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N = Number of Turns;
I = Current in Ampere;
L = Length in metre.
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6. What is reluctance?
It is the property of the magnetic material to oppose the magnetic lines of flux.
S=F/ where F = MMF;
= Flux;
S = Reluctance in
Magnetic circuit
Electric circuit
3. Reluctance=1 / a 0 r
Resistance R = l/a
5. MMF drop = S
Voltage drop = I R
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2
L = N a 0 r / l
2 2
Energy Density = I N a 0 r / l
2
2
= B H a 0 r
since H =NI/l
2
= B la / 0 r
2 2
= B a /S
2
= /R Joules
18.What is eddy current loss?
When a magnetic core carries a time varying flux voltages are induced in all
possible paths enclosing flux. Result is the production of circulating current in core. These
induced currents do no useful work are known as eddy current and have power loss known
as eddy current loss.
19.How are hysteresis and eddy current losses minimized?
Hysteresis loss can be minimized by selecting materials for core such as silicon
steel & steel alloys with low hysteresis coefficient and electrical resistivity.
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input
electric
sources
from
mechanical
energy
energy
stored
in
output
magnetic
increase
field
in
energy
magnetic
circuits
have
air
gap
between
stationary
and
moving
members in which considerable energy is stored in the magnetic field. This field acts as the
energy conversion medium and its energy is the reservoir between electric and mechanical
system.
23.Why does the energy storage in a magnetic material occur mainly in the air gap?
The reluctance of the air gap is much larger than the magnetic material. Hence the
predominant energy is stored occurs the air gap and the properties of the air gap are
determined by the dimension of the air gap.
24.Draw a schematic diagram indicating flow of energy in the conversion of mechanical
energy to electrical form.
PREPARED BY HEMANT SAWARKAR, JAWAHERLAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KHARGONE
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Electrical
Losses
Gross
Electrical
Input
Electrical
Sink
Net
Mechanical
Output
Coupling
Field
Mechanical
Losses
Mechanical
Source
Ideal Conversion
Process
Net
Electrical
Output
Gross
Mechanical
Input
25.Why do all practical energy conversion devices make use of the magnetic field as a
coupling medium rather than an electric field?
It can be shown that the force density on the bounding surface of a magnetic field
6
In electric field for the field intensity near breakdown the force density is only
2
about 39.8 Nm . The vast difference in the force density in magnetic and electric fields is
because of the fact that
in magnetic field
-7
= 4 x 10 H/m
-12
C/Nm .
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29.Give the relation between energy and co-energy for linear system.
Energy and Co-energy are numerically equal in linear system.
30.Define leakage flux. Does it take part in electromechanical energy conversion process
via the magnetic field?
Flux that links one coil (say on the stationery member) only partially passes through
the core, does not link the coil on the moving or rotating member or vice versa, is called
leakage flux.
PREPARED BY HEMANT SAWARKAR, JAWAHERLAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KHARGONE
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This flux though small, links each of the coils only. As a result, the leakage flux of
one member does not interact with the current of the other member and so it does not
produce mechanical torque / force. Thus it does not take part in energy conversion process.
31.How is voltage generated in rotating machines?
In rotating machines voltage is generated in windings or group of coils by rotating
them through a magnetic field or by mechanically rotating a magnetic field past the
winding or by designing the magnetic circuit so that the reluctance varies with rotation of
the rotor.
32.What is the expression for torque in terms of the resultant mmf wave F ?sr
T = -P/2 . /2. 0 Dl / g . F Fr
sr
sin
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represents the direction of motion of conductor and middle finger gives the direction of
induced current.
37.How will you find the direction of force produced using Flemings Left Hand Rule?
The thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left hand are held so that those
fingers are mutually perpendicular then forefinger gives the direction of field, middle finger
gives the direction of current and thumb represents the direction of motion of conductor.
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DC GENERATORS
Lap winding is designed for high current and low voltage machines
Wave winding is designed for low current and high voltage machines
3.Write the number of parallel paths in a lap and wave connected windings
In a lap wound machine, the number of parallel paths is equal to the number of
poles. But in wave wound machine, the number of parallel paths is always two irrespective of
number of poles.
4. Name the three things required for the generation of emf.
o Presence of armature conductors
o Presence of magnetic field
o Relative motion between conductor and magnetic field
5. What is meant by self excited and separately excited dc generator?
Self-excited generator are those whose field magnets are energized by the current
produced by the generator themselves
Separately excited generator are those whose field magnets are energized from an
independent external source of dc current
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electrical energy into mechanical energy. But there is no constructional difference between
the two.
