics, Political
Sciences, Comparative
Religion,
Urdu, Persian while the books for most of the new subjects were to
be prescribed
of Education
(see also Appendix:
by the Department
Different Curricula).
at
*
the administrative
set-up a National Organization
Concerning
was
of Dinl Madaris'
to be supervized
proposed which was partially
the cfini madaris were
to be
by the Government while
financially
the
Central
Government
and
the
sponsored by
Auqaf Departments.
it was
stated
no
that
the Government
had
However,
clearly
intention to intervene in the internal affairs of the dini madaris11.
This approach
meant not only to unify the dini madaris and
to streamline them with the concept of 'basic needs' but was also
to produce material desires
among the Ulama and their disciples1*.
These
were
material
desires
to be
fulfilled
'Islamic
through
technics1
like
the implementation
of the Zakat
(Islamic
system
taxes; a divine duty).
or State
official
Islam propagated
The
by the State?the
autonomous
to
and
curb
had
the
Islam?has
always
tendency
As can be seen from the conception
autochthonous
developments.
it is quite different from that being
stated above,
of State-Islam
as
at
the
level, be it the "Tariqah-Islam"
grassroots
prevalent
or be
it the
of Pakistanis
the vast
majority
represented
by
1'
'
as represented
the
Shari'ah-Islam'
authorities,
by the religious
to
of
and
the
State
In
order
the
stabilize
'ulam?\
power
fuqah?'
and its defenders
and thus to cement the status quo the official
contrast
to Shari*ah?and
used
in a
Islam?in
Tariqah-Islam?is
overrun
to
all
autonomous
movements.
way
The need
for reform (i?lah) was felt by different segments
a part of the 'Ulama* from the Deobandi
of the society,
except
school
of thought
(the Shia will not be considered
here).
They
on
the
of
the
Dini
Committee
Mad?ris
National
rejected
proposals
a nation-wide
the Government
by
launching
campaign
calling
their fear of
'secular*
(la d?ni; lit. without religion) and expressing
its
and
thus
be
controlled
and
The
toys
becoming
subjected.
because
of a well planned
campaign succeeded
partially
organiza
tion of the Waf?q al-Madaris
an elaborate
having
al-4arabiyyah
network of religious schools.
Islamic
Studies,
28:1
Table, U Maslak-wise
(1989)
11
Dini Mad?ris
1960
Jaa?'at
Isi?m
1983/84
354(158)
(945)
123
267(189)
(557)
55
47
126(67)
18 Shl'ah
15
41(16)
(116)
(41)
(57)
(107)
(13)
not available
1979
292
98
Brelwi
Hadith
in Pakistan
their affiliations
1971
233
Deobandi
Mile
and
Jan. 1984
(1097)
(76)
(56)
390
55 900
Sources:
Repoli
schools
Lahore
Figures
Ahmad II pp. 691;

Ahmad I Pp. 705-708;
HaJtzpota
different lists and registers of the respective
pp. 194-197;
1986 in
of thought as well as personal
talks in Jan./Feb.
and Multan with the concerned
authorities.
in parantheses
display
the affiliated
dini mad?ris
only.
1 indicates
the popularity of the different schools of thought
to the numbers of cBn? madaris).
is
quantified
(popularity
according
The Deobandi
in Pakistan
school of thought is the most popular
followed by the Brelwi and the Ahle Hadith. These are followed by
the Shia and the Jama*at-e Islami madaris.
All schools of thought
the
in the Punjab
Deobandis
concentration
manifest
their
except
and display very little dissemination
in other
through dim madaris
at least upto 1979.
provinces,
Table
this elaborate
Besides
network
there is the possibility
of
ties:
is
that
the
It
main
dim
influencing
through family
argued
that led the campaign are the property of one or two
mad?ris
families being
of the famous Maulan?
descendants
Ashraf
'All
Th?nawL
the campaign
received
momentum by
(d. 1941) Finally
of Mufti Mahmud
the non-conformist
the
(d.
1980)
approach
leader of the PNA against
Bhutto and the president of the Wafaq
al-Mad?ris.
the Draft Ordinance
for the dim madaris,
Accordingly
elaborated
by the concerned Ministry and resembling very much the
Ordinance
of the Islamic University 1980 had to be given up.
Equivalence
and Curricula
With the new announcement

of the equivalence
of the d?ni
mad?ris
certificates
with the formal school certificates
in 1982 a
new dimension emerged. This equivalence
was to be granted only if
the cf?m mad?ris
a 16 years
curriculum with a
.were to produce
considerable
part of 'modern subjects^15 , just in conformity with
Islamic
12
Studies,
28:1
(1989)
the demands of the Halepota

Report. The Wafaq as well as the
not changing
Brelwi Tanzim produced modified
syllabi, nevertheless
to
able
of thought were
Both schools
much of their subjects.
from 8 to 9 years to 16 years thus claiming
stretch their curricula
Urdu and
like Diniyat,
of equivalence
the entitlement
(subjects
Nizami anyway
for the Dars-i
Persian were prerequisite
(compare
cf?ni madaris
the
Once more
different
Curricula))1*.
Appendix:
in preserving
succeeded
parts of their autonomy at
organizations
least for the time being.
1 the number of affiliated
As can be seen from Table
cfini
of thought increased
madaris
of each school
considerably
during
of the dini madaris
the last years. This is due to the equivalence
on the one hand and the financial support through the
certificates
is being
the affiliation
Zakat
In fact,
system on the other.
undertaken
with the view
towards being
by official
recognized
norms. An interesting development,
can be called
however, is?what
a
and
d?n? madaris
the
formative phase?among
the different
as can be seen from Table
have
1; the Deobandis
Wafaqs/Tanzims
even
in other provinces,
to disseminate
their cause
been
able
can
in
for some
be
disclosed
Similar
tendencies
Sindh.
especially
other schools of thought. While the majority of the Brelwis and the
to the Punjab
the Shia have been
Ahle Hadith is still confined
to
be
their
The
the
Northern
Areas
stronghold.
developing
on
hand
Islami
the
other
have
to
preferred
propagate
Jama'at-e
their cause in the NWFP.
a sharp
With the equivalence
scheme we not only witness
increase
in the number of dini madaris but also in the number of
of
While the production
which has been
graduates
spectacular.
Ulama was 5>6ll during I960 to 1980 it increased during 1981 to
1985 to 6,230 (see: The boom of graduates).
considerable
and
developments
imply a
potential
in fact of all
and their leaders,
among the diri! mad?ris
of thought. However,
been
this
they have
developing
of
dissemination
in
and
institutionalization
reaction
eagerness
only
to the attempts of intervention made by the State,
that is to say
was produced
that the motivational
incentive
by the officials.
one may see a tendency
towards regionalization
Moreover,
among
different schools of thought and thus a concentration
of different
Islams in different regions.
These
mobility
schools
Zakat
The main measure
the Government
introduced
was,
by
the Zakat system that was implemented in 1980 and which
however,
in the financial matters and
brought about a considerable
change
of the ef?n?mad?ris.
The Zakat and Ushr Ordinance
1980
pattern
for a religious matter elaborated
(ZUO) once more is an example
upon not by religious scholars but basically
by a secular body and
form. The ZUO had been a target
implemented in its most pragmatic
Islamic
Studies,
28:1
13
(1989)
of severe
'seculars*.
from the Ulama as well

