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ISBN 978-0-9806986-1-9
Disclaimer
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publication. The department holds no responsibility for any errors or omissions within this document. Any decisions made by
other parties based on this document are solely the responsibility of those parties.
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impairment; phone +61 7 3170 5470 or email <library@ehp.qld.gov.au>.
Citation
Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (2009) Monitoring and Sampling Manual 2009, Version 2, July 2013
format edits. This document contains the common techniques, methods and standards for sample collection, handling and data
management for use by Queensland Government agencies, relevant persons and other organisations for release and impact
monitoring and to assess the condition and trend of Queensland waters.
July 2013
ii
Contents
1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................2
1.1
Edition identification.........................................................................................................................................2
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Limitations........................................................................................................................................................4
1.7
Disclaimer ........................................................................................................................................................4
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.7
Cost effectiveness.................................................................................................................................14
2.4
2.5
Contact laboratories.......................................................................................................................................15
2.6
2.7
PART B Sampling physico-chemical indicators of water quality and environmental health ...............................17
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
Automatic samplers...............................................................................................................................18
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
Marking pens.........................................................................................................................................21
3.1.7
Camera .................................................................................................................................................21
3.1.8
Voice recorder.......................................................................................................................................21
3.1.9
3.2
Labelling.........................................................................................................................................................21
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.4
3.5
Collecting samples.........................................................................................................................................24
3.5.1
3.5.2
Groundwaters........................................................................................................................................27
3.5.3
Sediments .............................................................................................................................................27
3.5.4
3.5.5
3.5.6
3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
Test kits.................................................................................................................................................35
3.7
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.8
Laboratory analysis........................................................................................................................................40
3.8.1
3.9
3.9.1
3.10
Part C Appendixes......................................................................................................................................................43
Appendix C1 Forms ................................................................................................................................................44
Appendix C2 Methods for overcoming limit of detection problems: in situ extractions and the use of passive
samplers..................................................................................................................................................................45
C2.1
C2.2
C4.2
C4.3
Appendix C5 Bulk natural water and sediment collection for direct toxicity assessment (DTA).............................52
Appendix C6 Contact details for laboratories..........................................................................................................53
Appendix C7 Units and concentrations...................................................................................................................54
Appendix C8 Sample containers and preservation methods..................................................................................58
Appendix C9 Fluvial sediment sampling using P 61 sediment samplers and HelleySmith bedload samplers.....69
C9.1
C9.2
Equipment .............................................................................................................................................69
C9.3
Method ..................................................................................................................................................71
iv
C9.4
C9.5
C9.6
C9.7
C9.8
References............................................................................................................................................83
Appendix C10 Sampling procedures for suspended solids and nutrientsapplication of water sampling
technique.................................................................................................................................................................84
C10.1 Background for sampling procedures .......................................................................................................84
C10.2 Manual sampling procedures....................................................................................................................84
C10.3 Automatic sampling procedures ...............................................................................................................85
C10.2 Sampling procedures for filtered nutrients ................................................................................................86
PART D Sampling bio-indicators of water quality and environmental health .............................................................88
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
Sampling program.................................................................................................................................88
4.1.3
Site selection.........................................................................................................................................89
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.1.7
Field sheets...........................................................................................................................................93
4.1.8
4.1.9
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.3.6
4.3.7
4.3.8
4.4
References...................................................................................................................................................123
Part E Preparation of aquatic animal tissues (fish and crustaceans) for veterinary laboratory examination ...........124
5.1
Reasons for sending aquatic animal tissues for veterinary laboratory examination ...................................124
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
Frozen finfish.......................................................................................................................................126
5.2.5
5.2.6
5.2.7
5.2.8
Finfish dissection.................................................................................................................................129
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.3.6
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
Site selection.......................................................................................................................................140
6.1.5
6.1.6
6.1.7
6.1.8
6.1.9
Data interpretation...............................................................................................................................142
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
Site selection.......................................................................................................................................143
6.2.4
6.2.5
Tag seedlings......................................................................................................................................143
6.2.6
6.2.7
6.2.8
6.2.9
vi
6.3.1
Introductionwhat is leaf area index and how is it related to mangrove forest health? ....................145
6.3.2
6.3.3
Site selection.......................................................................................................................................146
6.3.4
6.3.5
Data interpretation...............................................................................................................................148
6.3.6
6.4
6.4.1
Introductionwhat is mangrove forest structure and how is it related to mangrove forest health? ...149
6.4.2
6.4.3
Site selection.......................................................................................................................................149
6.4.4
6.4.5
6.4.6
6.4.7
6.4.8
6.4.9
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
Site selection.......................................................................................................................................156
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.5.6
Data interpretation...............................................................................................................................157
6.5.7
7.1.1
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................158
7.1.2
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
Site selection.......................................................................................................................................159
7.3
7.4
Appendixes ...............................................................................................................................................................162
Appendix H1 Checklist of equipment needed for macroinvertebrate field sampling ............................................162
Appendix H2 Queensland Site Information Sheet ................................................................................................163
Appendix H3 Water Quality Sampling Field Sheet ...............................................................................................168
Appendix H4 Field Sheets.....................................................................................................................................169
Appendix H5 Keys used for identification of Queensland Macroinvertebrate Fauna ...........................................170
Appendix H6 List of predictor variables used for the Mark I and Mark II models .................................................173
Appendix H7 National taxonomic codes for macroinvertebrate families collected in Queensland.......................174
Appendix H8 Transport of live aquatic animals.....................................................................................................176
Glossary....................................................................................................................................................................177
References................................................................................................................................................................185
viii
Preface
Water monitoring is undertaken by the Queensland Government for a variety of reasons, including the provision of
information to government for policy and investment decision-making, to underpin natural resource management
decisions by government and stakeholders, to assess impacts on the environment and to educate and inform
stakeholders and the community generally.
Monitoring is also required to be conducted by persons under statutory approvals, and is additionally conducted by
other organisations across Queensland, including local government, industry, regional natural resource
management bodies and community groups. Many of these organisations collect valuable information on the
condition of Queensland waters that complement Queensland Government monitoring.
The Monitoring and Sampling Manual 2009 provides the common techniques, methods and standards for sample
collection, handling and data management for use by Queensland Government agencies, relevant persons and
other organisations.
Where monitoring is required under legislation to be carried out under a protocol, the Monitoring and Sampling
Manual 2009 is the principal document to decide the protocols. This manual is intended to be used by persons and
organisations involved in the monitoring of the condition and trend of Queensland waters.
The Monitoring and Sampling Manual 2009 will facilitate consistency and increased scientific rigour of
monitoring data available for interpretation by all stakeholders. It will allow them to assess the condition
and trend of Queensland waters so that the aquatic environment can be managed for sustainable
development and aquatic ecosystem health.
Introduction
1.1
Edition identification
This second edition of the Monitoring and Sampling Manual 2009 (the manual) supersedes the first edition of that
manual, and sampling manuals published by the former Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Primary
Industries, and Department of Natural Resources and Mines.
1.2
The purpose of the manual is to provide the common techniques, methods and standards for sample collection,
handling, quality assurance and control, custodianship and data management, for use by Queensland Government
agencies, relevant persons and other organisations.
The manual is a part of an integrated monitoring framework to decide the priorities, indicator selection, data
storage, data analysis and reporting, as shown in Figure 1 below.
Where monitoring is required under legislation to be done under a protocol, including the Environmental Protection
(Water) Policy 2009 (EPP (Water)) and the Environmental Protection Regulation 2008, the manual is the primary
document to decide the protocols.
1.3
This manual is the updated version of the primary document originally listed in the Environmental Protection
(Water) Policy 1997 for use in deciding protocols. Accordingly, if there is any inconsistency between this manual
and the other documents, this manual takes precedence to the extent of the inconsistency.
Some standards and other documents that have been used in preparing this manual will be revised from time to
time. This could result in a procedure differing from that presented in the manual. The rules provided in Box 1.1
cater for such instances. In any situation where users of this manual use a revised document and/or adopt a
protocol on the advice of an analyst, they should note the use of any revisions adopted and keep a record of the
analysts advice.
Box 1.1 When a standard is revised
If this manual is found to differ from a revision of any of the other documents listed in the EPP (Water), amended after the date
of this manual, a user may decide that the updated version of the document is more appropriate than the manual for deciding a
protocol, either generally or in particular circumstances. This manual should not be interpreted as being inconsistent with the
other document provided that:
1.4
Intended users
those who hold instruments under the Environmental Protection Act 1994 such as Environmental
Authorities and Development Approvals (that comprise licences and approvals to carry out environmentally
relevant activities) and Environmental Protection Orders
employees and consultants of those who hold instruments under the Environmental Protection Act 1994
those who analyse the samples collected for water quality determinations
other persons and organisations involved in the monitoring of the condition and trend of Queensland
waters.
1.5
The manuals content has been prepared in consultation with other Australian environmental agencies and
Queensland state and local government agencies. Australian and New Zealand and relevant international
standards were considered during the preparation of this edition.
The manual is consistent with the nationally adopted framework presented in the Australian Guidelines for Water
Quality Monitoring and Reporting (ANZECC/ARMCANZ 2000) and covers the sections of the framework indicated
in Figure 1.2 below.
Figure 1.2 Framework for a water quality monitoring programAustralian Guidelines for Water Quality
Monitoring and Reporting (2000).
This manual presents procedures for:
sampling design
1.6
Limitations
The manual cannot cover every set of circumstances encountered when determining a protocol for sampling, and
may not always provide sufficient or relevant directions. In situations where the user has little confidence that the
samples might produce useful data, this should not stop them from being collected, particularly if there is no other
opportunity to obtain the information they could provide.
1.7
Disclaimer
Where particular brand names of equipment are mentioned, this has been done for illustration purposes only. Other
makes or brands providing equivalent function are equally applicable.
Scope
Scope of
of
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling
Design
Design
Transport
Transport &
&
Security
Security
Contact
Contact
Laboratories
Laboratories
Why
Why Sample?
Sample?
What
What to
to Sample?
Sample?
Check
Check Transport?
Transport?
Double-check
Double-check
Requirements
Requirements
Spatial
Spatial
Boundaries?
Boundaries?
Where
Where to
to Sample?
Sample?
Securing
Securing Samples
Samples
Turn-around
Turn-around Times
Times
Duration?
Duration?
When
When to
to Sample?
Sample?
Documentation
Documentation
Accreditation?
Accreditation?
Frequency?
Frequency?
How
How to
to Sample?
Sample?
QC
QC
Cost
Cost
Effectiveness
Effectiveness
2.1
Before any sampling is carried out, the aim of the sampling exercise and how the results will be used need to be
established. For example, a single result might be compared with a written specification or benchmark (such as
release limits in an Environmental Authority or Development Approval or with relevant guidelines). Alternatively,
several results might be used in calculations, and if so, it needs to be understood how the calculated quantities will
be used. Prior to collecting samples, the need to assess the circumstances and the kinds of inferences that could
be drawn from the results of sample analyses should be determined. That information will help identify where and
when sampling should take place, and the quality characteristics that need to be determined for those samples.
The essential features of a sampling strategy are to ensure that the material sampled is genuinely representative of
the body of material from which it was collected, that in situ measurements are reliable, and that the integrity of
materials sent for laboratory analysis has not been compromised by contamination, degradation, transformation or
losses.
The basic intent of environmental analysis is that analysis is carried out with selected portions (i.e. samples) from
the location of interest, and the quality of the source material is then inferred from that of the samples. If the source
material quality is temporally and spatially consistent then this inference would be uncomplicated. However, such
constancy is rarely, if ever, observed in the real world. For example, virtually all waters show both temporal and
spatial variations in quality (see Box 2.1 and Box 2.2), and consequently the timing and choice of location/s for
taking water samples must be chosen with great care. Other materials such as sediments and biota typically also
show such variations.
When designing monitoring programs it is important to ensure that the sampling regime is representative of the
system and parameter/s of interest. For example, where a water body is well mixed and a parameter of interest is
evenly distributed in the water column a grab sample may be appropriate. However, it is important to consider that
parameters of interest may not be equally distributed. In such circumstances it may be necessary to assess the
variability of the parameter of interest within the water column prior to sampling.
Such an evaluation would aim to determine whether sampling at a particular point is representative of a
homogenous unit of water at a given point in time. Where the extent of variation is not known, the variation might
need to be established by a pilot sampling program designed for that purpose, or a comprehensive range of
samples taken to enable variability to be determined along with the primary aim of the sampling exercise.
In circumstances where undertaking an assessment of variability is not practical or possible it is recommended that
information from relevant peer reviewed literature on the likely variability is used to provide guidance on an
appropriate sampling strategy.
A similar approach to dealing with variability is recommended when designing sampling programs involving the
collection of other materials such as sediments and biota.
When deciding the number of samples to collect and the frequency of sampling required, ideally, sufficient samples
and replicates would be collected to represent the full range of variability present in space and time. Sampling
designs should ultimately be defined by program objectives that can include the required statistical power required
for discriminating between hypotheses or be based on the levels of acceptable sampling variability. Sampling
designs should also be guided by the where to sample and when to sample sections in this manual (Sections
2.3.3 and 2.3.4).
Box 2.1 Variability of water quality over time
If the environment to be sampled shows changes over timefor example, river systems within minutes or hours, or lakes
within days or weeksthe temporal pattern of sampling is of great importance. The schedule for the sampling program should
take account of the expected temporal resolution of changes in the environment. In programs for monitoring wastewater
treatment effluents, sampling around the clock may be required to determine whether control variables have been met or
exceeded. A single sample can only be a snapshot at a single point in time and may not reliably represent typical conditions
for a system that varies over time.
If many samples are taken over a period of time, it is often appropriate to match the sampling rate to the expected pattern of
variation in the environment.
When it is necessary to quantify a contaminant load, multiple sampling periods may be needed. For example:
Time-proportional sampling: samples containing identical volumes are taken at constant time intervals.
Discharge-proportional sampling: the time intervals are constant but the volume of each sample is proportional to the
volume of discharge during the specific time interval.
Quantity-proportional sampling (or flow-weighted sampling): the volume of each sample is constant but the temporal
resolution of sampling is proportional to the discharge.
Event-controlled sampling: depends on a trigger signal (e.g. a discharge threshold). For example, to detect peak
concentrations during short-term changes of water quality, event-controlled samplers are useful.
Alternatively, passive samplers can be used to integrate variations in water quality over an extended period of time. For further
information on the applicability and use of passive samplers see Appendix C2.
When the purpose of sampling is to assess compliance with a statutory provision such as a condition attached to
an Environmental Authority or Development Approval, the sample should be taken to provide a reliable measure of
the specific characteristic or parameter specified (e.g. the concentration of suspended solids at a defined sampling
point). Where the statutory provision is not explicit, the sample should represent fairly the body of material from
which it is taken during the period of the sampling.
Where the aim of the sampling is to measure compliance with conditions of an environmental authority or
development approval, and the conditions include a statistical sampling regime, this should be followed so that the
results can be of use. However, if there is reason to believe variability is a confounding factor, additional samples
may be needed to check this out.
The Environmental Protection Act 1994 and its subordinate legislation, including the Environmental Protection
Regulation 1998 and the Environmental Protection (Water) Policy 2009, must be taken into account when deciding
where and when to sample for compliance in a pollution investigation, checking compliance with an environmental
authority or development approval, or undertaking a receiving environment monitoring program.
Reference should be made to the current conditions of any relevant licence or permits, particularly when confirming
compliance. The conditions may include specific sampling locations, times of release and quality characteristics
that will assist with designing the sampling strategy.
2.2
2.3
Sampling design
The importance of having an understanding of the ecosystem for which the sampling program is being designed is
demonstrated by the complexity of nutrient cycling processes in waterways.
Plants use light as a source of energy for everyday growth and repair. They also require elements such as carbon
(which they derive from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere) and the nutrients nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P).
Nutrients stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and are required to maintain the productivity of ecosystems.
However, the growth of aquatic plants can be limited, despite there being sufficient light available, when nutrients
are present only at minimal concentrations. Nutrients can become an environmental problem when they occur at
excessive concentrations. Negative effects of higher-than-normal nutrient concentrations include the eutrophication
of waterways.
8
Figure 2.2 Conceptual diagram of a coastal system including anthropogenic activities, inputs to waterways
and areas of value
Typical direct effects of eutrophication include increased frequency of algal blooms (including toxic algae) and
hypoxia. Increased production of aquatic plants and algae may temporarily increase oxygen production within a
water body, but when these decompose, this may cause a depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO). Low DO levels can
lead to fish kills and the death of other aquatic fauna. Other effects of eutrophication may include increased
turbidity and changes in community composition.