7. Write down the emf equation of dc generator. Give the meaning of each symbol
Emf induced E = ZNP/60A (Volts)
where
= Flux per pole in Weber
Z = Total number of armature conductors
N = Speed of armature in rpm
P = Number of poles
A = Number of parallel paths
8. What is pole pitch?
The periphery of the armature is divided for a number of poles of the generator. The
center to center distance between two adjacent poles is called pole pitch. It is also equal to
the number of armature slots or armature conductors per pole.
9. How can the voltage in a DC generator be increased?
Increasing the main field flux and the speed of the armature can increase the
voltage in a DC generator.
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15.How can one differentiate between long shunt compound generator and short shunt
compound generator?
In a short shunt compound generator the shunt field circuit is shorter i.e. across
the armature terminals. In a long shunt compound generator the shunt field circuit is
connected across the load terminals.
16.Why is the emf not zero when the field current is reduced to zero in a dc generator?
Even after the field current/magnetizing force is reduced to zero the machine is
left out with some flux as residue. Emf due to this residual flux is available when field
current is zero.
17.Define the term critical speed in dc shunt generator.
Critical speed is defined as the speed at which the generator is to be driven to
cause self-excited generator to build up its emf for the given field circuit resistance.
18.On what occasions dc generators may not have residual flux?
The generator may be put for its first operation after its construction
In previous operation the generator would have been fully demagnetized
19.How the critical field resistance of a dc shunt generator is estimated from its OCC?
Critical field resistance can be obtained from OCC by drawing a straight line
passing through the origin and tangent to the initial straight line portion of OCC. The slope of
this line gives the value of critical field resistance for the given speed at which OCC is
obtained.
20.Define the term armature reaction in dc machines.
The interaction between the flux set up by the current carrying armature
conductors with the main field flux is defined as armature reaction.
PREPARED BY HEMANT SAWARKAR, JAWAHERLAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KHARGONE
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DC MOTORS
1. What is the basic difference between DC generator and DC motor?
Generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Motor converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy. But there is no constructional difference between
the two.
2. What is the basic principle of operation of DC motor?
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical
force is exerted on the conductor which develops the torque.
3. What is torque proportional to?
Torque is proportional to the interacting fields and to the sine of the electrical
space angle between their magnetic axes
4. Distinguish between shunt and series field coil constructions.
Shunt field coils are wound with wires of small cross section and have more
number of turns. Series field coils are wound with wires of larger cross section and have
less number of turns.
5. How does a DC motor differ from DC generator in construction?
Generators are normally placed in closed room, accessible only to skilled
operators. Therefore on ventilation point view they may be constructed with large opening
in the frame. Motors on the other hand, have to be installed right in the place of use which
may have dust, dampness, inflammable gases, chemical fumes etc. To protect the motors
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against these elements, the motor frames are made either partly closed or totally closed or
flame proof etc.
6. How will you change the direction of rotation of a DC motor?
Either the direction of the main field or the direction of current through the
armature conductors is to be reversed.
7. What is back emf in DC motors?
As the motor armature rotates, the system of conductor come across alternate
North and South pole magnetic fields causing an emf induced in the conductors. The direction
of the emf induced in the conductors. The direction of the emf induced is in the direction
opposite to the current .As this emf always opposes the flow of current in motor operation it is
called back emf.
8. Write down the equation for back emf of DC motor.
Eb= P Z N P / 60 A, [Volts]
9. Write down the equation for torque developed in DC motor.
T d= IaZ P / 2
A , [N-m]
T d Ia
10.Why DC motors are not operated to develop maximum power in practice?
_
The current obtained will be much higher that the rated current
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12.Why shaft torque is always less than that developed inside the armature in a DC
motor?
Mechanical power developed inside the armature is
Pd= E Ib =a 2
NT d/ 60
Therefore shaft torque T is less than torque developed in the armature T tod meet the iron
loss W iand mechanical loss W .m
13.Why is the starting current high in a DC motor?
The absence of back emf at the time of starting causes the armature current to
shoot up to about 20 times the normal current, if no limiting resistance is included.
14.What is the need for starter in a DC motor?
Starters are used in DC motors to limit the high starting current within about 2 to
3 times the rated current by adding resistance in series with the armature circuit. Apart from
starting resistances, starters are invariably fitted with protective devices such as no voltage
protection and over-load protection.
