AET 2012 No-1

AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING
TODAY
ISSN : 0970-2962
Vol. 36(1), 2012

January-March, 2012
Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers
Vol. 36(1), 2012
Global Positioning System for Precise

Area Measurement in the Field
Jatin, Manjeet Singh (LM-7756) and Ankit Sharma
Deptt. of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, PAU, Ludhiana
Email: manjeetsingh03@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
GPS can be adopted as a method for referencing geographic & agronomic data in a GIS
database. GPS is the first tool to start site specific crop management. Global Positioning
System is very useful for the georeferencing and to calculate the area harvested by combine
harvester. Use of GPS for surveying of farm with location & size of each field is very
important information, for use in commercial purposes. Better positioning in agriculture
combined with other spatial information permit significant reductions in fertilizer, pesticides
and other environmentally sensitive chemicals. Farm area and/or harvested area by using
GPS can be calculated in two ways i.e. track/polygon method and real time method. The
error in area measured by GPS and actual ranged from 5.0 to 7.0 %. Real time calculation
of area during combine harvesting is very important information for yield monitors.
Keywords: Global Positioning System (GPS), Area harvested, Yield.
INTRODUCTION
technology, which enables the producer to collect

information and data for better decision-making.
Precision farming is more environmentally sound
and is integral part in sustaining natural resources.
Precision farming is the integrated application of
Global Positioning System (GPS), Remote Sensing
(RS), Global Information System (GIS) and
automatic control technologies. GPS surveying of
farm with location and size of each field is very
important information, for use in commercial
purposes. Better positioning in agriculture combined
with other spatial information permits significant
reductions in fertilizer, pesticides and other
environmentally sensitive chemicals. By knowing
location, farmers can look at the field as a group of
small zones and determine if the field is uniform or
not (break the field up into smaller fields or grids).
Computers and geographical information systems
(GIS) enable producers to record location and other
information e.g. a yield monitor used with GPS
allows a farmer to record yield for every location in
the field. With this information practices that may
improve efficiency and increase profitability can be
considered.
The agriculture sector has a long history of using

spatial Information and Knowledge as a means to
manage the farms. The intelligence use of
information regarding location specific has been a
key factor to success from the early days of farming.
The boundary for acre, Beegha or kanal were
measured/marked by having footsteps of the
farmers. Each footstep has been considered to be
about 0.70 m distance. Hence one kanal (1/8th of
acre i.e 500 sq. m) area has been measured by
1260 footsteps (i.e. 1050 m). Farmers also use
the simple tape or rope for the measurement of area.
During combine harvesting on custom hiring basis,
charges are also paid as per area harvested. But
all these measurements are not precise and
accurate. Hence when area measured is not
accurate, input application like seed, fertlilizer and
spray distribution will not be accurate. In recent
years, Precision Farming is becoming one of the
most important areas of research in agriculture
sciences. Area measurement is the first and
important part of the precision farming.
Precision farming is based on information
1
Agricultural Engineering Today

Lokers et al (2009) suggested the use of Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) in Agriculture.
Besides, GNSS positioning is used in numerous
applications by farmers themselves. Van der Wal
et al (2009) stated that in the daily production
process and in rest of the agribusiness, farmers
also make use of geo information; i.e. simple hand
held GPS devices for instance crop scouting to
dedicated instruments for precision agriculture and
the use of positioning technology to assist in the
effective management of fields. Maps of crop yield
variability are important components of site-specific
crop management. Yield maps could be used to
identify localized problems and to help make sitespecific management decisions. Yield maps could
also be used to verify and calibrate crop simulation
models. Yield mapping requires on-the-go
monitoring of harvester output and position. The
dead reckoning technique is inexpensive and
reliable, but it only gives relative position and errors
tend to accumulate. The local triangulation
technique uses two fixed points of known location
to determine the position of an unknown point by
triangulation. However, sub meter accuracy is
difficult to achieve with the local triangulation
technique. GPS receivers are rapidly becoming
inexpensive enough that most producers can afford
considering their use at some level of management.
The advent of low-cost and high-precision
differential GPS (DGPS) has made it possible to
achieve sub-meter accuracy. So there arises a need
to study the real time positioning of field and area
measurement of field by using GPS.
Fig .1: A view of Portable GPS Receiver.
Fig. 2: Portable GPS Receiver operating on

Combine Harvester
The GPS unit records track points and use the

resulting GPS track log to internally calculate the
area of the enclosed polygon. This can be used
even for small and irregularity shaped tracks of
fields. This area was noted down. The field was
divided into different plots and their individual area
was calculated. Location (Latitude and Longitude)
of centre of each plot was also calculated. The five
plots selected were harvested by using combine
harvester fitted with yield monitor. The positioning
of these plots was given in terms of latitude and
longitude. The coordinates were calculated in the
centre of the each plot. Yield for that particular area
which was displayed on yield monitor installed on
the combine harvester was also noted down. To
EVALUATION PROCEDURE
Portable GPS (GPSMAP 76CSx) receiver was used
for the positioning and to calculate the area of the
field. This portable device operates on two AA
batteries with voltage of 1.5 V each, which is located
in the back of the unit. Alkaline, NiMH, or Lithium
batteries can also be used. A view of Portable GPS
(GPSMAP 76CSx) is shown in the Fig.1 and working
in Fig. 2.
Track Method (Polygon Method of GPS) for area
calculation
In this method, GPS is to be moved over the
perimeter or boundary of the area to be measured.
2
Vol. 36(1), 2012

sq.m as compared to 2834.03 sq.m measured by
GPS, when summation done for each plot area.
measure the real time area harvested by the

combine harvester, distances were measured after
every 10 s by the GPS in distance mode and by
assuming the constant width of combine cutter bar
(4.2 m), real time harvested area by combine
harvester was calculated. Hevershine method of
GPS was used to calculate the real time distance
between two points using GPS.
a
= sin(lat/2) + cos(lat1).cos(lat2).sin(long/2)
= 2.atan2( a , (1 a) )
= R.c
Real Time Area Calculation (using GPS)

By having portable GPS, the real time distances
were measured after every 10 s. These distances
varied from 8.53 to 9.75 m. The width of cutter bar
of combine was measured 4.2 m. Real time area
was then calculated which varied from 35.82 to
40.95 sq. m. Table 2 shows the real time area
calculation by GPS.
Table 2: Real Time Area Calculation by GPS.
Where,
R
S. No. Time (s)
= earths radius (mean radius = 6,371km)
Distance (m)
By GPS
Area (sq.m.)
By GPS
lat = change in latitude between two points = lat2

lat1
1.
10
8.53
35.82
long = change in longitude between two points =

long2 long1
2.
20
8.83
37.08
3.
30
9.75
40.95
4.
40
8.83
37.08
= distance between two points.
5.
50
8.53
35.82
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.
60
9.14
38.38
The positioning shown in Table 1 indicates that

latitudes of each plot is almost same but longitude
is varying from E 7548718"-749" for the center
point of the plots. Area measured by GPS, for each
plot varied from 478.00 sq.m to 625.54 sq.m but
the actual area was varying from 507 to 670 sq.m.
Hence, the error in area measured by GPS and
actual was ranging from 5.0 to 7.0%. The yield
measured also varied from 1712 to 2584 kg/ha. The
maximum yield (2584 kg/ha) was for plot no. 3 and
minimum yield (1712 kg/ha) was for the plot no.1.
Total area of all plots was measured by tracking
the GPS in the field by taking a single round around
all the plots. The actual area come out was 3001.0
7.
70
8.53
35.82
8.
80
9.44
39.64
9.
90
9.14
38.38
10.
100
9.75
40.95
11.
110
8.83
37.08
12.
120
9.14
38.38
CONCLUSIONS
Global Positioning System is very useful for the georeferencing and to calculate the area harvested by
combine harvester. Use of GPS for surveying of
farm with location and size of each field is very
Table 1: Area of field under wheat crop.

Plot no.
Positioning
Actual Area
(sq.m.)
Plot Area
(sq.m.)
Error
(%)
Yield
(kg)
Area
(ha)
Yield
(kg/ha)
N3054701",E 7548749"
590
561.34
5.2
95.00
0.055
1712.33
N3054700",E 7548741"
594
566.05
5.0
137.00
0.056
2449.93
N3054699",E 7548734"
507
478.00
6.2
159.00
0.047
3365.78
N3054698",E 7548726"
670
625.54
7.0
162.40
0.062
2627.83
N3054697",E 7548718"
640
603.10
6.0
154.00
0.060
2583.88
Total
3001
2834.03
707.40
0.280 12739.73

REFERENCES
Hofmann-Wellenhof B; Lichtenegger H; Collins J.
2001. Global Positioning System: Theory and
Practice, 5th edn. New York: Springer Verlag Wien.
Lokers R M; Krause A; Van der Wal T. 2009. Future
GNSS-Farmers navigate towards trusted farming,
Precision Agriculture 09:956.
important information. Better positioning in

agriculture combined with other spatial information
permit significant reductions in use of fertilizer,
pesticides & other environmentally sensitive
chemicals. Farm area and/or harvested area by
using GPS can be calculated in two ways i.e. track
method and real time method. The error in area
measured by GPS and actual ranged from 5.0 to
7.0%.
Van der Wal T; Devos W; Kay S. 2009. Common

Agricultural Policy and Spatial Data Infrastructures,
Precision Agriculture 09:973.
Vol. 36(1), 2012
Short Penning-A Technique to Resist Wear of Critical

Components of Agricultural Machinery
G S Chouhan and A C Saxena (LM-10284)
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabi Bagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal-462038
e-mail: chouhan_gurpal@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Several machines are used to perform soil manipulation and other farm operations. The
critical components of these machines especially soil engaging tools, cutter bar blades of
harvesters and pegs of threshers etc are subjected to abrasive, corrosive and adhesive
wear and some secondary wear like surface fatigue, fretting and cavitations erosion. The
wear intensity of machine parts depends upon the physio-mechanical properties of the
environment in which the machines are operating (adhesion, compaction, resistance to
shear, coefficient of friction etc.); intensity of load and contact pressure; and the materials
of construction and heat treatment of the material. Bulk and surface treatment and use of
appropriate material are used to enhance wear resistance of these critical components.
This paper provides in-depth of shot peening techniques to resist abrasive wear of these
components.
Keywords: Short penning, Wear, Agricultural machinery, Heat treatment
enhance wear resistance in particular are (i)
material selection criteria, (ii) bulk hardening
methods and (iii) surface modification methods.
INTRODUCTION
The wear of critical components can be enhance
with proper material selection & subjected these
to bulk/surface treatment. Over half of all wear
situations are abrasive in nature. This is applicable
to agricultural machinery where friction exists
between a stressed metal and harder body. The
abrasive wear may take place during interaction
of hard steel surface against softer or harder
abrasive under two or three body conditions. The
key factors enhances the wear resistance of critical
components are (i) contacting materials, pressure,
temperature, surface finish, lubrication and
corrosion also called as Service variables and (ii)
Hardness, toughness, micro-structure and
chemical composition also called as Metallurgical
variables. The control over service variables is
limited. However, the majority of the wear situations
are controlled through compromised metallurgical
variables. The compromised hardness and
toughness could yield high wear resistance in
critical components. Widely used methods to
control metallurgical variables in general and
Wear Resistance Materials for Critical

Components of Agricultural Machinery
The wear intensity of machine parts depends upon
the physio-mechanical properties of the
environment in which the machines are operating
(adhesion, compaction, resistance to shear,
coefficient of friction etc.); intensity of load and
contact pressure; and the materials of construction
and heat treatment of the material. The environment
in which the agricultural machines are operating can
hardly be modified but operating conditions can be
altered to a limited extent. The material of
construction and heat treatment techniques,
however, can be selected such that wear is
comparatively reduced. The Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) specifies the materials of
constructions of these machines including materials
and heat treatments for fast wearing parts and
components (Table 1).
5

Table 1: BIS specification for materials to be used for critical components of agricultural machinery.
Components
Material specifications
Bakhar blade
Carbon steel with 0.7-0.8% C (C-75) and 0.50-0.80 Mn hardened to 350450 HB (C-75)
Rotavator blade
Carbon steel, tool steel and silico-mangnese steel with carbon 0.7-0.85.
Hardness 56 +- 3 (edge) and 32-45 (shank)
Sickle blade
C-80 carbon content 0.75-0.85 and Mn 0.50-0.80 hardened to 38.45 HRC
Chaff cutter blade
Carbon or alloy steel with C 0.60 0.90% (C-65), 40Cr T-65, T-70 Mn65, T75, T-80, T-85. Hardness 26-50 HRC
Harvester blade
Carbon or tool steel with C 0.7- 0.85% and Mn 0.5-0.80%. T-75, T-80,
Mn65 with Hardness 50-60 HRC (edge) and 25-37 HRC other portion
Cutting knife
High carbon steel C-75, C-80, C-85 T-75 Mn65 with hardness 460-510 HB
Pruning saw
Carbon steel not less than 0.7%C T-75, T-80, T-85, hardness 45-48 HRC
Secateurs
High carbon steel C 0.7 0.9 and Mn 0.5-1.0 hardness 425-450 HB C-75,
C-80, C-85, Cr2 Mo 20, 37Si2 Mn 90.
Discs (tractor drawn)
Carbon steel C-75, C-80 and Silico-manganess 55 Si2 Mn 90 with Carbon

0.7-0.95 and Mn 0.5-3.0 Hardness 38-45 HRC (353-421 HB)
Disc (animal drawn)
C-75
Lawn mower blade
C-0.5- 0.60%, 55 Si2 Mn 90 hardened to 28-45 HRC
Reversible shovel
Carbon steel C 0.5 0.6% grade C-55 hardness 350-450 HB
Plough share
Chilled Cast iron or carbon steel with carbon 0.7 to 0.8% and Mn 0.50.80%. C-75 .Hardness 350-450 HB
Cultivator shovel
C-55 with carbon C 0.58 -0.6% hardened to 350-450 HB
Tines for cultivator
Mild steel (13226- 1969), Mn 25, 55 Si2 Mn 90, 55 hardness 235-310 HB
Animal drawn plough share C-75 hardened to 360-400 HB

Sweep
C-55 hardened to 37.2 47.8 HRC ( 350-450 HB)
Mould board
Cast iron grade 20 or mild steel
Knife guards
Malleable cast iron ( Fs 218 1977), steel casting ( IS : 1030- 1974) steel
forging (IS:2004- 1978), hardness 163 HB
Sugarcanes crusher
Cast iron grade 20 , alloy cast iron grade 2 (IS: 4771 1968)
Wheel hoe weeder
Carbon steel with C 0.5 -0.6% (C-55) hardened to 350-450 HB
Ball & socket assembly

for 3 point linkage
14 Mn 1 514 with C 0.10-0. 18% Mn 1.20, 1.50 Si 0.05-0.30, hardness 55-62 HC
Flutted roller
Cast aluminium A-4M ( IS: 617-1969)
Frame, axle, wheel
Mild steel 0.25% C IS: 226-1962
Handle, beam
Seasoned wood sal, kalaalria, kaith, bijasal, karal, mesua, mahua and
babul
Shot Peening to Strenghten Critical

Components
which helps increase fatigue and stress corrosion

resistance by creating beneficial residual surface
stresses. A machining operation, which helps
increase fatigue and stress corrosion resistance by
creating beneficial residual surface stresses. The
Shot peening is one of the cheapest surface

modification methods widely used on virgin or bulk/
surface hardened. This is a machining operation
6
Vol. 36(1), 2012

residual compressive stresses introduced by Shot
peening are the parameters that influence the
improvement in the operating performance of the
part to the greatest extent. Shot peening is the
process of impinging high velocity shots on a metal
component resulting in plastic deformation and the
setting up of a compressive stresses on the peened
surface, thereby fatigue life of the components is
improved.
peening is a cold working process in which the

surface of a part is bombarded with small spherical
media called shot. Each piece of shot striking the
material acts as a tiny peening hammer, imparting
to the surface a small indentation or dimple (Fig. 1).
The failure of critical parts due to abrasion is a

surface phenomenon. The information pertaining
to the effect of shot peening on abrasive wear is
meager. However, the process is beneficial in
fretting, micro fatigue etc which are analogous to
abrasion. The wear is greatly influenced by surface
conditions i.e. hardness, roughness and presence
of elastic strain in the surface. Table 2 represents
the interaction of required properties for abrasive
wear resistance and shot peening effects. It is
evident from Table 2, that all the three surface
properties surface hardness, surface strength and
friction coefficient required shot peening to improve
abrasive wear resistance. In other words, the shot
peening improve the surface stretch strain. The
benefit and efficiency of the shot peening process
mainly confined to high grade material.
Fig.1:
In order for the dimple to be created, the surface

fibers of the material must be yielded in tension.
Below the surface, the fibers try to restore the
surface to its original shape, thereby producing
below the dimple, a hemisphere of cold-worked
material highly stressed in compression.
Overlapping dimples develop an even layer of metal
in residual compressive stress. It is well known that
cracks will not initiate or propagate in a
compressively stressed zone. Since nearly all
fatigue and stress corrosion failures originate at the
surface of a part, compressive stresses induced by
shot peening provide considerable increase in part
life. The maximum compressive residual stress
produced at or under the surface of a part by shot
peening is at least as great as half the yield strength
of the material being peened. Many materials will
also increase in surface hardness due to the cold
working effect of shot peening. Benefits obtained
by shot peening are the result of the effect of the
compressive stress and the cold working induced.
Compressive stresses are beneficial in increasing
resistance to fatigue failures, corrosion fatigue,
stress by corrosion cracking, hydrogen assisted
cracking, fretting, galling and erosion caused by
cavitations. Benefits obtained due to cold working
include work hardening, inter-granular corrosion
resistance, surface texturing, closing of porosity and
testing the bond of coatings. Both compressive
stress and cold-worked effects are used in the
application of shot peening in forming metal parts.
Table 2: Interaction between required properties for

abrasive wear and shot peening effects.
Required properties
for abrasive wear
resistance
Shot peening effects
Surface hardness
Micro structure and

surface work hardening
Surface strength
Surface work hardening,

compressive residual
stress and blockage of
micro crack origin.
Friction coefficient
Surface texture
modifications
Shot peening process.
Shot peening has been found effective in inducing

beneficial compressive stresses to sustain failure
resulting from constant or random like amplitude
loading conditions. The process consists of
propelling small beeds of steel, cast iron, glass or
cut wire at high speed under controlled conditions
on the part or component to be treated. Shot
7

peening intensities (0.15, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.35,
0.40 and 0.45 mm A) were carried out and related
effect on compressive residual stress, surface work
hardening and micro structure and surface texture
were measured. He reported that shot peened
surface offered more abrasive resistance as
compared to un-peened surface. The peening
intensity range of 0.15-0.25, 0.20-0.30 and 0.300.45 mm A were considered optimum in respect of
wear performance of SAE 1022 virgin, SAE 1022
CHT and EN 42 HT blades specimen, respectively.
However, peening intensify range of 0.25-0.30 mm
A was considered optimum for SAE 1022 CHT and
EN 42 HT specimens in terms of wear performance.
The cost of shot peened SAE 1022 CHT wear
specimen was lower by 18-20% compared to EN
42 HT specimen. Therefore, the substitution of SAE
1020 CHT/SAE 1022, CHT (0.25 mm A) specimen
in place of existing EN 42 HT (0.30 mm A) was
considered to be economically justified.
Rautary(1997) further reported that the shot peening
surface offered more abrasive wear resistance as
compared to un-peened surface, therefore the
performance and service life of the existing blades
being used in rotavator was found improved by shot
peening for more cost-effectiveness.
Shot peening is used in a wide variety of industries

on an even wider variety of parts. Parts typically
shot peened include: crankshafts, gears, torsion
bars, springs, valves, exhaust manifolds, blades,
discs, turbines, compressors, marine rudders, axles,
hammers and anvils, bicycle frames, landing gear,
boat hulls, drill bits, and pipeline. Depending on the
specific part, shot peening can accomplish all of
the following:
Increases fatigue strength
Prevents cracking due to wear, hydrogen

embrittlement, corrosion and stress
Enhances lubricity by creating small pores in

which lubricants can accumulate
Prevents fretting
Prevents galling
Creates a uniformly textured, finished surface

ready for immediate use or for paint and
coatings
Used to curve metal or straighten shafts without

creating tensile stress. This process is known
as Peen forming
Permit the use of very hard steels by reducing

brittleness
Closes up surface porosity in coatings
Allows for the substitution of lighter materials

without sacrificing strength and durability
Increases spring life 400% to 1200%
Increase gear life more than 500%
Increases drive pinion life up to 400%
Increases crankshaft life 100% to 1000%
Increase the fatigue strength of damaged parts

extending the wear and delaying replacement
costs.
Sharma (1996) conducted a study on Corrosion

