Environmental Legislation

The Rivers and Harbors act of 1899 prohibited the disposal of solid objects into bodies of
waters used in navigation. The law also prohibited the interference with interstate navigations
(EPA, 2012).
The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 allows and required the public participation in nuclear
energy facilities and granted the Atomic Energy Commission with an improved powers regarding
atomic energy (NRC, 2015).
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1970 (EPA, 2012) tighten the requirements of
government related projects by requiring them to have environmental impact statement in order
to identify the effects of the project to the nature.
The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 (EPA, 2012) amended the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act to tighten the land disposal regulations, it also added
new provisions like adding underground storage, tank requirements and a better requirement for
small quantity generators of hazardous waste.
The Republic Act no. 6969 or the Toxic Substance and Hazardous and Nuclear Waste
Control Act of 1990 of the republic of the Philippines states that the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources shall be the implementing agency for environmental laws and shall be
assisted by the Inter Agency Advisory Council. It also provides the regulation of all chemical
substances that can threaten the public health and the environment (WEPA, 2009).

HAZARDOUS WASTE

One of the challenges facing proper hazardous waste management and disposal is that
definitions of hazardous wastes vary from one country to another. The term hazardous waste is in
itself ambiguous. Effective governmental programs must provide appropriate, scientifically
defensible, and clear legal definitions for wastes being regulated. However, this can be difficult.
In the U.S, for example, the Environmental Protection Agency took nearly four years after the
passage of the first U.S hazardous waste in law in 1976 to promulgate regulations that defined
hazardous waste. This definition, however, used broad terms, included many exceptions and has
needed modification from time to time. Other nations have had similar experiences. Definitions
often do not have a solid scientific foundation and may allow exemptions as a result of political
influence.
A general definition describes hazardous wastes as wastes or combinations of wastes that
pose a substantial present or potential hazard to humans or other living organisms or natural
resources because they are non-biodegradable or persistent in nature, can be biologically
magnified, can be toxic, o may otherwise cause detrimental cumulative effects. Hazardous
wastes contain organic or inorganic elements that, due to their toxicological, physical, chemical,
carcinogenic or persistency properties may cause:

Explosion or fire;
Infection, including infection by parasites or their vectors;
Chemical instability, reactions or corrosion;
Acute or chronic toxic effects;
Cancer, mutations or birth defects; or
Damage to ecosystem or natural resources.

Hazardous wastes are by-products of human activities that could cause substantial harm to
human health or the environment if improperly managed. The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) classifies liquid, solid, and gaseous discarded materials and emissions
as hazardous if they are poisonous (toxic), flammable, corrosive, or chemically reactive at levels
above specified safety thresholds. In the United States, the term hazardous waste generally refers
to potentially dangerous or polluting chemical compounds; other potentially hazardous
industrial, military, agricultural, and municipal byproducts, including biological contaminants
and radioactive waste, are regulated by other government agencies than the EPA's hazardous
waste division.
The handling of hazardous wastes became a major political issue in the late 1970s in the
United States and other industrialized nations when a number of high-profile human health and
environmental pollution crises focused public attention on the problem. Since then, many
governments have greatly expanded regulation of hazardous waste management, disposal
practices, and clean-up. In the United States, the EPA oversees hazardous waste regulations that
attempt to prevent new cases of environmental and human contamination, as well as the socalled "Superfund" program that addresses clean-up of sites contaminated in the past.

HAZARDOUS WASTE SOURCES

The term hazardous waste often includes by-products of industrial, domestic,
commercial, and health care activities. Rapid development and improvement
of various industrial technologies, products and practices may increase
hazardous waste generation.
Most hazardous wastes are produced in the manufacturing of products for
consumption or further industrial application. Hazardous wastes sources
include industry, institutional establishments, research laboratories, mining
sites, mineral processing sites, agricultural facilities and the natural
environment. All sources that discharge liquid, gaseous or solid wastes that
fit the above definition can be regarded as sources of hazardous wastes.
Some major sources are agricultural land and agroindustry, households,
mines and mineral processing sites, health care facilities, commercial
facilities, institutional facilities, industrial sites, solid waste disposal sites,
contaminated sites, and building materials. Major hazardous waste sources
and their pollution routes in the environment are listed below.
Agricultural Land and Agro-industry: Hazardous wastes from agricultural
land and agro-industry can expose people to pesticides, fertilizers, and
hazardous veterinary product wastes. Farms are a major source of these
wastes and agrochemicals can leach into the environment while in
storage or can cause damage after their application.
Domestic: Household stock various hazardous substances such as
batteries and dry cells, furniture polishes, wood preservatives, stain
removers, paint thinners, rat poisons, herbicides and pesticides, mosquito
repellents, paints, disinfectants, and fuels (i.e. kerosene) and other
automotive products. These can present a variety of dangers during
storage, use and disposal.