as from the
criticism, both
in order
to pacify
the
However,
theologians?who,
and still consider
the ZUO not to be in
however, mostly considered
accordance
with Shari'ah?a
Zakat
scheme was installed according
to which a considerable
to benefit,
i.a.
part of the society was
the Ulama and their disciples.
In accordance
with the pattern of
disbursement prescribed
(CZA)
by the Central Zakat Administration
to disburse
the Provincial
Zakat Administrations
the.
(PZAs) have
total amount of Zakat received
from the former in compliance with
a fixed scheme providing
i.a. 10% for the dini mad?ris and their
from
the
Provincial
Zakat Funds (PZ Funds). But
students
annually
were transferred to the
in the years
1980-84 merely Rs 98,303,700
d?ni mad?ris representing
3.5% of the total Zakat money disbursed.
The
transferred to the dini
however
9.4% was
following year,
in the money
mad?ris
increase
alone.
This meant a remarkable
to the Ulama and their students.
disbursed
Zakat money is the right of the poor and as such had to be
disbursed
that Zakat
Thus it should be assumed
from
accordingly.
the PZ Funds was to be disbursed
among those dini mad?ris which
have low incomes and could not look after their students properly.
One main finding of the Halepota
Report was that the d?n? mad?ris
had lower incomes than expenditures.
it was one of
Accordingly,
the main demands of the Committee on Dini Mad?ris
to support the
dini madaris
to
The policy-makers,
tended
however,
financially.
the
and
their
students.
In
madaris
those
fact,
sponsor
'prominent*
Zakat at least during the first disbursements were well
receiving
d?ni mad?ris and hence had considerable
established
budgets17.
The
start
of disbursement
was
made
by giving
Zakat
to 825
d?ni mad?ris through PZAs making only 47% of the 1,745 d?ni
mad?ris
we see
in the Report of 1979. In the subsequent

surveyed
years
a steady increase
of d?ni mad?ris as well as beneficiaries
in 1983/84. The number of 825 d?ni mad?ris
increased
to
except
1,373 in 1982/83 and reached
2,273 in 1984/85, a nearly three fold
increase.
the
number
of
students
Simultaneously,
benefiting
increased
from 67,201
in the first year
to 111,050
in 1984/85
in 1984/85xe.
implying that nearly twice as many students benefited
In order to benefit from the Zakat scheme the d?ni mad?ris

to be registered
are subject
and hence
to scrutiny. This
of the privacy
and autonomy of
scrutiny also implies an exposure
the c??n? mad?ris,
a fact that produced
as we will see
problems
have
later.
A PZ Ulama Committee,
of Ulama of different
consisting
schools
of thought of equal members?at
in Punjab?looks
least
after the cf?n?mac .ris affairs. This committee has framed a scheme
to which the dim mad?ris were to be
according
sponsored. The first
scheme which
funds ranging
from Rs. 10,000
to
only provided
Rs. 20,000 annually/dini mad?ris was
too limited to bring about a
in the d?ni mad?ris pattern
and was therefore
enhanced.
change
Islande
Studies,
28:1
(1989)
the first scheme had categorised

the dim madaris into three
ten categories,
levels, the scheme of 1981/82 provided
ranging from
Rs. 15,000
to Rs. 70,000
the
madaris.
Moreover,
annually/dim
a certain Zakat amount were no more confined
to receive
criteria
to the number of students only but were enlarged
to the curricula
Now the first three categories
also.
of d?n? madaris had to offer
the highest
standards
of learning
[dauoiah hadtth) since in the
scheme
this stage
is equal
to M.A.).
three
These
equivalence
are
followed by two 'secondary*
categories
categories
[mawqvL^
now equal
to B.A.) and two dars-i nizaml categories
(the
'aXayh;
course in the Subcontinent,
classical
religious
usually six years of
are followed by three categories
of
study). These seven categories
memorization
and reading of the holy Qur'an
(hif? and na?irah).
The scheme in 1982/83 enhanced
the funds for the dini mad?ris
in
now
its
the highest amount for those
1983/84:
reaching
peak
more
institutions
than
200
and offering dawKah
boarders
having
hadttth as well as dars-i niz?m? and spending more than Rs. 300,000
on construction
costs annually, received
from the PZ
Rs. 300,000
Council.
This amount meant an increase
of 300% for the higher
levels
the years
while
the middle
1981-84
during
categories
a
somewhat
(secondary=mawq?f)
increase.
modest
The
display
from ^mawquf* downwards
to the tenth category
(hifz
categories
and n?zirah)
however suffer from a policy neglecting
them.
While
In
we
witness
little
increase
in these
relatively
from
This
33% to 50% during the same period15.
categories
ranging
a
the
dini
towards
mad?ris
the
particular
implies
policy
displaying
intention to support the larger dini madaris which are mainly to be
areas at the cost of smaller ones which are
found in urbanized
areas.
in
rural
the increase
of the
prevalent
Notwithstanding
of beneficiaries?which
number
is primarily
because
of
the
tremendous
increase
of small and new established
maktabA (small
seems to be further urban hegemony
c?ni madaris)?there
at the
cost of what is called "ruralization
of education".
fact,
It has been estimated that the Zakat, being disbursed by the