Fatigue and fracture behavior of shot peened
carbon steels. They found that loss of weight of shot
peened specimens was reduced by 20-30% than
of the virgin, when specimens corroded for seven
days under 3% NaCl in still state. The study was
conducted on low carbon steels. They also found
that the strength of shot peened samples were
higher under corrosive environment without
agitation as well as under agitation. Thus shot
peening may be considered to be beneficial in
minimizing corrosion effects. They also observed
that the rate of crack prorogation of EN 42 steel
was lowered in the case of shot peened specimens
Saxena (2002) compared shot peening on bulk
hardened EN 8 grade material on thresher pegs.
He reported that shot peening is more responsive
to heat treated pegs compared to virgin material.
There was increase in wear resistance by 10%
compared to bulk hardened EN8 grade material.
Rautaray (1997) investigated fatigue and abrasive

wear behavior of low carbon steel to substitute
expensive grade spring steel used in rotavator
blades. The low carbon steel (SAE 1020/SAE 1022)
and spring steel (EN42) were selected for the study.
The low carbon grades of material were case
carburized + hardened + tempered while spring
steel grade was hardened and tempered. Seven
Singh et al (2011) developed models for abrasive

8
Vol. 36(1), 2012

REFERENCES
Saxena A C. 2002. Metallurgy and process
development for thresher pegs. Unpublished Ph.
D thesis, Faculty of Engineering, Barkatullah
Vishwavidyalaya Bhopal.
Rautaray S K. 1997. Fatigue and wear characteristics
of shot peened rotavator blade material.
Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Faculty of
Engineering Barkatullah Vishwavidyalaya, India,
Bhopal, India.
Singh D; Mondal A P; Modi O P; Sethi V K. 2010.
Low stress abrasive wear response of boron steel
under three body abrasion: Effect of heat
treatment and peening intensities, IJEMS, 17(3),
208-218.
Singh D; Saha K P; Mondal D P. 2011. Development
of mathematical model for prediction of abrasive
wear behaviour in agricultural grade medium
carbon steel IJEMS, 18(2), 125-136.
Sharma M C; Nadkarni V S; Agnihotri G. 1996.
Corrosion fatigue and fracture behavior of shot
peened carbon steels. Taken from Shot Peening
and Blast Cleaning by M C Sharma and S K
Rautaray. Department of Mechanical Engineering,
MACT Bhopal. Pages - 224-230.
wear rate of medium carbon steel based on the

intensity factors for production of wear rate and
selection of appropriate levels of factors. It was
observed that the peening intensity reduces the
wear rate if limited to a critical value of 0.17 A. The
functional relationship between wear rate and the
influencing factors was found statistically significant.
Singh et al (2010) under study on low stress
abrasive wear response of boron steel under three
body abrasion found that the wear rate of intercritical annealed and quenched and tempered steels
are considerably less than those of as-received and
annealed steels, irrespective of the peening
intensity. It was also found that the wear rate
reduced significantly irrespective of heat-treatment
schedule at the critical peening intensity of 0.27 A,
mm ALMEN.
CONCLUSIONS
The shot peening surface offered more abrasive
wear resistance as compared to un-peened surface.
The loss of weight of shot peened specimens
reduces by 20-30% than of the virgin. It was also
found that the strength of shot peened samples
were higher under corrosive environment without
agitation as well as under agitation. Thus shot
peening may be considered to be beneficial in
minimizing corrosion effects.
Techno-economic Evaluation of Naturally Ventilated Greenhouse

for Capsicum Cultivation in Coastal Odisha
J C Paul (LM-9166), P L Pradhan (LM-9502), J N Mishra (LM-10434)
and N K Panda (LM-10458)
College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, OUAT, Bhubaneswar-751003
e-mail: plp_ouat@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted during October 2007 in a semi-cylindrical naturally ventilated
greenhouse of 20 m x 5 m size for cultivation of capsicum at Bhubaneswar in coastal
Odisha. The greenhouse was evaluated in terms of its techno-economic analysis, which
was carried out by using different economic indicators such as net present worth (NPW),
benefits-cost ratio (BCR), internal rate of return (IRR) and pay back period (PBP) and
compared with open field cultivation. The net present worth of investment made on
greenhouse for cultivation of capsicum was Rs. 1, 41,633/- as compared to Rs. 22, 464/when grown in open field. The benefit-cost ratio for greenhouse was 2.92 and 1.88 for
open field cultivation. The internal rate of return for greenhouse cultivation was 47 per cent
and 39 per cent for open field cultivation. The pay back period for capsicum under
greenhouse was 5 years. It was observed that, techno-economically, cultivation of capsicum
under naturally ventilated greenhouse will be viable and acceptable by the farmers of
coastal Odisha.
Keywords: Greenhouse, Capsicum, benefit-cost ratio
INTRODUCTION
produce to market early when prices are higher.

Such opportunities seem to exist in India also. The
greenhouse cultivation is mostly cost intensive as
compared to the traditional open field cultivation. It
is therefore, essential to know the economic viability
of the technology. For any agricultural enterprise, it
is necessary to work out its economics so that the
farmers will be able to know the importance and
can utilize the area under their command to their
best of knowledge. Several research workers in the
past have used economic analysis for greenhouse
(Kothari et al., 2001; and Mishra et al., 2007).
Therefore, an attempt was made to determine the
techno-economic evaluation of the greenhouse for
capsicum cultivation in coastal Odisha.
Greenhouse crops are most profitable cash crops

of short duration and the benefits from the cultivation
can be derived within a period of 3 to 4 months.
The cost of greenhouse varies from Rs. 100/- to
Rs. 1000/- per square metre or even more
depending upon kind of environmental control and
automation required. It must also be recognized that
the degree of sophistication and level of investment
per square metre of greenhouse must be
appropriate to the application, if the technology is
to be economically justifiable.
In most of the agro-climatic zones in India the
commercial use of greenhouse is done for
production of quality planting materials and
production of off-season vegetables. In many
temperate climatic areas of the world, vegetable
farmers can increase their income substantially if
they can start planting in greenhouse earlier than
planting out door. This enables them to bring
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was conducted inside the nursery
site of the Department of Horticulture, Odisha
University of Agriculture and Technology,
Bhubaneswar during winter 2007-08. The
10
Vol. 36(1), 2012

experimental site is situated at 20 15" N latitude
and 85 52" E longitude with an elevation of 25.9 m
above the mean sea level and nearly 64 km west of
the Bay of Bengal. The semi-circular medium cost
naturatully ventilated greenhouse covering the floor
space of 5m x 20m, oriented in East West direction
was used for the study. Capsicum (Capsicum
Annum) crop was selected for the field study. The
crop was planted during the month of October 2007
both inside the greenhouse and in open field.
benefit-cost ratio of 1 or greater. In practice, it is

probably more common not to compute the benefitcost ratio using gross cost and gross benefit, but
rather to compare the present worth of the net
benefit with the present worth of the investment cost
plus the operation and maintenance cost. The ratio
is computed by taking the present worth of the gross
benefit less associated cost and then comparing it
with the present worth of the project cost. The
associated cost is the worth of the goods and
services over and above those included in project
costs needed to make the immediate products or
services of the project available for use or sale.
Project economic cost is the sum of installation
costs, operation and maintenance cost and
replacement costs. Mathematically benefit-cost ratio
is expressed as:
A present worth of analysis was used to evaluate

all the cash flows in order to occurring the interest
and the inflation factor in investment as proposed
by Tiwari and Goyal (1998). The conventional
measures of project evaluation, four different
economic indicators namely Net Present Worth
(NPW), Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR), Internal Rate of
Return (IRR) and Pay Back Period (PBP) were
worked out to assess the economic viability of the
greenhouse. Using these indicators, analysis was
carried out for cultivation of capsicum and its technoeconomics inside the greenhouse and in open field
cultivation.
t =n
Benefit-cost ratio =
Internal rate of return (IRR) can be found out by

systematic procedure of trial and error to find that
discount rate which will make the net present worth
of the incremental net benefit stream equal to zero.
The internal rate of return is the discount rate i
such that:
t =n
t =1
NPW =
t =1
Bt Ct
(1 + i) t
Bt = benefit in each year

Ct = cost in each year
= Time in 1, 2, .., nth year
= discount rate.
Bt Ct
(1 + i ) t
=0
The payback period is the length of time from the

beginning of the project until the net worth of the
incremental production stream reaches the total
amount of the capital investment. It shows the length
of time between cumulative net cash out flow
recovered in the form of yearly net cash inflows.
Where,
t =1
The most straightforward discounted cash flow

measure of project worth is the net present worth
(NPW). The NPW may be computed by subtracting
the total discounted present worth of the cost stream
from that of the benefit stream. To obtain the
incremental net benefit gross cost is subtracted from
gross benefit of the investment cost from the net
benefit. The mathematical statement for net present
worth is written as:
t =n
t =1
t =n
Bt
(1 + i) t
Ct
(1 + i) t
Details of cost benefit components

The list of materials required, quantity of materials
and the details of construction of greenhouse for
100 sqm floor area are given in Table 1. The cost of
cultivation included expenditure incurred for field
preparation, seed, fertilizers, pesticides,
insecticides, irrigation, routine maintenance such
Benefit-cost ratio (BCR) is the ratio obtained when

the present worth of the benefit stream is divided
by the present worth of the cost stream. The formal
selection criterion for the benefit-cost ratio for
measure of project worth is to accept projects for a
11
12
2800
2800
2800
2800
7480
2800
2800
2800
2800
7480
2800
2800
2800
2800
7480
2800
2800
2800
2800
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Total
40000
Cash
out flow
73718.28
0.00
648.79
700.70
756.75
817.29
2358.01
953.29
1029.55
1111.92
1200.87
3464.69
1400.70
1512.75
1633.77
1764.47
5090.76
2058.08
2222.73
2400.55
2592.59
40000.00
PW cash
out flow
GreenhouseOpen condition
Year
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
21934
Cash
inflow
215351.25
4705.90
5082.37
5488.96
5928.08
6402.33
6914.51
7467.67
8065.09
8710.29
9407.12
10159.69
10972.46
11850.26
12798.28
13822.14
14927.91
16122.14
17411.92
18804.87
20309.26
0.00
PW cash
inflow
141632.96
4705.90
4433.58
4788.26
5171.33
5585.03
4556.50
6514.38
7035.53
7598.37
8206.24
6695.00
9571.76
10337.50
11164.51
12057.67
9837.15
14064.06
15189.19
16404.32
17716.67
-40000.00
NPW
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
Cash out
flow
25448.64
0.00
556.11
600.60
648.65
700.54
756.58
817.11
882.48
953.07
1029.32
1111.66
1200.60
1296.65
1400.38
1512.41
1633.40
1764.07
1905.20
2057.61
2222.22
2400.00
PW Cash
outflow
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
4880
Cash
inflow
47912.56
1047.00
1130.75
1221.22
1318.91
1424.43
1538.38
1661.45
1794.37
1937.92
2092.95
2260.38
2441.21
2636.51
2847.43
3075.23
3321.25
3586.95
3873.90
4183.81
4518.52
0.00
PW cash
inflow
22463.92
1047.00
574.65
620.62
670.27
723.89
781.80
844.34
911.89
984.84
1063.63
1148.72
1240.62
1339.87
1447.06
1562.82
1687.85
1822.87
1968.70
2126.20
2296.30
-2400.00
NPW
Vol. 36(1), 2012

as weeding etc. While conducting experiments, only
capsicum was planted in the green house as well
as in open field condition. The parameters
considered for carrying out economic analysis were
(i) the life of greenhouse structure was taken as 20
years, (ii) the life of greenhouse cover as well as
shade net was taken as 5 years and (iii) discount
rate was assumed to be 8 per cent as compared to
bank lending rate of interest.
quality fruits (Koning, 1988). The light intensity

inside the greenhouse was less as compared to
ambient condition due to the layer of UV sheet
facilitating cell elongation resulting in production of
thicker and healthy plants inside the greenhouse.
The yield is in agreement with the findings in okra
and capsicum (Nimje et al., 1990).
The yield of capsicum was 438.67 kg and 171.67
kg under greenhouse and open field cultivation
respectively. Considering two crops in a year, the
yield of capsicum was 877.34 kg and 343.34 kg
under greenhouse and open field condition
respectively. The cost of greenhouse was computed
to be Rs 40,000/-. The cost of UV sheet and shade
net was Rs 4,680/-, which was to be changed in
every fifth year. The cost of cultivation of capsicum
was Rs 2,800/- and Rs 2,200/- under greenhouse
and open field cultivation respectively. Total return
from the greenhouse and open field cultivation was
Rs 21,934/- and Rs 4,867/- respectively per year.

Overall growth of capsicum inside the greenhouse
was better as compared to outside condition. Also
early flowering and fruiting were observed inside
the greenhouse. Plant height after 120 days of
planting inside the greenhouse was 124.26 per cent
higher than open field condition. The fruit yield per
sq m inside the greenhouse was 2.25 times more
over open field condition (Fig. 1). There was
increase in greenhouse air temperature as
compared to ambient condition. The UV sheet of
greenhouse exerted a blanket effect at the top
resulting in less fluctuations of day and night
temperature than open condition. In open condition
the higher variation in day and night temperature
resulted in lower yield. Greenhouse was effective
in raising the temperature during cold night period
inside the greenhouse thereby creating a better
microclimate for production of higher yield and
Just like annual costs, the present worth of the

annual return from capsicum under different growing
conditions was computed on a yearly basis. It is
observed that the NPW for a 20 year period of
greenhouse where capsicum was grown is
Rs.1,41,633/- and it was Rs.22,464/- when crop was
grown outside (Table 1). The NPW value for growing
Aswagandha under greenhouse and open field
Fig. 1: Capsicum crop grown in greenhouse at harvest.
13

condition at Udaipur was Rs. 45,338/- and Rs. 5,
342/- respectively (Kothari et al., 2001) and for
growing cucumber under greenhouse and open field
condition at Bhubaneswar was Rs. 61,895/- and Rs.
6,244/- respectively (Mishra et al., 2007). Based on
NPW it can be concluded that the construction of
greenhouse for cultivation of capsicum is
economical and there is substantial increase in
income of farmer by growing this crop inside the
structure.
span of the greenhouse (20 years). Thus, farmers

could pay back their investment in 5 years. The pay
back period reported by Kothari et al. (2001) for
Aswagandha crop is 4 years and Mishra et al. (2007)
for cucumber crop is 5 years.
CONCLUSIONS
The NPW of investment made on greenhouse was
Rs.1, 41,633/- as compared to Rs. 22,464/- for open
condition. The benefit-cost ratio for capsicum in
greenhouse was 2.92, whereas it was 1.88 in case
of open condition. The internal rate of return for the
greenhouse was 47% as compared to 39% for open
field condition. The payback period of greenhouse
for capsicum cultivation was 5 years. From the
above study, the economic indicators suggested that
the cultivation of capsicum under greenhouse is
economical for coastal Odisha.
The benefit-cost ratio was computed on yearly basis

and the average values for growing capsicum inside
the greenhouse comes out to be 2.92 whereas it is
1.88 when grown in open condition. A BCR of 2.82
and 1.45 was observed for growing Aswagandha
under greenhouse and open field condition
respectively at Udaipur (Kothari et al., 2001) and a
BCR of 2.56 and 1.26 growing cucumber under
greenhouse and open field condition respectively
at Bhubaneswar (Mishra et al., 2007). It indicates
that the benefit-cost ratio when capsicum is grown
inside the greenhouse is very high with comparison
to open condition and hence it is worth constructing
greenhouse for its cultivation.
REFERENCES
Koning P. 1988. Growing tomato under protection.
P. 50. Vegetable Crops, Naya Prakash
Publications, Kolkata.
Kothari S; Rathore N S; Pawar N L. 2001. Technoeconomics of greenhouse for cultivation of
Aswagandha under composite climate of Udaipur.
Agricultural Engineering Today, Vol. 25 (3-4): 3640.
Mishra J N; Paul J C; Swain S. 2007. Technoeconomic Evaluation of Greenhouse and
Greenhouse with Shadenet for Off-season
Cucumber Cultivation in Coastal Climate of
Odisha. Agricultural Engineering Today, Vol. 31
(3&4): 21-25.
Nimeje PM; Wanjari OD; Shyam M. 1990.
Greenhouse technology for vegetable crop
production. The use of plastics in agriculture,
Proceedings of XI International Congress, 26th
Feb. 2nd Mar., New Delhi, India: E 178-182.
Tiwari G N; Goyal R K. 1998. Greenhouse
Technology, Narosa publishing house, New Delhi.
The internal rate of return (IRR) is another important

factor frequently used by economists for evaluation
of the performance of different projects. It is
computed as that interest rate at which the BCR is
just 1.0. In the present study the IRR was found to
be 47 per cent and 39 per cent for greenhouse and
open condition respectively. The IRR reported by
Mishra et al. (2007) for Cucumber cultivation at
Bhubaneswar was 55 per cent and 39 per cent for
greenhouse and open condition respectively. As the
internal rate of return is higher than discounting rate
(8 per cent), the cultivation of capsicum under
protected condition is economically viable.
Payback period (PBP) for the present study was
found to be 5 years, which was less than the life
14
Vol. 36(1), 2012
Effect of Mulches on Soil Moisture and

Fruit Yield in Summer Tomato
VK Pandey1 (LM-10390) and AC Mishra2
1
Subject Matter Specialist (Agril. Engg.), KVK Chatra, Jharkhand

2
Subject Matter Specialist (Horticulture), KVK Garhwa-822 114;
Email: vinod.bau@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Present experiment was conducted in participatory mode among ten tomato growers of
Chatra district of Jharkhand during late Rabi of 2009-10 to summer 2010 including three
technology options viz., Farmers practices i.e. plots provided with required number of
irrigations without mulching (TO1), use of black plastic mulch (TO2) and use of rice straw
mulch applied @ 10 t/ha to maintain 5 cm thickness (TO3). Mulched plots were also irrigated
whenever required to maintain soil moisture. Data were recorded on moisture content
after one week of irrigation (%), number of irrigations during 130 days of crop duration,
irrigation intervals (days) required to maintain at least 20-22% soil moisture, weed population
per m2 area, fruit weight (g), fruit yield per plant (kg), yield (q/ha), and C:B ratio. Results
indicated that black plastic mulch was promising for increasing soil moisture content after
one week of irrigation, fruit weight and reducing number of irrigations and weed population
per m2 area. However, rice straw mulch increased number of fruits per plant and fruit yield.
Rice straw mulching also exhibited maximum B:C ratio due to higher fruit yield and lower
initial input required in application of this locally available mulch material. Therefore, it was
recommended for large scale application in summer tomato crop for remunerative yield.
Keyword: Mulches, Soil Moisture, Tomato
INTRODUCTION
Mishra, 2003); Aarstad and Miller, 1973; Rees et al.,