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If <Ifn
Nn
Ifn
E hn
21.What is the relation between electrical degree and mechanical degree?
Electrical degree e and mechanical degree are related to one another by the
number of poles P, the electrical machine has, as given by the following equation.
e =
(P/2) m
PREPARED BY A.SIVAPRAKASAM AND M.SURESH, KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERUNDURAI
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mot
Z P I a/ 2
{ Z P I a/ 2
= E bI a
A
A) =
T = P mech
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tend to zero and motor speed can increase to dangerous values. Hence they are not used in
practice.
27.What do you mean by constant torque operation and constant HP operation of speed
control in DC shunt motor?
Constant torque operation of speed control is Armature control method and
constant HP method is Field control method.
Speed and torque equations of DC motor are
N = K N (Va I R
a )/
a
= KNV /a as armature drop is neglected
T = K T Ia
At load torque T
f(max) .
Adjust armature voltage V toa rated value. With field remaining fixed for constant torque, I
should remain fixed at rated value. For speeds above rated value, reduce V , the
a speed reduces
as per the first equation, the motor draws rated I ata constant load torque. The speed cannot be
raised above N bas rated I cannot
be exceeded unless the torque is allowed to be reduced.
a
Keeping V aat rated value if I is reduced,
the speed would increase but torque
f
would reduce. This indeed is constant Hp drive.
28. State one advantage and disadvantage in the application of each of the three basic
types of DC motors.
a. Shunt Motor:
Advantage: Substantially constant speed i-e low speed regulation
Disadvantage: Cannot be used for constant speed application
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b. Series Motor:
Advantage: High torque low speed (at start) and low torque at high speed. This is
typical requirement for traction type of load
Disadvantage: Accidental no load can cause the motor to run at dangerously high
speed.
c. Compound Motor:
Advantage: Negligible speed regulation for cumulatively compound motor.
Disadvantage: Higher cost.
29.List all the important information on name plate of a DC motor.
kW, nominal speed, armature current, insulation class.
30.Why field control is considered superior than armature control method of DC shunt
motor?
a.The regulating resistance which has to carry only a small current is easily available.
b.Power wasted in regulating the resistance is very small and hence this method is more
economical.
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TRANSFORMERS
1. State the principle of operation of a transformer.
Transformer operates on the principle of mutual induction between inductively coupled
coils. When AC source is connected to one coil, flux is produced in the core, which links
both the coils. As per Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, EMF is induced in the
secondary coil also. If the external circuit is closed the power is supplied.
2. What are the main parts of a transformer? What type of material is used for the core?
Laminated core and primary and secondary windings are the main parts. The core is
built up of thin soft iron or high-grade silicon steel laminations to provide a path of low
reluctance to the magnetic flux.
3. What is an ideal transformer?
An ideal transformer is one which does not involve any power losses and also does not
have any leakage of magnetic field.
4. Mention two types of constructions used in transformer.
Core type, shell type and Spirakore type. Spirakore type is a latest transformer and is
used in big transformers.
5. Mention the difference between core and shell type transformers.
In core type, the windings surround the core considerably and in shell type the core
surround the winding.
6. What is the purpose of laminating the core in transformers?
To reduce eddy current loss in the core
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In core type transformer, one limb of the core one half of primary and secondary
windings wound on it, low voltage winding being the innermost for mechanical
strength. This type affords better cooling surface than shell type and is therefore
more suitable for transformers which remain fully loaded.
In shell type, both the windings are wound on central limb. This type is applicable
for poor power factor circuits.
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= 4.44 f mN 1(Volts)
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To reduce I R loss
20. Why are breathers used in transformers?
Breathers are used to entrap the atmospheric moisture and thereby not allowing it to
pass on to the transformer oil. It is also used to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and
contract as its temperature increases and decreases. Also to avoid sledging of oil i.e.
decomposition of oil, breather is used. Addition of 8 parts of water in 1000000 reduces the
insulation quantity of oil. Normally silica gel in pink colour is filled in the breather. This
colour will be changed to white due to continuous usage, which is an indication of
degradation in absorption property. Then it is normally heated and reused.
21. When will a Bucholz relay operate in a transformer?
Bucholz rely is a protective device in a transformer. If the temperature of the coil
exceeds its limit, Bucholz relay operates and gives an alarm.