Government among the dini mad?ris, bears a significant
impact. The
overall
increase
in the budgets
of the dini mad?ris
is mainly
of the Zakat money pouring
because
in from the PZ Councils.
there are some differences
Admittedly,
among the dini mad?ris
Zakat share in their budgets.
It can, however, roughly
concerning
be said that this share amounts to one third of the total income
of a madfauah per year. At the same time the PZA's donations
are
to 50% of the traditional
Zakat
income received
dim
equal
by
madaris
channels.
The PZ fund amount has been
through private
we have seen?thus
increasing
steadily?as
bearing a momentum of
that the
However, at the same time, it is calculated
dependence.
sources
traditional
of
income
were
for the dirii mad?ris
not
affected by the ZUO.
the
The reluctance
of the CZA towards smaller dim madaris poses
as
to how
can
institutions
eradicate
indigenous
question
Islande
Studies,
28:1
15
(1989)
if they are not sponsored properly. The decline of Zakat

illiteracy
to the smaller and remote d?n? mad?ris was probably
to
payments
the
of
the
dim
mad?ris
also:
(see
stop
'mushroom-growth1
and Curricula).
Equivalence
MUSHROOM-GROWTH
in Punjab, 1974-1985'
Table 2 Registered
institutions
shows
the tremendous increase
of the cfini mad?ris in Punjab from 1974 to
1985. Other provinces
display similar tendencies.
Tobte. 2: Registered
Year of
Total
registration
number
of
in Punjab,
institutions
<%>
dini
1974-1985?+)
Private
Schools
nadaris
regd,
instit.
1974
117
(100)
21
(17,9)
1975
444
(100)
38
(08,6)
1978
815
(100)
175
(21,5)
1983
966
(100)
389
(40,3)
199
(20,6)
17
(02,1)
1984
2222
(100)
588
(26,5)
354
(15,9)
1985
1793
(100)
481
(26,8)
110
(06,1)
Stock
Company
(Punch
House,
Source:
Lahore,
in the Punjab
Investigations
16./17./23. Feb. 1986)
= For
the years
1984 and
1985
(+)
Sargodha
Divisions have not been subject to investigations.
and
Gujranwala
of these institutions has outnumbered

In fact, the increase
for
all other kinds of institutions
registered
during this period
Act i860.
educational
and religious
under the Societies
purposes
true for the more remote areas where
formal
This is especially
restricted
education?here
schools;?is
represented
through private
we witness
to different
due
the
In the rural areas,
problems.
substratum
for the mushroom-growth
of the dini madaris
being
to the teaching of Qur'?n, some degree of primary
mostly confined
education
and
in mosques.
the
located
being
Accordingly,
of c??ni mad?ris
in relation
to the total number of
percentage
institutions
in urbanized
like Rawalpindi
divisions
and
registered
is much lower than that in rural divisions
Lahore
like Dera Ghazi
Khan and Bahawalpur.
While the former two display 58 and 140 dini
mad?ris
(both 17% of their total number of registered
institutions)
16
respectively
in 1984,
the corresponding
Islamic
Studies,
figures
for Dera Ghazi
28:1
(1989)
Khan
and Bahawalpur divisions are 85 d?ri?mad?ris (58%) and 134 d?rii
mad?ris
The
(60%)
respectively.
a different but
reflect
however,
divisions of Rawalpindi
and Lahore
than the other two divisions.
The peak
of both,
the dM
data
on
the 'private
schools',
here the
picture:
corresponding
show many more private
schools
madaris
and
the private
schools
was in 1983/84 while both declined in 1984/85. Concerning the

this might indicate
of the market in
the saturation
private schools
the more urbanized
areas.
The cfini madaris,
seemed to
however,
to the Zakat
a
have
disbursement
responded
policy
indicating
commercial character
of the new established
din? mad?ris. Moreover,
it has been possible
for the State to channel and control the dim
madaris via Zakat.
THE BOOMOF GRADUATES

As hinted at earlier
there has been a significant
increase
the
in
maulanas
and among different
schools
of
among
general
in
we
1
From
derive
Chart
the
may
thought
particular.
following
statements: From I960 to 1985 (26 years) a total number of 11,841
were
maulanas
in Pakistan.
Out of these
'registered'
produced
11,841 maulanas 69% were produced only between 1978 and 1985
while in the 18 years, fromI960 to 1977 it had been merely 3,643
or 31%.
Since 1981, which was the year of the implementation of the

as well
as
scheme
the consolidation
of the Zakat
Equivalence
the number of graduates
increased
While
scheme,
spectacularly.
there were only 1,968 graduates
during the early period of General
Zia
their number became
In the
(1978-80),
2,629 during 1981-83.
two years
the production
of the maulanas
its
reached
following
(this tendency
culminating point with 3,601 or 30% of all graduates
might go on for the next years to come).
can further be seen from the chart we may witness a
of the Ahle Hadith,
very sharp increase of the number of graduates
who have been organizing
its graduates
from 1978 onwards. Their
relative share is but only 11%.
As
The
Brelwis,
who
have
since
1974
comprehensively
(3,557).
'registered* maulanas
be seen from 1978 onwards.
been organizing
more
their graduates
have
been
30% of all
producing
A constant number of graduates
can
The Deobandis
once more display the most popular stand. The
has
been
57% of all the 11,841 maulanas
Waf?q
producing
during
the years
under scrutiny.
As can be seen,
the Waf?q
is active
since
The sharpest
I960.
is during 1984 and
increase,
however,
1985. The Shia have been starting to produce graduates
under the
Islamic
Studies,
28:1
17
(1989)
of their Waf?q
auspices
at
least
299 graduates
graduated maulanas.
since
1984 and have been
or 2.56% of the total
able to produce
number of the
It can further be elaborated