The nutrients N and P occur naturally in Australian surface water systems. They often occur in both particulate (i.e.
organic and sediment-bound) and dissolved forms. The movement of nutrients from land may originate from both
diffuse and point sources. Pathways for diffuse sources include riparian litter fall, soil erosion and sediment
transport (see Figures 2.3 and 2.4). Fertilisers may be a source of N and P in agriculturally dominated catchments.
The concentration and types of particulate and dissolved forms of N and P in waterways can indicate potential
stresses from land uses and land management practices in the catchment.
An understanding of the relationship between flow and nutrient concentrations, coupled with N and P cycling (and
the transformation from one form to another), is crucial when interpreting concentrations and loads and
subsequently making any type of assumption or conclusion (e.g. is the nutrient a new contribution to the cycle or a
transformation of a previously deposited load?). Without this understanding, changes in N and P concentrations
and/or loads may be more attributable to variable flow regimes and biological factors rather than any imposed
management action.
Figure 2.3 Typical processes affecting nutrients within different parts of a catchment
Figure 2.4 Illustration depicting typical nutrient and sediment inputs into catchments
10
12
such a situation, the taking of a composite sample is a useful strategy. A composite sample may be temporal by
combining contributions of material collected over a longer period (minutes, hours or days). Alternatively, a
composite sample may be spatial, for example, comprising a series of equal contributions of material taken along a
transect (e.g. across a channel). This gives a spatially more representative sample than a single grab sample at a
single point. An example of the advantage of using composite sampling occurs in measuring concentrations of total
nitrogen from a sewage treatment plant for the purpose of estimating loads. A single weekly grab sample will not
capture the variations across a day or week. A suitable alternative would be to take a 24-hour composite sample.
Notes:
Composite sampling will not provide information on the maximum concentration reached (i.e. spikes in
concentrations) which is often relevant when dealing with toxicants.
The use of automatic samplers to prepare composite samples over a period of time could be problematic due to
delays in delivering samples to the laboratory for analysis. Under some circumstances this might not be significant,
but you should check with the analyst before sampling with such equipment.
2.4
Samples collected in areas remote from the laboratory might need to be freighted by private companiesroad or
air transportif the sampler cannot deliver them personally. The samples need to be delivered within the maximum
holding times.
14
2.5
Contact laboratories
When possible, contact the appropriate laboratories before going to the field to ensure that analysis can be
performed before expiry of the maximum holding times.
You should inform the laboratory of details concerning the samples you will be sending. One way is to send a completed copy of
a form such as the Notice of Samples Expected shown in Appendix C1. Send this by mail when the sampling is planned some
days ahead, or by facsimile or email if urgent. If this is impracticable, try to contact the analyst by telephone to give details of the
samples.
You should also try to give the laboratory any information you can about the sample source, likely range of concentrations and
purpose for which the results are to be used. This will help the analyst choose a suitable analytical method with appropriate limit
of reporting (LOR). In some cases the LOR can be improved if the analyst knows these details beforehand.
If sampling from areas affected by a chemical spill, try to advise the laboratory to expect high concentrations in the
samples. Providing the laboratory with such information may help avoid results such as out-of-range
concentrations, and subsequent delays while your samples are diluted and re-analysed.
2.6
Sampling schedule
Once the sampling design has been finalised a sampling schedule should be prepared that includes such
information as:
where and when the samples are to be collected
source of each samplewhether from wastes, waters or sediments
the nature of the material to be sampled
the quality characteristics being sampled
the sampling containers (and associated paraphernalia) needed
preservatives needed
the maximum holding time for each sample.
A blank copy of a sampling schedule form is located at Appendix C1. (Details of sample containers, preservatives
2.7
Table 2.1 A selection of relevant Australian and New Zealand standards related to water and sediment
sampling
AS/NZS 5667.1:1998
Water qualitySampling
Part 1: Guidance on the design of sampling programs, sampling
techniques and the preservation and handling of samples
AS/NZS 5667.4:1998
Water qualitySampling
Part 4: Guidance on sampling from lakes, natural and man-made
AS/NZS 5667.5:1998
Water qualitySampling
Part 5: Guidance on sampling of drinking water and water used for
food and beverage processing
AS/NZS 5667.6:1998
Water qualitySampling
Part 6: Guidance on sampling of rivers and streams
AS/NZS 5667.9:1998
Water qualitySampling
Part 9: Guidance on sampling from marine waters
AS/NZS 5667.10:1998
Water qualitySampling
Part 10: Guidance on sampling of wastewaters
AS/NZS 5667.11:1998
Water qualitySampling
Part 11: Guidance on sampling of groundwaters
AS/NZS 5667.12:1998
Water qualitySampling
Part 12: Guidance on sampling of bottom sediments
AS/NZS 2031:2001
16
3
PART B Sampling physico-chemical indicators of water
quality and environmental health
3.1
This section details the equipment and materials to be used in sampling. Appendix C1 contains a checklist of
equipment and materials. You can copy this checklist for each sampling trip, and modify it as needed.
Sampling
Sampling in
in the
the Field
Field
Sample
Sample collection
collection methods
methods
&
& equipment
equipment
Water,
Water, Sediments
Sediments and/or
and/or Biota
Biota
Sample
Sample containers
containers
Consider
Consider
QA/QC
QA/QC
Consider
Consider
OH&S
OH&S
Sample
Sample preservation
preservation &
& storage
storage
Field
Field measurements
measurements
Figure 3.1 Necessary materials and equipment considerations for sampling in the field
18
taken to the laboratory promptly, and care is taken to ensure that they do not thaw before delivery. In an
emergency, samples can be frozen by surrounding them with a slurry of crushed ice mixed with common domestic
salt (sodium chloride). This rapidly achieves temperatures well below 0oC.
When storing chilled or frozen samples in coolers, note that the coolers can be a source of sample contamination
under some circumstances. For example, if a cooler has been used for storing fish, and is then used for storing
samples collected for nitrogen or phosphorus, residual odorous substances from the fish (such as ammonia) can
permeate the container walls, even if the container is of high density polyethylene (HDPE). If a cooler used for
odorous material needs to be used for samples, be sure to clean it thoroughly before use.
If air transport of samples is involved, take account of air transport and company requirements regarding wet and
dry ice.
Workplace health and safetyit is hazardous to transport dry ice inside a motor vehicle with all of the windows
closed.
3.1.7 Camera
Photographs are useful when investigating pollution incidents. Check that you have appropriate spare items such
as films, memory cards and batteries. Accessories such as glare/ultra-violet light filters, extra lenses or flash
equipment could be appropriate in some circumstances.
Cameras that automatically imprint the exposure date and time on the photograph can be useful, but you need to
be sure that the cameras clock is set correctly. This also applies to digital cameras.
When taking photographs, it is essential to clearly identify when and where each shot is taken. Shots may be
numbered consecutively and descriptive notes made at the time. Where practical, include identifying features such
as a sample label or placard within each shot.
Note that conventional photographic images on film or paper, and electronic image files produced by scanning or
by digital cameras, can all be manipulated. Therefore, images intended for legal purposes should be stored in
secure places to guard against unauthorised access.
3.2
Labelling
Adequate sample description and labelling are extremely important in sampling (see Figure 3.6). Complete the
labels at the sampling site and record details in your notebook. To guard against possible confusion between
samples, each sample should be given a unique number. This number can be made up of parts containing codes
for different pieces of information, if required. However, the label must include the following information:
sample location
sample number/label
sampler ID
date.
3.3
Ideally, analysis of samples should be performed in situ or at least on site. However, as this is usually not
practicable, it is essential that you follow correct procedures for collection, preservation and transport of samples to
a laboratory for analysis.
For characteristics where the Appendix C8 tables show Refrigerate or Freeze in the column headed Storage
conditions, the appropriate temperature range is shown in the table heading. The sample should be cooled to this
range as rapidly as is reasonably practicable and kept within that range until analysis commences (Note: AS/NZS
2031:2001 indicates 210C for refrigeration).
3.4
Preventing contamination
Avoiding sample contamination is an important aspect of sampling. There are always potential sources of
contamination, and the aim should be to keep the risk of contamination to a practical minimum, consistent with the
types of analytical tests required. Possible sources of contamination include:
Sunscreens (zinc oxide) or insect repellents (organic chemicals) on skin could contaminate a sample if
transferred by some unintentional means to the material sampled.
Where samples are being taken for both metals and nutrients, there is risk that nitric acid (used as preservative
for the metal samples) could contaminate the nutrient samples. Precautions could include keeping the acid
container closed while collecting nutrient samples, or having a different person collect each group of samples.
More information on sampling for nutrients is given in Wruck and Ferris (1997) and QHSS (1998).
Residual sample material from previous tests could give incorrect readings when measurements are being
made with field instruments. Special attention should be given to probe and test kit item rinsing after each field
measurement in order to prevent future contamination. See section 3.1.1 concerning intermediate containers.
Avoid smoking and wear Nitrile gloves at all times.
Corrosion and oxidisation of metal components in probe cathodes, electrodes and membranes could
contaminate a sample and yield inaccurate readings.
Note that some container caps have inserts; never touch the inserts with the skin or remove them from the caps.
Cover work spaces used for sample handling (e.g. vehicle tray or tailgate) with new alfoil or plastic to provide a clean
working surface. Replace it after driving to a new site.
3.5
Collecting samples
Figure 3.9 summarises the steps in the general procedure for samples of wastewaters and surface waters.
24
do not collect the sample as soon as the boat arrives at the site. Wait until the sediment has settled. If sampling in
deeper waters, avoid taking a sample in or near the wake. Take the sample from ahead using a pole, or
intermediate container.
To avoid labels rubbing off sample bottles while stored and transported in eskies filled with ice, it is advisable to
place bottles within individual zip-lock bags.
Avoid:
scraping the walls of drains, tanks, sewers, and so on; this could dislodge adhering matter into the sample, and
so make it unrepresentative
disturbing sediment, if sampling in shallow waters; this could also make the sample unrepresentative of the
water column.
Do not:
smoke during operations
rinse sample containers with waters or wastes being sampled
risk loss of preservatives by overfilling sample bottles.
Should a problem arise while you are collecting a samplefor instance if your sample becomes contaminated by
floating fats in a waste pond or disturbed sediments in a streamuse a fresh sample container and start again.
It is preferable to use the unique sample ID number rather than write descriptive text on labels. You must record
the descriptive text in notes for future reference.
If taking microbiological samples from a body of water that has enough depth to immerse the sterile container,
hold the container by the sides and keep it nearly upright as you lower it into the water, so that it fills without spilling
any pre-added sodium thiosulphate preservative from the sample jar (if present). For situations where it is not
practicable to immerse the sterile container in the water or wastes to be sampled, you might need additional
equipment as follows:
an intermediate container that can be dipped into the water or wastes and that can be sterilised (by flaming) in
the field immediately before usefor example, a stainless steel jug
a means of sterilising the intermediate containerfor example, a portable butane or propane burner. AS 5667.1
states that methylated spirit flames should not be used as they are not hot enough and are difficult to control.
NOTE: Flaming involves a risk of causing serious injury to people and damage to property. While flaming the
jug, hold it by the handle with a sampling rod, piece of rag, or other suitable insulating material; if using a rag or
other combustible material, take great care you do not set fire to it. Transfer the sample immediately to the
sterile sample container. Turn out the flame as soon as you are finished.
If sampling temporary waters, refer to Appendix C4 for further information.
If sampling for suspended solids or nutrients refer to Appendix C10 for further information on sample collection
with different types of sampling equipment.
If collecting bulk water samples for use in direct toxicity assessment (DTA) laboratory trials, refer to Appendix C5.
When completing your notebook, record the following sample details even if already included in a sampling
schedule:
name of the sampler
date and time of sampling
details of sample location and source
quality characteristics to be determined
container type (volume, washing, material etc.)
sample volume collected
preservation method used
serial numbers of seals affixed to sample container
unique sample identification number (a different number for each sample container and package)
26
any other details relevant to the sampling, for example, photographs by number.
3.5.2 Groundwaters
Groundwater sampling requires special equipment for sampling from a bore-hole or well, for example, a suitable
bailer or pump, and a procedure to ensure sampling of fresh recharge water from the aquifer. Sometimes special
precautions are needed to prevent changes in quality of the groundwater due to effects such as:
reduced pressure when brought to the surface: this can cause gases in solution at the higher pressures
underground to be evolved in some cases, these can be toxic gases, such as hydrogen cyanide if the
groundwater has been contaminated by cyanide solution
exposure to components of the atmosphere such as oxygen; this can oxidise compounds naturally present in
the reduced form (for example, ferrous ion).
Collecting groundwater samples needs specialised knowledge. If you need to take groundwater samples and have
not been trained to do so, it is recommended that you refer to AS/NZS 5667 11 1998 (Water Sampling
GuidelinesPart 11 Guidance on sampling groundwaters).
Sampling groundwater for microbiological examination requires the normal precautions mentioned above, plus the
precautions for preventing microbial contamination of the sampling equipment and the sample applicable to surface
waters sampling (section 3.5.1). If you need to collect such samples, you should obtain advice from reliable
sources such as those cited above.
3.5.3 Sediments
Sediment samples are typically more heterogeneous than water and wastewater samples. This means special care
is needed in removing sediment samples from a stream bed. It also means that a composite sample is more likely
to be appropriate than a single sample.
For detailed advice on sediment sampling, refer to AS/NZS 5667.12:1999 Guidance on the Sampling of Bottom
Sediments and Simpson et al. Handbook for Sediment Quality Assessment 2005 (CSIRO).
General rules when sampling sediments include:
If direct collection into a sample container is impracticable, use a suitable mechanical device such as a stainless
steel grab, dredge, or corer, washed in waters at the sample site.
If the sample is NOT to be frozen, fill the container almost to the brim. Chill samples in ice or refrigerate
promptly.
If freezing of samples IS required, fill the container to only two-thirds of capacity, including any cover water
taken from the same site. Place samples promptly in dry ice or portable freezer.
It may be necessary to sample sediments from temporary waters such as intermittent streams or ephemeral
streams. In such cases you should refer to Appendix C4.3.2 for further guidance.
for physicochemical analyses at least three whole fish (of the same species) of approximately uniform size if
possible to allow valid comparison between sites. If the fish are small, you might need to collect more than three
to get enough material for analytical tests. Collect as many as needed to provide:
o for organic analyses such as pesticides, herbicides and PCBsat least 250 grams (whole body mass)
and/or
o for inorganic analyses such as heavy metals at least 100 grams (whole body mass).
Note: As you might not know which contaminants are present, it is usually best to collect enough material for
both types of analyses.
For histopathological examination:
At least three whole fish (of the same species) of approximately uniform size if possible to allow valid
comparison between sites. Note: histopathology requires live or freshly euthanased samples, or tissue samples
preserved with 10 per cent formalin.
Do not freeze samples.
See Part E of this manual for more detailed advice on taking and handling samples for veterinary examination.
Dissection of fish for samples of organs
If physicochemical analysis of fish organs (such as gills, livers) is to be performed by the laboratory, the fish should
be dissected and the organs separately packaged, labelled and preserved before despatch.
Cross-contamination of samples can easily occur if dissection is done without proper care. Reference to the Fish
Kill Reporting and Investigation Manual (DEH, 1998) is strongly recommended.
Packaging and preserving
Samples of aquatic animals and fish organs should be packaged according to the tests required as follows:
Physico-chemical analysis:
Where poisoning by pesticides or organic compounds is suspected:
o wrap specimens in aluminium foil with the dull side of the foil inwards
o freeze as soon as practicable.
For other analyses, including metals:
o place samples in polyethylene bags or wrapping
o freeze as soon as practicable.
Histopathological examination:
If fish are dissected on site, follow directions in the Fish Kill Reporting and Investigation Manual for fixing the
organs in 10 per cent formalin in plastic sample jars.
Send to the histopathologist as soon as practicable.
See Part E of this manual for more detailed advice on taking and handling samples for veterinary examination.
3.6
To obtain accurate results for some quality characteristics, measurement on-site is necessary.
Typical field equipment used for this is:
thermometer
pH meter
dissolved oxygen (DO) meter
conductivity meter
turbidity meter
Secchi disc.
Some modern field instruments (multi-parameter instruments) can measure more than one quality characteristic,
for example, both temperature and DO (see Figure 3.10). Note that not all field instruments give results of similar
accuracy. It is important to check that the instrument used meets requirements and is calibrated (indicated by
documentation of current calibration status).