2002; Sood, 1989; Stieber et al., 1991; Yoder, 1991).
Maintaining the optimum soil moisture during growth
and development of crop is one of the factors
promoting proper uptake of nutrients. Crop
production supplying the required number of
irrigations is a tedious and uneconomic job
particularly in rainfed and water scarce areas. In such
areas, application of mulch has special importance
to reduce number of irrigations. Many types of
mulches have been utilized in agriculture with varying
degree of beneficial results. Mulch materials should
have easy and economical reach of farmers with
affirmative impact on yield and environment.
Therefore, evaluation of some mulch materials with
good soil moisture conservation and economical yield
ability is imperative to promote remunerative summer
tomato cultivation for this region.
Tomato is an important crop of Chatra district of

Jharkhand grown throughout the year. In addition
to September planted main (Rabi) crop, January
planted summer and June planted Kharif crops are
also grown by the farmers in extensive area. The
Rabi and Kharif crops do not suffer water stress
but summer crop is more prone to dry spell during
the months of February to
May. The growers suffer more irrigation requirement
of the crop due to low longevity of soil moisture
during summer season. In spite of limitations, this
crop is highly remunerative to the farmers.
Therefore, soil moisture conservation techniques
are more useful for facilitating the farmers. Mulching
of crop is one of the efficient means of conserving
the moisture (Shock et al., 1988; Singh et al., 1975;
Uniyal and Mishra, 2003; Sood, 1988; Uniyal and
15

resulted in maximum number of fruits per plant
(20.59), fruit yield per plant (1.41 kg) and total fruit
yield (282.0 q/ha). The plots mulched with black
plastic exhibited maximum soil moisture content
after one week of irrigation (28%), irrigation intervals
(13 days) and fruit weight (75 g) and minimum
number of irrigations required during crop duration
of 130 days (10) and weeds per m 2 area (12).
Mulched plots in general had favourable edaphic
environments plant growth and fruit yield viz., high
and prolonged soil moisture content and low weed
population. Black plastic mulch resulted in higher
degree of soil moisture conservation and weed
control because black plastic sheets entirely check
the evaporation and light transmission across as
compared to rice straw. Higher level of soil moisture
conservation and weed control led to more fruit
weight and comparatively less number of fruits per
plant. Number of fruits per plant appeared as
principal yield attributing character in tomato which
was increased in rice straw mulching probably due
to release of some additional nutrients from partially
decomposed straw and creation of environment for
beneficial soil micro-organism during the course of
crop growth and development. It could therefore,
be concluded that in addition to high level of soil
moisture conservation and weed control, mulch
materials should be associated with improved soil

An On Farm Trial was conducted in participatory
mode among ten tomato growers of Chatra district
of Jharkhand during late Rabi of 2009-10 to summer
2010. The soils of experimental field were sandy
loam to red loam with 0.68% organic carbon, pH
value of 6, 410 kg/ha N, 15 kg/ha P2O5 and 205 kg/
ha K2O. The experiment was laid out in randomized
block design including three technology options viz.,
Farmers practices i.e. plots provided with required
number of irrigations without mulching (TO1), use
of black plastic mulch (TO2) and use of rice straw
mulch applied @ 10 t/ha to maintain 5 cm thickness
(TO3). Mulched plots were also irrigated whenever
required to maintain soil moisture. The plot size was
kept 100 m2 with a gross experimental area of 3000
m2. Data were recorded on moisture content after
one week of irrigation (%), number of irrigations
during 130 days of crop duration, irrigation intervals
(days) required to maintain at least 20-22% soil
moisture, weed population per m2 area, fruit weight
(g), fruit yield per plant (kg), yield (q/ha), gross
income (Rs./ha), net income (Rs./ha) and C:B ratio.
Analysis of the data indicated that treatments
varied significantly for all the parameters studied
(Table 1). Results indicated that rice straw mulching
Table 1: Effect of different mulches on performance of summer season tomato in rainfed plateaus of Chatra
district of Jharkhand.
Technology
Options
Technical Parameters
Economic Parameters
Moisture Number Irrigation Weed

Number Weight Yield Yield
content
of
Intervals Population of fruits of Fruits per (q/ha)
after one Irrigations (Days)
per m2 per plant
(g)
plant
week of
area
(kg)
Irrigation(%)
Gross
Net
B:C
Income Income Ratio
(Rs/ha) (Rs/ha)
TO1 Farmers
practices
(without
mulching )
12
21
58
19.36
62
1.20
240
1,68,0001,26,000 4.00
TO2 - Black
plastic
mulching.
28
10
13
12
17.86
75
1.34
269
1,88,3001,45,300 4.82
TO3 Rice
Straw Mulching
(2inch thick).
19
14.4
27
20.59
70
1.41
282
1,97,4001,56,400 5.33
1.95
1.40
1.20
3.15
1.26
1.85
0.62
13.65
CD (P = 0.05)
16
Vol. 36(1), 2012

characterstics , yiel;d and both water and fertilizer
use efficiency by a vegetable crop under sprinkler
irrigation. Egyptian J. Soil Sci., 30 (1-2): 125-140.
solution and efficient use of nutrients and fertilizers

(El-Hady and Lotfy, 1990; Stieber et al., 1991; Yoder,
1991).
Rees H W; Chow T L; Loro P J; Lavoie J; Monteith

JO; Blaauw A.2002. Hay mulching to reduce
runoff and soil loss under intensive potato
production in northwestern New Brunswick,
Canada. Canadian J. Soil Scie., 82(2): 249-258.
Mulching with rice straw resulted in maximum gross

and net income per hectare (Rs.1,97,400/- and Rs.
1,56,400/-, respectively) and B:C ratio (5.33) as
compared to black plastic mulching. High initial cost
of black polythene/plastic was also one of the factors
adversely affecting the gross and net income and
profitability in black plastic mulching whereas local
availability of rice straw at cheaper rate/freely
available reduces the cost of cultivation with
considerable increase in soil moisture conservation
and fruit yield. Therefore, application of 5 cm thick
rice straw mulching @ 10t/ha in late Rabi-summer
tomato cultivation is recommended for agro climatic
and socio economic conditions of Chatra district of
Jharkhand.
Shock C C; Futter H; Perry R; Swisher J; Hobson

J.1988. Effects of straw mulch and irrigation rate
on soil loss and runoff. Oregon State University
Agricultural Experiment Station. Special Report,
816. pp. 38-47.
Singh M; Sharma R C; Grewal J S; Sikka L C.1975.
Water management for potato crop in Shimla hills.
Indian J. agric. Sci., 45:116-123.
Sood M C.1988. Water optimization and its
requirement in potato crop. Annual scientific
Report, CPRI, Shimla, 87-99 p.
Sood M C.1989. Soil, water and nutrient losses and
their management in Shimla hills.In: Proceedings
of the National Seminar on Current Facets in
Potato Research,CPRS,Modipuram,13-15 Dec.
CONCLUSION
Rice straw mulching in interspaces of summer
tomato crop in 5 cm thickness applied @ 10 t/ha
available locally at cheaper rate/freely available
resulted in highest fruit yield and B: C ratio by
conserving soil moisture and controlling weed to a
great extent. Therefore, its application may be
recommended in biophysical and socioeconomic
conditions of Chatra district of Jharkhand.
Stieber T D; Shock C C; Hobson D; Banner J;

Saunders M.1991. Straw mulch and tractor traffic
effects on phosphorous, nitrogen, and sediment
losses and infiltration under furrow irrigation.
Agronomy Abstracts, p. 342.
Uniyal S P; Mishra A C.2003. Response of potato to
soil moisture and temperature as affected by
different mulch materials. J. Indian Potato Assoc.,
30 (3-4): 53-56.
REFERENCES
Aarstad J S; Miller D E.1973. Soil management to
reduce runoff under center-pivot sprinkler
systems. J. Soil and Water Cons. 28(4): 171-173.
El-Hady Q A; Lotfy A A.1990. Local products as
conditioners for sandy soils. Effect on some soil
Yoder R.1991. New hilling practice may halt leaching.

Potato Country Publication, Yakima, WA.
17
Effect of Different Drying Methods on Quality of Rose and

Gerbera Flowers
Jaydipsinh B Raol (LM-10353) 1, M T Kumpavat 2 and D M Vyas3
1
. Assistant Professor, SMC college of Dairy Science, AAU, Anand-388 110,Gujarat, (E-mail:jb11068@yahoo.co.in),
2
. Assistant Professor, College of Food Processing Technology and Bio Energy,, AAU, Anand-388 110, Gujarat
E-mail: mtkumpavat@yahoo.co.in,
3
.Prof. D.M. Vyas, Associate Professor, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, JAU,
Junagadh, Gujarat
ABSTRACT
Gerbera is most commonly used world wide as a cut flower, while rose is largely harvested
flower in India and used in various way. The full boom rose and gerbera flowers, were
dried by employing different drying methods such as hot air drying at 40, 50 and 60 0C,
microwave oven drying with silica gel at 50 0C, vacuum drying at 40 0C and 760 mm Hg
pressure besides solar and shade drying to find out the change in weight, size, colour, etc.
During and after drying reduction in size, bio-chemical analysis for chlorophyll, carotene
and xanthophylls content and sensory evaluation was carried out. From the reduction in
size point of view, microwave oven drying of rose and gerbera flowers at 50 0C with silica
gel resulted the least percent reduction in size which was of the order of 11.85 and 17.77
% respectively. The overall sensory evaluation of dried rose and gerbera flowers for
colour, shape, petal structure and mechanical damage indicated that the microwave oven
drying at 50 0C with silica gel followed by vacuum drying at 400C and 760 mm Hg vacuum
performed well as compared to other treatments. The minimum decrement in all the three
colour pigments was observed in the flowers dried in microwave oven at 50 0C with silica
gel followed by vacuum drying at 40 oC and shade drying.
Key Words: Drying of flowers, Rose, Gerbera, Reduction in size, Sensory Evaluation
INTRODUCTION
and decorative value. Dried flowers are the

important products of present day floriculture due
to their long lasting quality, year round availability,
easy handling, low transportation cost, eco friendly
and suitable for subsequent flower products. Flower
preservation has become a popular hobby. Dried
flower arrangements are a wonderful way to
preserve flowers when fresh flowers are not
available. Dried flowers make memorable gifts for
special friends and also a way of preserving
memories of special events such as birthdays,
anniversaries or weddings. Dried flowers can be
put to many beautiful and varied uses such as long
lasting pictures, frames, flower balls, cards, covers,
pomanders, festive decoration, candles, potpourri
and many other things according to ones creativity.
In India, floriculture has been associated with culture

and heritage since very ancient time. Now, it is
poised for a transformation owing to increase in
demand for quality flowers due to urbanization,
innovative technology, policy, environment etc.
Fresh flowers, through exquisite in their beauty, but
have short life due to their highly perishable nature
and available only during a particular season. Huge
amount of fresh flowers is lost due to lack of proper
marketing channel and some unavoidable
circumstances during blooming season. The charm
of flowers can be maintained and preserve for
several years by employing the technology of drying.
Dried flowers can be stored in dry atmosphere for
a very long period without loosing their appearance
18
Vol. 36(1), 2012

The technique of drying the flowers has tremendous
importance in social development in terms of
employment generation. The principle behind
preservation of flower by drying is based on quickly
reducing moisture content of flowers to a point at
which biochemical changes can be minimized or
brought to a standstill while maintaining cell
structure, petal pigment level and shape of flower.
Estimation of Reduction in Size during Drying

Due to the removal of moisture, the petals were
wrinkled and that contributed in to the reduction in
over all canopy of the flowers. The canopy of flower,
refereed as the maximum spread area, a flower
occupies was expressed in terms of the size of
flower. The maximum size was determined in terms
of maximum dimension of flower. The maximum
dimension of flower canopy was measured with the
help of digital vernier calipers having least count of
0.01 mm. The maximum dimension of both the
flowers initially and after the drying under each
drying run was measured and the reduction in size
of flowers was computed by the following
relationship (Sohn et al., 2003).
Foliage and flowers with low moisture content,

fibrous tissues, attractive shape and pattern and
brightest colour are used for drying. Materials
harvested during dry or summer season give
excellent result (Rajeevan and Valsalakumari,
2004). Gerbera belongs to the family of Asteraceae,
is most commonly used world wide as a cut flower
and occupies fourth position among the top ten cut
flowers. While rose (Rosa Sp.) is largely harvested
flower in India and used in various way. Due to the
attractive appearance, the demand of dried rose
and gerbera flowers in domestic and global market
is more as compared to other flowers. A study was
conducted to determine appropriate method for
drying for rose and gerbera flowers with an
objective, to evaluate the quality of flowers under
different drying methods.
Reduction in size = Maximum linear dimension of

fresh flower (mm) - Maximum linear dimension of
dried flower (mm)
Bio-chemical Analysis
Pigment analysis of fresh and dried flowers was
done to study the effect of different temperatures
under different drying methods on pigment content.
Optical density (O.D.) reading at specific wavelength
was taken to determine the pigment content
according to the formula. Chloroplast pigments i.e.
chlorophylls, xanthophylls and carotenes were
extracted as per the extraction method reported by
Machlis and Torrey (1956).

The full boom rose flowers, without any bruising
and intact petals were selected. While fresh gerbera
flowers, harvested at full boom stage, without any
injury and compact petals were selected .The new
batch of freshly harvested flowers at full boom
maturity was used during each drying run. The full
boom rose and gerbera flowers were dried by
employing different drying methods such as hot air
drying at 40, 50 and 60 0C, microwave oven drying
with silica gel at 50 0C, vacuum drying at 40 0C
besides solar and shade drying. Before putting the
samples in drying unit, the dryer was started to attain
the pre set temperature. The experiments on drying
were carried out separately for rose and gerbera.
The samples were tagged for identification and
maximum initial size was measured with the help
of digital vernier calipers having least count of 0.01
mm. During drying, the samples of rose and
gerbera flowers were dried from initially at about
80 and 85% (w.b.) to 3.0% (w.b.) moisture content
respectively (Bhutani and Kher, 1979).
Extraction and estimation of chloroplast

pigments
A sample of known weight (0.5 gm) of gerbera and
rose flowers were taken and properly ground in a
mortar and pestle followed by mixing with 40 ml of
80% acetone. The mixture was centrifuged at 5000
rpm for ten minutes and the extract was taken in a
separator funnel. In the extract 50 ml of petroleum
ether was added and the funnel was rotated gently,
during which 70 ml of distilled water was added.
The funnel was again rotated till two separate layers
were formed. The lower acetone water layer was
discarded. Again 50 ml of distilled water was added
along with gentle rotation of funnel and water was
drained off thereafter. The same procedure was
repeated twice. After washing with water, 50 ml of
92% methyl alcohol was added slowly and mixed
19

along with gentle rotation of funnel. This resulted in
to separation of two layers. The lower layer (A) of
methyl alcohol solution was poured into one beaker
while the upper layer (B) of petroleum ether solution
was taken into another beaker. Solution A was
taken in another separator funnel and 50 ml of ethyl
ether was added into it and properly mixed by
rotating the funnel. Further, distilled water was
gradually added in to the funnel, till two separate
layers were formed. Out of the two separate layers,
the lower layer composed of methyl alcohol was
discarded and the upper layer was transferred into
another beaker (X). About 30 ml of solution was
taken from each B and X solution in two large
capacity test tubes and kept separately. About 15
ml of fresh 30% methyl alcoholic potassium
hydroxide solution was poured by gradually sliding
it over to wall surface in to both the test tubes. The
test tubes were gently shaken and kept aside for
ten minutes. Thereafter, 30 ml of distilled water was
added into both the test tubes, which resulted into
formation of two separate layers. The test tube
containing X solution, contained pigments
xanthophylls and chlorophyll b while the test tubes
containing B solution, contained carotene and
chlorophyll a. From both the test tubes, the layers
(of pigments) were separated and kept in different
bottles. The spectrophotometer reading was taken
at different wavelengths in the form of transmission,
which was further converted to optical density (O.D.)
value, and pigments were estimated according to
the formula given below:
Carotene (mg/g) = [7.6(D480)-1.49(D510)] x V/

(1000 x W)]
Chlorophyll a (mg/g) = [12.7 (D663)-2.69(D645)] x

V/(1000 x W)
The moisture content of rose and gerbera flowers

was found to be in the range of 80% (w.b.) and
85% (w.b.) respectively, which was dried, up to about
3.00% (w.b.) using different drying methods. During
drying due to the evaporation of cell water, the
texture of the material collapsed and that affected
the physical quantities like size, volume, plan to petal
ratio etc. The changes in these properties are highly
important, as it decides the quality of dried flowers.
The percent reduction in size of rose flowers under
microwave oven drying at 50 0C with silica gel, as
desiccant was the lowest amongst all the drying
treatments studied (Table 1). The percent reduction
in size of rose flowers under different drying
methods was of the order of 11.85, 14.12, 24.77,
24.82, 31.00, 39.46 and 40.07 obtained during
microwave oven drying at 50 0C with silica gel,
Where,
D480 = O. D. at 480 nm wavelength, D510 = O.D.
at 510 nm wavelength
V = Volume made i.e. here, 40 ml, W = Dry weight
of sample taken, g
Xanthophylls: (mg/g) = [7.6(D480)-1.49(D510)] x V/
(1000 x W)]
Where,
D480 = O. D. at 480 nm wavelength, D510 = O.D.
V = Volume made i.e. here, 40 ml, W= Dry weight
of sample taken (g)
Sensory Evaluation
The organoleptic qualities in terms of colour, shape,
texture and mechanical damage in all the dried
flowers were determined using the sensory
evaluation technique. A panel of six judges was
made to evaluate the samples using 10 point
hedonic scale. The members were asked to assign
the points according to the effect of drying on colour,
shape, petal structure and mechanical damage. The
results in terms of organolpetic qualities were then
drawn from the scores given to the samples by
sensory evaluation committee members
(Ranganna, 2000).
Where,
D663 = O.D. at 663 nm wavelength, D645 = O.D.
of sample taken, g
Chlorophyll b (mg/g) = [22.9(D645)-4.68(D663)] x
V/(1000 x W)
Where,
D645 = O.D. at 645 nm wavelength, D663 = O.D.
of sample taken, g
20
Vol. 36(1), 2012

Table 1: Reduction in size of flowers dried under different drying methods.
S. No. Drying method
Size in mm
Initial
After
drying
% Reduction in size
Reduction
in size
Rose flowers
1
2
74.09
55.74
18.35
24.77
76.45
52.75
23.70
31.00
Hot air drying at 40 C

0
67.76
40.61
27.15
40.07
Vacuum drying at 40 C and

760 mm Hg vacuum
68.75
59.04
09.71
14.12
Solar drying
70.07
42.42
27.65
39.46
Microwave oven drying with

silica gel at 50 0C
80.08
70.59
09.49
11.85
Shade drying
70.32
52.87
17.45
24.82
Gerbera flowers
1
Hot air drying at 40 0C
92.63
49.64
42.99
46.41
Hot air drying at 50 0C
92.06
44.15
47.91
52.04
91.75
42.86
42.86
53.29
Vacuum drying at 40 C and