that the Brelwis and the Ahle
seem to have reacted much earlier to the official measures
and the Shi'ah.
implemented by the Government than the Deobandis
While we can see a sharp increase
of
of the first two schools
we
an
since
increase
for
witness
the
1978,
thought
equivalent
latter two only from 1984 onwards.
Hadith
There
is no doubt
that
the Shi'ah
and parts
of the
are not conformists;
Deobandis
of their
this might be a reason
to the official policies.
reaction
The Brelwis and
delayed
positive
the Ahle Hadith who have heavily been profiting
from the Zakat
even if there
scheme seem to reflect a more conformist character
are some exceptions
their
'Ulama'.
among
We may conclude
that the number of graduates
has been
it seems to be?in
increasing
just?as
significantly
conformity with
the Zia regime's policies.
The problem, however, will arise when
these
not
will
be
maulanas
integrated
officially
recognized
a mismatch.
i.e.
is the
if they become
Then
there
properly,
for the government.
of their becoming a boomerang
possibility
Identifying
the graduates
While
of the dim mad?ris regarding

identifying the graduates
as
as
one may
of graduation
of
well
places
places
origin
into
and
social
the
of the
acquire
background
insight
geographical
This has been done here paradigmatically
for
'clergy* in Pakistan.
the students and maulanas
of the Brelwi school of thought. These
students have been candidates
in the examinations
conducted under
the guidelines
in dawrah
of the 'Tanzim al MadSris al-'arabiyyah*
hadith, the highest degree of religious learning.
their
to Table 3, 'Province and year-wise

dissemination
According
of Brelwi graduates'
the majority of the Brelwi candidates
belong
to the Punjab province
(73%) followed by Azad Kashmir
(A.K.),
NWFP, Sindh and Baluchistan.
18 Islamic
Tobte.
3: Prov?nce
Province
of origin
PUNJAB
(1989)
of Brelwi graduates
1979 total
in
%
1981
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
110
89
82
61
107
316
765
73.0
47,292,441
10
7
SIND
10
13
37
81
7.7
19,028,666
14
17
NWFP
38
88
8.4
11,061,328
4,332,376
BALUCH.
A.K.
10
20
1.9
10
11
10
14
36
86
8.2
0.8
85
140
444
1048
100.0
OTHERS
TOTAL
dissemination
and year-wise
28:1
Studies,
145
Source:
125
Registers
109
of
the
graduates
of
the
Tanzlm
Population
84,253,644
al-Mad?ris
al
calculations
'arabiyyah for the years 1974-1979, Lahore (cyclostyled),
thereof and 1981 CtrUu* Rtpoit oj Pak?Aan
(Islamabad, 1984)._
and
of origin are
Sahiwal
The main centers
(143=13.6%)
Multan districts
(86=8.2%) while Dera Ghazi Khan and Muzaffargarh
It may be noted
districts
(8.7%).
together comprise 91 graduates
come
and
that
from Lahore,
few graduates
very
Rawalpindi
66 graduates=6.3%),
Faisalabad
districts
(total
implying a rural
of the Brelwi school
rather than urban background
of the maulanas
from remote
of thought. In fact, most of the graduates
originate
areas around the respective
cflni mad?ris usually staying there upto
is that of small landholders
Their family background
graduation.
while only 214 graduates
could
landless peasants
and/or
(20.4%)
claim to descend
from traditional religious families1 ?.
the places
Concerning
who have graduated
in Punjab
of graduation
(80.2%)
840 graduates
have been analysed
in the Table 4:
Islamic
Table.
Studies,
4: Places
28:1
(1989) 19
of graduation
District/Town
of Brelwi Ulama
Number
in Punjab,
1974-79
of graduates
MULTAN
183
SAHIWAL/OKARA
169
LAHORE
162
FAISALABAD
158
RAWALPINDI
64
OTHERS
104
TOTAL
840
of the graduates of the Tan?Tm al Mad?ri s

Source: Registers
calculations
for the years 1974-1979, Lahore (cyclostyled),
al-'arabiyyah
thereof.
turn out to be the

Once more Multan and Sahiwal districts
been
have
Faisalabad
and
Lahore
while
centres
main
gaining
of
centres
Brelwi
traditional
their
of
because
students
having
number
total
The
attracts
64
merely
graduates.
learning. Rawalpindi
is 180 while
144
in Sindh
been
of Ulama having
graduated
20
NWFP
The
Karachi.
of
in the dirii mad?ris
represents
graduated
Baluchistan
Bannu.
and
Mardan
in
Peshawar,
mainly
graduates
comprises only 0.8% of the students.
of recruitment as well as
the areas
These
findings display
that before
It has been argued
of the Brelwi Ulama.
settlement
in the
the Brelwi school of thought was not very popular
partition
is now India. With the
to
what
was
confined
and
Pakistan
present
became
in 1947 lots of East-Punjabi
refugees
(hijrah)
migration
residents of those areas which are called canal colonies. From here
of living
the Hindu citizens had migrated to India and thus a place
the predominance
was provided
for the Muslim migrants. Moreover,
in and around
of holy men in the Punjab?especially
of veneration
room for the
Khan
Ghazi
and
Dera
districts?gave
Multan, Sahiwal
of
school
Brelwi
oriented
of the popular,
dissemination
peasant
thought.
centres,
have different ideological
The Deobandi
graduates
their stronghold being the NWFP and Afghanistan while Dar al-'Ul?m
of
is the centre
district)
Akora Khattak
(Peshawar
rlaqq?niyyah,
Once
to
at
least
1980.
of the Deobandi
the production
4Ulam?',
up
few of them coming
from rural areas,
more the graduates
originate
Islamic
20
Studies,
28:1
(1989)
of recruitment are Mansehra,