The unit of measurement for conductivity is siemens (S) per unit of length. A commonly used example of this unit is
microsiemens per centimetre (S/cm). See Conductivity units and their abbreviations in Appendix C7 for further
explanation.
Typical values of EC in S/cm are:
De-ionised water in equilibrium with the atmosphere approximately 1
Potable waters
50500
Kt
1 + 0.019 (t - 25)
a2 = 9.540 x 10-3
a1 = -3.941 x 10-4
a1 = 1.092 x 10-5
a1 = -1.559 x 10-7
a1 = 8.789 x 10-10
3.6.2.6 Turbidity
The turbidity of a water body is a measure of the presence or absence of soluble, suspended and colloidal particles
that hinder the transmission of natural light from the surface to the lower depths. Turbidity affects the potential rate
of photosynthesis, and hence the growth of plants or algae in the water body.
3.6.2.7
Water clarity
The clarity of a water body is an indication of the presence or absence of suspended and colloidal particles that
hinder the transmission of natural light from the surface to the lower depths. Clarity affects the potential rate of
photosynthesis at any given depth, and hence the growth of green plants or algae in the water body.
This method is based on the common experience that the deeper a submerged object is, the less easy it is to see
from the water surface, and the more cloudy the water, the less easy to see at a fixed depth. It entails the use of a
Secchi disk (see Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12) and is a relatively simple and quick way to obtain a measure of
clarity, without the need to take samples and analyse them for turbidity or suspended solids. The Secchi disk also
has the advantage of integrating turbidity over depth (where variable turbidity layers are present).
Chlorine is widely used for disinfection of public water supplies, swimming pools, and treated wastewaters.
Although the role of chlorine addition in water treatment is to disinfect (kill pathogens), some of the added chlorine
can be consumed in reactions with oxidisable substances present in the water including ammonia, nitrite, and
organic matter. Chloramines are a common product of such reactions, which also deplete the chlorine available to
kill pathogens. The reaction products are generally less effective disinfectants than chlorine, but are more
persistent.
Chlorination treatment of water or wastewater usually involves the addition of a measured dose of one or more of
chlorine gas (Cl2), hypochlorite ion (OCl-), and hypochlorous acid (HOCl). The addition of chlorine gas alone results
in a mix of all three in proportions dependent on factors such as pH and temperature.
The term free chlorine is used to refer to the total concentration present of dissolved chlorine gas, hypochlorite
ion, and hypochlorous acid, each of which has good disinfection capability.
The term combined chlorine is used to refer to the chloramines, and the term total residual chlorine is the sum of
free chlorine and combined chlorine. These are the terms used in the Australian Guidelines for Water Quality
Monitoring and Reporting (ANZECC/ARMCANZ 2000). Other terms for these mixtures of chlorine-containing
substances may be encountered, for example some environmental authorities (EAs) include quality specifications
for free chlorine residual in an effluent. The term residual refers to chlorine (as the total concentration of
dissolved chlorine gas, hypochlorite ion, and hypochlorous acid) remaining after added chlorine has reacted with
wastewater constituents. Thus free chlorine residual is equivalent to free chlorine.
The quality specification for chlorine (free, combined, or total) in an EA is usually the concentration measured at the
outlet of a detention tank designed to provide contact between the chlorine and the wastewater for a stated period
to enable disinfection to occur prior to release.
34
Because the levels of free chlorine relative to combined chlorine can change over a short period of time, it is
usual to measure chlorine in situ using a test kit or probe attached to a water quality meter. There are more
sophisticated and accurate laboratory based methods available but these are generally not practical for field use.
Test kits commonly used for in situ chlorine testing are based on a colorimetric system, involving the addition of a
chemical (DPD, typically supplied in the form of tablets in a sealed containment) to a fixed volume of sample water
and measuring the intensity of pink colour produced by the reaction of the DPD with chlorine present in the water.
The methods used to measure the colour intensity vary between kit types. Simple kits involve comparison by eye of
the colour intensity with a calibrated chart or filter. More sophisticated (and accurate) kits measure colour intensity
digitally. The results from DPD-based test kits may be adversely influenced by colours and interferences from
chemicals present in the waters being tested (see section 3.6.3).
If using a DPD kit, it is essential to ensure that the DPD tablets are fresh (hard), that the seal is intact, and within
the expiry date. The kit directions for use must be followed exactly, and cells and colour filters etc. kept
scrupulously clean. Residues from previous tests can give false readings for subsequent tests.
Securing
Securing your
your samples
samples
Transporting
Transporting your
your samples
samples
Samples
Samples packaged
packaged properly
properly
to
to avoid
avoid damage?
damage?
Contact
Contact Laboratory
Laboratory
Are
Are your
your samples
samples tamper-evident?
tamper-evident?
Complete
Complete analysis
analysis request
request
Are
Are you
you delivering
delivering the
the samples?
samples?
Is
Is someone
someone else
else
delivering
delivering your
your samples?
samples?
Sample
Sample Receipts
Receipts
Documentation
Documentation
Chain
Chain of
of Custody
Custody etc
etc
Have
Have your
your samples
samples arrived?
arrived?
Have
Have your
your samples
samples been
been analysed
analysed
within
within maximum
maximum holding
holding time?
time?
Figure 3.13 Overview of the components of a sample security and transport system
Sample seals and evidence bags can be obtained from a range of commercial suppliers.
Typically seals are specially printed self-adhesive security labels, designed to be affixed across the body and cap
of the sample container. Each seal is made of a self-destruct material so that any attempt to remove it will result in
its disintegration so it cannot be re-affixed in its original condition. Each should have a unique seal number.
Uniquely numbered and tamper-proof tough-plastic evidence bags are commercially available in a range of sizes.
When you are issued with seals and evidence bags, you are responsible for keeping them in a secure place. At any
time you must be able to account for the numbers received, the numbers used, and the numbers still in your
possession. Include the seal/evidence bag number and the sample identification number when recording details of
samples. Refer to Figure 3.14 for examples of security labels and seals.
36
One way to hinder unauthorised access to samples is to use a system of insulated carrier boxes fitted with locks
that can be opened only by:
an appropriate staff member of your organisation having authority to do so
the analyst or other laboratory staff member having similar authority.
If using such a system you should be able to testify in court that the keys were kept in secure places.
A person wishing to interfere with samples might try to remove the lock and later replace it without leaving evidence
of their actions, such as cuts or holes in the box or the lock assembly. Each lock should be fitted to make this as
difficult as practicable. Any attempt at access should leave evidence that laboratory staff will notice.
Each lock should preferably be a part of the body of the carrier box, or a padlock that fastens a hasp and staple
assembly permanently fitted to the body. The two parts of the assembly would need to be fastened by, for example,
suitable rivets, rather than screws that could be removed and replaced without leaving evidence of the fact.
Padlocks should preferably be case hardened to resist cutting by a hacksaw.
General
After collecting the samples, you must have them transported to the appropriate laboratories, ensuring that the
integrity of the samples is maintained. You can do this by:
delivering them personally
having a work colleague deliver them
sending them by commercial carrier (such as road transport, air cargo)
other reliable means.
Whatever means you use, the following points are important:
Sample containers and packages need to be packed in sample carrier boxes to minimise the risk of breakage,
leakage or spillage during transport.
Sample carrier boxes must be handled and stored so as to protect the samples.
Transport precautions
To minimise thawing of ice or dry ice, protect samples from heat; for example, do not leave sample carrier
boxes in the sun for long periods.
Carrier boxes containing dry ice must not be hermetically sealed. Venting must be provided to release the
carbon dioxide gas generated.
Make every effort to minimise delays in transporting samples.
Where samples are carried by air, the carrier box must be leak-proof, and must have labels and complete
documentation as required under the IATA regulations.
Ensure that the laboratory will receive the completed analysis request either with the samples or earlier (for
example, by fax or email).
38
a lock
or
a padlocked chain, fastened around the body so that the lid cannot be opened without unlocking the
padlock or cutting through a chain link or padlock.
NOTE: the chain links should be of welded construction (NOT able to be opened and closed using
pliers) and the padlock body should be a solid casting (NOT laminated from sheet metal). Padlock and
chain should preferably be case-hardened.
Give sample carrier box or freezer to transport carrier with chain of custody sheet (Appendix C1)
attached and get receipt (on consignment documents).
Fax or email the completed analysis request to laboratory.
What the laboratory does:
Receive sample carrier box or freezer from transport carrier, complete chain of custody sheet and give
receipt (on consignment documents).
Check:
there are any other signs of tampering with the carrier box or freezer.
If there is reason to suspect tampering, contact sampler immediately and give details.
Determine whether samples should be analysed or not.
Record results of checks and any action taken because of them.
3.7.2.3
It is suggested you keep a list of names, addresses and contact numbers (phone, fax and email) of appropriate
staff at the laboratories that your organisation employs to perform analyses, for ready reference in the field.
Appendix C6 contains space for you to enter these details.
3.7.2.4
Delivery of samples
The receiving laboratory should be advised in advance that samples are to be dispatched. If you notify the staff by
mail or facsimile, you should get an acknowledgement. Only in exceptional circumstances should you send
samples without this prior notification.
Samples delivered to the laboratory must be handed to a supervisor or other appropriate responsible staff member.
This person should acknowledge receipt of the samples by signing the consignment documents accompanying
each sample carrier box, chain of custody documentation or other appropriate form of receipt.
On receiving samples, the analyst must first check the contents against the analysis request, noting:
the time and date when the samples were received
Laboratory
Laboratory Analysis
Analysis
Appropriate
Appropriate analytical
analytical method?
method?
Appropriate
Appropriate detection
detection limit?
limit?
Appropriate
Appropriate precision?
precision?
Appropriate
Appropriate QA/QC?
QA/QC?
Figure 3.15 Essential laboratory analysis components for incorporation into a sampling protocol
preferably be a method accredited by the National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) or shown to be at
least equivalent. Alternative methods to those described in the reference texts can be used provided that the
analyst can validate the alternative method and prove that the results so obtained are equivalent to the results
obtained using the prescribed method within the limits of the accuracy stated for the prescribed method.
Data
Data Analysis
Analysis &
& Interpretation
Interpretation
Prepare
Prepare data
data
Check
Check data
data integrity?
integrity?
Analyse
Analyse data
data
Statistics
Statistics means,
means, variance
variance etc
etc
Interpret
Interpret data
data
Analyse
Analyse changes
changes
in
in time
time and
and space
space
Explore
Explore relationships
relationships between
between
measurement
measurement parameters
parameters
Compare
Compare test
test site
site data
data to
to
guidelines
and/or
objectives
guidelines and/or objectives
Suffice
Suffice study
study objectives?
objectives?
Yes
Yes
No
No
Refine
Refine objectives
objectives
and/or
and/or
collect
collect new
new data
data
Report
Report
Figure 3.16 Essential data analysis and interpretation components for incorporation into a sampling
protocol
42
Part C Appendixes
Appendix C1 Forms
Contact the department for a copy of the forms mentioned in the manualthese include:
Sampling Schedule for Waters, Waste, Sediments
Checklist of Equipment and Materials
Analysis Request
Chain of Custody Data Sheet
Examples of Field Instrument Maintenance and Calibration Record Sheets.
44
Figure C1 An in situ sampling system pumps a measured volume of water through a sorbent cartridge
Due to the risk of contamination during field extraction of water samples using SPE, it is highly desirable to avoid
contact between the water being sampled and the mechanical components of the pump prior to the water reaching
the solid phase. Generally, this necessitates plumbing the pump so that it sucks rather than drives water through
the extracting media. In practice this requires that the sampling device be situated as close as practical to the level
of the water source because suction is limited to one atmosphere of negative pressure, and in practice, due to
inherent resistances in the system (piping, filter/s and extracting media), 12 m altitude difference is the maximum
achievable.
The risk of introducing contaminants from tubing and other components of an in situ sampler is similar to that
inherent in automatic samplers (see section 3.1.2). Other requirements of QA/QC also apply such as the wearing of
gloves to avoid contamination of sampler components that come in contact with the sample.
Figure C2 Housing and components of an SPMD passive sampler. The protective cage covers the
absorbent strip during deployment
C2.2.1.2 Chemcatcher
This device is a very robust passive sampling device that employs the C18 Empore disk as the absorbent media,
46
combined in most cases with a membrane that allows diffusion of polar chemicals. Depending on the polarity range
of the analytes of interest, a range of devices incorporating appropriate membranes and solid phase absorbent
media have been developed. One of these devices based on the Empore disk is illustrated in Figure C3.
1
2
5
10
3
9
11
cross-section
enlarged
48
intermittent waters: areas that are predictably inundated each year, but whose duration of water retention may
vary
ephemeral waters: areas that only contain water after irregular rainfall or flow events.
Before any sampling of temporary waters begins, thorough consideration should be given to all the environmental
and discharge factors presented below. Regional departmental officers are advised to consult with the Queensland
Department of Environment and Heritage Protection Environmental Sciences division while others are urged to
seek advice from environmental consultants experienced in developing sampling programs for temporary waters.
water quality. The first flush that occurs immediately after rainfall may be more damaging (poorer water quality)
than the subsequent flow; however, this pulse is typically only short lived and is unlikely to harm encysted or
dormant stream fauna.
There are two scenarios that are likely to be encountered where temporary waters exist. If the receiving
environment is:
an ephemeral or temporary waterway without pools, or temporary or permanent water bodies of ecological
significance for many kilometres downstream, any live biota still existing within the boundaries of the
watercourse will most likely be in a dormant stage below the sediment surface. Consequently, there will be
minimal exposure to the first flush of water that enters that watercourse. Hence sampling of remnant water that
will harbour and support the emergent biota will be much more ecologically relevant
an ephemeral or temporary waterway with pools, or temporary or permanent water bodies of ecological
significance located downstream, and is likely to be impacted by first flush water flows, permanent or recently
established water bodies will most likely harbour active life stages of biota. These will be vulnerable to the
effects of a pulse exposure of contaminants associated with first flush waters. In this case, sampling of the first
flush water and sampling of the residing water in the permanent/semi-permanent water body (post-exposure)
would be warranted.
Due to the variability in flows, it can be useful to incorporate automatic samplers for sampling temporary waters.
See section 3.1.2 on using automatic samplers.
C4.3.2 Sediments
Water quality should be measured directly and quantified wherever possible; however, this is seldom possible in
arid environments. It is more likely that samples will need to be taken during the dry stage of the hydrocycle.
Sampling may have to rely partially or entirely on historical deposition of contaminants in the sediment of dry river
beds.
Contaminants in sediment samples can be extracted in the laboratory to estimate their potential bioavailability.
Some of the problems inherent in relying on sediment quality are that:
the relationship of sediment quality to actual water quality is often uncertain, making extrapolation of data
difficult
only sediment bound contaminants will be measured
sediment is typically heterogeneous and so care must be taken in ensuring appropriate replication and/or
composite sampling.
For further sampling information, refer to AS/NZS 5667.12:1999 Guidance on Sampling Bottom Sediments.
C4.3.3 Biological assessment
Biological assessment can be a valuable way to establish changes in water quality. This usually involves long-term
monitoring of assemblages of organisms both at the impacted and reference sites. Biological monitoring can give
an early indication of reduction in water quality.
Guidance on selecting the best approach and the associated methodologies of each can be found in Section 8.1 of
ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000). Some of the approaches to biological assessment are:
direct toxicity assessment
seed propagule banks
aquatic plants (algae and macrophytes)
monitoring of hyporheic and epigean fauna.
Some of these biological approaches may require specialist localised knowledge of taxa, and assistance from the
appropriate experts may be difficult to procure.
For further guidance, Smith et al (2004) have produced a valuable review of the benefits and flaws inherent in
various sampling methodologies in evaluating the impacts of mining in arid and semi-arid regions of Australia.
Further information on applying the ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000) guidelines to sampling results for temporary
waters have been addressed in Batley et al (2003), A Guide to the Application of ANZECC/ARMCANZ Water
Quality Guidelines in the Minerals Industry. This publication also provides some extra advice on sampling
strategies for temporary waters.
Appendix C5 Bulk natural water and sediment collection for direct toxicity
assessment (DTA)
Direct toxicity assessment (DTA) is a useful tool for characterising the combined toxicity of contaminants in a
mixture. The toxicological effects of chemicals in combination can be quite different from the effect of each
chemical in isolation. By comparing DTA results with the actual or estimated load of contaminants in a discharge, it
is possible to develop a range of predictive conditions and potential effects on biota for specific discharge events.