22. What is the function of transformer oil in a transformer?
Nowadays instead of natural mineral oil, synthetic oils known as ASKRELS (trade
name) are used. They are noninflammable; under an electric arc do not decompose to
produce inflammable gases. PYROCOLOR oil possesses high dielectric strength. Hence it
can be said that transformer oil provides, (i) good insulation and (ii) cooling.
23. A 1100/400 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has 100 turns on the secondary
winding. Calculate the number of turns on its primary.
PREPARED BY A.SIVAPRAKASAM AND M.SURESH, KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERUNDURAI
Page 29
We know
V1/ V =2 K = N / N
2
Substituting 400/1100
= 100/N 1
N1 = 100/400 x 1100
= 275 turns
24. What are the applications of step-up and step-down transformers?
Step-up transformers are used in generating stations. Normally the generated voltage
will be either 11 kV or 22 kV. This voltage is stepped up to 110 kV or 220 kV or 400 kV
and transmitted through transmission lines. (In short it may be called as sending end).
Step-down transformers are used in receiving stations. The voltage are again stepped
down to 11 kV or 22 kV and transmitted through feeders. (In short it may be called as
receiving end). Further these 11 kV or 22kV are stepped down to 3 phase 400 V by means
of a distribution transformer and made available at consumer premises. The transformers
used at generating stations and receiving stations are called power transformers.
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7. Why the iron losses in a transformer are independent of the load current?
The hysteresis and eddy current losses depend upon the maximum flux density in the
core and the frequency. Since from no-load to full-load the flux linking with the core and
the supply frequency remains constant, these losses remain constant, i.e., iron loss is
independent of load current.
8. How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer?
With a change in frequency, iron loss, copper loss, regulation, efficiency and heating
varies and thereby the operation of the transformer is affected.
9. How will you transfer the
transformer?
1. Secondary to primary
Symbol
Value
2. Primary to secondary
Symbol
Value
V2
V2/k
VL
I2
kI2
IL
I1/k
R2
R2/k
RL
k R1
X2
X2/k
ZL
Z L/k
XL
kV1
k X1
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When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage, the secondary voltage
decreases for lagging power factor load, and increases for leading pf load because of its
internal resistance and leakage reactance. The change in secondary terminal voltage from
no load to full load expressed as a percentage of no load or full load voltage is termed as
regulation.
% regulation down = (0V -V
2 )2x 100/0V
% regulation up
If x is the ratio of actual load to full load then copper loss = x (full load copper loss).
2
core). The no load current is only magnetizing current. Therefore the no-load current lags
behind by an angle of 90. However the windings possess resistance and leakage reactance
and therefore the
no-load current lags the applied voltage slightly less than 90.
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Power transformers have very high power ratings in the order of MVA. They are used
in generating and receiving stations. Sophisticated controls are required. Voltage ranges
will be very high.
Distribution transformers are used in consumer side. Voltage levels will be medium.
Power ranging will be small in order of kVA. Complicated controls are not needed.
15.What is the purpose of providing taps in transformer and where these are provided?
In order to attain the required voltage, taps are provided. Normally it will be provided
at low voltage side.
16. What are the advantages of 3-phase transformers over 3 numbers of single phase
transformers?
o A single phase transformer occupies less space than installing 3 numbers of 1-phase
transformers of equal capacity.
o Cost of single 3-phase transformer is less than 3 numbers of 1 phase transformers.
o It is enough to install only one transformer.
17.State the conditions under which OC and SC tests are conducted in a transformer.
Since no load current, I is
0 very small, pressure coils of the wattmeter and the voltmeter
should be connected such that the current taken by them should not flow through the
current coil of the wattmeter. The transformer should be energized with rated voltage when
conducting OC test.
For conducting SC test, the secondary winding should be
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01
constants or parameters can be easily determined by the OC and SC tests. These tests are
very economical and convenient because they furnish the required information without
actually loading the transformer.
23. What is the condition for obtaining maximum efficiency of a transformer?
The efficiency will be maximum when the variable losses are equal to the constant
(iron) losses.
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1.6
m
2 2
m f (Watts)
f (Watts)
Hence magnetic losses depend on flux density in the core and the supply frequency.
27. Why are iron losses considered as constant losses in transformer?
Iron losses depend on supply frequency and flux density in the core. For all normal
operations, the frequency of flux reversals which is same as supply frequency is constant
and the value of flux density more or less remains constant. Hence iron losses remain
constant under all load conditions. i-e from no-load to full-load.
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