families. The centres
from religious
Ismail Khan
Marxian, Peshawar,
Bannu, Dir and Dera
Afghanistan,
to predominance)
while the only outstanding
districts
(according
and
than the NWFP are Multan
of a province
other
districts
the
out
of
be
Deobandi
It
that
1/3
may
pointed
Muzaffargarh.
while about
in the Dar al-fUlGm Haqq?niyyah
Ulama are produced
from Afghanistan.
22% of these graduates
Indeed, the ties
originate
are very old and date
to Afghanistan
from the days of the
of
in
India11.
the
Dar
Deoband
al-'Ul?m
beginning
The Ahle Hadith graduates
display a different picture, being
a
to
confinable
few
of the Punjab which can be
districts
mainly
centres
like Faisalabad,
called
the commercial
of this province
while only 7.1% could claim
Cftcara, Qasur, Sahiwal and Gujranwala,
to descend
from religious background.
It may be concluded
that the majority of the dini mad?ris
from areas not having
the
thus
graduates?and
'ulama'?originate
on the one hand
been directly
strategies
targets of development
and displaying a relatively high number of tenants on the other11.
as
This can be traced for the Brelwis as well as for the Deobandis
well as for the Ahle Hadith schools of thought. One may say that
even
towards urban
the migration
in this sector
of education
can be seen as a result of regional
centres
disparities
brought
about by tendentious planning. This is very striking since there has
been a large shift from the graduate
producing areas like Peshawar
and Multan
to Karachi
The emerging
during the last few years.
in Karachi can also be seen on that background.
conflict potential
Jihad,
Islamization
and
the Ulama
of the
for the defence
the masses
to mobilize
of 'Gh?zV,
and
traditions
old
borders,
perceptions
geographical
time to time
'Shahid',
'Jihad* and 'Muj?hid' have been revived from
as has been
the case during the Ayub regime. The
for example
has been a nightmare for
Pakistan
to ideological
'Soviet Threat*
for which may be varied and numerous.
the reasons
the regimes;
the Pakistan/Islam
ideology is to build
Being determined externally,
In fact, the Ulama of
a buffer against
the communist chimare.
even if it was an 'Islamic
felt tantalized
Pakistan
by socialism,
of 'ni^?m-e
With the prelude
it may be).
Socialism1
(whatever
mustaf?* and the Zia regime the maulanas, muftis and their students
the irreligiousness
seem to have gained ground fighting against
(l?
on
has
hand
other
CII
the
The
communist
of
ideology.
d?niyyat)
socialist
and
all
to suspend
been
agnostic
proposing
always
and professors
of teachers
and the removal especially
tendencies
if they were known to hold such views. These
from their posts
have been put into practice
by the Zia regime.
proposals
In
which
order
The Jama'at-i
Isl?m?, one of the political
with
is known for its close cooperation
parties in Pakistan,
the Zia Government
Islamic
Studies,
28:1
21
(1989)
seems
a clear-cut
to have
towards
socialism.
It is
approach
in the Afghanistan
that the Jama4at is heavily engaged
assumed,
to the Jihad by
Jihad. This is not only indicated by its contribution
it publishes
but also by the fact that the Jama' at has
material
in the NWFP. It is
schools
been
constantly
building up religious
areas
were
in these
that
19 out of 20 dini mad?ris
striking
established
after the Soviet intervention
1979 and 13 out of these
20 were established
in Dir district and Bajor Agency23, both areas
to
the
linked
directly
Afghanistan territory.
and Ulama
of the dim mad?ris
is only one branch
This
for
its part
of
in
The
Deobandi
school
Jihad.
engaged
thought
to be
in the Jihad being
claims
leader
the actual
fought in
in Akora
the Dar al-*Ul?m Haqq?niyyah
Especially
Afghanistan.
Khattak
Deobandi
(which has been producing
1/3 of the Pakistani
is of the view that the leading muj?hid?n have studied in
Ulama)
is dealt with
this Dar al-'U10m.
the Afghan issue
Consequently
in its monthly magazine
any
Although
exhaustively
'al-Haqq12'1.
could not be
evidence
of direct military training in this madrasah
at least
that Jihad is disseminated
there is no doubt
located,
are
there
from
in
of
boarders
about
the
600
40%
fact,
morally;
and a lot of them reportedly go for Jihad and "this
Afghanistan
the
This indicates
does not disturb
the classes
during the year".
al-'Ulum.
Dar
The
in
this
latest
of
support
Jihad
Afghanistan by
on dim mad?ris
official
conducted
survey
by the Ministry of
a keen
in the religious
educational
interest
Education
displays
institutions of the NWFP which were surveyed exhaustively while all
One reason for this tendency might
other provinces were neglected.
as centres
of
to mobilize
be the consideration
the dirii mad?ris
to the Soviet threat in one way or the other. According
resistance
to the information
from the concerned Ministry there were 7002
in
the dim mad?ris
of
the NWFP in 1982
students
Afghan
ethnic
Accepting
representing 9% of the students of that province.
a
and
Pakhtuns
of
Pakistan
Links among
the
Afghanistan
Tiobilization of dim mad?ris students for the Jihad seems to be very
easy.
RESISTANCE
the
"Since
stated:
Karachi
from
The Mowing NtM
have voiced
Madaris
Deeni
the
introduction of the Zakat
system,
that their source of private donations have dried" while
complaints
be
this is not the case and
to our calculations
according
cannot^
dirii
madaris
the
resistance
a
considerable
among
verified. However,
Zia ul
and the 'mama1 during the Islamization period under General
main
the
one
of
be
to
therein proves
Haq cannot be denied. Zakat,
resistance.
and
political
pegs of criticism
the CZA was of the view that the dim madaris should
in
and auditing and should be supervised
to
be subject
bookkeeping
of
this bureaucratization
a proper Zakatflow,
order to guarantee
While
22
Islamic
Studies,
28:1
(1989
religious education was rejected by a large number of *Ulam?\ The>