A limitation of DTAs is that it may be difficult to obtain test species that are ecologically relevant (i.e. present) in the
catchment being sampled. In such cases, the relevance of DTA results to field situations may be limited due to
different sensitivity between species. Nonetheless, the relative toxicity of the discharge to standard test organisms
can still be very useful in quantifying the environmental risk posed by the activity.
DTAs can be conducted on bulk water samples or extracts from sediments. Contact the analyst to obtain detailed
advice on how to collect samples for DTA before collection.
When collecting bulk receiving environment water samples for the purpose of diluting effluent to be used in DTAs,
collect the appropriate volume of water according to the testing laboratorys advice, which should include:
bottle type
field storage requirements
instruction on any preservatives to be used
instruction on sample security
instructions for transport.
If the required information is unobtainable prior to collection, follow the guidance provided in this manual.
It is a requirement that physicochemical parameters (pH, conductivity, temperature, ammonia, dissolved oxygen,
turbidity and suspended solids) be measured (in the field wherever possible) at the time of collection in accordance
with the instructions in this manual, and then again prior to conducting any dilution of the effluent to be tested for
the DTA. There may be a requirement for additional parameters to be tested both in the field and prior to using the
collected water for effluent dilutions where the time for transport and use of the receiving environment water in the
bioassays exceeds 24 hours. Seek advice on this from the department (who will assess this requirement on a
case-by-case basis).
Further information on the use of DTA in water quality assessment can also be found in the review by Smith et al
(2004), and in the ANZECC/ARMCANZZ (2000) Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine
Water Quality.
52
Notify:
Name
telephone and fax numbers
email address
Physico-chemical analysiswater, sediment, vegetation and animal samples
Other contacts:
Name
telephone and fax numbers
email address
kg
103
Gram
Milligram
mg
10-3
Microgram
Nanogram
g/kg
mg/g
g/L
mg/mL
g/L
ppm
mg/kg
g/g
mg/L
g/mL
ng/L
ppb
g/kg
ng/g
g/L
ng/mL
pg/L
10-6
ppt
ng/kg
pg/g
ng/L
pg/mL
fg/L
ng
10-9
ppq
pg/kg
fg/g
pg/L
fg/mL
ag/L
Picogram
pg
10-12
Femtogram
fg
10-15
Attogram
ag
10-18
Note particularly that units used to express results by field instruments and test kits are not necessarily consistent
with those used in compliance requirements or guideline documents, e.g. phosphate as phosphate (PO4) is not the
same as phosphate as phosphorus (P), similarly, nitrate as nitrate (NO3) is not the same as nitrate as nitrogen (N),
and ammonia as ammonium (NH4) is not the same as ammonia as nitrogen (N). Use the conversion factors listed
below.
54
mg(N)/L to mg(nitrate)/L
multiply by 4.43
mg(nitrate)/L to mg(N)/L
divide by 4.43
mg(N)/L to mg(nitrite)/L
multiply by 3.29
mg(nitrite)/L to mg(N)/L
divide by 3.29
mg(N)/L to mg(ammonia)/L
multiply by 1.21
mg(ammonia)/L to mg(N)/L
divide by 1.21
mg(N)/L to mg(ammonium)/L
multiply by 1.29
mg(ammonium)/L to mg(N)/L
divide by 1.29
mg(P)/L to mg(ammonium)/L
multiply by 3.066
mg(ammonium)/L to mg(P)/L
divide by 3.066
Concentrations may also be expressed in molar units (M). A mole is 6.022 x 1023 particles (of nitrogen, or
ammonia, or phosphorus, etc.). A mole of anything contains the same number of items.
A molar concentration is the number of moles in a litre of solution, for example, a 1M solution of ammonia as
nitrogen (N) contains 14 grams of nitrogen (N) in a litre of solution (14 gN/L).
Using the standard units table above it follows that a 1 mM solution of ammonia contains 0.014 gN/L, and a 1 M
solution of ammonia contains 0.014 mgN/L.
To convert:
mgN/L to M
multiply by 71.4
M to mgN/L
divide by 71.4
Urea N
1M urea as nitrogen (N) = 28 gN/L,
therefore 1.0 mgN/L = 35.7 M
To convert:
mgN/L to M
multiply by 35.7
M to mgN/L
divide by 35.7
Phosphate P
1M phosphate as phosphorus (P) = 31 gP/L,
therefore 1.0 mgP/L = 32.3 M
To convert:
mgP/L to M
multiply by 32.3
M to mgP/L
divide by 32.3
SiO2 to Si
multiply by 0.4674
To convert:
mgSi/L to M
multiply by 35.6
M to mgN/L
divide by 35.6
56
The unit of measurement for conductivity is siemens (S) per unit of length. A siemen is the reciprocal of the unit of
electrical resistance, the ohm ().
Some common EC unit expressions used for reporting conductivity are:
microsiemens per centimetre (S/cm or S.cm-1)
millisiemens per centimetre (mS/cm or mS.cm-1)
decisiemens per metre (dS/m or dS.m-1)
millisiemens per metre (mS/m or mS.m-1).
The SI unit is mS/m. Equivalence relationships among these units include:
1 dS/m = 1 mS/cm = 100 mS/m = 1000 S/cm
1 mS/m = 10 S/cm
Quick reference
See metals
Ammonia
See nutrients
Anionic surfactants
Arsenic
See metals
Barium
See metals
See metals
Calcium
See metals
Chlorine, total
Chlorophylls
Chromium
Cobalt
Seemetals
Colour
Conductivity
Copper
See metals
Cyanide
Dissolved oxygen
Electrical conductivity
See conductivity
Enterococci
See bacteria
58
Parameter
Quick reference
See bacteria
Faecal coliforms
Fluoride
Hardness
Herbicides
Hydrocarbons, petroleum
Iodide
Iron
See metals
Lead
See metals
See metals
Manganese
See metals
Mercury
See metals
Molybdenum
See metals
Nickel
See metals
Nitrate
See nutrients
Nitrite
See nutrients
Nitrogen, oxidised
Nitrogen, total
See nutrients
See nutrients
Non-ionic surfactants
Pesticides
pH value
Phosphorus, dissolved
See nutrients
Phosphorus, total
See nutrients
Parameter
Quick reference
See metals
Selenium
See metals
Silver
See metals
Sodium
See metals
Solids, dissolved
Solids, suspended
Sulphate
Sulphide
Surfactants, anionic
Surfactants, non-ionic
Suspended solids
Thermotolerant coliforms
See bacteria
See metals
Vanadium
See metals
Zinc
See metals
When a parameter is not identified in this manual, contact the analyst for proper collection techniques.
60
Refrigerate
24 hours Analyse in the field if practicable
exclude air
(consult analyst about procedure)
Adsorbable organic halide
1000
A
G Fill container completely to
Nitric acid
1-2
Refrigerate in the dark
3 days
Transport sample promptly to
(AOX)
exclude air
laboratory so that analysis can be
started as soon as practicable
Bacteria
Maximum
Escherichia coli
24 hours
see note [3]
Biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD)
Boron
1000
100
Bromide
Chemical oxygen demand
(COD)
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
100
100
D
A
100
Chloride
100
Chloride, free
100
Chloride, total
100
Chlorophyll
use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Chemical oxygen demand
(COD)
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
None
24 hours
None
1 month
None
Sulphuric acid
1-2
1 month
7 days
Sulphuric acid
1-2
Freeze
1 month
None
1 month
None
5 min
None
5 min
See
note
[4]
None
1000
G or
P
1 month
500
48 hours
Method 2
Method 1
Chlorophyll
use 1 of the 2 methods)
24 hours
Method 2
Colour
None
Conductivity
use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Conductivity
use 1 of the 2 methods)
None
100
None
500
300
300
200
1000
G*
1000
G*
1000
500
250
250
D
W
A
P
G
P
250
24 hours
Refrigerate
1 month
=>12
24 hours
Winkler solution
None
1 month
24 hours
Method 2
Fluoride
Herbicides and pesticides:
Herbicides
odine
ignins and tannins
Metals
calcium or magnesium
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Metals
calcium or magnesium
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 2
PTFE (poly-tetrafluoroethylene)
containers are unsuitable
* Lid of sample container must have
insert of aluminium or PTFE
(poly-tetrafluoroethylene). Protect
sample from light
Sodium thiosulphate;
see note [6]
80 mg per L
sample
7 days
Sodium thiosulphate;
see note [6]
80 mg per L
sample
Refrigerate
7 days
Sulphuric acid
1-2
Refrigerate
1 month
None
None
Nitric acid
1-2
1 month
7 days
1 month
7 days
Method 2
Cyanide, Total
see note [5]
100
Metals
chromium, hexavalent
(see note [8])
Metals
mercury
100
250
Metals
potassium or sodium
use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Metals
potassium or sodium
use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 2
Metals
others:
Aluminium, arsenic, barium,
cadmium, chromiumtotal
(hexavalent + trivalent),
cobalt, copper, iron, lead,
manganese, molybdenum,
nickel, selenium, silver,
uranium
see note [8]
Nutrients:
Ammonia
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Nutrients:
Ammonia
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 2
None
Nitric acid
1-2
250
250
100
100
24 hours
1 month
and
Potassium dichromate
50 mg/mL
100
Refrigerate
5 mL per
250 mL
sample; or
more. (See
right-hand
column)
None
1 month
Nitric acid
1-2
1 month
Nitric acid
1-2
1 month
Filter on site;
see note [9]
None
Refrigerate
24 hours
Filter on site;
see note [9]
None
Freeze
1 month
Nutrients:
Nitrate
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Nutrients:
Nitrate
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Nutrients:
Nitrite
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 2
Nutrients:
Nitrogen, Total Kjeldahl
(TKN) or Total (TN)
use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Nutrients:
Nitrogen, Total Kjeldahl
(TKN) or Total (TN)
use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 2
Nutrients:
phosphorus (dissolved)
se 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Nutrients:
phosphorus (dissolved)
se 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 2
Nutrients:
phosphorus (total)
use 1 of the 2 methods)
Method 1
Unfiltered sample
None
Refrigerate
24 hours
100
Filter on site;
see note [9]
None
Freeze
1 month
100
None
100
None
Freeze
48 hours
250
None
Refrigerate
24 hours
250
None
Freeze
1 month
100
Filter on site;
see note [9]
None
Refrigerate
24 hours
100
Filter on site;
see note [9]
None
Freeze
1 month
250
None
Refrigerate
24 hours
24 hours
Method 2
Nutrients: NITRITE
(use 1 of the 2 methods)
100
250
Method 2
Oil and grease
1000
1000
100
Polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCB)
1000
G*
Polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH)
1000
Solids, dissolved
1000
Solids, Suspended
Sulphate
Sulphide
1000
200
500
D
W
D
P
P
P
Surfactants anionic
500
[10]
Sulphuric acid
Surfactants, non-ionic
500
[10]
Formaldehyde
200
G*
Ascorbic acid, or
200
G*
Sodium thiosulphate;
see note [6], or
Nutrients:
phosphorus (total)
use 1 of the 2 methods)
Trihalomethanes and
haloacetic acids (use 1 of the
3 methods)
Method 1
Trihalomethanes and
haloacetic acids (use 1 of the
3 methods)
Method 2
None
Freeze
1 month
1-2
Refrigerate
1 month
Refrigerate
7 days
Refrigerate
6 hours
Sodium thiosulphate;
see note [6]
80 mg per L
sample
7 days
Sodium thiosulphate ;
see note [6]
80 mg per L
sample
7 days
Refrigerate
24 hours
2 mL per
500 mL
sample
Refrigerate
Refrigerate
Refrigerate
24 hours
7 days
7 days
1-2
Refrigerate
48 hours
25 mL per L
sample
0.125 g per
200 mL
sample
Refrigerate
1 month
14 days
16 mg per
200 mL
sample
14 days
None
None
None
None
None
Zinc acetate (10%
solution)
Trihalomethanes and
haloacetic acids (use 1 of the
3 methods)
200
G*
100
Ammonium chloride
0.2g per
200 mL
sample
14 days
24 hours
Method 3
Turbidity
None
(SEDIMENT SAMPLES)
to add
period
The volume shown is a typical volume for a single determination. The actual volume needed depends on many factors. If practicable, discuss with the analytical laboratory before
sampling.
Note [2]
Sterile containers are required as specified in AS/NZS 2031 2001. For samples from chlorinated sources, these must contain sodium thiosulphate before sampling. The
concentration must be such as will produce a concentration of at least 100 mg/mL in the sample. Where bottles are prepared by the laboratory, they should be supplied already
containing the required amount of sodium thiosulphate. Sodium thiosulphate neutralises the chlorine, thus preventing further bactericidal effects on organisms in the water during
transit.
Note [3]
AS/NZS 2031 2001 indicates that microbiological examination should commence within six hours of collection; under exceptional circumstances this may be extended to a
maximum of 24 hours. The analyst should attach a note to the test report stating the time interval between sample collection and testing.
Note [4]
Filter the sample and submit the filter paper itself (along with the particulate matter accumulated on it) to the analyst. Filter the sample in the field using vacuum filtration equipment.
Filter the sample through a fine glass fibre filter (Whatman GF/C or equivalent). The vacuum applied across the filter should be no more than 40 cm of mercury, to avoid possible
rupture of cells and consequent release of chlorophyll. The volume of sample needed will depend on the concentration of particulate matter present; a typical volume to filter is
1000 mL, but for samples with high loadings, the filter can become clogged before this volume has passed through. You must record the volume that has actually passed
through the filter, and give this information to the analyst with the sample. Filters and collected particulates must not be touched with fingers and all sample handling
Note [1]
apparatus must be kept free of acids as this causes degradation of chlorophyll. Place filter paper in a container that excludes light (for example, a small tube completely wrapped in
aluminium foil) for transport to analyst.
Note [5]
Note [6]
Preservative is needed only if sample is chlorinated. Preservative should be in the bottle prior to filling with sample.
Note [7]
Second method (no preservation) can be used only where sample is: [a] of pH = < 8 and low carbonate content; and [b] drawn solely for determination of calcium, magnesium or
hardness.
Note [8]
When collecting a sample for determination of chromium (VI), it is suggested that you also collect a sample for determination of total chromium and submit both for analysis. This
allows the laboratory to perform the simpler test for total chromium first; then, if none is detected, it need not carry out the more complex test for hexavalent (VI) chromium.
Note [9]
Filter sample in the field, through 0.45 m poly ether sulphone filter, preferably using fully enclosed pressure filtering equipment, such as single use syringe (50 mL) with 0.45 m
single use filter. For turbid samples a glass fibre pre-filter should also be used to make filtering easier.
C9.2 Equipment
Equipment specific to this method include:
Helley-Smith bedload sampler with sample weighting system
P 61 suspended sediment sampler with current meter
ADCP in conjunction with a modified van Dorn sampler
See Box C9.1 for further equipment requirements.
Two different sediment samplers are involved, one for the bedload sediment (Helley-Smith) and the other for the
suspended sediment (P 61). The bedload weighing system is another piece of equipment required and is used in
conjunction with the bedload sampler for determining the transport rate. This section details the operation of the
Helley-Smith bedload sampler, P 61 suspended sediment sampler and the bedload weighing system. The latter is
used in conjunction with the Helley-Smith to determine the bedload transport rate.
Sampler location on boats:
P 61 on the starboard side (right) and the bedload sampler on the port side (left).
Page 69
Quantity
Bedload sampling
Bedload sampler
10*
Stop watch
Pencil
Screw driver for attaching sampling bags (if sampler not modified)
24
100*
Spare nozzle
C2 connector
Thermometer
Other Items
Data recording sheets (minimum)
12
Generator
Safety vests
Safety cones
Flashing light
C9.3 Method
Sediment sampling involves not only the collection of samples but other related parameters as well.
Samples/measurements to be taken are listed as follows:
point velocity measurement at every location where suspended sediment sample is obtained
suspended sediment sample
bedload sample
timing for each sediment sample (in seconds)
submerged weight of each bedload sample
water temperature.
All suspended sediment and bedload samples are to be sent to the Queensland Health Forensic Scientific Services
(QHFSS) (or other approved laboratory) for analysis.
C9.3.1 When to measure
Sediments are mainly transported and deposited during flood events. The load is known to be higher during the
rising limb than the recession, the rising limb being associated with the removal of stored sediments in the stream
or the initial flush of mobile sediment from the land surface, particularly after a severe drought. Stream velocities,
and thus sediment transport rates, are also usually higher for a given water level during the rising limb, than during
the falling limb.