760 mm Hg vacuum
95.02
65.5
29.52
31.07
Solar drying
85.70
42.93
42.77
49.91
Microwave oven drying withx

760 mm Hg vacuum
94.11
79.91
14.20
17.77
Shade drying
88.59
63.7
24.89
28.10
vacuum drying at 40 0C and 760 mm Hg vacuum,

hot air drying at 40 0C, shade drying, hot air drying
at 50 0C, solar drying and hot air drying at 60 0C
respectively. The percent reduction in size of
gerbera flowers under microwave oven drying at
50 0C with silica gel was also observed the lowest
amongst all the drying treatments studied (Table
1). The percent reduction in size of gerbera flowers
under different drying methods was of the order of
17.77, 28.10, 31.07, 46.41, 49.91, 52.04 and 53.29
obtained during microwave oven drying at 50 0C
with silica gel, shade drying, vacuum drying at 40
0
C and 760 mm Hg, hot air drying at 40 0C, solar
drying, hot air drying at 50 0C and hot air drying at
60 0C respectively. The intensity of reduction in size
of gerbera flowers was found more as compared to
rose flowers mainly due to the canopy of floral parts
of the flowers. From the observations, microwave
oven drying of rose and gerbera flowers at 50 0C
with silica gel as desiccant was found the best
amongst all drying method as it gives the least

percent reduction in size which was of the order of
11.85 and 17.77 respectively. The maximum,
percent size reduction was observed in both the
flowers during drying by hot air oven at 60 0C.
The product dried with less temperature and time
of drying had a little variation in drying rate, which
resulted in to the least reduction in size. Due to the
drying with more time and temperature, the large
variation in drying rate was occurred which resulted
in to non-uniform drying. Because of this, the
removal of water was faster in beginning and
thereafter the addition of heat was responsible for
increment in products temperature, which induced
the shrinkage. The results reported by Singh et al.
(2003) for zinnia flowers, Young et al. (2003) for
wild flowers and Sharma et al. (2004) for marigold
flowers were justifying the results obtained during
the experimentation.
21

Rose flowers: The colour was turned in to the
darker than normal in all the drying treatments. The
shape of the dried rose flowers was very well
maintained under microwave oven drying at 50 0C.
Similarly, the shape of rose flowers dried in vacuum
oven at 40 0C was partially maintained, while in all
other drying treatments the shape was found
distorted. The sensory results of petal texture
showed that petal texture was slightly disturbed in
case of microwave oven drying at 50 0C, while in all
other drying treatments it was highly disturbed. The
sensory analysis revealed that none of the drying
treatment was significant in terms of marinating the
petal texture. The sensory observations for
mechanical damage to dried flowers indicated that
there was no damage in the flowers dried by
microwave oven drying at 50 0C, while 1 -10%
mechanical damage observed during hot air oven
drying at 40, 50 and 60 0C. The mechanical damage
in the range of 10-20% in the dried rose flowers
was observed in vacuum, solar and shade drying.

The overall sensory evaluation from the data for
rose flowers indicated that the microwave oven
drying at 50 0C with silica gel followed by vacuum
drying at 40 0C and 760 mm Hg vacuum performed
well as compared to other treatments.
Gerbera flowers: The normal colour of gerbera
flowers was turned to darker during all the drying
treatments. The shape of flowers was very well
maintained during microwave oven drying at 50 0C.
The flowers dried by vacuum drying at 40 0C,
partially maintained the shape, but in all other
treatments the shape was distorted. The sensory
analysis indicated that petal texture was partially
disturbed in case of microwave oven drying at 50
0
C but in all other treatments the petal texture was
highly disturbed. As in case of rose, here also all
the drying treatments found non significant for
maintaining the petal texture during drying. In case
Table 2: Biochemical analysis of rose and gerbera flowers.

Treatment
Chlorophyll
a,mg/g
Chlorophyll
b,mg/g
Xanthophyll
s,mg/g
Rose flowers
Initial
1.4460
2.9297
0.7522
1.3451
2.4693
0.7232
1.2221
2.3655
0.7201
1.1593
2.2963
0.7189
Vacuum drying at 40 0C and 760 mm Hg vacuum
1.3575
2.7562
0.7326
Solar drying
1.3409
2.7315
0.7059
Microwave oven drying with silica gel at 50 0C
1.3963
2.7624
0.7374
Shade drying
1.3550
2.7509
0.7219
Chlorophyll
a,mg/g
Chlorophyll
b,mg/g
Carotene
mg/g

Gerbera flowers
Treatment
Initial
1.5654
2.9778
0.5855
1.3139
2.5612
0.5059
1.2581
2.5596
0.4932
1.2435
2.4821
0.4902
Vacuum drying at 40 C and 760 mm Hg vacuum
1.3599
2.7722
0.5394
Solar drying
1.3621
2.7628
0.5281
Microwave oven drying with silica gel at 50 0C
1.5242
2.7835
0.5417
Shade drying
1.3652
2.7754
0.5341

0
22
Vol. 36(1), 2012

in size which was of the order of 11.85 and 17.77 %
respectively. The effect of temperature of drying on
size reduction was significant. The maximum
percent reduction in size during drying was observed
in rose and gerbera flowers when dried at 60 0C in
hot air oven. The sensory analysis revealed that
none of the drying treatment was
significant in
terms of maintaining colour and petal structure of
both the flowers.
of mechanical damage the sensory analysis was

suggesting no damage in microwave oven dried
flowers, while the damage of 1-10% was observed
in vacuum dried flowers at 40 0C. The mechanical
damage of the order of 10-20% was found in the
flowers dried by all other treatments. From the
overall sensory evaluation of organoleptic qualities
like colour, shape, petal texture and mechanical
damage for dried gerbera flowers, the microwave
oven drying at 50 0C with silica gel observed best
treatment amongst all drying treatments considered.
REFERENCES
Bhutani J C; Kher M A. 1979. Dehydration of flowers
and foliage. Extension Bulletin, NBRI, Luckhnow.
pp. 1-20.
Kozlik C J; Boone R S. 1987. Kiln drying of oneinch red alder lumber. Forest Products, 37 (6):
21-24.
Machlis L; Torrey J G. 1956. The chloplast pigments
extraction and chemical separation of pigments:
In Plant in Action A Laboratory Manual of Plant
Physiology. Edited by: Freeman, W.H. pp. 136141.
Rajeevan P K; Valsalakumari P K. 2004. Advances
in value addition of flowers with special emphasis
to oil production. National Seminar on advances
in value addition of horticultural crops. Navsari
Agricultural University, Navsari.
Ranganna S. 2000. Handbook of analysis and quality
control for fruits and vegetable products. Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi.
Sharma MK; Joshi K I; Joshi D C. 2004. Drying of
pot marigold (Callendula officinalis L.) by
microwave oven and cabinet oven. National
Seminar on advances in value addition of
horticultural crops. Navsari Agricultural University,
Navsari.
Singh A; Dhaduk B K; Shah R R. 2003. Effect of
dehydration on post harvest life and quality of
zinnia flowers. J. Ornam. Hort. (New series), 6
(2): 141-142.
Sohn K; Kwon H J; Kim E Y. 2003. Optimum drying
temperature to maintain size and colour of dried
rose. Korean J. Hort. Sci. Technol., 21(2): 141145.
Young LW; Jeong Y M; Ho P C; Hwa K B. 2003.
Effect of various drying methods for wild flower.
Korean. J Hort. Sci. Technol., 21(1): 50-56.
Bio-chemical Analysis: The chlorophyll pigment

represents green colour while carotene and
xanthophylls yellow and red colour respectively. The
observations on content of different colour pigments
of rose flowers revealed that irrespective of
treatment, there was decrease in chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b and xanthophylls content after drying.
The minimum decrement in all the three colour
pigments was observed in the rose flowers dried
by microwave oven at 50 0C with silica gel followed
by vacuum drying at 40 0C and shade drying. The
maximum decrement in colour pigments was found
in the flowers dried by hot air oven at 60 0C (Table
2). The colour pigments chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b
and carotene content decreased during all the
treatments of drying. The minimum decrement in
all three colour pigments was observed in the
flowers dried by microwave oven at 50 0C with silica
gel followed by vacuum drying at 40 oC and shade
drying. Similar to rose flowers, here also the
maximum decrement was observed during drying
by hot air oven drying at 60 0C (Table 2). The results
of change in colour pigments reflected the effect of
temperature and time of heating. The flowers dried
at lower temperature and less exposure, exhibiting
little change in colour pigments as compared to the
flowers dried at higher temperature. The results
obtained during biochemical analysis were similar
to the results reported by Kozlik and Boone (1987),
Sohn et al. (2003).
CONCLUSIONS
From the reduction in size point of view, microwave
oven drying of rose and gerbera flowers at 50 0C
with silica gel was found best amongst all drying
methods as it resulted the least percent reduction
23
Extraction of Essential Oils - Need of the Hour

Md. Shafiq Alam (LM-9341) and Sandhya (LM-10052)
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, INDIA
E-mail: ms_alam@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Essential oils are composed of a wide range of bioactive chemical compounds. These are
volatile oils distilled from aromatic plant materials. The Indian essential oil industry
manufactures rose, kewda, lemon grass oil, peppermint oil, oil of champa, citrus oil,
palmarosa, mentha and celery oils. The extraction of highly delicate essential oils from
plants remains a crucial step in all these applications. Different methods can be used for
that purpose, e.g. hydro-distillation (HD), steam distillation and Solvent extraction. Losses
of some volatile compounds, low extraction efficiency, degradation of unsaturated or ester
compounds through thermal or hydrolytic effects and toxic solvent residue in the extract
may be encountered using these extraction methods. These shortcomings have led to the
consideration of the use of new innovative technique in essential oil extraction, which
typically use less solvent and energy, such as supercritical fluids and microwave assisted
extraction. Super critical fluid extraction has become a valid alternative, mainly, because
the dissolving power of the extracting medium can be adjusted by regulating the pressure
and temperature conditions. Solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME), a combination of
microwave heating and dry distillation, is a newly developed technique.
Key words: Aromatic plant, essential oil, extraction, SFME
INTRODUCTION
Rs. 386.48 crores in 2000-01(Singhal, 2003).

Essential oils are extracted from different parts of
plants. For instance, sweet marjoram oil comes from
the flowering tops of the herb; ylang oil is extracted
from flowers. While cinnamon oil is obtained from
leaves or bark, citrus oils such as orange, lime and
lemon are squeezed from the peel of the fruits, and
vetiver is extracted from the roots; black pepper,
celery oil is extracted from the seeds. The term
essential suggest that the oils contain the healing
essence of the plants. Also essential oils are volatile
and non-greasy unlike the vegetable oils. All the
oils are antiseptic but some oil may be more than
others. Just to name a few properties analgesic,
antibiotic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, diuretic,
expectorant, laxative, sedative, tonic, stimulant and
more. This paper discusses the different methods
of oil extraction.
Essential oils are the volatile oils distilled from

aromatic plant material. Essential oils are contained
in the glands, sacs, veins and glandular hairs
concentrated in different part of the plant. Essential
oils are considered a secondary plant producta
compound that occurs in plants but is not critical
for the plants basic metabolic function. Any class
of volatile odoriferous oils derived from raw materials
of plant origin that impart the plant odour and other
characteristics properties and found by processes
such as distillation, extraction, expression,
maceration etc is called essential oil (Anonymous,
2002). The Indian essential oil industry
manufactures rose, kewda, lemon grass oil,
peppermint oil, oil of champa, citrus oil, palmarosa,
mentha and celery oils. The major cities which have
essential oil plants in India are Mumbai, Mysore and
Chennai. In last decade there has been
considerable rise in essential oils. In 1990-91 the
export was 892 metric tonnes worth Rs. 31.99
crores which increased to 4,400 metric tonnes worth
METHODS OF EXTRACTION
The extraction of essential oils from plant material
can be achieved by a number of different methods.
24
Vol. 36(1), 2012

For each method there may be many variations and
refinements and the extraction may be conducted
under reduced pressure (vacuum), ambient
pressure or excess pressure. The choice of
extraction method will depend on the nature of the
material, the stability of the chemical components
and the specification of the targeted product.
of the still and charring. Distillation is less labour

intensive and has a lower labour skill requirement
than solvent extraction. Water distillation is probably
the simplest and cheapest method of extracting
essential oils, but the quality of the oil has the
greatest potential to be modified due to the effects
of direct heating and the water contact (Weiss,
1997). The water distilled oils are commonly darker
in colour and have stronger still off-note odours
than oils produced by the other methods, and
therefore tend to be of the lowest value. Some
components of the oil are more susceptible to
chemical change and oxygenated components tend
to dissolve in the still water so their complete
extraction is not possible. The water present in the
still must always be more than enough to last the
duration of the distillation, other wise the plant
material can over-heat and char.
Expression: Expression is used exclusively for the

extraction of citrus oil from the fruit peel, because
the chemical components of the oil are easily
damaged by heat. Citrus oil production is now a
major by-product process of the juice industry. Plant
material used is orange, lemon, grapefruit and
mandarin rind. The oils extracted using this method
have a relatively short shelf life.
Sponge extraction process: This method was
developed in France and is still used for extraction
of Italian lemon and orange peel oil. Most citrus
essences are extracted by means of expression.
The emulsion ejected from the oil sacs is soaked
up by sponge which must be kept clean. After some
time the contents of the sponge (oil + water) are
squeezed into a pot and oil is decanted after some
time (Bhatia, 2001). Oil recovery in this method is
around 50-75% but oil obtained has less shelf life
as conditions under which this process takes place
are unhygienic. Also this method is labour intensive
and quality produced is not reproducible because
of the physical condition of the peel, ability of the
operator and ambient temperature.
Steam distillation is the most common method of

extracting essential oils. Steam distillation uses an
outside source of steam which pipes the steam into
the distillation unit, sometimes at high pressure. The
steam passes through the aromatic material and
exits into the condenser. Steam distillation is done
in a still. Fresh or sometimes dried, botanical
material is placed in the plant chamber of the still,
and pressurized steam is generated in a separate
chamber and circulated through the plant material.
The heat of the steam forces the tiny intercellular
pockets that hold the essential oils to open and
release them. The temperature of the steam must
be high enough to open the pouches, yet not so
high that it destroys the plants or burns the essential
oils. As they are released, the tiny droplets of
essential oil evaporate and, together with the steam
molecules, travel through a tube into the stills
condensation chamber. As the steam cools, it
condenses into water. The essential oil forms a film
on the surface of the water. To separate the
essential oil from the water, the film is then decanted
or skimmed off the top. The remaining water, a
byproduct of distillation, is called floral water,
distillate, or hydrosol. It retains many of the
therapeutic properties of the plant, making it
valuable in skin care for facial mists and toners. The
main advantage of this process is that the amount
of steam and quality of steam can be controlled.
For flavour and fragrance industry, this is the
Distillation: The vast majority of true essential oils

are produced by distillation. Distillation is still the
most economical method of extracting essential oil
from spices and aromatic plant material. In this,
water is heated to produce steam, which carries
the most volatile chemical of the aromatic material
with it. The steam is then chilled (in a condenser)
and the resulting distillate is collected. The essential
oil will normally float on top of the Hydrosol (the
distilled water component) and may be separated
off. Hydro distillation is the simplest of the three
distillation methods. It achieves component isolation
according to the hydro solubility. The plant material
is mixed directly with water in a still pot. A perforated
grid may be inserted above the base of the still pot
to prevent the plant material settling on the bottom
and coming in direct contact with the heated base
25

standard method and cost effective compared to
supercritical fluid extraction. But it requires higher
capital investment and higher level of technical skill
for fabrication, repair and maintenance.
alcohol to separate the extract from the remaining

fat, which is then used to make soap. The fat mostly
used is lard and suet or a mixture of these (Kumar
et al, 2001). The advantage of this process is that
the extraction occurs at or below ambient
temperatures; hence there is no thermal
degradation of the products. The extraction process
utilizes the selectivity of the solvent and produces
free flowing clear oil free of waxes.
Water and steam distillation is the best method for

distilling leafy materials, but doesnt work well for
woods, roots, seeds, etc. The plant material is
packed into the still pot sitting on a grill or perforated
plate above the boiling water. The capacity of the
still pot volume is reduced but it may be possible to
achieve a high packing density because the plant
material is not suspended in the water. Higher oil
yield can be obtained by this and also the effect of
refluxing is minimized. It is a faster process so it is
more energy efficient.
Maceration is the process in which a certain quantity

of purified beef suet mixed with purified lard, is put
into a clean metal or porcelain pan. This being
melted over a water bath with a temperature of 6070 OC maintained. Cassie, rose, orange, blossom
and violet flowers are generally treated by this
process. The flowers are allowed to remain in the
melted fat from 12-48 hours and kept stirred. The
contents of the pan are filtered and further quantities
of fresh flowers are mixed with it. The process is
repeated till the extraction media i.e., fat becomes
fully saturated with perfume. The absolute or oil is
recovered from the fat by treatment with alcohol.
Extraction by Solvents
It has already been pointed out that by distillation,
essential oils of high purity and very fine aroma can
be obtained. In a large number of cases this method
does not produce satisfactory oils, because many
unstable aromatic substances are destroyed by the
high temperature of the steam while in other cases,
the quality of oil is poor. In view of these factors
solvent extraction method is used. The solvent used
may be volatile or non-volatile, the latter one again
sub-divided according to the conditions of
temperature during the process i.e. i) at normal
temperature Effleurage and ii) with the application
of heat- Maceration. Effleurage extraction is a very
labor-intensive way of extraction. Glass plates in a
frame (called a chassis) are covered with highly
purified and odorless vegetable or animal fat (about
12.6 mm thick) and the petals of the botanical matter
(jasmine, tuberose and orange blossom) that are
being extracted are spread across it and pressed
in. The flowers are normally freshly picked before
so encased in their fatty bed. The petals remain in
this greasy compound for a few days to allow the
essence to disperse into the compound, where the
then depleted petals are removed and replaced with
a fresh harvest of petals. This process is repeated
until the greasy mix is saturated with the essence,
and needs to be repeated a couple of times until
saturation is achieved. The resulting fat is known
as pomade. When the mix has reached saturation
point the flowers are removed and the pomade the fat and fragrant oil, then washed with 95%
Extraction by Volatile Solvents