argued that this meant a supervision of the internal affairs of the
cfln?mad?ris
status not only b;
and an usurpation
of the Ulama's
the State
but also
the diri
since
Moreover,
by the students.
to one political
madaris were affiliated
party or the other, thi
intervention
and control
of th<
implied a political
supervision
state.
the
parties by
The CZA cited the daily Urdu lo&JwX according
to which th<
Sindhi d?nl mad?ris were not accepting
the Zakat amounts disbursec
the Zakat
by the PZA. Formally it was because
system was no
to the Shari'ah
and the muftis had not agreed upon i
according
this approach had political
yet15, basically
implications.
Once more this was a campaign
launched by the Deoband
- aa
had proclaime
which
organization
Waâq a
odâ/iabiyyah
the boycott
of the Zakat
to th
system in June 1981. According
of the Wafaq
to be
director'
the Zakat
is held
'education
bribe
This wa
political
[MyaM. to/hvoat) and could not be accepted.
in line with the fatwa given by Mufti Mahmud in 1980, the the
leader
of the PNA. It has been said that nearly all Sindhi dir
madaris affiliated
with the Waf?q were not taking Zakat "becaus
of the particular
situation
of Sindh"1*.
This can be verified b
the fact that neither the PZA Sindh has yet (autumn 1986) chalke
out a scheme for the disbursement of Zakat among the dini mad?ri
nor was the amount distributed
schools wort
among the religious
In
the
first
three
of
the Zakc
fact,
mentioning.
years
during
received
1.8% out of th
system the Sindhi dini mad?ris
merely
total amount disbursed
among them from the PZAs. Similarly ther
were only 45 cf?n?madaris
(1.3% of all benefiting
school
religious
in the three years) profiting from the scheme in Sindh. Admitted!
the numbers of both, the dini mad?ris and the students as well c
the amounts disbursed
increased
1984. But this ws
rapidly since
of the recipients
to schools of thougl
mainly because
belonging
other than the Deobandi
one.
As
has been
said earlier
the Deobandi
cfini madaris wei
in
number
in
the
increasing
province of Sindh and at the same tirr
do not receive Zakat. Simultaneously
there is a heavy resistance
i
to intervene even more radically. On th
Sindh, forcing the State
other hand those schools of thought that are not very
popular i
Sindh (vide page 9 and 10) are being supported heavily by th
State.
Thus
provincial
the State
upheavals
might have the opportunity to intervene ini

<
through conformist Ulama and their places
learning.
We may state that the Zakat has been

trickling down to tl
diril madaris especially
among the Brelwis and the Ahle Hadith eve
in Sindh. A fraction of the Deobandis
<
continue
the tradition
resistance
that was
reflected
in the
also
16 yea
political
curriculum
dealt
with
earlier
(Table
Curricula
5. Different
since
school
of thought and Waf?q/Tanz?m
Moreover,
every
Islamic
Studies,
28:1
(1989)
23
or the other
affiliated
in one way
with a political
the
party
resistance
of the dim mad?ris might be reflected
in the political
parties which have been
legalized
lately. One may say that some
dini mad?ris represent vehicles
of regional nationalism.
CONCLUSION
of
the
heavy
a fraction
The issues of Zakat
and curricula only constitute
is
Islamization
the
resistance
which
and
voiced by
policy
criticism not only among the Ulama.
The basic
idea underlying the reformist approach
of the Zia
was
to
the
Ulama
towards
them
into
regime
reintegrate
given
mobilize
them for its
up to a certain degree?and
structures?only
interests. Pakistan has been displaying a high degree of dependency
on external
and alien pressures
enacted mostly by a anali ruling
elite
in Pakistan.
This segment being part of the international
into the internal circles of the world
system and being integrated
culture aims at subjecting
all other segments of the society?as
defined by world system
theory, one of them being the Ulama and
'
the dini mad?ris.
In fact,
the victims are not only integrated
into
the
but are also given new tasks. Jihad
establishment
partially
is only one of the
and the defence
borders
of the ideological
more
to disseminate
one?is
facets.
The other?the
far-reaching
the
cf?nimad?ris
and
students
of
media
the official policy
through
the way for the establishment
themselves, mainly in order to pave
areas
even
in remote areas
and to consolidate
of new markets
to modernizing development
which have not directly been subjected
has been
How far this approach
through the media
strategies.
in the
the increase
is yet to be seen. But considering
successful
in
number of (fini mad?ris and the students as well as the increase
some
one
the budgets
schools
of these
might expect
religious
results.
The
dirii mad?ris
have
been
themselves
pragmatic?by
from
the
financial
remunerations
receiving
companies
(mostly joint
ventures with foreign enterprises)
on
in their magazines
advertising
the one hand and appreciating
Zakat on the other. The price they
pay is their submission under the imperatives of the world-market
which is inherent in the Islamization
policy.
The new formation phase
and the
among the cf?ni mad?ris
Ulama, as a result of State intervention, may furthermore facilitate
a total taking over of the cfini mad?ris by the Government
that
would finally mean the internationalization
of the internal markets.
The
that
the dini
mad?ris
and
the
Ulama
pa'tronism
from the Zia regime is not just an altruistic
experienced
approach
but an attempt to get the official
trickled down to the
ideology
In this regard we may conclude
that the Islamization
grass-roots.
schools as it was pursued by the
of the Ulama and the religious
24 Islamic
Studies,
28:1
(1989)
TAbfe 5: Different Curricula

la
Subjectmatter
Qur'an,
lb
lc
memorizing
reading,
Morphology
Syntax
Arabic
Biography of the Prophet (Sirat)
Arithmatic
Pakistan Studies
General
Sciences
Sciences
English x x
Islamic Law/Tradition
Natural
Social
Sciences
Islamic
Law
Methods
of
Logic
Arabic
Islamic
Law
Literature
Tradition or Literature
Rhetorics
Qur'?n
interpretation
Tradition
Methods
Principles
of Tradition
and Scholastic
Philosophy
Islamic
History
Economics
#
Political Science
Cultural Sciences
Methods
Law
of
of Qur'?n
Tradition
#
#
interpretation
Comparative Religion
Discussions
(Mun?zarah)
Prosody
Religious studies (Diniy?t)
Urdu
Persian
(
Exercises (Tamrin)
Morals (Akhl?qiyy?t)
Law of Inheritance (Far?'id)
Dictation
# = These subjects are supposed to be taught after graduation [faAaghat] ii

a special course [dwtjah-i takhaû??; compare 3 pp. 7, 21 and 39).
(
) = Persian
la =
lb =
lc =
is prerequisite
for
the
Tanzim
courses.
Dars-i nizami; see HoMpota RzpoKt pp. 122, 135 and 147-155.
Eight years curriculum of the Waf?q al-Mad?ris al-'arabiyyah
Hatepota Repoli ibid.
Proposal by the National Committee on Dini Mad?ris 1979;
Hatepota KapoKt ibid.
se
se
Islamic
2 =
3 =
=
28:1
Studies,
25
(1989)
Waf?q proposal only partially implemented in 1983; see Solah ScXah