 Mines and Mineral Processing Sites: Mining and mineral processing sites
handle hazardous products that are present in the additives, the products
and the wastes.

Health Care Facilities: Health care facilities are sources of pathological

waste, human blood and contaminated needles. Specific sources of these
wastes include dentists, morticians, veterinary clinics, home health care,
blood banks, hospitals, clinics and medical laboratories.
Commercial Wastes: Commercial waste sources include gasoline stations,
dry cleaners and automobile repair shops (workshops). The types of
hazardous wastes generated by these sources depend on the services
provided.
Institutional Hazardous Waste Sources: Institutional hazardous waste
sources are mainly research laboratories, research centers and military
installations. Some military installations are used for the manufacture and
storage of ammunition, and they are also used as testing grounds for
military hardware.
Industrial Hazardous Waste Sources: Hazardous waste are created by
many industrial activities . For example, the hazardous wastes from the
petroleum fuel industry include the refinery products (fuels and tas),
impurities like phenol and cyanides in the waste stream, and sludge
flushed from the storage tanks.
Solid Waste Disposal Sites: These are mainly disposal sites for municipal
solid waste, but hazardous wastes that have not been properly separated
from other wastes are also at these sites.

 Contaminated Sites: These are sites are contaminated with hazardous

wastes due to activities that use or produce hazardous substances or due
to accidental spills. Former sites of industries that used or produced
hazardous materials belong to this group.
Building Materials: Roofs and pipes made of materials incorporating
asbestos, copper, or other materials may present a source of hazardous
waste.

CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Waste characterization is a critical step in determining how a waste should
be handled in bulk or in packaged form. Common hazardous wastes include
waste oil and fuel; solvents and thinners; acids and bases/alkalines; toxic or
flammable paint wastes; chlorinated solvents, heavy metals, perchlorates
and peroxides; abandoned or used pesticides; and some wastewater
treatment sludge. Special hazardous waste in the U.S include industrial
wastes containing Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) priority
pollutants; infectious medical wastes; explosive military wastes; and
radioactive wastes or releases.
A designated waste (or listed hazardous waste) in the U.S is one that is
specifically listed by the USEPA as hazardous. A characteristic waste is one
that exhibits any one of the characteristics of ignitability, corrosiveness,
reactivity, or toxicity. The U.S Federal government level defines an ignitable

waste as any liquid with a flash point of less than 60 degrees C (140 degrees
F), any non-liquid that can cause a fire under certain conditions, or any waste
classified by the U.S Department of Transportation (USDOT) as a compressed
ignitable gas or oxydizer. A corrosive waste is defined as any aqueous
material that has a pH less than or equal to 2, a pH greater than or equal to
12.5, or any material that corrodes steel (SAE 1020) at a rate greater than
0.25 in/year (1 inn. = 2.54 cm). A reactive waste is defined as one that is
unstable, changes form violently, is explosive, reacts violently with water,
forms an explosive mixture with water, or generates toxic gases in
dangerous concentrations. A toxic waste is one whose extract contains
concentrations of certain constituents in excess of those stipulated by the
U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The hazardous waste identification
regulations that define the characteristics of toxicity, ignitability, corrosivity,
and reactivity, as well as the tests for these characteristics, can vary.

Waste Minimization

Waste minimization is a national policy specifically mandated by the U.S. Congress in a

1984 amendment to the national hazardous waste law, the Resources Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA). It is the process and the policy of reducing the amount of waste produced by a
person or a society. Waste minimization includes source reduction and environmentally sound
recycling.
Source Reduction

Source Reduction is the elimination or reduction of a waste at its source by modifying the
process that produces it.
Recycling. Recycling is the reuse of waste products either by directly reusing the
material or by reclaiming it.