Essential oils can be extracted by using solvents
such as petroleum, ether, methanol, ethanol,
benzene, hexane and is often used on fragile
material such as jasmine, hyacinth, narcissus and
tuberose. Out of this petroleum, ether and benzene
are generally used. The solvents are purified using
sulphuric acid. The extraction is carried out in
extractors, which are either stationary or mobile and
cylindrical in shape fitted with false bottoms over
which the raw materials are placed. They are
hermetically sealed and interconnected through
tubes. The solvent comes in direct contact of the
material and runs down slowly from one extractor
to another, until the flowers are exhausted and
temperature is maintained around 50 0C. The
solvent is removed from the extractor and distilled.
The product left behind in distillation still after
distilling the solvent is solid or nearly so and is
concrete. The concentrated concretes are
processed further to remove the waxy materials
which dilute the pure essential oil. To prepare the
absolute from the concrete, the waxy concrete is
warmed and stirred with alcohol (usually ethanol.).
During the heating and stirring process the concrete
26
Vol. 36(1), 2012

breaks up into minute globules. Since the aromatic
molecules are more soluble in alcohol than is the
wax an efficient separation of the two takes place.
But along with the aromatic molecules a certain
amount of wax also becomes dissolved and this
can only be removed by agitating and freezing the
solution at very low temperatures (around 30
degrees F) In this way most of the wax precipitates
out. As a final precaution the purified solution is cold
filtered leaving only the wax-free material (the
absolute.) This solvent extraction actually yields
three usable products; first the concrete, the
precious absolutes, and the floral waxes, for addition
to candles, thickening creams and lotions as a softly
floral scented alternative to beeswax.
leave no harmful residue as it is an inert gas. Also

high boiling components are extracted at relatively
low temperatures. But it requires high capital
investment and elevated pressure. Compression of
solvent requires elaborate recycling measures to
reduce energy costs. Wenqiang et al., (2007)
examined the Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of
essential oil from clove buds with CO2. The effect
of different parameters, such as temperature (30
0
C, 40 0C, 50 0C), pressure (10 M Pa, 20 M Pa, 30
M Pa) and particle size (three degree index), on
the extraction yield and the content of eugenol in
extracts was investigated. The experimental results
show that the temperature has the largest effect on
the eugenol content of the extracts, and particle size
has the maximum effect on the oil yield. The
essential oil of 19.56% yield, in which the maximum
content of eugenol in extracts is 58.77%, can be
extracted from clove buds at pressure of 10 M Pa
and temperature of 50 0C. Essential oil of clove buds
obtained by SFE, hydro distillation, steam distillation
and Soxhlet extractions were further analyzed by
gas chromatography/mass spectrometric detection
to compare the extraction methods. The comparison
of Supercritical Fluid extraction and Steam
Distillation is given in Table 1.
Supercritical Fluid Extraction

The use of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction
is a fairly new way to extract essential oils from
botanical material. The basic principle of SCF
extraction is that the solubility of a given compound
(solute) in a solvent varies with both temperature
and pressure. At ambient conditions (25 0C and 1
bar) the solubility of a solute in a gas is usually
related directly to the vapor pressure of the solute
and is generally negligible. In a SCF, however, solute
solubilities of up to 10 orders of magnitude greater
than those predicted by ideal gas law behavior have
been reported. Carbon dioxide is the most
commonly used SCF, due primarily to its low critical
parameters (31.1 0C, 73.8 bar), low cost and nontoxicity & non flammability. When CO 2 (carbon
dioxide) is subjected to high pressure, the gas turns
into liquid. This liquid CO2 can be used as a very
inert, safe, liquid solvent. which will extract the
aromatic molecules in a process similar to that used
to extract absolutes. The advantage is that no
solvent residue remains, since at normal pressure
and temperature, the CO2 simply reverts to a gas
and evaporates
Table 1: Comparison of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

& Steam Distillation.
Material
The apparatus used for the extraction is the high

pressure Soxhlet apparatus. The equipment is
designed for maximum pressure up to 300 bar and
maximum temperature up to 200 0C and can
withstand up to 1000 bars. Dissolving power of the
SCF can be controlled by pressure and/or
temperature. SCF is also easily recoverable from
the extract due to its volatility. Non-toxic solvents
CO2 Extraction
Time
Yield
(h)
(%)
Steam Distillation
Time
Yield
(h)
(%)
Cardamom
2.5
9.4
9.0
Parsley
2.0
9.8
2.7
Clove Bud
2.0
20
14.0
Ginger
2.5
3.7
1.6
Cumin
2.0
3.5
4.0
3.0
Fennel
2.0
5.79
4.0
2.5
Sandalwood
2.5
4.86
24
3.8
(Khajeh et al.,2004; Mehra,2001;Tuan & Ilangtileke,1997)
Microwave Extraction
Microwaves are electromagnetic fields in the
frequency range 300 MHz to 300 GHz or between
wavelengths of 1 cm and 1 m (Singh & Heldman,
2001). Microwave extraction is a green technology
27

and appears as a good alternative for the extraction
of essential oils from spice crops. By using
microwaves to mediate the extraction, it is possible
to maintain mild conditions and have superior
extraction. Microwave energy is used in many
industrial processes since it has the advantage of
bringing about heating through kinetic effects inside
the sample thereby improving efficiency and
controllability of the process. Although each
biomaterial responds differently to microwave
exposure, they all heat faster and more uniformly
in microwaves compared to other thermal
treatments. Specifically in the essential oil
extraction, microwave mediated processes are
highly desirable due to their small equipment size
(portability) and controllability through mild
increments of heating. The principle behind the
microwave extraction is the internal heating of the
in situ water within the plant material distends the
plant cells and leads to rupture of the glands and
oleiferous receptacles. This process thus frees
essential oil, which is evaporated by the in-situ water
of the plant material. A cooling system outside the
microwave oven condensed the distillate
continuously thus separating the essential oil.
operation for microwave accelerated steam

distillation (MASD) of essential oils. The apparatus
has a cylindrical Pyrex body (12 cm inside diameter
and 12 cm long) with a Teflon grid at its lower end.
A batch of 50 g of dry lavender flowers is packed in
the MASD with 200 mL of water. The raw material
forms the packed bed. At the bottom, steam is
produced by heating water with microwave
irradiation. Steam produced in the lower part of the
apparatus passes through the lavender bed,
evaporating and carrying the desired lavender
essential oil, and is then directed towards the
condenser, located on the top of the main apparatus
body. Following condensation, the mixture is
decanted to separate oil and water. The excess of
water is refluxed and recycled to the extraction
vessel in order to restore the water used for steam
production. The essential oil is collected, dried with
anhydrous sodium sulphate and stored at 4 0C until
used. Extraction of essential oils from lavender with
MASD was better than steam distillation as energy
consumption (0.13 kWh) with MASD was low as
compared to that of Steam Distillation (1.5 kWh).
The extraction time with MASD (10 min) was also
low as compared to that of Steam distillation (90
min).
There are two types of microwave extraction viz.

Microwave Assisted Hydro-Distillation (MAHD) and
Microwave Accelerated Steam Distillation (MASD).
Microwave assisted hydro distillation is based on
the interaction between water contained in the
vegetal material and microwaves generated from a
source. This type of approach presents a series of
characteristic features. Microwaves are the only
energetic resource in the system; continuous
distillation is accomplished through sample
microwave interactions that take place during the
entire process. The experiment may be carried out
under a defined set of conditions i.e. water and
essential oil are simultaneously present. Presti et
al. (2005) compared the traditional hydro-distillation
(HD); supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), organic
solvent extraction (SE), and water microwave
assisted hydro-distillation (MAHD) techniques and
evaluated their effectiveness in the isolation of
rosemary essential oil. The microwave assisted
hydro-distillation technique was optimized in terms
of both delivered power and time duration.
Microwave Accelerated Distillation (MAD)

Ferhat (2006) studied microwave Clevenger or
microwave accelerated distillation (MAD) for
extraction of orange essential oil using fresh orange
peel. MAD was compared with a conventional
technique, hydro-distillation (HD). Based on a
relatively simple principle, this method involves
placing orange peels in the microwave reactor,
without any added solvent or water. The internal
heating of the in-situ water within the orange peels
distends the oil glands and sacs and leads to rupture
of the glands and oleiferous receptacles. This
process thus frees essential oil, which is evaporated
by the in-situ water of the plant material. A cooling
system outside the microwave oven condenses the
distillate continuously. In a typical MAD procedure
performed at atmospheric pressure, 200 g of fresh
orange peels were heated using a fix power density
of 1Wg1 for 30 min without addition of solvents or
water. The extraction was continued at 100 0C until
no more essential oil was obtained. The extraction
of oil with MAD was found to be more efficient as
Chemat et al. (2006) developed a new design and

28
Vol. 36(1), 2012

Free Microwave Extraction (SFME), in which a
microwave absorption solid medium, such as
carbonyl iron powders (CIP), was added and mixed
with the sample, were applied to extraction of
essential oil from the dried plant materials without
any pretreatment. Improved SFME was compared
with conventional SFME, microwave-assisted
hydro-distillation (MAHD) and conventional hydrodistillation (HD) for the extraction of essential oil
from dried Cuminum cyminum L. and Zanthoxylum
bungeanum Maxim. The time of extraction in
Improved SFME, Conventional SFME (85W),
Microwave assisted hydro-distillation, Hydro
distillation was 30 min, 50 min, 90 min and 180 min
respectively.
compared to HD. The yield, extraction time and

energy consumption data was 0.42 g of oil/100 g of
fruit, 30 min and 0.25 kWh respectively for oil
extracted with MAD as compared to 0.39 g of oil/
100 g of fruit, 180 min and 4.33 kWh respectively
for oil extracted with HD.
Solvent Free Microwave Extraction (SFME)
Lucchesi et al. (2004) developed a solvent-free
microwave extraction (SFME) and compared it with
a conventional technique, hydro-distillation (HD), for
the extraction of essential oil from three aromatic
herbs: basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), garden mint
(Mentha crispa L.), and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.).
In a typical SFME procedure performed at
atmospheric pressure, 250 g of fresh plant material
was heated using a fixed power of 500 W for 30
min without added any solvent or water. A cooling
system outside the microwave cavity condensed the
distillate continuously. Condensed water was
refluxed to the extraction vessel in order to provide
uniform conditions of temperature and humidity for
extraction. The extraction was continued at 100 0C
until no more essential oil was obtained. The
essential oils extracted by SFME for 30 min were
quantitatively (yield) and qualitatively (aromatic
profile) similar to those obtained by conventional
hydro-distillation for 4.5 h. The SFME method yields
an essential oil with higher amounts of more
valuable oxygenated compounds and allows
substantial savings of costs, in terms of time, energy
and plant material.
Thus there is a huge research potential in the field

of essential oils, its effective extraction and
application due to its wide application i.e. air
refreshing, bathing, compresses, hair care,
massage, saunas, steam care, steam inhalations,
vaporizations etc. Some work has been initialized
at various R&D centres but much more efforts are
needed. Some of the crops which need immediate
attention for essential oil extraction are aniseed,
basil, black pepper, carrot seed, spearmint, clove,
coriander, fennel, eucalyptus, ginger, lemon,
orange, jasmine, etc.
CONCLUSIONS
There are various isolation procedures for essential
oils based on distinct principles. The use of low
boiling solvents has advantage of low operating
temperatures, thus thermally linked components
degradation is avoided. Recently, super critical fluid
extraction has become a valid alternative, mainly,
because the dissolving power of the extracting
medium can be adjusted by regulating the pressure
and temperature conditions. An innovative isolation
technique called microwave assisted extraction is
based on the interaction between water in the
vegetal material and microwaves generated by the
energy source. It has various advantages over the
conventional methods: high extraction rates, no
toxic residue in the extract, reduced energy
consumption and more environments friendly.
Improved Solvent Free Microwave Extraction

(SFME)
When dried herbs are to be used for extraction,
adding some microwave absorption solid medium
to the sample can be a feasible way. The types of
material must have good microwave absorption
capacity and good chemical stability. Carbonyl iron
powders (CIP) are among the most popular
conventional magnetic absorption materials that
have a good microwave absorption capacity. By
absorbing microwave energy, the calefaction speed
of CIP is much higher than that of water. So using
CIP as a microwave absorption solid medium in
SFME is justifiably believed to be a feasible way to
make the process more simple, rapid and economic.
Wang et al. (2006) developed an improved Solvent
REFERENCES
Anonymous. 2002. The complete technology book
29

of essential oils. NIIR Board. Asia Pacific Business
Press Inc., New Delhi.
Technovation, 21, 1523.

Presti M L; Ragusa S; Trozzi A; Dugo P; Visinoni
F; Fazio A; Dugo G; Mondello L. 2005. A
comparison between different techniques for the
isolation of rosemary essential oil, J Sep Sci, 28,
273-280.
Bhatia S C. 2001. Perfumes, Soaps, Detergents &

Cosmetics. CBS Publishers & Distributors, New
Delhi.
Chemat F; Lucchesi M E; Smadja J; Favretto L;
Colnaghi G; Visinoni F. 2006. Microwave
accelerated steam distillation of essential oil from
lavender: A rapid, clean and environmentally
friendly approach. Analyt Chim Acta, 555, 157
160.
Singh R P; Heldman D R. 2001. Introduction to Food

Process Engineering, 3ed edition, Academic
Press, London.
Singhal V. 2003. Indian Agriculture. pp 635-637.
Indian Economic Data Research Centre, New
Delhi.
Ferhat M A; Meklati B Y; Smadja J; Chemat F. 2006.

An improved microwave Clevenger apparatus for
distillation of essential oils from orange peel. J
Chromat A, 1112, 121126.
Tuan D Q; Ilangantileke S G. 1997. Liquid CO2

extraction of essential oil from star anise fruits
(Illicium verum H.). Journal of food Engineering,
31, 4757.
Khajeh M; Yamini Y; Sefidkon F; Bahramifar N.

2004.Comparison of essential oil composition of
Carum copticum obtained by supercritical carbon
dioxide extraction and hydrodistillation methods.
Food Chemistry, 86, 587591.
Wang Z; Ding L; Li T; Zhou X; Wang L; Zhang H;

Liu L; Li Y; Liu Z; Wang H; Zeng H; He H. 2006.
Improved solvent-free microwave extraction of
essential oil from dried Cuminum cyminum L. and
Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. J Chromat A,
1102, 1117.
Kumar N; Khader J M A; Rangaswami P; Irulappan

I. 2001. Spices, plantation crops, medicinal and
aromatic plants .Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt.
Ltd, Kolkata.
Weiss E A. 1997. Essential oil crops. University Press.

Cambridge.
Lucchesi M E; Chemat F; Smadja J. 2004. Solventfree microwave extraction of essential oil from
aromatic herbs: comparison with conventional
hydro-distillation. J Chromat A, 1043, 323327.
Wenqiang G; Shufen L; Ruixiang Y; Shaokun V;

Can Q. 2007. Comparison of essential oils of
clove buds extracted with supercritical carbon
dioxide and other three traditional extraction
methods. Food Chemistry, 101, 15581564.
Mehra K. 2001. Indian system of innovation in

biotechnology A case study of cardamom.
30
Vol. 36(1), 2012
Human Resource Requirements in Agricultural Engineering

Sector in India
Nawab Ali1
1
Former DDG (Engg.), SDX-40, Minal Residency, J.K. Road, Bhopal 462023, MP, India.
Email: alinawab11@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
About 16,500 scientific and 55,000 technical human resources are require in agricultural
engineering sector in India for academics, applied research, extension and other allied
activities to facilitate 15-25% enhancement of agricultural productivity, through the
development and/or adoption of appropriate commodity and location specific tools and
machinery packages for production and post-production agriculture using a blend of
conventional and new & renewable energy sources. Such superior, economically viable
and socially acceptable technology, machines & products need to be promoted by the
agricultural engineering extension wings of the State/Central Governments in partnership
with Non-Governmental Organizations working for the welfare of the farmers. The need is
to develop required human capital for agricultural engineering discipline to make agriculture
more productive & profitable so that food availability and nutritional security are assured
and India could become a hunger free and food-secure nation.
Key words: Human resource, Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural produce, Processing
INTRODUCTION
land with an average land holding of 0.5 ha in 195051 and presently 0.15 ha. Out of this, about 55
million hectares (40%) are irrigated and 85 million
hectares (60%) are rainfed. As of now, the total
production of major food commodities in India during
2011-2012 is estimated to be about 900 million
tonnes (Mt) and that of biomass production is about
2250 Mt (Table 1).
India, as of now, has a good demographic dividend.

Out of its about 1200 million people, approximately
500 million are in the 20-35 years age group.
Educated and trained personnels or professionals
are the real asset of a nation and help in its
economic and social developments. Productivity
and effectiveness of an economic activity depend
on the type of human capital involved in it. Out of a
number of economic activities people select and
perform, one is engineering. It is an application of
science for control and use of power through an
appropriate tool and technology to achieve higher
efficiency. The need is to invest in tertiary education
and develop human capital to have socio-economic
equality for a healthy and happy nation and thereby
the world.
Table 1: An estimated production of some of the

agricultural commodities and livestock
products in India during 2011-12
Production of some of the food commodities, Mt
Plant Based
Agriculture and Allied Sectors are the first and the

foremost essential economic activities of the world.
Agriculture supports life and also provide livelihood
to a majority of the world population (50% or so).
India has about 140 million hectares of agricultural
31
Livestock Based
Cereals
222
Pulses
18
Oilseeds
30
Fruits
70
Vegetables
120
Sugarcane 300
Milk
110
Meat
08
Fish
08
Eggs
04
Total
760
130

To enhance the present production of total food
commodities by 15-25% from the present input
resources, commodity and location specific package
of agricultural tools and machines for production
agriculture and post-harvest management are
needed and it requires quality human resource
(QHR)
Teaching, Research and Extension Education

Each State should have atleast one Agril University
for teaching, research, extension, training and pilot
project demonstrations in agriculture and livestock
farming covering production to consumption value
chain. Faculty of Agricultural Engineering would take
care of Engineering discipline. As of now there are
about 45 SAU and one CAU and two Central
Institute/University (IIT-Kgp & AMU) giving Agril
Engg. Degrees. Faculty estimate for each College
of Agricultural Engineering (COAE) having the four
major disciplines of SWCE, FM&P, AS&PE and
RER&M may be as under:
Agricultural Engineering
Engineering intervention in agriculture,
professionally known as Agricultural and Food
Engineering (A&FE) facilitates higher productivity
and profitability through timeliness in operations,
enhancement in inputs use efficiency, reduction in
cost of operation, minimization of post-harvest
losses, value addition and reduction in drudgery of
agricultural workers, specially that of the farm
women. A&FE is a blend of many basic engineering
disciplines and it is more difficult to control and
handle due to a greater variability in Soil, Climate
and Commodities. It, therefore, demands a real
scientific talents to work with. Agriculture involves
production and post-harvest management of field
crops, horticulture and livestocks (animals, poultry
and fishery) using a proper blend of renewable and
non-renewable energy sources. Appropriate
mechanization of production agriculture and postharvest management help to aaugment total food
production of India by 15-25% and facilitate value
addition to the extent of 25-400% depending upon
the commodity and the level of processing. For all
these to happen, there is a need to build up an
appropriate human capital in Agricultural and Food
Engineering Sector for R&D and Field operationsproduction, processing and marketing.
Professors (one each discipline)
=4
Associate Professor (Two each discipline)
=8
Assistant Professors (Four each discipline) = 16

Technical officers (Three each discipline)
Total
= 12
= 40
There are 45 SAU, one CAU and two Central

Organizations having academic programmes in
Agril. Engg. Hence total estimated Human Resource
requirement in Agril. Engg. Discipline is: 40X48
(45+1+2) = 1920 Agril. Engineers.
Research and Development Sector
In order to meet the emerging challenges in the
field of Agril. Engg, high quality human resource
and inter-institutional knowledge support are
required to generate appropriate, commodity and
location specific tools and technology. The major
areas of R&D may be the Natural Resources
Management; Development of Processes, Products
& Machinery; Energy Research and Management;
Agro-Processing Centres; Livestock Product
Technology; Animal and Agricultural Wastes
Management; Models for Agro-Machinery Service
Centres. The estimated human resource, discipline
wise, may be as under:
Human Resource Requirements