It is recommended that at least two sets of data be obtained at each sampling site for a flood event, one on the
rising limb and the other on the recession limb. Ideally, the measurements should be taken during the period close
to the maximum discharge. Figure C9.1 illustrates the two possible starting times, A and B.
Figure C9.1 Possible starting times (A and B) for sampling (for short duration floods)
In most cases, however, the selection of the starting times is very much dependent upon when the hydrographic
team arrives and the time required to set up the equipment, particularly in a catchment of quick response. Figure
C9.2 shows the period T, where the measurements can be taken.
Page 71
Figure C9.3 Possible starting times for sampling (for long duration floods)
C9.3.2 Selecting verticals for sampling
The number of verticals required in a cross-section for sediment sampling is dependent upon the width, discharge
distribution, accuracy sought, as well as the concentration variation across the river at the time of sampling. The
location of each vertical is normally chosen based on:
equally spaced verticalswith this method, the channel width at the water surface is divided into sections of
equal width corresponding to the number of verticals required. This is a relatively easy method to use as the
discharge need not be known prior
strips of equal dischargein this method, verticals are arranged according to the distribution of water discharge
across the section. Each sampling vertical represents approximately equal portions of discharge. It is, however,
a more involved process as the discharge must be computed prior to the sampling work
consideration of the transverse distribution of sediment concentrationanother method of selecting the verticals
is to consider the transverse distribution of sediment concentration. In zones of large concentration variation,
verticals are placed closer together whereas a lesser number of verticals is used on the floodplain.
Recommendation: Location of verticals should be established before sampling for a possible range of flow depths to
avoid additional workload in the field. Consult with the Project Manager.
Figure C9.4 Location of sampling points (flow confined within main channel)
NOTE: for ADCP measurements, the distance from the bottom and top differs due to back scatter noise.
Page 73
However, the selection of the verticals at some sites may differ from the above to meet specific program objectives
and advice should be sought from the Project Manager. To minimise the time required for completing a set of
sediment measurements (and also possible confusion), the sampling should be carried out as a separate exercise
to the stream gauging. The latter requires a larger number of verticals.
C9.3.3 Sampling methods for suspended sediments
There are two methods commonly used for sampling of suspended sediment, namely depth and point integration:
Depth integrationin depth integration, the watersediment mixture is taken continuously while the sampler is
moving at a constant transit rate throughout a vertical. However, this method is limited to a depth of 4.5 m only
for round trip sampling or 9 m for single trip. Furthermore, the transit rate of lowering or raising should be kept
constant and should not exceed four-tenths of the mean velocity of a vertical. This condition must be adhered to
for reliable results.
Point integrationpoint integrated sampling involves an accumulation of water sediment mixture that is
representative of the mean concentration at any selected point in a stream, over a short period of time. There is
at least one selected point in a vertical.
Recommendation: In view of the operational difficulty and the depth constraint for the depth integration method, the more
robust point integration method is recommended.
The number of sampling points in a vertical should vary according to the depth of the stream and the size of
sediment in suspension. Commonly used methods are the one, two, three and five point methods. Their relative
depths (measured from the water surface) are shown in Figures C9.4 and C9.5. More points selected would imply
a longer duration of sampling (which may be counter productive) and result in higher costs for laboratory analyses.
Hence the accuracy desired has to be balanced against cost and time.
Recommendation: Locations of the sampling points are recommended as follows:
Flow confined within the main channel
The middle vertical has five points at relative depths of 0.0, 0.2, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 The rest of the verticals are taken at relative
ADCP
Side lobe
Main lobe
94%
20 degree
beam angle
6%
Bottom surface
Due to the methods outlined in Section C5.2, there can be issues due to the effects mentioned above; therefore,
some considerations to these effects are required, i.e. modification to the location of the samples (shown in Figure
C9.7) to allow for velocities to be extracted from the ADCP data. The operator should be able to quickly calculate
the depths required from the output from WinRiver in the field, as the depth at which the ADCP is located (mounted
on the boat) and the depth of the water are the influencing factors. The changes required are minimal and any
Page 75
major errors should occur due to the changes in the depth of sample; however, this would require verification
before implementation. A detailed operational procedure on ADPC/Sediview applications is to be developed for
approval as a standard method.
Figure C9.8 Helley-Smith bedload sampler (labelled A) and P 61 suspended sediment sampler (labelled B)
Sampler assembly
1. Remove the bedload sampler from the storage box.
2. Suspend the sampler in the water and adjust the suspension bracket so that the sampler (tail heavy) is at an
angle of approximately 25 degrees from the horizontal. To achieve this, release the locking screws and move
the sliding collar as an adjustment. Lock the screws and ensure that the suspension bracket is vertical.
3. To reduce the amount of time for set up on site, this step should have already been performed during the trial
run prior to the actual measurement.
4. Place the sample bag, with seam uppermost, to the rear of the nozzle.
5. Place an elastic band on the sample bag in the location groove around the nozzle.
6. Slide the metal band over the elastic band, ensuring that the locating pins on the sides are in the secure position
for a snug fit.
7. Secure the bag by pulling the clip into a locking position. The metal band and clip arrangement is a modification
made to the original equipment for improving handling procedure in the field (original equipment has four clamps
which can only be released by a screwdrivera slow and frustrating job on a boat with a good chance of losing
the screws holding the clamps).
8. Connect the hook to the eye at the rear of the sample bag.
9. Connect the C1 connector to the sliding collar.
Sampling
1. Locate the sampling vertical position determined previously.
2. Lower the sampler carefully to the stream bed. When the tail makes contact, slowly lower the nozzle
until it is sitting on the bed and start the stop watch; then record the sampler depth. Care should be
taken not to dig the nozzle into the stream bed.
3. Collect the sample over a period long enough to give a decent sample (which will depend on the local
velocity and bedload particle size). Raise the sampler immediately when the time expires.
4. Retrieve the sample bag. This task is easier to perform if the sampler is hauled into the boat.
2. Ensure that the sample bag is not filled by more than 40 per cent, else discard the sample and repeat the
exercise with a reduced duration of sampling.
3. Weigh the wet sample, fully submerged in water and record its weight in grams (g).
4. For samples that require laboratory particle size analysis (PSA), transfer the contents into another container.
Ensure correct labelling and record the sample number.
5. Discard the material from the sample and wash out the sample bag.
6. Record other details as required in the data recording sheet.
7. Assemble the sample bag and repeat sampling.
8. It is recommended that two or three readings be taken at each location. If uncertain or results differ markedly,
an additional sample is justified.
Dismantling the sampler
1. Remove the sample bag from the sampler for storage.
2. Ensure the lower clamp screws and clamps are secured to prevent loss or damage in the storage box. For
recently modified samplers, ensure that the steel band is properly stored.
3. Return the sampler to the storage box for transportation.
For further procedures on sampling with the Helley-Smith bedload sampler refer to the Hydrological Services
Operating instructions for bedload sampler model BLS-30 and model BLS-48
C9.4.3 Bedload weighting system
This system is used to measure the submerged weight of the bedload sample. If the sediment sampling is carried
out from a boat, it is highly desirable that the weighing be done on the boat itself, rather than saving the samples
for weighing later while on land. When weighing is carried out immediately, the hydrographer is aware of the quality
of the data and can make an informed decision as to whether another sample should be collected to improve
reliability of the results.
Sampler operation
1. Remove the weighing system from the Peli-case container.
Page 77
3. Ensure that the readout is set to register in g (not lbs), else press the weight selection key.
4. Hang another empty sampling bag (for bedload) on the hook and totally immerse the bag into a weighing bucket
part full of water (e.g. 20 L).
5. Zero the digital readout and remove the empty bag.
6. You may need to provide a length of wire so that the sampling bag can be adjusted to allow for full
immersion. Recently supplied bags are fitted with hanger lips for direct attachment to the load cell
hook.
7. Weigh the collected sample bag and its bedload fully immersed in the bucket of water. Place the bag gently onto
the load cell, taking care not to snag the hook instantaneously. Record the weight in g.
8. If the boat is rocking or high wind conditions prevail, press the Autohold (second blue button at the bottom of
the readout) for 2 seconds. The Held bar will flash on the indicator. The display will then search for a steady
weight to lock onto. To turn off this mode, press the Autohold for another 2 seconds.
9. An overflow occurs for weight in excess of 7000 g. This should not occur under normal operating conditions
where the sediments consist of sand and gravel.
WARNING: Do not overstress the load cell by the amount indicated in the manual (20 kg).
10.Remove the sampling bag and sediments from the weighing assembly, discard the contents and thoroughly
wash out the sampling bag.
11.The digital indicator weighing assembly does not need to be switched off if constantly in use, else repeat steps 4
and 5. Carry a spare battery for the weighing assembly.
12.Re-attach the emptied and washed sampling bag to the bedload sampler and repeat the exercise.
Wd = [SG/(SG - 1)]Ws
where :
Wd = dry weight
SG = specific gravity
Ws = submerged weight
For quartz material, the SG is equal to 2.65, and hence:
Wd = 1.606 Ws
A major advantage of this technique is that the weighing can be conducted in the field, thereby eliminating the time
consuming exercise and costs involved in saving all the samples for laboratory analyses. Only samples that require
particle sizing are kept and this represents only a very small quantity. This technique allows more samples to be
collected and weighed at no additional costs, and hence improves the reliability of the data.
If the sediment sampling is carried out from a boat, it is highly desirable that the weighing be done on the boat
itself, rather than saving the samples for weighing later on land. When weighing is carried out immediately, the
hydrographer is aware of the quality of the data and can make an informed decision as to whether another sample
should be collected to improve the reliability of the results.
Page 79
This system was specifically designed for submerged weighing with the desired accuracy.
C9.4.4 P 61 sampler and current meter
The purpose of a suspended sediment sampler is to obtain a representative discrete sample that is representative
of the watersediment mixture in a stream in the vicinity of the sampler. As such, the device is carefully constructed
to satisfy several design criteria and it is also calibrated.
Integrating samplers collect a sample over a period of time to average out concentration fluctuations. The P 61
point integrating sampler for suspended sediment is the most common sampler employed in several countries and
is used in this method (Figure C9.8). Developed by the US Geological Survey, the P 61 weighs about 48 kg, has a
streamlined body and is cast in bronze with tail fins for orientation with the flow.
A solenoid activated valve opens and closes the nozzle during sampling. The watersediment mixture enters the
sampler into the container through the nozzle as air is exhausted through the air-exhaust opening. As such, the
sampler should not be overfilled as the desired flow rates will not be attained and the sample will become
contaminated by the flow circulating in through the nozzle and out through the exhaust opening.
Sampler assembly
1. Remove the P 61 from the transport container.
2. Connect the hanger bar to the P 61.
3. Assemble the current meter above the P 61 and lock it into position; then measure and record the distances
between the current meter centreline and 1, the bottom of the P 61 (e.g. 0.42 m) and 2, and the P 61 intake
nozzle centreline (e.g. 0.32 m).
4. Attach the C2 connector to the top end of the hanger bar.
5. There will be two cables dangling from the C2 connector. Plug one of the cables to the current meter. The other
cable plugs into the head of the P 61. A locking lever ensures that the plug is secured.
6. On the winch end there will be four cables. Plug two cables to the readout unit of the current meter, while the
remaining cables are connected to the battery pack.
7. Artificially rotate the current meter propeller and to confirm that a readout is registered, else interchange the
cables. The cables should, however, be marked as Meter or Battery for easy identification.
8. Test the operation of the solenoid valve by holding the switch to the charge position on the battery pack, until
the meter registers a reading of about 48 V. Press the switch to the sample position. A click on the P 61
indicates that the valve is operational.
9. operate the winch to raise the P 61 (and current meter) into a working position
10.Open the head and insert the appropriate P 61 sampling bottle (cap removed) with the aluminium adaptor into
the body of the P 61. Close the head slowly but firmly to ensure that it snaps into position. Its most convenient
to have 13 pre-numbered P 61 sampling bottles which are capped after sampling, and then decanted into
laboratory sample bottles back on the bank after each gauging.
11.The sampler is now ready. Take note of the horizontal distance between the sampler and the centre line of the
boat.
13.Move to the next vertical, ensuring that the bedload sampling for the vertical has also been completed.
14.Repeat the process from steps 2 to 14 until all verticals for the cross-section have been sampled.
15.Obtain the temperature of the water (2 m from the bank) if no normal suit of samples are being obtained during
the sample run.
16.Back at the bank, decant any samples remaining in P 61 sampling bottles into labelled laboratory sample
bottles.
Special care for P 61 samplers
The following care should be taken with the P 61 sampler:
Handle the nozzle with care; if bent or burred, this will contribute to sampling error.
Never submerge a sampler without a sample bottle in the body.
Try not to overfill the sample bottle; otherwise water can flow back through the air exhaust opening into the
head.
Disassemble the head and clean (and dry) all parts after use to prevent the solenoid valve from seizure during
storage.
C9.8 References
AS/NZS 5667.11:1998, Water qualitySampling: Guidance on sampling of groundwaters, Standards Australia.
Carey, W.P. (1984) A field guide for weighted bed load samples, Water Resources Bulletin, American Water
Resources Association, Vol 20, No. 2.
Teledyne Technologies website <www.rdinstruments.com> site last accessed 7 April 2009.
Wong, W.T., Alexander, D.G. and Eades G., Proceedings from the sediment sampling workshop, October 1992.
Page 83
4. *
Replace the lid and shake the bottle ensuring the inside of the bottle and the lid come into contact with the
liquid. Discard the rinse liquid downstream of where you are sampling. Be sure to keep hands away from the
mouth of the bottle and the underside of the lid.
5. *Repeat steps 3 to 4 so that the sample bottle and its lid are rinsed twice with stream water then proceed to
step 6.
6. *Repeat step 1 to 3 to fill the bottle. Replace the lid and tighten. If sample requires freezing, ensure you leave
1020 per cent space free.
*These additional steps (bottle rinsing) only appropriate if specifically-cleaned bottles are not being used to collect
samples.
C10.2.2 Manual sampling using isokinetic and discrete depth samplers
For methods to operate sampling for specific isokinetic samplers and van-Dorn like vessels, see manufacturers
instructions.
1. Lower the sampling device into the main flow of the stream to a depth of at least
0.3 m.
2. Whilst submerged, trigger the opening/closing device as per manufacturer instructions and allow the bottle to fill
with water.
3. Remove the device from the water and agitate to resuspend solid material.
4. Open device and pour into storage bottle in a smooth and constant movement keeping materials in suspension.
5. Replace the lid on storage bottle and shake the bottle ensuring the inside of the bottle and the lid come into
contact with the liquid.
6. Discard the liquid downstream of where you are sampling.
7. Repeat steps 4 to 6 so that sample device and storage bottle and its lid are rinsed twice with stream water,
discard remaining water downstream.
8. Lower the sampling device into the main flow of the stream. Submerge the device to a depth of at least 0.3 m.
9. Whilst submerged, trigger the opening/closing device as per manufacturer instructions and allow the bottle to fill
with water.
10.Remove the device from the water and agitate to resuspend solid material.
11.Open device and pour into storage bottle in a smooth and constant movement keeping materials in suspension.
12.Fill storage bottle, replace the lid and tighten. If sample requires freezing, ensure you leave 1020 per cent
space free
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure C10.3 Attaching the pre-filter (a) and filter (b) to the syringe and filtering sample into bottle E (c)
1. Remove filter and fill the syringe completely to 60 mL with sample water from sampling bottle, re-attach filter
and use this to fill appropriate storage bottle (Figure 7c). If this becomes difficult, change the filter and/or prefilter making sure you rinse at least 2 mL of sample water through them before filtering the water into the
storage bottle again to the required analysis volume. Make sure to leave at least 1020 per cent free space for
water expansion. Secure the lid and store sample according to appropriate preservation techniques for later
analysis.
Page 87
This methodology is based on the Queensland AusRivAS (Australian River Assessment System).
Page 89
Table 4.1 Selection criteria used to determine eligibility for reference site status
No.
Intensive agriculture is that which involves irrigation, widespread soil disturbance, use of agrochemicals and pine plantations.
Dry-land grazing does not fall into this category.
Influence of major extractive industry (current or historical) upstream.*
This includes mines, quarries and sand/gravel extraction.
This may be due to abstraction or regulation further upstream than the coverage by criterion 5. Includes either an increase or
decrease in seasonal flow.
Influence of alteration to riparian zone.
Riparian vegetation should be intact and dominated by native species.
10
This may be due to excessive algal and macrophyte growth, by sedimentation and siltation, by reduction in habitat diversity
by drowning or drying out of habitats (e.g. riffles) or by direct access.