H?J&b-i ta llm [tajuoh), (Multan: Waf?q al-Mad?ris, 1983).
Waf?q proposal implemented in 1984; see S?lah Sctfah U?Mb-i ta'l?n
(manzM) (Multan: Waf?q al-Mad?ris, 1984)
Tanz?m proposal implemented in 1983; see Solan S?lak H?Aj?b-L ta'llm
(manzvLl?, (Lahore; Tanz?m al Mad?ris, 1984) and own elaborations.
is
State
then
at
with
proved
and
rather
pragmatism
are
some
instances
of indigenization
and
idioms.
of
continuity
even
if there
techniques'
means
dubious
the
Moreover,
approach.
a strategy
can be
called
a
than
'nativistic*
approach
integrationist
to be more what
has
Islamization
if not
however
running
successfully,
a clear
least
with
'Islamic
by using
NOTES AND REFERENCES

1.
2.
3.
(Frankfurt a.M.
See D. Senghaas, (ed.):' PvUphcKdK Kapitalismus
1981:3); D. Senghaas: Wo/twiAt?chait?OKdnungund Entwick?ingspolitik;
and K.Cough/H.P.
Pl?doytK <tk VltAoziation, (Frankfurt a.M., 1987:2);
Sharma, (eds.): ImpZK?aJ?Mand Revolution in South k?ia (New York,
thz Roots oi
H. Gardezi/J. Rashid,
(eds.):
PakiMan,
1973);
- tka
political economy oi a pnaeton?an Statu (London:
VictatonMp
Zed Press 1982); H. AlaviA. Shanin, (eds.): introduction to the
Sociology oi 'Developing Societies9 (London, 1982).
"Die Dritte Welt als Gegen
Compare D. Goldschmidt, et al. (eds.):
stand erziehungswissenschaftlicher forschung", in: 2eliScfoUit i?Ji
(Weinheim, 1981) who give a good account on these
P?dagogik,
developments.
Literature
on
religious
the period
for
especially
or
the
scarce
is very
One may
Pakistan.
education
traditional
after
of
creation
mention S. Muh. Salim: Hind ? Pakistan min musalm?n?n k? niz?m-e

and
ta'lun-o-taAbiyyat (Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1980), (Urdu)",
Ziaul
Haque:
two
"Muslim
(IS) Vol.
Studici
works
comprehensive
in
Education
.Religious
14/1, Islamabad
one
finds
Is?imic
Indo-Pakistan",
1975, pp. 271-292.

of
couple
these
Besides
surveys:
N.
Ahmad:
J?'izah mad?Ais-l 'aAabiyyak ?f?miyyah. maghnabl PakiMan (Lahore:

N.
(Urdu) (Ahmad I);
Anjuman-e Himayai-e Islam Press, I960),
Pakist?n
(Lahore:
I:
mad?H?s-l
J?'iah
Ahmad
maghnabl
'aiabiyyah
Government of
Himayat-e Islam Press, 1972), (Urdu) (Ahmad II);
Pakistan (GoP), Ministry of Religious Affairs: Report Qavoml kamKl
baAa-l dwi mad?His PakiMan, (Islamabad, 1979), (Urdu) (Halepota
Islamic
of education,
Report); Government of Pakistan Ministry
mad?n?s kZ {/hiiM
fe? dini
PakiMan
education Research Cell:
(Islamabad, 1984, Urdu).
4.
5.
Waqf,
See
pi.
B.D.
1860-1900,
Auqaf
are
Metcalf,
(Princeton
religions
endowments.
infamie Revival
University
Press,
in
B tUh
?ndia:
Veoband,
1982).
26 Islamic
6.
7.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
(1989)
9.
It may be noted here that the first survey on dim madaris in I960
was mainly financed by the American based Asia Foundation.
Pak?Man Observe*., Decca 13.3.1968.
(Oxford University Press, 1967)
Ayub Khan, Friends not mastzu,
specially pp. 194.
See Constitution o? the. islamic Republic o? Pakistan ?976, iati LX,
Para 230(4).
Q?Ltas âmti/Pishn?mah6a*a-e kamttt ma'adalah isndd dtrit uia jdrnUi,
25.8.1982 UGC, (Islmabad, 1982) (Urdu); see also UGC: A Guide to the
Equivalences o? Vegrees and Diplomas in PakiMan, (Islamabad, 1978),
pp. 84?
Halcpota Rzport, pp. 115.
Halcpota Repeat, p. 89 and pp. 102-109; similar demands had been
raised by the CII in 1978: Consolidated Recommendations etc. pp.
34.
It had been categorically rejected
by the founder-member of the
Dar al-'Ul?m Deoband Maul?n? Q?sim N?n?taw?
to
(1832-1880)
receive any kind of official and/or Government aid;
compare Ahmad I
pp. 732-734, Ahmad II, pp. 684-686 and Haque p. 282; see also Z.H.
FaAuqi: The. Vcoband school and the. Vcmand ion PakiMan (Lahore:
n.d.),
p.
26.
UGC (Pubi.): Highen Education Nzws, Vol. 11/10, Islamabad October

1982, pp. 1 and 8, see also: Notification: Equivalence o? Vini Asnad
uiith the University degree., UGC 17.11.1982 (mimeo).
The Ahle Hadith are still in the process to produce an enlarged
syllabus while the Jama'at-e Islami is in its embryonic phase
curriculum
concerning
17.
28:1
For the development of Islam as a theology towards ideology see R.

Schulze: "Die Politisierung des Islam im 19. Jahrhundert", in Vic
WoJbt
du Utam. Vol. XXII (1982) pp. 103-116. For the concept of
integrationist and isolationist see R. Schulze: "Islamische Kultur und
soziale Bewegung", in Pct?phcn?C *. 18/19 (1985) pp. 60-84.
See: Report of the Committee set up by the Governor of West
Pakistan for Recommending improved Syllabus for the various Darul
Ulooms and Arabic Madrasas in West Pakistan, Lahore, 1962, pp. 1
and
8.
9.
Studies,
development
and
is accordingly
not
recognized
by the Ministry of Education.