Human resources in A&FE Sector are needed for
teaching, research, extension, manufacturing, agroprocessing, services and governance. Human
capital requirement in A&FE Sector could be
projected/estimated at District, State and the
Country levels. It is desirable to have Agril
Engineering Directorate in each State/UT with
officials down to District and Tehsil levels and a
Department of Agricultural Engineering and Allied
Services in the MOA, GOI exclusively for centrally
sponsored programmes for technology transfer and
services through States/UTs.
SWCE (location specific)
= 200
FMP (Commodity & region specific)
= 200
AS&PE (Commodity and region specific) = 200
32
Energy Research & Management
= 100
Transfer of Technology
= 100
Vol. 36(1), 2012

Other Engineering Disciplines
(Mech., Elect. Electn., civil, etc.)
= 50
Information Technology
= 50
Technical Staff
(APC) in each tehsil of a district to take care of postharvest management of the major commodities
grown there and also serve as a pilot plant/
infrastructure for demonstration and training. Each
APC may require at least one scientific staff of
AS&PE discipline and 03 technicians to take overall
care of the APC in terms of its planning,
procurement, processing, marketing, etc with the
help of other appropriate number of skilled and nonskilled workers. Thus, for 600 districts, each having
at least 03 tehsils, total number of scientists of
AS&PE discipline needed = 1800 and that technical
staff = 3 X 1800 = 5400.
= 1000
Total
= 1900
Besides the above 900 scientific staff in agricultural

and allied engineering, R&D sector will also need
the services of about 1000 technical staffs (degree,
diploma or ITI certificate holders)
Manufacturing Agricultural Machinery and
After Sales Services
Directorate of Agricultural Engineering one in

Each State/UT
Tehsi/Divisional Level Small Scale Industry
Jr. Engineer
=2
Technical Staff
=8
Total
Tehsil/Divisional Level (Agril Machinery Service

Centre)
= 10
District Level Agril Work Shop
Agricultural Engineers
(FM P and AS&PE)
=2
Jr. Engineers (Mech, Elect, Civil)
=3
Technical Staff Including foreman

(ITI certificate holders)
= 25
Total
= 30
Sr. Agril Cultiral Engineers

(FMP, SWCE, AS&PE)
=3
Other Engineers (ME, EE, CE)
=5
Sr. Foreman (Mech.)
=2
Technical Staff (ITI certificate holders)
= 40
Total
= 50
Jr. Agricultural Engineer
=1
Technical Officers
=4
Technical Staff
=5
Taking Number of Tehsil/District = 3, total personnel

requirement would be:
Agril Engrs
Diploma Holder
= 3 x 600 = 1800
= 27 x 600 = 16,200
District Level (Department of Agril Engg.)
State level Agril M/c Manufacturing
Sr. Agricultural Engineer
=1
Agricultural Engineer
=3
Subject matter specialist (KVK)
=1
Total Districts in India
= 600, hence
requirement of
Agril. Engineers
= 3,000
State Level (Directorate of Agril Engg.)
Total Human resources for this sector may be as under:
Chief Agril Engineer
=1
Deputy Chief Agril Engineers

(SWCE, FMP, AS&PE, RER&M)
=4
At Tehsil level, 1800 Tehsil X 10
= 18,000
At district level 600 Districut X 30
= 18,000
Agril Engineers
=4
At State level, 35 State + 2 UT X 50
= 1,850
Technical staff
=5
Total number of States/UTs in India
Agro-Processing
There may be at least one agro-processing centre
33
=35. Hence
requirement of
Agril Engrs
Diploma Holders
= 35x9 = 315
and that of
Agril Mechanization Commissioner
=1
Joint Agril Mechanization Commissioner

(Production 1, Energy-1 and PHM 1)
=3
Agricultural Engineers
=4
Technical Officers
(SWCE, FMP, AS&PE, RER&M)
=4
= 35 x 5 = 175
Agril Engg. And Allied Services under the

Aegis of Department of Agril. & Coop, MOA,
GOI
For the centrally sponsored agricultural
mechanization and allied programmes, there is a
need of having a strong unit of Programme
Implementation and Monitoring, headed by Joint
Secretary Level Agril. Engineer along with
appropriate technical and other staff. The present
set-up under the control of Joint Commissioner
(Machinery) may be strengthened so that it could
have capability to monitor and evaluate the
performance of centrally sponsored Agril.
Mechanization Programme in various States and
UTs. Following Agril. Engg. Officers may be
provided/required.
Total
= 12
The total human resource requirements for

Agricultural Engineering Sector in India is
summarized and given in Table 2.
The estimated strength of scientific cadre is 16,500
and that of technical cadre is 55,000. It may also
need some more scientific and technical staff
representing other relevant and associated
disciplines. Such as plant protection, bio chemistry,
agricultural economics, social sciences,
agribusiness & marketing, etc. There is a great need
to invest in tertiary education for direct employment
and higher productivity.
Table 2: Human Resource Requirement in Agricultural Sector in India an estimate

Activity
Human Resource Requirement

Scientific
Technical
Total
Teaching, Research and Extension
1344
576
1920
Research and Development
900
1000
1900
Manufacturing and After Sale Services
6896
30954
37850
Agro-Processing Centres (APCs)
1800
5400
7200
Directorate of Agril Engg., one in each State/UT
5115
16375
21490
12
Total
16063
54309
70372
Say
16500
55000
71500
DOAC, Ministry of Agril, GOI
34
Vol. 36(1), 2012
35
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Vol. 36(1), 2012
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38
Vol. 36(1), 2012
Brief Biodata of Awardee

Dr. B S Bisht
some other professional societies. He was Director,

Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums
(formerly Indian Lac Research Institute), Project
Coordinator and Network Coordinator of all India
Projects, Head of Division besides holding scientific
positions at all levels. He initiated all India
Coordinated Project on sugarcane processing for
jaggery and khandsari, Network Project on natural
resins and gums besides upgrading ILRI to Indian
Institute of Natural Resins and Gums. He handled
several multidisciplinary research projects centered
on post-harvest technology in 23 crops and
commodities from different Ministries of
Government of India as also FAO of the U.N. More
than 200 publications are to his credit. His
contributions to the profession and organization are
recognized by national and international societies
and an agricultural university.
Dr. B.S. Bisht was born in village

Timali of Almora district on 15
June, 1951 and had his primary
and middle level education in
Schools near his village namely
Ruchiyakhal and Syalde. Later,
he studied at Ramsay Inter
College and Government Inter College, Almora. He
did his graduation and post graduation from G.B.
Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar and had been University Merit Scholar.
He completed PG Programme in Management in
the year 1982 from Indian Institute of Management,
Ahmedabad. Dr. Bisht was awarded Ponds (India)
Industrial Merit Scholarship for academic
excellence. Later, he obtained Doctoral degree in
Industrial Engineering and Management from Indian
Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. Dr. B.S. Bisht
had a long distinguished professional career as
Scientist, Senior Scientist, Principal Scientist at
CIAE Bhopal, Project Coordinator of All India
Research Project of Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, Director of CIPHET at Ludhiana, Zonal
Coordinator of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, North Zone,
at Ludhiana, and Assistant Director General (Human
Resource Development) of ICAR at New Delhi. Dr.
Bisht joined G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, Pantnagar, as its Vice-Chancellor on
9th August 2008.
Sh. Manmohan Singh Riat

Sh. Manmohan Singh Riat born
on 07 May, 1957, Gujjarwal,
Ludhiana, Punjab is a Partner
in National Agro Industries,
Ludhiana, Punjab. He is
manufacturer of Zero till Seed
cum fertilizer drill, Multi Crop
Planter, Multi Crop Ridge Planter, Raised Bed
Planter & Other Seeding Equipment. He has been
honoured with many awards such as CIMMYT
Award, HAU Award, STATE Award etc. He is ISAE
Life Member and Corporate member. He has
ddeveloped many machines such as Conventional
Animal drawn Seed cum Ferti Drill in Year 1968 with
the Collaboration of Ministry of Agriculture, Seed
cum Fertilizer Drills in Year 1972, Axial Flow
Vegetable Seed Extractor in Year 1986, Raised Bed
Planters in Year 2004 with the Collaboration of
Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana, Zero Till
Ferti-Seed Drill in Year 1994 with the Collaboration
of GBPUAT Pant Nagar and Zero Till Multi Crop
Planter for Two wheel Tractor in Year 2010 with the
Collaboration of CIMMYT.
Dr. Bangali Baboo

Dr. Bangali Baboo is National
Director of World Bank funded
National Agricultural Innovation
Project with Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR),
New Delhi. As National Director
he is overseeing, monitoring
and implementing this mega project at national level
through partnership with all stakeholders in Indian
agriculture. An eminent agricultural engineer he is
fellow of Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers
and the Institution of Engineers (India) besides
39

Sh. D S Balachandra Babu
and extension in the field of Farm Machinery and

Power. He is presently working as Principal
Investigator, Farm Implements Manufacturing. He
published more than 30 research papers 50
extension papers in the National and International
Journals. He is author of 5 books. He had guided
22 M. Tech. students as major advisor. Dr. Verma
was awarded Certificate of Excellence, for
outstanding work by IGKV, Raipur for the year 19992000. He is a recipient of International Award for
securing First Position with distinction in an
International course of Farm Mechanization from
University of Professional Education Larenstein,
The Netherlands in the year 2000-01. He has so
far developed 8 research prototypes. These
machines are approved under subsidy programmed
of Govt. of Chhattisgarh. For his contribution to
agricultural mechanization and developmental
activities he has been awarded Dr. Khubchand
Baghel Pratibha Samman 2003 and Thakur
Chhedilal Barrister Pratibha Samman 2005. Dr
Verma is receiver of Distinguished Service
Certificate Award from ISAE for the year 2002-03
for promotion of Farm Mechanization. He also
received National Food Security Award 2007 and
Krishi Shiromani Samman 2010.
He is in business since 1984

and very eager to develop the
farm mechanization. Even
though a Science graduate; with
a motive to maximize the farm
output through proper farm
mechanization he started this
business. He has started the program right from
the beginning of present generation plough Rotary
Tiller ROTAVATOR and has introduced many new
concepts of mechanization in Indian farming
community. In the product range he deals with
includes tea harvesters and pruners for tea
plantations and for sugarcane farming, necessary
implements for all the operations required in
mechanization of sugarcane farming. He is
consultant to various agricultural projects and
closely associated with Sugarcane Development
Projects, Rice Research Institute and other
Institutes. He has visited most of the farm machinery
manufacturers in Europe, United Kingdom, United
States of American, Australia, Thailand, Korea and
Japan. He is a member of many associations such
as Asian Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE),
American Society of Agricultural & Biological
Engineers (ASABE), American Oil Chemists Society
(AOCS), American Society of Materials International
(ASAM), International Society of Sugar Cane
Technologists (ISSCT), Indian Institute of Material
Management (IIMM) and Indian Society of
Agricultural Engineers (ISAE) since 1983 (Regn.
No. LM-2762).
Dr. A P Srivastava
Dr. A.P. Srivastava is National
Coordinator,
National
Agricultural Innovation Project,
ICAR, New Delhi since
September, 2007 and is looking
after Research on Sustainable
Rural Livelihood Security. He
has done Graduation (1974), M
Tech (1976 ) and Ph D (1986) in Agricultural
Engineering with specialization in Farm Machinery
and Power from Allahabad University, IIT Kharagpur
and IARI, New Delhi respectively. He joined IARI,
New Delhi as Scientist Grade S-1 in the year 1976.
He has developed number of farm machines like
integral tools bar, pre germinated paddy seeder,
okra planter and seed extractor etc. He has also
been involved in basic and applied research on
tillage and traction, AP Cess funded project on
Mechanization Studies, NATP projects on Tillage
Modeling and Field plot mechanization etc. He has
been involved in post graduate teaching and
Dr. Ajay Kumar Verma

Dr. Ajay Kumar Verma is Senior
Scientist in Farm Machinery &
Power, Faculty of Agricultural
Engineering, Indira Gandhi
Agricultural University Raipur,
Chhattisgarh. He has graduated
in Agril. Engg. from College of
Agricultural Engineering, Jabalpur in 1989 and
completed his Master of Engg. (FMPE) with
Honours from College of Technology and
Agricultural Engineering, Udaipur in 1991. He
pursued his Ph.D. degree in the field of Mechanical
Engg. from NIT, Raipur in the year 2005. Dr. Verma
has 18 years of experience in teaching, research
40
Vol. 36(1), 2012

guidance at IARI and has guided number of M Sc
and PhD students. He has been given Best Teacher
award at IARI. Dr Srivastava has more than 100
publications in Indian and International journals. Dr
Srivastava has visited IRRI Philippines and Michigan
State University for advanced trainings. He was also
Chief Editor of Journal of Agricultural Engineering
from April 2006-2008.
Dr. H. C. Sharma
Dr. H. C. Sharma was born on
25th October, 1953 at Bareilly,
Uttar Pradesh. He did his B.
Tech.
in
Agricultural
Engineering in 1977 and M.
Tech. in Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering in 1980 from G.B.
Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand. He did his first Ph.D. in
Civil Engineering (Water Resources Engineering)
from Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi in 1989
and another Ph.D. in Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering from G.B. Pant University of Agriculture
and Technology, Pantnagar in 1999. He worked
as Assistant Engineer Research / Junior Research
Officer at College of Technology, Pantnagar from
October 22, 1977 to June 08, 1985; from June 10,
1985 to September 05, 1986 as Associate Professor
at Jawahar Lal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalay,
Jabalpur; September 06, 1986 to June 08, 1995 as
Senior Research Officer at Pantnagar. Presently
he is working as Dean, College of Technology,
Pantnagar. He has teaching, research and
extension experience of about 34 years. He has
guided 42 B. Tech. 12 M. Tech. and 9 Ph.D.
students. He has published 27 technical bulletins,
194 research papers and 31 popular articles in the
field of Soil and Water Management. Dr. Sharma is
Fellow of two professional societies namely: The
Institution of Engineers (India) and Indian Water
Resources Society; and Life Member of 9 different
professional societies. Dr. Sharma was awarded
Distinguished Services Certificate by the Indian
Society of Agricultural Engineers, New Delhi, India
for his outstanding contribution in Research and
Development (Soil Water Conservation
Engineering) during the year 1989.
Dr. D C Joshi
Dr D C Joshi has over 31 year
professional experience of
working in industry as well as
in academics at various
levels. During employment
with Dairy Industry, Dr Joshi
handled projects on dairy
plant establishment, plant maintenance and plant
services. With the Agricultural University, Dr
Joshi designed and developed more than two
dozen post-harvest and processing machinery
and about half dozen agro-processing
technologies. His contribution in mechanization
of post-harvest operations is praiseworthy. An
improved pulse mill, a biodiesel production plant,
a fresh fruits & vegetables handling pack house,
anola processing plant and post-harvest system
for mango designed and developed by Dr Joshi
and his team have become milestones in the
research. The integrated mechanized processing
plant for the production of biodiesel developed
by him and inaugurated by Dr A P J Abdul Kalam,
His Excellency, The then President of India, has
been acclaimed as unique and innovative
research very useful for the whole country. The
research has got appreciation from Dr Kalam as
he has referred it many times in his speeches
and address to the Nation, advocating its
adoption on mass scale at National level. Dr D
C Joshi has also handled many National and
State level research projects sponsored by
various agencies such as World Bank, Industry,
Central and State Governments on different
aspects of agricultural processing and food
engineering. Dr. Joshi has played a major role
in establishing new colleges of Agricultural
Engineering, Food Processing Technology & BioEnergy and Polytechnics. He also guided 15 post
graduate students in his field of discipline.
Dr. Kishan Punjajirao Gore

Dr. Kishan Punjajirao Gore
completed his Ph.D. from I.I.T.,
Kharagpur. He has 36 years of
significant and meritorious
service with vast experience of
teaching, research, extension,
management
and
administration, including 3 years as Regional Head,
CSWCRTI, Sunabeda, Dist. Koraput (Orissa) under
41

ICAR, New Delhi. He has extensively traveled in
countries like UK, Sweden, USA, Netherlands,
Ireland, Germany and China for participation in
seminars, workshops, conferences, etc and has
wide experience in organization of such events. He
has developed various watersheds for the benefit
of farmers. He has executed ICAR and state level
research projects as Project coordinator, Principal
Investigator. He is recipient of several academic
awards and honours notable ones being Vasantrao
Naik Gold Medal, Krishi Ratna Award, ISAE
Commendation Medal, Radhakishan Shanti
Malhotra Award, Shankar Memorial Award, Pride
of Nation Award and Vasantrao Naik (Krishi Sahitya
Award). Since January 25, 2011, he is serving as
Vice-Chancellor, Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth,
Parbhani (M.S.)
involved in the development of a number of

processing equipment/technologies to help the
entrepreneurs and agro-processors. Looking to his
overall contributions and vision in the development
of agriculture in Gujarat, the state government has
appointed him as the Vice Chancellor of JAU since
7th August, 2009 for five years tenure.
Dr. Om Pal Singh
An academician, researcher
and engineer having 41 years
of cumulative experience at
University of Udaipur, CSSRI
Karnal, IARI New-Delhi and as
independent consultant in the
field of soil and water
engineering including remote sensing & GIS
application for integrated management of land and
water resources. Established a net-work of pilot land
drainage projects in association with (a) agricultural
universities, (b) states department of agriculture and
irrigation, (c)Land reclamation& development
cooperation and (d) different state water and land
management institutes of the India. As a scientist
and consultant published 95 research papers in
National and International Journals and provided
consultancy for development of soil and water
resources for Indian and foreign projects of
Afghanistan, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Mauritius and
Mali. Developed advanced courses and training
materials as well as laboratory and other training
facilities for under graduate and post graduate
students as well as in-service candidates. Recipient
of awards and merit certificates from the Institution
of Engineers (India), Central Board of Irrigation and
Power, and National Research and Development
Corporation of India. Working as consultant for
selection, development and management of
concessional land in Cambodia and Ethiopia as per
requirements of investors for different uses.
Dr. N. C. Patel
Dr. N. C. Patel started his career
as Apprentice Engineer in World
Bank assisted National Seed
Project at New Delhi and
subsequently joined in the
faculty position in Gujarat
Agricultural University (GAU) in
1980. He has also served as Agricultural Engineer
in M/s Jyoti Limited, Vadodara from 1982 to 1986
and joined as Associate Professor in GAU in 1986.
He was selected as Professor in GAU in the year
1994 and serving as the Principal and Dean of
CAET, Junagadh for the year 2001 to 2009. He has
played significant role in the overall development
of College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology. Under his leadership the Agricultural
Engineering College was accredited by AICTE and
ICAR for 5 years. The activities regarding students
placement and counseling were also strengthened
during his tenure. This could result into 100%
placement of the students through campus
interviews consecutively during the last 9 years. Dr.
Patel is the recipient of the Commendation Medal
awarded by ISAE during its 42nd Annual Convention
and also the Commendation Award given by the
Western Agri. Seeds (Pvt.) Ltd., Gandhinagar. He
is appointed as the Director in the Board of
Management of three corporations of Govt. of
Gujarat and worked as a member in 25 other
professional/Government bodies of the state. He is
Dr. V N Sharda
Dr. V.N. Sharda has joined as a Member of
Agricultural Scientists Recruitment Board, New
Delhi in July 2011. Prior to this he served as Director
of Central Soil and Water Conservation Research
and Training Institute, Dehradun for almost a
decade. He earned his B. Tech, M. Tech and Ph. D
degrees from PAU Ludhiana. Dr. Sharda evolved
42
Vol. 36(1), 2012

the concept of Conservation bench terrace system
and studied the hydrological behavior of
mountainous and ravenous watersheds and also
contributed to the understanding of soil erosion
particularly under rain fed conditions. He is recipient
of the prestigious Fulbright Senior Post-Doctoral
Research Fellowship of United States Information
Agency in the area of Environmental Studies. He
has been bestowed upon with several awards and
honours which include the prestigious Rafi Ahmed
Kidwai Award, Dr Rajendra Prasad Award,
Jawaharlal Nehru Award and Vasantrao Naik Award
of ICAR and Fellowships of National Academy of
Sciences, Institution of Engineers (India) and Indian
National Academy of Engineering.
established an outstanding research program in soil

and water conservation and nonpoint source
pollution. He has authored more than 145 refereed
publications and book chapters. At present, his
research focuses on processes affecting
degradation of soil and water resources, integration
of surface and subsurface drainable water quality
and development of management tools and models.
Dr. Rudra is a dedicated teacher More than 40
students have completed their research under his
supervision. Under his leadership the size of the
engineering graduate research program doubled at
the University of Guelph. Dr. Rudra has been a
member of many national and international
societies/associations including CSBE, ASABE,
CWRA, ICID, IAHS, IAWR and PEO. He has served
as Chair and member of many regional, national
and international technical committees.
Dr. Ramesh Kanwar