Types of Subsurface Contamination

Waste Treatment
Waste treatment can be regarded as a preceding phase of waste disposal as waste
treatment techniques, reducing the volume and toxicity, seeks to transform all sorts of waste into
more convenient form for disposal.
Treatment Method
Physical Treatment. Physical Treatment is involves variety of separation techniques
whenever waste containing liquid and solid must be treated.
1. Sedimentation a physical water treatment process using gravity to remove
suspended solids from water.
2. Centrifugation a separation process which uses the action of centrifugal force to
promote accelerated settling of particles in a solid-mixture.
3. Flotation and adsorption.
Chemical Treatment (of hazardous waste). It refers to the treatment methods that are
used to affect the complete breakdown of hazardous waste into non-toxic gases or, more
frequently, to modify the chemical properties of the waste for example, through reduction of
water solubility or neutralization of acidity or alkalinity.
1. Neutralization carried out when the waste contains excessive amount of acid or
alkali.
2. Chemical oxidation used to destroy toxic cyanide molecule with oxidizing
agents.

3. Reduction and anodic electrolysis.

Biological Treatment. It is a process in which waste water is treated with aerobic
bacteria to remove or reduce organic contaminants such as animal and human excreta, ammonia,
nitrates, and plant tissue. Different types of microorganisms are used for degradation of specific
compounds of hazardous waste. Some microbes found in soil and sludge has been tested in the
degradation of organic chemicals.

Waste Disposal Method

We live in a world where nearly everything is considered disposable. Waste disposal is
the process of collecting and removing waste and relocating it to a place where it will sit or be
recycled.
Landfill. The Landfill is the most popularly used method of waste disposal used today.
This process of waste disposal focuses attention on burying the waste in the land. Landfills are
found in all areas. There is a process used that eliminates the odors and dangers of waste before it
is placed into the ground. While it is true this is the most popular form of waste disposal it is
certainly far from the only procedure and one that may also bring with it an assortment of space.
Incineration. Incineration or combustion is a type disposal method in which municipal
solid wastes are burned at high temperatures so as to convert them into residue and gaseous
products. The biggest advantage of this type of method is that it can reduce the volume of solid
waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original volume, decreases the space they take up and reduce the
stress on landfills. This process is also known as thermal treatment where solid waste materials
are converted by Incinerators into heat, gas, steam and ash. Incineration is something that is very
in countries where landfill space is no longer available, which includes Japan.
Waste to energy. Waste to energy process involves converting of non-recyclable waste
items into useable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes. This type of source
of energy is a renewable energy source as non-recyclable waste can be used over and over again
to create energy. It can also help to reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy
from fossil sources.

Composting. Composting is an easy and natural bio-degradation process that takes

organic wastes i.e. remains of plants and garden and kitchen waste and turns into nutrient rich
food for your plants. Composting, normally used for organic farming, occurs by allowing organic
materials to sit in one place for months until microbes decompose it. Composting is one of the
best methods of waste disposal as it can turn unsafe organic products into safe compost. On the
other side, it is slow process and takes lot of space.
Plasma gasification. Plasma gasification is another form of waste
management. Plasma is a primarily an electrically charged or a highly
ionized gas. Lighting is one type of plasma which produces temperatures
that exceed 12,600 F. With this method of waste disposal, a vessel uses
characteristic plasma torches operating at +10,000 F which is creating a
gasification zone till 3,000 F for the conversion of solid or liquid wastes into
a syngas. During the treatment

Types of Subsurface Contamination

The detrimental alteration of the naturally occurring physical, thermal, chemical, or
biological quality of groundwater is called subsurface contamination. It may result from many
sources, including current and past oil and gas production and related practices, agricultural
activities, industrial and manufacturing processes, commercial and business endeavors, domestic
activities, and natural sources that may be influenced by, or may result from, human activities.
Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs)
According to National Research Council of US (1994), many common contaminants are
liquids that, like oil, do not dissolve readily in water. Such liquids are known as NAPLs, of
which there are two classes: light NAPLs (LNAPLs), such as gasoline, are less dense than water;
dense NAPLs (DNAPLs), such as the common solvent trichloroethylene, are more dense than
water.
DNAPL (Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid). A DNAPL is one of a group of organic
substances that are relatively insoluble in water and denser than water. DNAPLs tend to sink