* Note: the level of impact at a site will generally decrease with the distance from the source of impact
Sites are assessed using the total score for the 10 criteria. Currently, those sites that have a total greater than 44
are deemed to be reference sites. Sites that are given a score of 1, 2 or 3 for criterion 5 (no dam or major weir
upstream) cannot be reference sites.
for at least four weeks) and May to July (late wetrecessional baseflows when flow had declined to a sampleable
level, without significant flood peaks). The early wet samples are identified as spring samples; the late wet as
autumn samples.
For the model development, each site was sampled twice in one year and the data from the two sample sets were
used separately to develop seasonal models, and combined to develop an annual model.
Site number: All sites are allocated a site number, based on the catchment and subcatchment and whether it is
a hydrographic gauging station or a miscellaneous site. These numbers contain seven alphanumeric
characters: the first three numbers indicate which catchment the sites are in (e.g. 136); the fourth digit, the
subcatchment; and the final three, the site. For example, a site with the site code 136017B shows that this site
is in the Burnett River catchment (136), within the 0 subcatchment, and the site number within this
subcatchment is 17B. Sites with a letter as the final character indicates that these sites have or have had a flow
gauging station nearby
Site name: describes where the site is on the river, e.g. Burnett River at Gayndah Flume.
habitat). An alcove or backwater with abundant benthic leaf litter is preferable. Suitable areas include fine
organic/silt deposits and/or trailing vegetation and are often indicated by the presence of surface-dwelling insects.
In waterholes you may have no choice but to sample the bare edges, perhaps with some tree roots. Using short
upward sweeping movements at right angles to the bank, sample a total bank length of 10 m. Stir up the bottom
while doing so, ensuring that benthic animals are suspended and then caught when sweeping through the cloud of
suspended material. There may be aquatic plants (macrophytes) along the banks and in backwaters. Avoid
sampling these areas.
Sampling the macrophytes:
Locate an area with dense aquatic vegetation (if present). Vigorously sweep the net within the aquatic vegetation
over a length of 10 m. Aim to sample the upper, middle and lower portions of the plants. A combination of short
lateral sweeps with vertical lifts will aid in dislodging and catching suspended organisms. (This habitat was not
modelled for AusRivAS.)
4.1.9.3 Picking the sample
Nationally, two methods are used for collecting organisms: field picking and laboratory picking. The choice of which
method to adopt will be influenced by considerations of the objective of the study, precision required, time, cost and
balance of effort in the field versus laboratory. Either method may be used, although it is preferable to maintain the
same technique for all sites. For Queensland, the field picking option has been adopted as the preferred standard
method.
Field picking is considered to be more subjective. However, with sufficient training, care and objectivity, it does
provide a cost-effective alternative to laboratory picking.
Field picking:
Treat samples from each habitat separately unless it is part of the project design to have composite samples. It is
recommended that the sample is initially separated into two fractions (the small organic and substrate material and
large rocks and leaf litter) using a 1 cm panning sieve (cheap aluminium ones are available from local camping
stores). Sort through these fractions, a small amount at a time, retaining the residue for QA/QC requirements (see
below). Work progressively through the sample, replacing picked material with remaining parts of the sample as
picking progresses.
Half fill a vial with 70 per cent alcohol (methylated spirits). Ensure the container you use is large enough. If the
animals you collect take up more than 30 per cent of the volume, use a larger container. Use alcohol stable vials to
avoid vial cracking and sample loss.
Pick for a minimum of 30 minutes, using tweezers and pipettes, and record the total abundance using a hand held
counter.
Collect only 10 of any one type (family and, in some cases, order) of animal. If you are not sure of the identity, then
collect all of the uncertain ones. At least 30 midge larvae (Chironomidae) should be collected to ensure adequate
representation of the sub-families.
At the start of your field pick, the common and abundant taxa should be picked for about the first five minutes. After
that, the major picking effort should be directed at finding the less common, inconspicuous taxa. After 10 minutes
no more common taxa should be picked unless it is suspected that a particular common form contains more than
one family, or it was a common taxon overlooked initially.
If you get 200 animals (about 10 of each type plus at least 30 Chironomidae) then stop at the end of this 30 minute
period. If, at the end of the 30 minutes, you have not collected 200 animals then you should collect for a further 10
minutes. If any new taxa are found in those 10 minutes, extend the picking time by another 10 minutes. Follow this
procedure until either no new taxa are found, 200 animals have been collected or 60 minutes have been spent on
picking. Note the picking time on the field sheet.
Particular care should be taken to search for the groups that can be commonly missed when live sorting (cryptic
taxa):
Corbiculidae (juveniles)
Elmidae (larvae)
Empididae (larvae)
Hydroptilidae (larvae)
Simuliidae (larvae)
Ceratopogonidae (larvae)
If it is a really poor sample (i.e. urban tributary or sandy stream) with very few animals in total, then stop at 60
Page 95
minutes. Make it clear on the field sheet that it was a poor quality site or sample and why that is so. A poor sample
may also result from a bad collection, e.g. a sample taken during high flows over areas which were dry a few days
before.
If it is raining or cold, or conditions of poor light exist due to cloud cover or approaching twilight, the sample must be
taken back to the vehicle, motel, camp, etc. for sorting undercover and with improved light conditions.
Ensure a completed label is placed in the vial noting the project name, site number and name, sampling date,
habitat sampled, sample collector and picker and any relevant notes (see Figure 4.8).
Remove some of the diluted alcohol in the vial using a mesh-covered syringe and replace with fresh 70 per cent
alcohol. Fill to top and ensure the lid is tightly screwed on.
for this purpose. These sheets should be filled out for all samples within 24 hours of return from field trips. Crosschecking should be performed so that samples recorded on field sheets are present, labels are accurate and
legible and bottles filled with preservative. Labels should have the site name, location code, habitat, sampling
method, collectors name, pickers name and date on them (Figure 4.8).
All registration sheets should be filed appropriately and samples stored in labelled lidded containers (to minimise
evaporation) in an approved fire-proof storage area. Each box should contain a logical group of samples to
facilitate sample identification and handling.
Software for sample registration and archiving should enable integration with the sample database (see below).
4.1.10.1 Sample identification and enumeration
4.1.10.1.1 Field-picked samples
Ensure adequate ventilation in the workplace. Rinse the sample with gently running water through a 250 m sieve.
Flush the sieve contents into a large petri dish with water from a squeeze bottle. Always use water when working
with the sample. When finished, replace the water with preservative.
Place the petri dish under a stereomicroscope which is correctly adjusted for your vision and work posture (refer to
manufacturers instructions). Use a vial of suitable size to take the collection of specimens in the petri dish with
label inserted. The label should have the following information: collection number, location code, site name,
collection date, habitat, sample identifier and the identification date (Figure 4.8). Use pencil or alcohol-proof ink to
fill in details. Half fill the vial with 70 per cent ethanol.
A dedicated tally sheet (Appendix H7) should be developed for recording the identities and numbers of all taxa in a
sample. The sheet should allow listing of the taxonomic key used for identification for each family, the person
making the identification, the site, date and sample code.
Organisms are identified to family level with the exception of lower Phyla (Porifera, Nematoda, Nemertea, etc.)
Oligochaetes (freshwater worms), Acarina (mites), and microcrustacea (Ostracoda, Copepoda, Cladocera) for
which family level identification is optional (it may improve resolution but is time consuming). Chironomids should
be identified to sub-family level. Appendix H8 lists the keys used by EHP.
Select specimens and follow the appropriate taxonomic keys to family level. If uncertain about the identity obtain a
second opinion from a colleague/local specialist. If a new family is suspected or other significant issues arise in
taxonomic identification, contact the relevant national taxonomic specialist.
Identify each specimen, place in the vial and mark the tally sheet. When all specimens have been counted, record
the total tally for each taxon. Place the vial, filled with preservative, in an evaporation-proof container (e.g. a large
screw-top glass jar) in a suitable storage location.
Transfer the collected data to an electronic spreadsheet or database. At the completion of the sample series, the
database should be cross-checked against the data sheets to ensure that there are no transcription errors.
All sorted collections should be archived, preferably lodged with a regional or state/territory museum, so that any
future taxonomic revisions or more detailed identifications can be conducted if required. The relevant museum staff
should be consulted well in advance of submission of specimens.
4.1.10.1.2 Fully preserved samples
Tip the preserved sample into a series of 10 mm and 250 mm sieves and thoroughly wash the sample. If there are
large coarse fractions (sticks, leaves, etc.) wash these over the sieves and place them into a sorting tray. Examine
these coarse fractions preferably using a magnifying glass, for approximately 10 minutes, ensuring that any
macroinvertebrates attached to the coarse fractions are collected. Note: keep an eye out for stick and leaf-cased
Trichoptera.
Evenly distribute the remaining smaller fractions from the sieves into a subsampler. The subsampler used and
recommended by EHP is a modified Marchant subsampler (Marchant, 1989) (see Figure 4.9). This subsampler
contains 100 circular cells, each 3.5 cm in diameter x 3.5 cm deep. Fill the subsampler until the water level reaches
the top of the cells, secure the lid, and rotate vigorously in both directions until the sample is distributed throughout
the cells. Using a vacuum pump, subsample 10 per cent (10 cells) of the whole sample, ensuring every 1 per cent
(1 cell) of the subsample is stored in separate containers.
Sort and identify the subsamples in the procedure described above (see live picking), noting how many new taxa
there are in every 1 per cent subsample sorted. If this procedure is used for internal QA/QC checks on field picking,
only 1015 organisms of each family are identified and recorded. However, if the subsampling is required for
quantitative sampling, sort and identify all taxa from the subsamples.
Page 97
the same site code and the relevant date and sample coding to allow integration of habitat data with the biological
samples for later statistical analysis.
4.2
Toxic species
Target organ
Table 4.3 WHO guidelines for safe practice in managing bathing waters which may produce or contain
cyanobacterial cells (after Chorus & Bartram 1999)
saxitoxins
cylindrospermopsin
cylindrospermopsin
microcystins
nodularins
unidentified
Anabaena circinalis
Aphanizomenon ovalisporum
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
Microcystis aeruginosa
Nodularia spumigena
Nostoc cf. linkea
nervous system
liver
liver
liver
liver
liver
Page 99
Hazard status
High
Moderate
Low
or
> 50 g L-1 chlorophyll-a with
dominance of cyanobacteria
or
> 12.5 mm3 L-1 cyanobacterial
biomass
20 000100 000 cells total
-1
cyanobacteria mL
or
1050 g L-1 chlorophyll-a with
dominance of cyanobacteria
or
2.512.5 mm3 L-1 cyanobacterial
biomass
< 20 000 cells total cyanobacteria mL-1
or
-1
< 10 g L chlorophyll-a with
dominance of cyanobacteria
or
3 -1
< 2.5 mm L cyanobacterial biomass
Health risks
Short-term adverse health
outcomes such as skin
irritations or gastrointestinal
illness following contact or
accidental ingestion
Severe acute poisoning is
possible in worst ingestion
cases
Recommended action
Immediate action to prevent
contact with scums
Signs to indicate HIGH alert
levelwarning of danger for
swimming and other water
contact activities
The provisional guidelines for cyanobacteria in bathing water as adopted by EHP are presented in Table 4.4.
These guidelines are based on the WHO guidelines for safe practice in managing bathing waters which may
produce or contain cyanobacterial cells (Chorus & Bartram 1999). Rather than providing a single threshold value,
these guidelines are framed as a series of three guidelines, which reflect incremental severity and probability of
adverse effects. These guidelines can be assessed using cell concentrations or cell biovolume concentrations. The
later measure is preferred, as it takes into account the huge size range of cyanobacterial cells that occur in natural
populations and recognises that the contribution of cyanobacterial cells to the hazard is proportional to their cell
volume.
Cyanotoxins have also been demonstrated to pose serious adverse effects on mammals, birds and fish and as
such are being increasingly recognised as a potent stress and health hazard factor in aquatic ecosystems.
Exposure of aquatic organisms may occur both orally by uptake of toxin-contaminating cells as food, or through the
surface tissues of organisms submerged in water containing dissolved cyanotoxins. Despite a growing body of
evidence on the ecological effects of these compounds, there are currently no accepted guidelines for
cyanobacteria and their toxins relating to the protection of aquatic ecosystems.
4.2.2.1 Storage classification
A national approach to cyanobacterial monitoring taking into account the varying needs and objectives of
government agencies, councils, community groups, and members of the public was developed with the creation of
a Draft National Protocol for the Monitoring of Cyanobacteria and their Toxins in Surface Waters (Jones et al 2002).
Table 4.4 Outline of monitoring classes for national cyanobacterial sampling protocol (after Jones et al
2002). These are the provisional guidelines adopted by EHP.
Monitoring class
A1
A2
B1
B2
Surety of results
High to very high
High
Moderate to high
Moderate
High
(for scum
surveillance only)
Low
It recognised a number of monitoring classes which decrease in effort and cost, and therefore precision and
certainty of monitoring and analysis outcome, from that termed class A1 monitoring, to that termed class C
monitoring.
The scheme is three tiered, with each tier providing a different level of sampling and analytical precision, and
overall certainty of monitoring outcome. Storage operators should determine the appropriate sampling regime
based on this monitoring class classification system. A summary of the monitoring classes is given in Table 4.4.
by cyanobacteria. It is desirable that both sites are marked with a buoy or similar device to ensure that sampling
occurs in exactly the same area, no matter who samples.
insertrubber
stopper
retrieve
samplerin
a Ushape
weighted
collar
Figure D4.10 Procedure for use of the integrated hose-pipe sampler
Lower the weighted end of the hose-pipe into a clean bucket and remove the rubber stopper. Ensure that the
entire contents of the hose-pipe are emptied into the bucket. Mix the contents of the bucket and then transfer
part of the contents into a 200 mL amber PET plastic bottle, leaving a 25 mm gap at the top of the bottle. The
remainder of the contents of the bucket may be discarded.
Algal scums should not be included in the water sample for routine identification and enumeration; however, if they
are present, a note should be taken indicating their nature and extent. This is particularly important in bathing or
water recreation areas. Additional scum samples can be collected and submitted for qualitative analysis if
extensive.
NOTE: Blue-green algae can cause skin irritation. If sampling from an area that has a high level of blue-green
algae, minimise your contact with the water during sampling by wearing appropriate dress, in particular gloves.
Normal hygiene precautions such as washing off any splashes and washing hands before eating or drinking should
be observed at all times. When not in use, the hose-pipe sampler and bucket should be kept clean and stored in a
dark shed or cupboard.
4.2.5.1 Sample storage and preservation
To ensure the sample remains in a condition suitable for identification and enumeration, a sufficient volume of
Lugols iodine preservative solution should be added to the sample to render the sample a colour resembling weak
tea (i.e. 1.0 mL Lugols iodine solution to 200 mL sample). Once Lugols is added to the sample, it requires no
additional treatment prior to analysis (e.g. chilling etc.). Lugols iodine solution is made by mixing 20 g of KI with
200 mL of distilled water, and then dissolving 10 g of pure iodine in this solution. Glacial acetic acid (20 g) is added
a few days before use. The solution must be stored in the dark in a glass bottle and remains effective for at least 12
months.
4.2.5.2 Sampling for cyanotoxin analysis
Cyanotoxin analysis will generally be required in one of the following circumstances:
Action Level 1 status (i.e. more than 2000 cells mL-1) predominated by Microcystis aeruginosa, or when
concentrations of other potentially toxic taxa (see Table 4.2) exceed 15 000 cells mL-1
Action Level 2 status where numbers of a cyanobacterial taxa not previously recorded as toxic exceed 100 000
cells mL-1 (recommended toxicity analysis by mouse bioassay or comparative method).
Samples for toxin analysis should be collected using the 5 m integrated hose-pipe sampler (as described in Section
4.2.5) and a 2 L chilled sample sent to the laboratory for analysis (see Appendix C6 for laboratory contact details).
In Australia, and internationally, guidelines for cyanotoxins in drinking water supplies are being set based on the
concentration of toxins in water (g toxin L-1). Hence it is recommended that for those cyanobacterial species
where the toxins are well known and characterised, i.e. Anabaena circinalis, Aphanizomenon ovalisporum,
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and Microcystis aeruginosa, routine analysis of toxins should be carried out by high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). HPLC analysis enables the exact concentration of individual toxins in
cyanobacterial samples to be quantified, with toxin concentration reported either in terms of the mass of toxin per
unit mass of cyanobacteria, or mass of toxin per litre of water. Mouse bioassay should only be used if taxa other
than the ones listed above are suspected of producing toxin.