Ramesh Kanwar is the C.F.
Curtiss Distinguished Professor
of the Agricultural and
Biosystems
Engineering
Department at Iowa State
University. He received his B.
Tech and M. Tech degrees from
India and Ph.D. degree from
Iowa State University. He served as Assistant
Director of Agricultural Experiment Station for five
years and then chair of the department for ten years
at Iowa State University. He has been consultant to
the World Bank, European Commission, Global
Environment Facility, UNDP, USAID, NATO, and
FAO. He was awarded Doctorate Honoris Causa in
2007 by the Trakia University of Bulgaria and
honorary doctorate degree in 2000 by the Georgian
Agrarian University, Tbilisi, Georgia. He is a fellow
of the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences of
India and American Society of Agricultural and
Biological Engineers. He has been a major professor
for 28 M.S. and 26 Ph.D. students and has authored
more than 500 publications including 280 plus
refereed journal articles, Book Chapters, and
Conference proceeding papers.
Dr. Shiv Prasher

Professor Shiv Om Prasher
joined the Department of
Bioresource Engineering at
McGill University in 1983 and
was promoted to the rank of full
Professor in 1996. He was
named the James McGill
Professor in 2003. In 2004, Dr. Prasher received
the Honorary Doctor of Law degree from Dalhousie
University in Canada. Presently, he is the Chair of
the Department. The innovative features of Shivs
research program are the incorporation of novel,
conceptual, and innovative techniques for solving
soil and water quality management problems. He
has been working on the development of on-farm
pollution control practices, precision crop
management
systems,
pesticide
and
pharmaceutical fate and transport in soils, and the
use of artificial intelligence in soil hydrology. Dr. Shiv
was elected as President of the Canadian Society
for Bioengineering (CSBE) in 2010-11. In 2007,
CSBE honoured him by electing him to the CSBE
grade of Fellow. He has published more than 260
research articles in refereed journals and
proceedings.
Dr. Ramesh Rudra

Dr. Ramesh Rudra joined the
University of Guelph in 1980
and was promoted to Associate
Professor in 1986 and
Professor in 1993. He has
Er. Bhanu Sharma

Er. Bhanu Sharma did his B.Tech. (Agril. Engg.)
from GB Pant University of Agriculture and
43

Techno;ogy, Pantnagar and
MBA (Marketing). Presently he
is Commercial Director &
Member of Management Board
of SAME DEUTZ - FAHR India
Pvt. Limited. He is Pioneered in
commercial introduction of
mechanized harvesting of
sugarcane
in
India,
conceptualization of usage of field balers in India
for biomass based power generation. He is closely
connected to various agricultural universities for
encouragement of young agricultural engineers and
supported their entry to industry. He has travelled
extensively in India and abroad for understanding
& adaptation of various agricultural mechanization
practices. Represented Indian delegations in
various business conclaves related to agriculture &
agricultural mechanization, propagated numerous
practical aspects of application of tractors, combine
harvesters, hay & forage machinery etc. for growth
of farm mechanization, closely contributed to
introduction of various advanced international farm
mechanization practices for Indian agriculture,
supported ISAE to undertake membership of CIGR
and has acquired one of the highest ranked
managerial positions in Indian agricultural
machinery industry.
tenure as Head Division of Agricultural Engineering,

at IARI he contributed significantly in development
of infrastructures such as Prototype type
Manufacturing Workshop, Agricultural Machinery
Promotion Centre etc. He has published 23 papers
in National Journals and written 5 bulletins. He has
served ISAE as Director of Extension and
successfully conducted many other responsibilities
given to him by the society.
Dr. D K Vatsa
Dr. D.K.Vatsa was born on 26
July 1964 in Jaunpur (U.P.). He
has completed Bachelor of
Technology
(Agricultural
Engineering) in 1984 from
Allahabad Agricultural Institute,
Allahabad University and
Master of Technology (Farm Power & Machinery)
in 1988 from G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, Pantnagar. He did his Ph D (Farm
Power & Machinery) in 2006 from Allahabad
Agricultural Institute- Deemed University, Allahabad.
He has been involved in the research on design
and development of farm tools and implements
particularly for hill agriculture. He has been teaching
undergraduate courses of farm power and
machinery, and Post harvest technology. He has
delivered a number of lectures on farm machines
to farmers/state govt. officers. He is a life member
of Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers, Bhartiya
Krishi Anusandhan Samiti and Member Institution
of Engineers. He has published more than 60
articles including research papers, review articles,
popular articles, technical bulletins and manuals in
the field of Agricultural Engineering. Also, presented
more than 30 research papers in national and
international conferences /symposia.
Dr. Surendra Kumar Adlakha

A
renowned
extension
agricultural engineer, Dr.
Surendra Kumar Adlakha,
completed his B.Tech. from
G.B.P.U.A.&T. Pantnagar,
Masters degree from University
of Allahabad and Ph.D. from
I.I.T. Delhi. He carries over 37 years of rich and
varied experience in extension management,
industrial liaison, research and teaching. He has
served as Assistant Professor, Subject matter
Specialist at JNKVV, Jabalpur; Development Officer,
NABARD, Lucknow, Principal Scientist and Head
of Division of Agricultural Engineering, IARI, New
Delhi. He was also Head, Centre for Agricultural
Technology Assessment and Transfer (CATAT) at
IARI, New Delhi responsible for dissemination of
IARI developed and other improved technologies
to the farmers and other stakeholders. During his
44
Vol. 36(1), 2012
ISAE News
Foodxplore11
A National Seminar on Emerging Technologies in
Food Processing for Ensuring Food safety and
Quality was jointly organised by Indian Society of
Agricultural Engineers, Tamil Nadu Chapter and
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
during October 14-15, 2011, at Agricultural
Engineering College and Research Institute, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. This
seminar was organised to commemorate the
celebration of World Food Day on 16th October of
every year. The theme of the World Food Day for
the current year is Food Prices - From Crisis to
Stability. About 20 scientists / faculty and students
numbering around 150 from Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Kerala from different institutes
attended Foodxplore. The inaugural function was
held on October 14, 2011. Dr. P. Murugesa Boopathi,
Vice-Chancellor, TNAU in his inaugural address
expressed that Science & Technology has played a
key role in transforming the country from a food
deficit to a food surplus nation, and from an importer
to an exporting country. Mr. Jayatheertha Chary,
General Manager, Reliance Retail Ltd., Hyderabad
in his Special Address informed that the Indian food
industry is estimated at over 200 billion $. Of this,
processed food is only about 30% compared to 65%
of USA. Out of which perishable processing is only
6-7% against the worlds average of about 70-80%.
Dr. S. Chellamuthu, Dean (Agrl. Engineering) incharge in his presidential address informed that the
vision for 2015 reveals that the market size for
processed foods will increase from Rs. 4,600 billion
to Rs. 13,500 billion. The share of value added
products in processed food consumption will grow
from 3% (Rs. 1,800 billion) to 58% (Rs. 7,800
billion). Mr. V. Kumar, General Manager, Food
Specialists Ltd., Dubai and Mr. Dharmesh P. Gala,
National Product Manager, Anton Paar India Pvt.
Ltd., Mumbai offered their felicitations. During the
two days seminar about 30 research papers, 45
posters and 5 models were presented. A quiz
programme related to food was organised. Dr.
Helmut Weidlich, Institut Prof. Dr. Georg Kurz
GmbH, Kln, Germany, delivered a talk on
Unresolved Issues for Food Safety in Europe with

possible Parallels in India in the valedictory session
held on 15 October 2011. Dr. P. Subbian, Registrar,
TNAU delivered valedictory addresses and
distributed the prizes to the winners of various
events.
Talk on Food Safety Analysis and Function of
Plant Substances for Human Organ
Regeneration
A lecture meeting was organised by the Indian
Society of Agricultural Engineers, Tamil Nadu
chapter at Agricultural Engineering College and
Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore on 18.10.2011. In his talk
Dr. Helmut Weidlich, highlighted the various
important food safety aspects and required to be
analyzed including the type of analysis. He
highlighted on the ready to use kits available in the
market for the estimation of many parameters. He
also talked covering the importance of plant
substances for humans. The talk covering these
topics was informative and the members and
students were much benefited. This meeting was
attended by about 28 members. The members
serving at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Agricultural Engineering Department, Govt. of Tamil
Nadu, Coimbatore Region and Central Institute of
Agricultural Engineering (ICAR), Regional centre,
Coimbatore attended the meeting.
45
Industry News
TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
Agricultural Machinery Research Centre
that for effective agricultural mechanization the
manufacturers role is important and should be
strong enough to manufacture the needy agricultural
machineries locally/ indigenously. The industries
should also strengthen the research and
development component to cater the needs of local
farmers. He also stressed the importance of linkage
among the farmers, manufacturers and the
government.
Proceedings of Agricultural Machinery

Manufacturers Meet 2011
The Second Annual meeting of Agricultural
Machinery Manufacturers Association was held on
10.11.2011 at Agricultural Engineering College and
Research Institute, Seminar hall, TNAU campus,
Coimbatore. More than 17 manufacturers attended
the meeting as listed in Annexure. The Dean,
AEC&RI Dr.S.Santhana Bosu, presided over the
function. Dr.Surendra Singh, Project Coordinator,
AICRP on FIM delivered special address and Mr.
R. Venkatapathy, proprietor M/s Anna Poorna
Industries and President of AMMA Tamil Nadu
chapter, welcomed the gathering. Mr. R.
Venkatapathy in his welcome address, emphasized
the need for all agricultural implements
manufacturers to enroll themselves as member of
the association. He requested the members to
express their suggestions in the forum for the
consideration. He requested the Officials of the
Department of Agricultural Engineering to get the
opinion of the manufacturers on all policy making
decisions and also in matters like subsidies to
Agricultural implements.
Er. Jaganthan, Executive Engineer, Agricultural

Engineering Division, Govt. of Tamil Nadu
Coimbatore expressed that many of the agricultural
machinery presently available are developed by
other countries and marketed in India. He requested
the manufacturers to indigenize the machines with
minimum field losses.
Dr. SJK Annamalai, Head, CIAE-IEP Coimbatore
Centre pointed out the importance of full
mechanization due to labour scarcity in all farm
operations. He cautioned the farmers, about the
wide usage of unreliable small IC engines being
imported and used in manufacturer of agricultural
machines, causing huge loss to farmer. Hence, the
manufacturers should come forward to manufacture
standard light weight small IC engines indigenously.
He also insisted that the manufacturers and farmers
should not rely on government subsidies in long run.
Mr. Balachandra Babu, Farm Implements (India)

Pvt. Ltd., Chennai and Vice President, All India
Agricultural Machinery Manufacturers Association
addressed the participants. He requested the
authorities to assist the farmers in getting financial
assistance from banks easily for purchase of
agricultural equipment and also as in the case of
industrials loans, subsidy should be given directly
to the end user and also offer incentives for the
timely repayment of loans by the farmers. He
stressed the need to make the subsidy process
easier so that both farmers and manufacturers get
benefited mutually. He requested all the
manufacturers to pay the fee of Rs.10,000/- to
strengthen the association and to put their voices
together.
Dr. Surendra Singh, Project Coordinator, AICRP on

FIM in his special address stated that sufficient
funds have been proposed for agricultural
mechanization during the 12th five year plan. He
requested all the manufacturers to give their input
and ideas for the effective preparation of 12th five
year plan proposal. He also requested the university
authorities to take up the issues expressed by the
manufacturers to the Government of Tamil Nadu
and to strengthen the manufacturers association.
During the presidential address Dr. S Santhana
Bosu, Dean (Engg.), stated that the average tractor
usage in India is only about 300 h per year and it
should be increased to atleast 1000 h per year, by
Dr. D. Manohar Jesudas, Professor & Head,

Agricultural Machinery Research Centre pointed out
46
Vol. 36(1), 2012

developing suitable matching implements for
different agricultural operations and to increase its
usage for mechanization.
was decided that a common procedure as adopted

by ICAR may be adopted and the manufacturer
collaborating for commercialization may be given
exclusive rights for a period of three years.
The following members also expressed their

views:
The present office bearers of the association

requested the members to elect new office bearers
for the association. After discussion among the
members the following members of executive were
selected. The meeting ended with vote of thanks
by Mr. S. Jawaahar, CEO, Anusham Farm
Machinery & Power Equipments (P) Ltd., Erode.
Mr. Chandrasekar, CEO, CATT Hydraulic, No.30

SankaraLinganar Road, Maniyakaran Palayam,
GanapathyPost, and Coimbatore desired effective
support from the government and university for the
manufacturers. Mr. K Viswanathan, Director,
Greenfield Equipments India Private Ltd,
Coimbatore stressed the policy makers to give
special importance to the local manufacturers than
dealers who import and distribute the agricultural
machineries. Mr. Rajkumar, MD, Premier Power
Equipments& Product Pvt. Ltd, Coimbatore
requested for more transparency in allotment of
subsidies for different agricultural machineries. He
also requested for more coordination among the
manufacturers and government as well as the
testing facilities for agricultural machineries should
be made easier and quick. He stressed the
importance of training to farmers on usage of
advanced agricultural machineries. The difficulty
faced by manufacturers who take up
commercialization of machines developed by TNAU
was focused by him and was discussed in detail. It
1. Mr. K.Viswanathan, President

Director, Greenfield Equipments India Private
Ltd, #237-A4, AVG Layout, SIDCO Industrial
Estate, Coimbatore-641 021. Ph: 0422 2676767
& 09488676767.
2. Mr. Rajkumar, Secretary
MD, Premier Power Equipments & Product Pvt.
Ltd, 37/1-C, Palladam Road, Pappampatti,
Coimbatore-641 016. Ph: 0422 2634733 &
09600930640
3. Mr. C V Madeswaran, Treasurer
KSNM Marketing SF No.29/1B, Onapalayam,
Green Home Via, Dheenam Palayam (PO),
Coimbatore - 641 109. Ph: 09363261175.
47
Department of Agriculture & Cooperation

(Mechanisation & Technology Division)
Ministry of Agriculture, GOI
Guidelines for testing of Agricultural Equipments and Machineries by approved State
Agricultural Universities (SAUs), ICAR Institutions and Departments of State Government
including new equipments developed by ICAR/

State Government, Research Institutions as per
Annexure - I, Schedule - B of No.8-1/2004-M&T
(I&P), dated 14th September 2010 only will be
considered for testing by these centres.
Background:
Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture &
Cooperations vide notification No.8-1/2004-M&T
(I&P), dated 14th September 2010 and as appended/
amended from time to time has designated 25
(twenty five) State Agricultural Universities, ICAR
Institutions and Departments of State Government
as approved testing centres for certain categories
of agricultural equipments.
3. Machines/Equipment will be tested after receipt

of written request from Manufacturer/ dealer
(referred to applicant hereinafter). Following
may be ensured before accepting test samples:
This guideline is an attempt to streamline, unify and

standardise testing procedures to be adopted by
these approved testing centres.
a) Full technical specifications of the Test

Sample in prescribed format as in vogue in
four FMT&TI are available along with.
b) Advance Test Fee as decided by respective
Testing Authorities is submitted by the
applicant (A guidelines circulated by DOAC
is given in Annexure II).
Guidelines:
1. Two category of tests viz. Commercial and
Confidential will be carried out at these approved
testing centres.
4. The Institutes may maintain record of testing

as per following format:
2. Agricultural Machinery and equipments

S.
No.
1.
Name of
Type of Test
Equipment,
make & model Commercial Confidential
2.
3.
Date of receipt
Date of
Date of
Total time
of applicants commencement completion taken in
application with
of testing
of test and completion
full specifications
release of
of test
in Triplicate of
Draft Test (Months)
Test Sample
Report.
including Test
Indicate
Fee if applicable
Report No/ID
4.
5.
2. These designated Institutions or approved

centres should notify Testing Authority by
designation who will only be authorised to accept
test samples, conduct testing and issue test
reports.
6.
7.
8.
relevant BIS Test Codes. If for any machine /

component the BIS Code is not available,
Institutions may consult other designated
Institutions /FMTTIs /CIAE, Bhopal for similar
code. In case it is not available anywhere, the
test procedure shall be framed by the Testing
3. Testing of equipment will be conducted as per

48
Vol. 36(1), 2012

any, required for servicing, adjustment minor/
major repair of the machine along with list
thereof.
Authority in consultation with applicant/

manufacturer etc.
4. Respective approved centres may frame a time
schedule applicable for testing of equipment.
This schedule may also be made available on
website. An illustrative schedule for this purpose
can be as under:
S. Category of
No. Equipment/ Machine
Time required for

completion of test and
releasing draft test
report
1.
Hand Tools
2-3 months
2.
Manual operated
tools/Equipments
2-3 months
3.
Animal drawn
Machine/Equipments
3-4 months depend

upon timely
submission of test
sample based on
season etc.
Tractor drawn
Machine/Equipment
3-4 months depend

upon timely
submission of test
sample based on
season etc.
4.
5.
Self propelled
Machine/Equipment
upto 3.5 kW capacity
6.
Any other
Time of testing
Machine/Equipments depends upon
developed by ICAR/ performance of
State Government/
machines and their
Research Institutions requirements
etc.
declared by the
manufacturer/
applicant.
7. The applicant shall supply three copies each of

published literature, detailed specification,
operator and service (workshop) manual and
illustrated parts catalogue along with the test
sample in English as well as in regional
language. Other technical details as specified
by Testing Authority shall also be supplied by
the applicant.
8. The operation of the machines shall be carried
out according to the procedure laid down in the
manufacturer s printed literature unless
otherwise specified by the applicant prior to the
commencement of test.
9. It will be the responsibility of the applicant to
ensure that the machine or equipment is in good
working condition. In case the machine requires
running-in test, same will be carried in
consultation with the Testing Authority.
10. One authorised representative of the applicant,
at the discretion of the Testing Authority, will be
permitted to witness the testing process. The
representative may also be allowed to collect
necessary factual data about the performance
of the machine on the clear understanding that
the name of the Testing Authority shall not be
associated with data so collected or published
later.
3-4 months depend

upon timely submission
of test sample based
on season etc.
11. For conducting field performance tests on

agriculture machinery, the applicant should
supply all necessary attachments, jigs, fixtures
etc along with the test sample. Testing Authority
will not be responsible for any damage to or
variation in the performance of machine due to
inappropriate attachments.
5. The manufacturer/applicant shall supply spare

parts necessary for general maintenance or
minor repairs to the Testing Authority. Unused
spares will be returned to applicant after
completion of test. In case of damage or
breakdown of any component during the course
of testing, the applicant, with the permission of
Testing Authority, should replace the component
with a new one having same specifications.
12. Neither the Testing Authority nor anybody

engaged in this behalf for conducting tests will
be held responsible for any accident, damage
or loss whatsoever, to the machine/component/
equipment which may occur while in custody,
storage, transit and /or during the tests.
13. When special/additional parameters are to be
measured during performance tests, additional
expenditure as determined by the Testing
6. The applicant shall also supply special tools, if

49

19. No interim test report shall be issued to a
machine while under testing.
Authority, will be payable by the applicant.