vertically through sand and gravel aquifers to the underlying layer. The most common DNAPL
contaminants in ground water are chlorinated solvents. Other DNAPLs include coal tars, which
contain PAHs [polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons], and transformer oil, which may include
mixtures of PCBs [polychlorinated biphenyls]. Many of the halogenated hydrocarbons are
characterized as dense non-aqueous-phase liquids (DNAPLs). Their densities exceed that of
water, but they have lower viscosities. They move downward through the soil and the aquifer
only stopping when they reach a layer they cannot penetrate.
LNAPL (Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid). An LNAPL is one of a group of organic
substances that are relatively insoluble in water and are less dense than water. LNAPLs, such as
oil, tend to spread across the surface of the water table and form a layer on top of the water table.
Petroleum chemicals (mainly benzene, toluene, xylene, and benzene derivatives) categorized as
light non-aqueous phase liquids (LNAPLs) tend to form pools and spread laterally (Martel and
Ayotte, 1989) because of their low densities. They move downward through the soil to the
aquifer.

Aqueous phase liquids

Aqueous phase liquids are organic or inorganic compounds that will dissolve into water
or are mixed with water. They move downward through the soil to the aquifer. Once in contact
with the aquifer they move into and then with the groundwater. Some soluble pesticides and
other soluble compounds are examples.
Site Remediation
Remediation techniques play a key role in fully cleaning up the contaminants in soils and
groundwater. Remediation refers to the process of environmental cleanup of contaminated sites
and the techniques to reduce or eliminate contamination from soil or groundwater. Remediation
pathways include transfer of contaminants alone, or with contaminated soils or groundwater to
other place for final treatment or disposal, confinement, and destruction of contaminants in place.
Technical principles for remediation can be divided into physical, chemical and biological
processes. Techniques

frequently used

are:

containment,

pump-and-treat,

extraction,

stabilization/solidification, soil washing, air stripping, precipitation, vitrification, thermal

desorption, and bioremediation.
Site Remediation Procedure
Containment. Containment is the common technique to contain contaminated ground
waters; or to divert the water away from contaminated site, for the purpose of limiting their
contact with people, ecosystem on the sites, and minimizing the potential for further
contamination to happen. Physical barriers and pump and treat systems are conventional
technologies that play a significant role in managing DNAPL source areas by preventing
migration of the contaminants.
Pumped Containment. It is a primary technique for groundwater and soil remediation. In
this process, groundwater is pumped to the surface, and contaminants are removed by a variety
of treatment methods, including air-stripping, activated carbon, ultraviolet or ozone treatment,
precipitation and biodegradation. This technique is accomplished through one or more pumping
wells, with the water being treated by any one of physical and biological methods or their
combinations. Pump and treat systems are relatively easy to design, install and operate using
standard hydro-geologic and engineering practices. For successful remediation, surface treatment
of pumped groundwater must be in consistence with the type and concentration of contaminants.
Slurry Walls. Wall construction is often performed in a continuous manner with the
simultaneous processes of trench excavation, support slurry fill, backfill mixing, and backfill
emplacement. Slurry walls are typically placed at depth less than 50 m and are often 0.6 to 1.5 m
in thickness. There is a substantial cost increase for walls deeper than 30 m. Depending on the
site conditions and contaminants, the trench can be either excavated to a level below the water
table to capture chemical floaters or extended into a lower confining layer. Similarly, on the
horizontal plane, the slurry wall can be constructed around the entire perimeter of the
contaminated site or sections thereof.
Conventional Clean Up Method. General or ordinary method to clean contamination.
In Situ Clean Up Method.

Vacuum Extraction. Extraction uses vapor extraction wells to remove volatile

contaminants from the soil or groundwater. Vacuum blowers are often installed to supply the
driving force by inducing airflow through the matrix.
Air Stripping. In some cases, air-injection wells are installed in-situ. These wells may
enhance the process efficacy by actively using forced airflow. The system must be designed in a
way that any air injected into the system does not allow the escape of volatile organic
compounds to the atmosphere.
In Situ Biological Treatment. The main advantage of in situ treatment is that it allows
ground water to be treated without being brought to the surface, resulting in significant cost
savings. In situ treatment, however, generally requires longer time periods, and there is less
certainty about the uniformity of treatment because of the variability in aquifer characteristics
and because the efficacy of the process is more difficult to verify. Bioremediation techniques are
destruction techniques directed toward stimulating the microorganisms to grow and use the
contaminants as a food and energy source by creating a favorable environment for the
microorganisms. Generally, this means providing some combination of oxygen, nutrients, and
moisture, and controlling the temperature and pH. Sometimes, microorganisms adapted for
degradation of the specific contaminants are applied to enhance the process.

References
Websites

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