F.e. the twelve largest dirii madaris in NWFP that received at least
40,000 Rs (highest amounts) from the PZ Council in the first year's
disbursement were running well and had surplus budgets in 1970;
compare also Ahmad II pp. 404-449.
Calculations on the basis of data provided by the CZA, Islamabad.
Compare Az-Zakat, Vol. I/I, Islamabad 1981, p. 22; the calculations
have been made on the basis of data provided by the PZA Punjab.
Calculations are based on the registers. For the religious background
the titles of the father (maul?n?, h?fi?, q?ri etc.) have been
assumed
to be
the
criteria.
See also S. Mahbub Rizvi: Tfo&h V?i al-'Ut?m Vtoband, (Dehli, 1977)
Vol. I pp. 295 et passim (Urdu) and Metcalf, op. ciL p. 134.
The Deobandis had always had a good connection to Afghanistan via
Lahore
and
Peshawar.
For the land patterns see Mahmood H. Khan: Underdevtlopmznt and

Agrarian Structure in PakiMan, (Lahore: Vanguard Books Ltd. 1981).
Islamic
23.
24.
26.
(1989) 27
See
(Lahore,
a*?rui; Rab?tatu-l mada?b ?l ??anUyyah Pakistan,
1984), see also Harald, July 1986: Interview with Ataullah Mengal, p.
56 and The a ?a , 4.2.1986.
This
Dar
is
al-'Ul?m
Trunk Road
compound
25.
28:1
Studies,
of
about
accessable
easily
50
being
km from Peshawar
on
located
next
to
Nowshera.
the
Grand
the military
For the Jihad propaganda see al-Haqq, Vol. 19/3 pp. 6-9; Vol. 20/12
pp. 9-15; Vol. 21/1 pp. 5-13 et passim.
CIA, Proceedings, Vol. II (Islamabad 1983), pp. 249 and p. 303
(Urdu)
The information on the Sindhi situation was provided by the
concerned
officer
of
the Wafaq
in Multan
on
2.2.1986.
The Sindhi situation is characterized by the increasing ratio of

criminality on the one hand and by a strong nationalistic stand on
the
other.
compare
Both,
also
however,
Harald,
can
especially
be
seen
Sept.?Dec.
as
outcomes
of
deprivation;
1986.
???
28 Islamic
Studies,
28:1
(1989)
ABBREVIATIONS
A.K.
Azad
CII
Kashmir
Council
of Islamic
CZA
Central
Zakat
Administration
CZ Fund
Central
Zakat
Fund
J.I.
Jama'at-e
NCDM
National
Committee
NEP
National
Education
NWFP
North West Frontier
PNA
Pakistan
PZA
Provincial
Zakat
Administration
PZ Fund
Provincial
Zakat
Fund
PZC
Provincial
Zakat
Council
ZIX)
Zakat
Ideology
Islami
National
on Dini Madaris
Policy
1979
Province
Alliance
and Ushr Ordinance
33RD
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS
OF ASIAN AND
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The
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Congress of Asian and North African
of Orientalists)
will take
International
Congress
(formerly
in Toronto August
19 through 25, 1990, on the campus of
place
The program theme is "Contacts between
the University of Toronto.
To receive
the Congress,
Cultures."
concerning
please
mailings
to the 33 ICANAS Secretariat,
write
c/o Profs,
lulia Ching and
Willard Oxtoby, Victoria College,
University of Toronto, Toronto M5S
1K7, Canada.
Studies
33rd
to present a paper should write to the

Any scholar wishing
on the
Congress Secretariat
enclosing a 75- to 150-word abstract,
a
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ISLAMIZATION IN PAKISTAN 1977-1985: THE ULAMA AND THEIR PLACES OF LEARNING

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ISLAMIZATION IN PAKISTAN 1977 - 1985 THE ULAMA AND THEIR PLACES OF LEARNING

Author(s): S. JAMAL MALIK

ISLAMIZATION INPAKISTAN 1977-1985

into three periods:

the AyubianEra (1958-1969)

THE AYUBIAN ERA

seem not to have

1959 the Government had promulgated

four main organizations

of dZrii maddA?? emerged:

HadZth" in Lyallpur (NowFay?al Ab?d) in 1955.

came together under the

to the formation phase

and certain books on

notion of Islam by the

THE BHUTTO ERA

THE ZIA ERA

With the promulgation

The military regime seemed to have capitalized

from five in 1974 to eight in 1977 compared with 8 and 6

National Education Policy 1979 (NEP)

a committee was set up in order to conduct a

tenets and spirit of Islam on

Ahmad II pp. 691;

With the new announcement

the demands of the Halepota

from the Ulama as well

in the Report of 1979. In the subsequent

In order to benefit from the Zakat scheme the d?ni mad?ris

the first scheme had categorised

It has been estimated that the Zakat, being disbursed by the

if they are not sponsored properly. The decline of Zakat

of these institutions has outnumbered

for Dera Ghazi

and Bahawalpur divisions are 85 d?ri?mad?ris (58%) and 134 d?rii

was in 1983/84 while both declined in 1984/85. Concerning the

THE BOOMOF GRADUATES

Since 1981, which was the year of the implementation of the

It can further be elaborated

of the dim mad?ris regarding

to Table 3, 'Province and year-wise

of the graduates of the Tan?Tm al Mad?ri s

turn out to be the

of recruitment are Mansehra,

religious education was rejected by a large number of *Ulam?\ The>

Sindh (vide page 9 and 10) are being supported heavily by th

might have the opportunity to intervene ini

We may state that the Zakat has been

TAbfe 5: Different Curricula

Biography of the Prophet (Sirat)

Religious studies (Diniy?t)

# = These subjects are supposed to be taught after graduation [faAaghat] ii

Waf?q proposal only partially implemented in 1983; see Solah ScXah

NOTES AND REFERENCES

mention S. Muh. Salim: Hind ? Pakistan min musalm?n?n k? niz?m-e

1975, pp. 271-292.

J?'izah mad?Ais-l 'aAabiyyak ?f?miyyah. maghnabl PakiMan (Lahore:

UGC (Pubi.): Highen Education Nzws, Vol. 11/10, Islamabad October

For the development of Islam as a theology towards ideology see R.

by the Ministry of Education.

For the land patterns see Mahmood H. Khan: Underdevtlopmznt and

The Sindhi situation is characterized by the increasing ratio of