14. The testing of machine/components shall be
commenced by the Testing Authority only after
completion of all formalities by the applicant.
20. Dept. of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry

of Agriculture, Government of India reserves the
right to recommend and incorporate changes
in this guideline at any time as may be found
necessary.
15. On completion of test and payment of testing

charges in full, a copy of the draft test report
shall be prepared by the approved/designated
centre and made available to the applicant for
comments. The applicant shall furnish
comments within 15 days. In case the applicant
fails to submit comments within the stipulated
time, the Testing Authority may release the final
test report. In case of commercial test reports,
such applicants comments which contribute
technically to the contents of the test report will,
at the discretion of the Testing Authority, be
included in the test report under a separate
chapter referred to as Applicants Comments.
21. Various laboratory tests data viz. checking

specification in full, hardness-chemical
composition of soil engaging parts in case of
tillage tools, measurement of capacity in respect
to storage, fuel and lubricant levels etc shall only
be recorded in prescribed format laid down as
per relevant test code/procedure of the machine
or being adhered by FMTTIs.
22. All field tests viz. performance test etc shall only
be carried out as per relevant test code/
procedure of the machine or procedure framed
as per S.No. 6 above.
16. If the cost of printing of the test report is borne

by the Institute, only 3 copies of the test reports
shall be supplied to the applicant free of cost.
Additional copies shall be supplied on payment
that may be fixed by the Testing Authority from
time to time.
23. All performance characteristics viz. power,

capacity including matching size of prime mover
or power source shall be declared by the
manufacturer/applicant before starting of test.
24. Sample format for test reports may be obtained
from FMT&TIs.
17. The test report issued by the Testing Authority

shall be applicable to a particular model or
sample of machine/implement/component etc
only not to similar/variant model.
25. The overall presentation/quality of the final test

report shall be at par with quality of the test
report released by FMT&TIs and accepted by
all the States and Union Territories for subsidy
and implementation of other Government
Schemes where test reports are required.
18. The test reports issued by the Testing Authority

shall contain only performance data/parameters
obtained on a particular sample of a model/
brand during testing by the Testing Authority.
These, however, do not communicate/signify
approval/recommendation of the Government
of India or the Testing Authority for any Govt.
programme or otherwise.
26. Respective designated Institutions may finalise

modalities to apportion revenue earned as
testing fees.
50
Vol. 36(1), 2012
Annexure I
List of Agricultural Machineries and Equipment to be tested at Approved Testing Centres at SAUs/ICAR
Institutes/Departments of State Govts
1) All non-self propelled farm equipment including rice transplanters and reapers
2) Self-propelled reapers/weeder and other machines up to 3.5 kW engine
Note: PAU Ludhiana and CIAE Bhopal centres to test Self-propelled Combines
Annexure II
TESTING CHARGES LEVIED BY FMT&TIS FOR
TESTING AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENTS/MACHINES:
The testing charges levied by Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institutes effective during 2011-12
are as under:
51
TESTING CHARGES FOR TRACTORS &

COMBINE HARVESTERS:
Cooperation, New Delhi vide OM No.10-6/98-My

(I&P) dated 14 th August, 2007 in respect of
Tractors Power Tillers & Combine Harvesters are
as under:-
The prevailing Testing charges/fee fixed vides

Ministry of Agriculture, Deptt. of Agriculture &
52
Vol. 36(1), 2012

S. Name of the Machine
No.
1
ST+CESS@
0.3%
Total amount
(Rs)
Tractors
a
Revised testing
fee (Rs)
Initial Commercial Test
2,70,000/-
27,810/-
2,97810/-
40 % of ICT test fee
1,08,000/-
11,124/-
1,19,224/-
2,02,500/-
20858/-
2,23,358/-
2,43,000/-
25,029/-
2,68,029/-
Batch Test
2,60,000/-
26,780/-
2,86780/-
OECD Test
2,20,000/- + Plus the fee

charged by the OECD for
approval of each test report
22,660/-
2,42,660/-
Confidential Test
2,97,000/-
30,591/-
3,27,591/-
Combine Harvesters
a
Self propelled
3,15,000/-
32,445/-
3,47,445/-
Tractor powered
2,40,000/-
24,720/-
2,64,720/-
9,064/-
97,064/-
Emission Test
88,000/-
CMVR Certification
50,000/-
50,000/-
Extension of CMVR without inspection/ test
10000/-
Extension of CMVR with inspection/ test
25,000/-
Note:
1
The revised fee will be effective from the date of issue of this order for a period of three years or till
further order of revision.
The machines which are under test on or after the date of applicability of the order, the fee will be
charged at the revised/new rates.
In case, where the manufactures get the machine tested partly i.e. test of few parameters rather than
going for full test, the test fee will be charged at the following rates:
a
For testing of one parameter, the testing fee will be at the rate of 40% of the full test fee.
For testing of more than one parameter and up to 50% of total test parameters, the test fee will be
at the rate of 75% of the full test fee. [As per Letter No. 10-6/96- My (I&P) dated 3dr July, 2008, if
the parameters are more than 50% of the total test parameters, full test fee is to be charged.]
For full laboratory test (where laboratory and field tests are prescribed), test fee will be at 90% of
the full test fee. In same way it will be applicable for field test as well.
The test fee for confidential test would be 10% higher than the test fee applicable for Initial Commercial
test.
Additional test fee to the tune of 50% of the test fee applicable for Initial Commercial Test will be
chargeable for conversion of nature of test from Confidential to Commercial within the provisions
contained in the Test Regulation. The bank draft of such fee shall be deposited by the application at
the time of application with the Director of the Institute. However, the same shall be refunded if the
conversion is not approved.
12% service tax will be charged on lump-sum testing charges as per the Ministrys letter No. 1-16/
2002- My (Admin) Dated 6th January, 2004. The service tax has been applicable @ 10% w.e.f. 1.4.2009.
3% CESS on service tax will be charged. (Effective from 12.04.2007)
53
Application for Indvidual Membership

(Registered No.4027 dated 12-2-69, Registration of Societies Act. XXI of 1860)
1. Name of the Applicant: ................................................................................................. (in block letters)
(Surname)
(First Name)
(Last Name)
2. Designation or Position: .........................................................................................................................
3. Name & Address of the Employer:.........................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
4. Mailing Address: .....................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
Telephone No. Office........................................... Residence: ............................................................
E-Mail Address: ......................................................................................................................................
5. Date of Birth:.......................................................... Nationality: ............................................................
6. Qualifications
(a) Academic Qualifications: .................................................................................................................
(b) Technical Training etc.: ....................................................................................................................
7. Membership in other Societies: ..............................................................................................................
8. Professional Experience:
(a) Particulars of Past Experience With Dates: ....................................................................................
(b) Nature of Present Work: ..................................................................................................................
(c) Field of interest: ................................................................................................................................
(Farm power & machinery, .....................................................................................................................
Soil & Water Engineering, ......................................................................................................................
Agricultural Processing , etc.) ................................................................................................................
9. Grade of Membership Requested:.........................................................................................................
10. Your old Membership No. if any: ...........................................................................................................
11. Reference with Addresses: ...................................................................................................................
(ISAE members preferred): ...................................................................................................................
54
Vol. 36(1), 2012

I hereby apply for membership of the Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers. I am sending herewith Rs.
50/- as admission fee and Rs. . . . . . . .. . as subscription totaling to Rs. . . . . . . . . . . . . for the year/years/
life membership. I testify that the above statements are correct and agree that if admitted, I shall be
governed by the rules and regulations of the Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers as long as I am a
member. I further agree to promote the objects of the Society as far as shall be within my power and that,
if my membership is discontinued, I shall return any means of New Membership identification I may have
received from the society and remit upon resignation any unpaid fees or dues owing to the Society.
I undertake to present to the society an original communication every year relating to the profession of
Agricultural Engineering. I further undertake to abide by professional conduct rules or code of either that
the Society may frame time to time.
Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signature of applicant
Category of
Membership
Requirements
(Eligibility)
Subscription
Admission Fee
Rate
(only one time)
Inland
Foreign Inland
Foreign
(Rs.)
($)
(Rs.)
($)
Life member
A qualified engineer engaged in

Agricultural Engineering activities
3000/-
300/-
50/-
10/-
Annual Member
A qualified engineer working in the

field of Agricultural Engineering
500/-
50/-
50/-
10/-
Student Member
(for four year)
Persons undergoing a course of study /

training or apprenticeship in Agricultural
Engineering
950/-
95/-
50/-
10/-
Please mail the completed form along with remittance-bank draft/local cheque in favour of
Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers, payable at New Delhi to:
Secretary General
INDIAN SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS
G-3, National Societies Block (Ground Floor), National Agricultural Science Centre Complex, Dev
Prakash Shastri Marg, Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110012
Telefax ; 011-25849003 E-mail : isae2001@yahoo.co.in; Website: www.isae.in
Objects of the Society
(a) To promote, encourage and coordinate the study, development and profession of Agricultural
Engineering in all its branches.
(b) To advance the standard of Agricultural Engineering in the field of research, education and practical
application.
Right of Members
1) To attend and vote in all General Body Meeting.
2) To introduce and second candidate for membership and move other resolutions in the General Body Meetings.
3) To receive the Societys Journal and Agricultural Engineering Today.
4) To have access to the library and other rooms of the society.
5) To hold any office of the Society on being duly elected / nominated.
6) To get discount on other priced publications of the society.
7) To get the benefit to reduced fee-sponsoring delegates for convention/seminars/symposium.
55
Application Form for Corporate Member (Bodies)

(Registration No.4027, Dated: 12-02-1969, Registration of Societies Act. XXI of 1860)
1. Name of the Body / Organisation ..........................................................................................................
2. Address for I.S.A.E Mail .........................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
3. Headquarters in India: ............................................................................................................................
4. Nature of Business / Activity: .................................................................................................................
5. Membership of Other Professional Bodies / Societies, Etc. (if any) .....................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
We hereby apply for Corporate Membership (Bodies) of the Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers.
We testify that the above statements are correct and agree that, if admitted, we shall abide by the rules
and regulation of the Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers. We further agree to promote the objects of
the society as far as shall within our powers, and that if our membership is discontinued, we shall return
any means of Membership Identification may be have received from the society and remit, upon resignation
any unpaid fees of dues owing to the society.
We are remitting herewith an amount of Rs.50/- as Admission fee and Rs.15000/- as Subscription fee
vide Bank Draft / Bankers Cheque No. dated --
for Rs. drawn on Bank payable at New Delhi.
Dated
Signature
Bank Draft / Cheque are payable to Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers.

Please add Rs. 50/- for all outstation Cheques.
Please mail the completed form alongwith remittace bank draft / local cheque to:
Secretary General
INDIAN SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS
G-3, National Societies Block (Ground floor), National Agricultural Science Centre Complex, Dev
Prakash Shastri Marg, Pusa Campus, New Delhi -110012
Telefax: 011-25849003 E-mail: isae2001@yahoo.co.in
Website: www.isae.in
56
Vol. 36(1), 2012

MEMBERSHIP FEES
Category
Corporate Member
Membership Fee
Inland
Foreign
(Rs.)
($)
15000/-
Admission Fee
Inland
Foreign
(Rs.)
($)
1500/-
50/-
10/-
Eligibility /Requirements
Any organization/Body
pursuing engineering
activities related to
agriculture.
Objects of the Society

(a) To promote, encourage and coordinate the study, development and profession of Agricultural
Engineering in all its branches.
(b) To advance the standard of Agricultural Engineering in the field of research, education and practical
application.
Rights of Members
1. To attend and vote in all General Body Meeting.
2. To introduce and second candidate for membership and move other resolutions in the General Body
Meetings.
3. To receive the Societys Journal and Agricultural Engineering Today.
4. To have access to the library and other rooms of the Society.
5. To hold any office of the Society on being duly elected / nominated.
6. To get discount on other priced publications of the society.
7. To get the benefit to reduced fee sponsoring delegates for convention / seminars / symposium.
57

Guidelines for Authors
1. NATURE OF CONTIRUBUTION
The paper should relate to policies, issues,
problems, solutions and technology status, in
Agricultural Engineering and allied disciplines and
should be interesting to the farmers, manufacturers,
sales/ service personals, scientists, and engineers
in agriculture.
with too many labels. The letter size of the labels

should be readable after 50% reduction. If relevant,
a few sharp colour photographs may be included,
but they will be rendered in black and white. All
illustrations may be placed after the Tables and each
must have a Figure number and caption, typed
below the illustration.
2. GENERAL FORMAT OF THE MANUSCRIPT
5. REFERENCES
The manuscript is to be written in English/Hindi

using short and simple sentences. It is to be typed
in MS Word using Arial 11 pt. font, double-spacing,
on one side of A-4 size paper. The first page is to
have the title of the paper, followed by the authors(s)
names(s), Abstract (200 words approx.), a few key
words and a footnote giving the authors affiliation,
postal address with PIN code, e-mail address and
identifying the Corresponding author. The text of
the paper may have main and sub-heads. The
manuscript may not exceed 12 pages including the
Text, Tables and Sketches. Please ensure that
only SI units are used. The manuscript should end
with a set of crisp and clear Conclusions.
There must be a one-to-one correspondence

between the references cited and the references
listed. Please use standard format for citing and
listing references.
6. SUBMISSION
Please submit two prints and one CD of the
manuscript to the Society address to be found
elsewhere in this journal. Kindly do write your ISAE
membership number as it will appear in paper. In
addition, an electronic copy is also highly desirable,
as it reduces the time in processing and allows faster
communication with author(s). The electronic copy
may be sent to: ssingh5119@gmail.com. In the
electronic copy, Figures must be editable.
3. TABLES
7. PREFERENCES IN PUBLICATION
Please use the Table format (Simple) and

accommodate information avoiding Landscape
layout. Include all the Tables at the end of the
manuscript after References. Each Table must have
a number and a title, typed above the Table.
AET is primarily meant for publishing information in

any area of Agricultural Engineering and allied fields
that may be useful to technology developers and
users, manufacturers, planers and policy makers.
It discourages the authors from sending fully
research papers for which other journal are
available. However, a research paper, which has
been shown to have potential for adoption of its
findings, may be considered.
4. ILLUSTRATIONS
AET is printed in black and white only. There should
be no coloured lines, legends, histograms etc., in
the illustrations. A Figure should not be crowded
58
Vol. 36(1), 2012
Prof. S. V. Arya
December 29, 1926 to January 15, 2012
Tribute by J. S. Bali
Prof. Surendra Varma Arya, one of the brightest stars of agricultural engineering profession of
India, passed away on 15th January, 2012. He celebrated his 86th birthday and 85 years of an illustrious
life just a fortnight back on December 29. I used to describe him; right from the time I met him in
1947, as a person whose whole weight was that of brain. From a humble beginning in the village of
Barwan in Hardoi district of U.P., he rose to the highest academic position of Vice Chancellorship
of the Jabalpur Agricultural University. His six years of Vice-chancellorship were preceded by as
many as twenty years as the Dean in the same university. His comparatively small physical body
always reminded me of the fact that many of the greatest men of the word had been small in size.
In 1947, when I first met Prof Arya, he had already passed his B.Sc. in Agricultural Engineering,
standing first-class-first and winning the University gold Medal. But he was a student of B. Sc
(Agriculture). Asked about the reason for this pursuit, he said he got his agricultural engineering
at such a small age that he was younger than the prescribed minimum age for Government service.
Prof Arya was indeed a child prodigy. Prof. Mason Vaugh, Head of the Department of Agricultural
Engineering, had rightly chosen him for his special favors. Prof. Arya later went to USA and got
his Masters degree.
Our paths crossed again at the Department of Agricultural Engineering of the I.I.T
Kharagpur, through which passed many future stars of the profession. He contributed immensely
towards the development of the agricultural engineering profession in the country. He was
prominently present at the birth of the Indian Society of Agricultural Engineering in 1963. He had
also then acquired an interesting hobby of collection of worlds coins. In general knowledge, nobody
was his equal. He was indeed a man of many parts.
Prof. S.V. Arya was a successful man. He was a good student, good teacher, good father and
above all a good friend. His wife, Sushila, passed away in 1992. Their residence was an open home
for the needy. He leaves behind five sons and a daughter, all well -educated and well-placed.
Like we say of the King, let us say of him: Prof S. V. Arya is dead, long live Prof. S. V. Arya.
59

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AGRICULTURAL

Vol. 36(1), 2012

Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers

Vol. 36(1), 2012

Global Positioning System for Precise

technology, which enables the producer to collect

The agriculture sector has a long history of using

Agricultural Engineering Today

Fig .1: A view of Portable GPS Receiver.

Fig. 2: Portable GPS Receiver operating on

The GPS unit records track points and use the

Vol. 36(1), 2012

measure the real time area harvested by the

Real Time Area Calculation (using GPS)

S. No. Time (s)

= earths radius (mean radius = 6,371km)

lat = change in latitude between two points = lat2

long = change in longitude between two points =

= distance between two points.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The positioning shown in Table 1 indicates that

Table 1: Area of field under wheat crop.

Agricultural Engineering Today

important information. Better positioning in

Van der Wal T; Devos W; Kay S. 2009. Common

Vol. 36(1), 2012

Short Penning-A Technique to Resist Wear of Critical

Wear Resistance Materials for Critical

Agricultural Engineering Today

C-80 carbon content 0.75-0.85 and Mn 0.50-0.80 hardened to 38.45 HRC

Chaff cutter blade

Discs (tractor drawn)

Carbon steel C-75, C-80 and Silico-manganess 55 Si2 Mn 90 with Carbon

Disc (animal drawn)

Lawn mower blade

C-0.5- 0.60%, 55 Si2 Mn 90 hardened to 28-45 HRC

Carbon steel C 0.5 0.6% grade C-55 hardness 350-450 HB

C-55 with carbon C 0.58 -0.6% hardened to 350-450 HB

Tines for cultivator

Mild steel (13226- 1969), Mn 25, 55 Si2 Mn 90, 55 hardness 235-310 HB

Animal drawn plough share C-75 hardened to 360-400 HB

C-55 hardened to 37.2 47.8 HRC ( 350-450 HB)

Cast iron grade 20 or mild steel

Wheel hoe weeder

Carbon steel with C 0.5 -0.6% (C-55) hardened to 350-450 HB

Ball & socket assembly

14 Mn 1 514 with C 0.10-0. 18% Mn 1.20, 1.50 Si 0.05-0.30, hardness 55-62 HC

Cast aluminium A-4M ( IS: 617-1969)

Frame, axle, wheel

Mild steel 0.25% C IS: 226-1962

Shot Peening to Strenghten Critical

which helps increase fatigue and stress corrosion

Shot peening is one of the cheapest surface

Vol. 36(1), 2012

peening is a cold working process in which the

The failure of critical parts due to abrasion is a

In order for the dimple to be created, the surface

Table 2: Interaction between required properties for

Shot peening effects

Micro structure and

Surface work hardening,

Shot peening process.

Shot peening has been found effective in inducing

Agricultural Engineering Today