4.2.5.3 Sampling frequency
Monitoring class A1 and A2 storages are recommended to be sampled on a fortnightly basis, until the total bluegreen algae cell count exceeds 2000 cells mL-1, after which they should be sampled weekly. Sampling can return
to fortnightly after cell numbers fall below 2000 cells mL-1. Ideally, sampling frequency should be determined on a
storage by storage basis using historical records of blue-green algal dynamics.
4.2.5.4 Sample analysis and reporting
4.2.5.4.1 Analysis precision
A suitably qualified laboratory with appropriate quality systems in place should conduct the sample analysis. When
requesting the analysis it is important to state the minimum precision required of the analysis both in respect of the
identification (i.e. genus or species level) and enumeration (provides the level of confidence in the result). The
precision associated with the analysis of samples is directly related to the amount of analytical effort with respect to
the laboratory equipment, counting effort and therefore time and staff expertise. Therefore, there is likely to be a
higher cost associated with higher levels of precision. For A and B monitoring classes, it is recommended that the
minimum taxonomic precision be at the genus level with species identification essential for potentially toxic species
(see Table 4.2).
The counting precision is an estimation of the error associated with the estimation of abundance. It is defined as
the ratio of the standard error to the mean (expressed as a percentage) for replicated counts and assumes a
Poisson distribution of counting units in the counting chamber (Laslett et al 1988). The precision (counting error)
Page 103
can be calculated from the total number of units (n) using the formula derived by Laslett et al (1998):
Counting error ( %) = 100
Therefore the more units counted, the lower the counting error. A summary of counting errors based on this
formula is shown in Table 4.5 The minimum acceptable level of precision for public health monitoring is 30 per
cent. It is also recommended that a minimum precision of
30 per cent be specified for potentially toxic species.
Table 4.5 Minimum counting error after Laslett et al (1998)
Total units counted
Counting error ( %)
140
100
75
50
13
40
23
30
50
20
200
10
When vigilance level is exceeded, it is recommended to increase the sampling frequency to at least once a week, so that
potentially rapid changes in cyanobacterial biomass can be monitored.
Visual inspection for algal scums or accumulations of all water intakes and water recreation areas should be conducted on
at least a weekly basis.
Action level 1
Threshold definition: cyanobacterial cell numbers > 2000 cells mL-1. Persistently high cyanobacterial cell numbers throughout
the storage increasing or remaining high as per threshold definition
Action level 1 threshold (cyanobacterial cells > 2000 cells mL-1) is derived from the WHO guideline for microcystin-LR and the
highest recorded microcystin content for cyanobacterial cells. The threshold level assumes that the species present is a
microcystin producer, where raw water microcystin concentration could exceed the WHO guideline value of 1 g L-1.
If Microcystis aeruginosa is present at concentrations > 2000 cells mL-1 or other known toxin producing taxa (see Table 4.2)
at > 15 000 cells mL-1, the conditions require a quantitative analysis of the concentration of cyanotoxin in the raw water
supply, and an assessment of whether the water treatment processes available are effective in reducing toxin
concentrations to acceptable levels. Ongoing analysis of algal toxins in the raw water is necessary if values exceed 1 g L1
Continue routine weekly monitoring of raw and treated water to ensure adequate removal of algal cells and toxins.
Implement use of alternative water supplies and consult health authorities if toxin concentrations in treated water exceed 1
-1
g L .
Visual inspection of all recreation areas should be conducted prior to entering the water bathers should avoid contact with
cyanobacterial scums. See Table 4.3 for appropriate water recreational hazard status based on latest analysis results.
Action level 2
Threshold definition: cyanobacterial cell numbers > 100 000 cells mL-1.Persistently high cyanobacterial cell numbers throughout
the storage increasing or remaining high as per threshold definition
The threshold for action level 2 (cyanobacterial cells > 100 000 cells mL-1) describes an established bloom with high biomass
with the possibility of localised scums. Conditions in action level 2 are indicative of a significant increase in the risk of adverse
health effects from the supply of water that is untreated or treated by an ineffective system or through primary contact water
recreation or bathing activities.
Maintain weekly or bi-weekly sampling (depending on the dominant cyanobacterial taxa present), including all sites and
visual inspection of all water recreation areas for scum formation. Ensure warning signs indicate current recreation hazard
status (see Table 4.3) or direct access to storage is restricted.
Implement use of alternative water supplies and consult health authorities if toxin concentrations in treated water exceed 1
g L-1.
Page 105
Figure 4.11 Decision tree incorporating the model action levels framework for monitoring and management
of cyanobacteria in drinking and recreational waters
4.3
Sampling fish
Page 107
Figure 4.13 Boat with fixed aluminium net mount and attached nets
Depending on the project purpose, different sized mesh can be used. It is recommended that invertebrates are
sampled using a 250 m tow net, while fish larvae are sampled with a 500 m net. Different nets can be fixed to the
opposite side of the aluminium support mount.
Depending on the project purpose, tows can be stratified according to different habitat types (e.g. open water,
timbered) and three replicate tows undertaken in each. Each tow should consist of a set distance and boat speed
to allow for calculation of the volume of water sampled by the nets (e.g. 40 m tow, with the boat travelling at a
constant speed throughout (0.75 m/s-1) (5000 L of water)). Alternatively, the tow can be timed (2, 5, 10 or 15
minutes depending on sample area and density of organisms) and the boat kept at a constant speed. Either way,
GPS readings should be taken at the start and end of the tow.
4.3.3.2 Clearing nets
After the tow is completed, nets should be untied and brought back into the boat. One bucket should be filled with
water to allow rinsing of any debris or animals into the base of the net. The contents of the net are then emptied
into the sieve pair (i.e. coarse sieve overlying 250m sieve). Finer material should be gently rinsed through the
coarse sieve and then the contents of the 250m sieve washed into a labelled vial for preservation. Samples will be
preserved in vials using 90 per cent ethanol or methylated spirits and kept for later identification and enumeration in
the laboratory.
Page 109
Figure 4.14 A seine net hauled on to the bank, enabling the removal of trapped animals
4.3.4.1 Variation to method
A variation to this method is to seine upstream heading into a riffle, instead of seining towards the bank. Each
person must then lift the edges of the net out of the water, so that the fish do not escape and carry the net towards
the bank. This technique may be useful for catching species that often occur near riffles.
Figure 4.15 A long seine net being deployed from the bank
Figure 4.30 Opening up the tail of the fyke net to identify the captured fish
Page 113
Page 115
To cast, hold the net like you're holding a bullfighter's cape with your right arm fully extended and parallel to the
ground. Your left arm should be parallel to your right, but slightly back and lower (see Figure 4.38). Your technique
will determine the equal spread of the net.
bank in still or slow-flowing water, or increasingly angled downstream with increasing flow velocity (see Figure
4.41).
One person should be dedicated to manoeuvring the boat into position. This person must hold a recreational boat
licence and be proficient in operation of this type of craft/motor under the field conditions.
One person should be responsible for tying off the net onto a fixed structure (using a suitable knot to be able to be
untied under load), as well as deploying the net. A net weight should be attached to the bank end of the leadline to
ensure that the net does not move. As the net is deployed, the person steering the boat should slowly reverse the
boat away from where the net was tied diagonally out into the current. The last section of net to be deployed should
be weighted on the leadline with an anchor to prevent movement. A float should be attached to the end of the net
to make it visible to other boaters, along with a flashing light if visibility is poor or at night.
Nets should be positioned within a contiguous stretch of river, and distributed so that all nets are fished as
independently as possible.
The amount of time that the nets are deployed should be relatively similar for each site sampled. At 45 minute
intervals, the nets should be each checked and fish removed by the best technique that facilitates loss of scales
and slime (a knife can be used to cut mesh if needed).
The fish may be measured (length), identified to species level, and/or checked for condition (lesions, ulcers, flesh
samples taken), and fish species abundance may be recorded. This information should be recorded onto an
appropriate field sheet (see Figure 4.19 for an example). All native fish are to be released, unless they cannot be
identified. In this case, representative specimens may be preserved in methylated spirits, or on ice, and stored in a
labelled plastic vial/jar for later identification. Rinse the gill net after all of the fish have been released. To dry the
net, tie each end to a structure. Check the net often, as birds and other animals could possibly become tangled in
the net.
Figure 4.41 Setting a gill net that has been tied to one end to a snag
The operator should attempt to thoroughly electrofish the shot area, moving in a zig-zag motion, starting from the
bottom of the shot zone. The dip netter should stand downstream of the operator while dip netting fish. Nets can be
set up at the upper and lower ends of a stream section to prevent movement of fish out of the sample area.
4.3.10.2.2.2 Boat sampling
Teams will consist of a minimum of two people: one to operate the unit, and one to net specimens.
Parallel runs with the boat travelling parallel to the bank can be carried out to capture mid-water and pelagic
individuals.
Perpendicular runs can be carried out with the boat travelling perpendicular to the bank to capture individuals near
the edge and associated habitats. At the completion of a shot, the details of captured fish should be recorded and
the fish released.
4.3.10.3 Data collection
Note that when entering data into AQEIS, database field terminologies are specific. Each site requires a site
number. If new site numbers are required they should only be allocated following consultation with hydrographic
staff. Sample runs are multiple survey runs which are linked to a specific site on a day or within a specified date
range (e.g. all shots conducted at site 123400 on 01/01/08). Samples are individual runs or shots within a sample
run. AQEIS generates new sample numbers in the order of data entry but original run/shot numbers can also be
retained. Specimens are the individual fish captured within a sample.
AQEIS also generates specimen numbers obtained within each sample in the order of data entry (i.e. commencing
at 1 each time).
There are two EFISH sample properties templates in AQEIS, one each for boat and backpack electrofishing
methods (both using Smith Root equipment). Any variables that are not collected in the field can simply be passed
over when entering data. Additional variables or alternate templates can be added in by the AQEIS administrator if
required. The included variables for boat fishing are shown below.
GPS Start Latitude (GDA94)
Conductivity (s/cm)
The template for backpack fishing is virtually the same, but the last four variables are replaced with EFISH
backpack volts, EFISH backpack frequency and EFISH backpack duty cycle.
The EFISH specimen properties template in AQEIS contains the following variables.
Fish Species
Fish Standard Length
Mm
Otoliths Removed
No by default
Gonads Preserved
No by default
No by default
No by default
No by default
Variation to method
Additional habitat properties may also be recorded. Those found in AQEIS under the EFISH habitat properties
template are as follows.
Efish Habitat Type (run/pool/rifle etc)
NOTE: EFISH is attached to the variable names to distinguish them from existing variables relevant to other
projects. EFISH can also be used as a keyword when searching the database.
Page 121
Project
4.3.10.4 References
Fitzroy Basin Resource Operation Plan (2004)
Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Program Pilot StudyPart 2 Research Project Indicator Methods,
Department of Natural Resources, Brisbane.
NSW Fisheries (1997) Australian Code of Electrofishing Practice, NSW Fisheries Management Publication.
4.4
References
APHA & AWWA (1992) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 18th edn, prepared and
published jointly by American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment
Federation, Washington.
Chorus, I. & Bartram, J. (1999) Toxic cyanobacteria in water, E & FN Spon on behalf of the World Health
Organization, London.
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. (2009) Recreational fishing rules and regulations for Queensland;
a brief guide. pp 11.
Jones, G., Baker, P.D., Burch, M.D. & Harvey, F.L. (2002) National protocol for the monitoring of cyanobacteria
and their toxins in surface waters, Draft version 5.0, ARMCANZ, National Algal Management.
Hillebrand, H., Drselen, C.D., Kirchtel, D., Pollinger, D. & Zohary, T. (1999) Biovolume calculation for pelagic and
benthic microalgae, Journal of Phycology, vol. 35, pp. 403-424.
Htzel, G. & Croome, R. (1999) A phytoplankton methods manual for Australian freshwaters, LWRRDC Occasional
Paper 22/99, Canberra.
Laslett, G.M., Clarke, R.M. & Jones, G.J. (1997) Estimating the precision of filamentous blue-green algae cell
concentration from a single sample, Environmetrics, vol. 8, pp. 313-339.
NH&MRC/ARMCANZ (1996) Australian drinking water guidelines, National Health and Medical Research Council,
Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, Commonwealth of Australia.
Pilotto, L.S., Douglas, R.M., Burch, M.D., Cameron, S., Beers, M., Rouch, G.J., Robinson, P., Kirk, M., Cowie, C.T.,
Hardiman, S., Moore, C. & Attewell, R. (1997) Health effects of exposure to cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
during recreational water-related activities, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, vol. 21, pp. 562566.
World Health Organization (1998) Guidelines for drinking water quality, 2nd edn, Addendum to vol. 2, Health
Criteria and Other Supporting Information, World Health Organization, Geneva.
Page 123
Figure 5.1 Disease results from the interaction of animals with environmental factors and disease
organisms
Environmental factors that are involved in contributing to disease outbreaksfor example, low pH, low dissolved
oxygen concentrations, pesticides and high suspended solid concentrationscan also directly affect the health of
aquatic animals. This type of disease is often described as non-infectious disease.
As a consequence, it is important to determine the role and significance of both the environmental factors and the
pathogens. The history of the disease outbreak, site investigations and laboratory examinations are all necessary
to really understand how the aquatic animals become sick.
The best way to control or prevent a disease may be the manipulation of the environmental factor(s) that make the
aquatic animal susceptible to an infectious disease.
5.2
The best samples to send to the laboratory are live finfish. Live specimens are best as they enable the pathologist
to see the clinical signs, prepare gill and skin smears and are suitable for all laboratory tests (histology,
bacteriology, parasitology, virology, biochemistry and toxicology).
Because finfish are in an aquatic environment and carry bacteria on the gills and in their gut, there is a rapid
breakdown of tissue and decomposition after death. In most cases aquatic animals that are found dead may be of
little value for veterinary laboratory examination.
A two stage process is suggested when using AQUI-S for anaesthesia and humane death:
Stage 1: use 25 to 30 ppm to induce heavy sedation (i.e. no gill movement, no cough reflex on forced extension
of the operculum)
Stage 2: humanely kill the fish by pithing.
NOTE: All chemical anaesthetics must be prescribed by a veterinarian for use in food fish.
Page 127
5.2.7.1 Method for preparing gill smears and wet mounts for finfish
Painlessly kill the fish by cutting the spinal cord behind the head.
Remove a gill arch, place on a clean glass microscope slide and gently scrape mucus off the gill filaments with a
clean scalpel blade onto the clean glass microscope slide (see Figure 5.4 (3)).
Gently scrape the skin, particularly areas at the base of pectoral and pelvic fins, with a clean scalpel blade and
place the mucus on a clean glass microscope slide. Scales should not be removed when preparing skin smears
(scrape in the direction of the scales) (Figure 5.4 (4)).
Add a drop of water that the fish were swimming in and gently mix (see Figure 5.5).
Cover with a cover slip (Figure 5.5). Try and avoid trapping air bubbles.
Examine under a microscope using a low-power objective (either 10x or 20x). Examine smears as soon as
possible as the movement of living parasites greatly aids detection. Do not let the wet preparation smear dry
out, as the parasites will die quickly.
Figure 5.7 The internal anatomy of a dissected finfish. AF = abdominal fat, G = gills, H = heart, HK = head
kidney, L = liver, PC = pyloric caecae, S = stomach, SB = swim bladder
Page 129
Figure 5.8 The internal anatomy of a dissected finfish. This photograph shows the location
of the caudal kidney (CK) which is exposed when the swim bladder is deflected ventrally.
The caudal kidney lies against the vertebral column and runs the length of the abdominal
cavity, L = liver. SB = swim bladder
Examination of wet preparations of gill filaments and appendages for attached organisms or abnormalities should
be done if necessary before fixation.
Page 131
Figure 5.12 Internal anatomy of a crab. AG= antennal gland, DG = digestive gland, E = eye, H
= heart, HG = hind gut, M = mid gut, O = oesophagus, S = stomach, SG = supraoesophageal
ganglion, TG = thoracic gland, VNC = ventral nerve cord
Page 133
Page 135
NOTE: Live specimens are preferred as they enable the pathologist to see the gross clinical signs and prepare gill
and wet mounts, and are suitable for all laboratory tests (histology, parasitology, bacteriology and toxicology).
5.3.6.2 Fixed mollusc specimens
Select only five molluscs for fixation.
Juveniles and adults: these can be anaesthetised by chilling or by placing them in magnesium chloride or
propylene phenoxetol solution.
A microscopic examination of larval molluscs should be done and the findings recorded on a note to the
laboratory.
Larvae and post-settlement stages less than 10 mm shell length: preserve 25 to 50 individuals intact.
Oysters greater than 10 mm shell length: cut open the two valves, remove the soft organs from the shell and
place in fixative. Cut the visceral mass into pieces no thicker than 8 mm if necessary, before fixation.
Clams up to 10 cm shell length: remove the two valves by cutting the mantle and adductor muscle attachments,
and place in fixative.
Clams greater than 10 cm shell length: remove the valves, dissect out individual organs. Tissues to take include
the gills, digestive gland, mantle, kidney, muscle, heart, gonad and any other organ or tissue with lesions.
Pearl oysters up to 10 cm shell length: cut open the two valves, and remove and preserve all the soft organs as
a group. A shallow cut may be made on one side of the organs to allow the fixative to enter more rapidly.
Pearl oysters greater than 10 cm shell length: cut the oyster in half by making a parallel cut between the two
shell valves. Remove the two halves of oyster tissue and place in fixative. If there is too much tissue, place each
half in a separate container which is labelled so that both halves can be identified to the one pearl oyster.
If possible place the tissues in chilled fixative as this will slow decomposition before the chemicals have a
chance to penetrate the mollusc cells.
Fixed specimens can then be sent to the laboratory by wrapping in paper towels moistened with fixative or 50
70 per cent ethanol (whichever is appropriate) and sealing in two plastic bags.
The fixatives used include 10 per cent formal saline and Davidson's solution.
NOTE: Fixed specimens are only suitable for pathology and histopathology.
Figure 5.17 Internal anatomy of a pearl oyster. A = adductor muscle, D = digestive gland, F = foot, G = gills,
H = heart, I = intestine, M = mantle, S = stomach
Page 137
6.1
Page 139
Measured
weight
Correction factor
Full leaf
75% remaining
Multiply by 1.333
50% remaining
Multiply by 2
25% remaining
Multiply by 4
Corrected weight
Total =
Page 141
6.2
Seedling regeneration
margin. Identifying what species of mangrove is replacing the previous forest can indicate whether climatic or
hydrological changes have occurred.
Figure 6.4 Belt transects can be established through a light gap running north to south
repeat surveys.
increasing the width of the belt transect). When the stem diameter is greater than 2.5 cm, measure the stem at a
height of 1.3 m, rather than at the base.
6.3
6.3.1 Introductionwhat is leaf area index and how is it related to mangrove forest
health?
Leaf area index (LAI) is an index score of the total area of leaf surface within a plant community relative to the
ground area of that community. Since plants under stress tend to shed leaves, thus reducing their leaf area,
environmental stress can be detected by monitoring LAI. Significant decrease or gradual reduction over time in
canopy cover and/or leaf area index score may indicate ecosystem stress or disturbance.
The LAI is not a true measurement of leaf area, but a relative score that can be used to compare results between
sites and over time.
LAI can be used to monitor short to long-term foliage patterns and changes in a mangrove stand (e.g. high rates of
primary productivity during good seasons, or defoliation through storm damage, seasonal or drought-related leaf
fall, insect attack, etc.).
To calculate LAI, the intensity of full sunlight is measured (using a light meter), and this is compared with the light
intensity measured under a mangrove canopy. Either a Lux or photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) meter is
suitable. The cheap and robust Lux meters measure total light intensity, while the more expensive PAR meters
measure photosynthetic active radiation, which is the light absorbed by plants during photosynthesis.
The choice of meter depends on the accuracy required. A scientific approach requires the more expensive and
fragile PAR meter, which is highly sensitive and able to detect much smaller foliage pattern changes than the Lux
meter can. However, despite some limitations, Lux meters can be used to detect and measure short-term changes
Page 145
Alternatively, the zenith angle for the site can be calculated from a nautical almanac or from a suitable computer
program using the latitude, longitude (or GPS reading) and time of day.
Page 147
I 0 ) / -k x cos( 180 )
where:
Ib = Mean value of light below the canopy
I0 = Mean value of light above the canopy
k = is an extinction coefficient that accounts for the angle and orientation of the foliage (A k value
of 0.55 has been chosen as appropriate for mangrove stands).
6.4
seaward side of the mangrove forest, and running to the landward edge (see Figure 6.8). Use the compass to
establish the bearing to follow. Identify the major forest types or zones along the transect. For each forest type, find
an area to the left of the transect that is representative (in terms of floristics and structure) of that mangrove
community. If two quadrats are to be established, ensure that they are at least 20 m apart.
If monitoring a homogenous forest type or a narrow mangrove fringe along a creek, transects can be established
parallel to the shoreline. Quadrats can be placed where the forest is representative of the mangrove community, or
at regular intervals.
To set up a quadrat, mark out a 10 m x 10 m area within the forest. Use the compass to ensure that the corners are
at 90 degrees, and mark each with a PVC pole (see Figure 6.9). Ensure that there is a minimum of 25 trees in each
quadrat by increasing or decreasing its size if necessary (e.g. to 5 m x 5 m in a dense forest).
Figure 6.8 How to establish a quadrat and record position of tree using x/y coordinates
Page 151
Sapling
Seedling
A diameter tape measures both circumference (girth) and the calculated diameter. Record result as diameter at
breast height (DBH) (see Figure 6.11).
A tape measure measures circumference only. Record this as circumference at breast height, and calculate DBH
by dividing this result by (3.14 approx).
If carrying out long-term monitoring, hammer a galvanised nail (half of its length) into stems
10 cm below where measurements have been taken, to provide a reference point for future measurements. Note
this on the datasheet.
For multiple stems, fork below breast height; where stem diameter is 2.5 cm or greater, measure the diameter of
each stem at breast height, and record all results in the same box on the datasheet. Do not count each stem as
a separate tree.
For multiple stems, fork at breast height; take the measurement slightly below the swelling caused by the fork.
For buttress roots, take the measurement 30 cm above the uppermost prop root or buttress.
For trunk swellings, take the measurement slightly above or below the swelling.
Some smaller mangrove forests may be naturally stunted or dwarf-like. In such situations these criteria are not
suitable for determining growth status.
Page 153
6.4.10 Soils
Collect a sample of the substrate from the quadrat and rub it between your fingers. Record the sediment type
based on its feel (e.g. sand, mud, sand/mud, mud/sand). Other information such as pH and salinity can be
recorded also.
tree height.
Stems per hectare (stems ha-1) is a measure of the density of living mangrove trees. It is calculated using the
formula:
Stems ha-1 =
Stems ha-1 should be calculated for each plot, together with the average for all the plots. The number of dead
stems per hectare can also be calculated using the above formula, together with the overall ratio of dead to live
stems (total dead stems versus total live stems).
Basal area (BA) of a plant refers to the cross-sectional area of its stem at 1.3 m (breast height). The basal area of a
stand (stand BA) is the sum of all stem BAs in the quadrat, and is expressed as square metres per hectare (m2/ha).
BA is a measure of the size or level of ecological development of a mangrove community. Normally, the higher the
BA, the greater the biomass and level of development of a mangrove community.
Page 155
Basal area for an individual plant is calculated using the following formula:
BA (cm2) = r 2
where:
r = radius of the stem (cm) =
DBH (cm)
2
= 3.14 (approx)
If the plant has multiple stems, the basal area for the plant will be equal to the sum of the basal areas of the
individual stems.
To calculate stand BA, use the following formula:
Stand BA (M2/ha) =
where BA = sum of individual BAs. Increases in BA over time may indicate that the community is still growing and
developing. Increases in average canopy height will support this theory. A significant decrease in BA may indicate
that disturbance has occurreda theory that would be supported by an increase in the ratio of dead to live stems.
Average or median tree height can also be calculated to provide an indicator of canopy height. However, tree
height measurements are better used to track the progress of individual trees, rather than that of the entire forest.
6.5
Page 157
7.1.1 Introduction
Measurement of percentage cover can provide an early warning of seagrass decline and can be used to monitor
the long-term health of seagrasses in a local area.
Significant reduction in percentage cover, or failure to recover after a disturbance, may indicate pressure on a
seagrass meadow. Although the rate at which seagrass beds recover from disturbances such as floods is
unknown, slow or no recovery may indicate other pressures.
7.2
face the sun); place a quadrat photo labeller above the quadrats at 5 m, 25 m and 45 m, showing the site, transect
and quadrat numbers; and take a photo. All monitoring should be conducted at low tide. Try to arrive about one
hour before this to set up.
step 7.2.2.2.
7.2.2.7 Other information
Record the presence of fauna species (including yabbie or worm holes) and any other features of interest, such as
dugong trails.
7.2.2.8 Repeat procedure
Repeat steps 26 at 5 m intervals along the transect up to, and including, the 50 m mark (i.e. in 11 quadrats).
Repeat procedure for each transect.
7.3
Data interpretation
7.4
Campbell, S.J. & McKenzie, L.J. (2001), Seagrass Watch: Community-Based Monitoring of Seagrass Meadows in
Hervey Bay and Whitsunday Regions: 1998-2001, Department of Primarv Industries, Cairns.
Kirkman, H. (1997) Seagrasses of Australia, in Estuaries and the Sea, State of the Environment Technical Paper
Series, Environment Australia, Canberra.
McKenzie, L.J., Campbell, S.J. & Roder, C.A. (2001) Seagrass Watch: Manual for Mapping and Monitoring
Seagrass Resources by Community (Citizen Volunteers), Department of Primary Industries, Cairns.
Short, F.T. & Coles, R.G. (eds) (2001) Global Seagrass Research Methods, Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam.
Page 161
Appendixes
Appendix H1 Checklist of equipment needed for macroinvertebrate field
sampling
Tick when collected
Figure H1 Method used by the department to determine stream order (Strahler 1957)
Slope (m/m). =
Page 163
ACCESS DETAILS
Directions....
Property Owner Phone No. ..
Contact .. Phone No. .........
Access Instructions ....
...
Notify before each visit? [ ] Yes
Permission required? [ ] Yes [ ] No
[ ] No
Key required? [ ] Yes
[ ] No
Sketch of reach
Page 165
No.
1
Level of impact *
10
SITE ASSESSMENT
* Note: the level of impact at a site will generally decrease as the distance from the source of impact increases.
/50
Each criterion relates to an aspect of human activity that impacts on freshwater ecosystems, where impact is
defined as a change from natural condition. Each criterion is given a score according to the following categories:
1. Very major impact
2. Major impact
3. Moderate impact
4. Minor impact
5. Indiscernible impact.
Sites are assessed using the total score for the 10 criteria. Those sites that have a total greater than 44 are
deemed to be reference sites. Sites that are given a score of 1, 2 or 3 for criterion 5 (no dam or major weir
upstream) cannot be reference sites.
Page 167
Page 169
Author/editor
Year
Key
General keys
Hawking, J.H.
1999
General keys
1996
General keys
Hawking, J.H.
1995
General keys
CSIRO
1991
General keys
CSIRO
1991
General keys
CSIRO
1999
General keys
Williams, W.D.
1980
Acarina
1998
Coleoptera
Glaister, A.
1999
Coleoptera
Watts, C.
1998
Coleoptera
Davis, J.
1998
Crustacea
Sheil, R.
2000
Cladocera (Crustacea)
Crustacea
Wilson, G.D.F.
1999
Crustacea
Bradbury, J.
1999
Crustacea
1999
Crustacea
1995
Crustacea
Horwitz, P.
1995
Crustacea
Shiel, R.J.
1995
Crustacea
De Deckker, P.
1995
Diptera
Cranston, P.
1997
1995
Diptera
Ephemeroptera
Suter, P.J.
1999
Ephemeroptera
Suter, P.J.
1997
Ephemeroptera
1996
Hemiptera
1994
Hemiptera
1994
Hemiptera
1994
Megaloptera
Theischinger, G.
2000
Mollusca
2000
Mollusca
1999
Mollusca
Smith, B.J.
1996
Mollusca
1993
Mollusca
Smith, B.J.
1992
Mollusca
Walker, J.C.
1988
Mollusca
Stoddart, J.A.
1985
Mollusca
Kuiper, J.G.J.
1983
1966
Studies on Ancylidae
Mollusc
Mollusca
Stoddart, J.A.
Mollusca
Brown, D.S.
Odonata
Hawking, J. &
Theischinger, G.
1999
Odonata
Theischinger, G.
2000
Plecoptera
Yule, C.
1997
Plecoptera
Tsyrlin, E.
1999
Trichoptera
St.Clair, R.M.
2000
Trichoptera
St.Clair, R.M.
2000
Trichoptera
Dean, J.C.
2000
Trichoptera
1999
Page 171
Trichoptera
Dean, J.C.
1999
Trichoptera
Cartwright, D.I.
1998
Trichoptera
Jackson, J.
1998
Trichoptera
St Clair, R.M.
1997
Trichoptera
Dean, J.C.
1997
Trichoptera
Wells, A.
1997
Trichoptera
Cartwright, D.I.
1997
Trichoptera
Appendix H6 List of predictor variables used for the Mark I and Mark II
models
Predictor variables used for the Mark I and Mark II models
Mark I
Spring edge
Spring bed
Autumn edge
Autumn bed
Depth (m)
Bedrock (%)
Alkalinity (mg/L)
Cobble (%)
Gravel (%)
Gravel (%)
Latitude
Latitude
Longitude
Latitude
Longitude
Macrophyte cover3
Stream order
Mark II
Spring edge
Spring pool
Autumn edge
Autumn pool
Alkalinity (mg/L)
Cobble (%)
Cobble (%)
Number of habitats
Latitude1
Latitude1
1
Longitude
Longitude
Slope (m/m)
Soil class4
Stream order
Water temperature (C)
Range in wet season; monthly
rainfall means (mm) (WETR)
Decimal degrees.
(reflow) 1: some part of water body flowing; 2: No flowsurface area <100 m2; 3: No flowsurface area >100 m2.
Measured in the habitat: 0: none (0%); 1: little (1-30%); 2: moderate (31-70%); 3: extensive (>70%).
Number of substrate categories in reach (bedrock, boulder, cobble, pebble, gravel, and silt/clay7 categories in total).
Page 173
Family
Porifera
Hydrozoa
Hydrozoa
Temnocephalidea
Turbellaria
Nemertea
Nematoda
Nematomorpha
Tardigrada
Rotifera
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Bivalvia
Bivalvia
Bivalvia
Bivalvia
Hirudinea
Hirudinea
Hirudinea
Hirudinea
Hirudinea
Hirudinea
Oligochaeta
Polychaeta
Arachnida
Anostraca
Conchostraca
Cladocera
Ostracoda
Copepoda
Branchiura
Amphipoda
Amphipoda
Amphipoda
Amphipoda
Amphipoda
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Porifera
Hydridae
Clavidae
Temnocephalidea
Dugesiidae
Nemertea
Nematoda
Nematomorpha
Tardigrada
Rotifer
Viviparidae
Hydrobiidae
Bithyniidae
Thiaridae
Lymnaeidae
Ancylidae
Planorbidae
Physidae
Neritidae
Gastropoda
Hyriidae
Corbiculidae
Sphaeriidae
Bivalvia
Glossiphoniidae
Ozobranchidae
Richardsonianidae
Ornithobdellidae
Erpobdellidae
Hirudinea
Oligochaeta
Polychaeta
Acarina
Anostraca
Conchostraca
Cladocera
Ostracoda
Copepoda
Branchiura
Talitridae
Ceinidae
Eusiridae
Corophiidae
Paramelitidae
Stratiomyidae
Empididae
Dolichopodidae
Syrphidae
Sciomyzidae
National
taxon code
IA999999
IB019999
IB029999
IF499999
IF619999
IH999999
II999999
IJ999999
IR999999
JZ999999
KG019999
KG029999
KG039999
KG049999
KG059999
KG069999
KG079999
KG089999
KG109999
KG999999
KP019999
KP029999
KP039999
KP999999
LH019999
LH029999
LH039999
LH049999
LH059999
LH999999
LO999999
LP999999
MM999999
OD999999
OF999999
OG999999
OH999999
OJ999999
OK999999
OP019999
OP029999
OP039999
OP059999
OP069999
QD249999
QD359999
QD369999
QD439999
QD459999
Order
Family
Amphipoda
Isopoda
Isopoda
Isopoda
Isopoda
Decapoda
Decapoda
Decapoda
Decapoda
Decapoda
Crustacea
Collembola
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Neuroptera
Neuroptera
Neuroptera
Zygoptera
Zygoptera
Melitidae
Cirolanidae
Sphaeromatidae
Janiridae
Oniscidae
Atyidae
Palaemonidae
Parasticidae
Sundathelphusidae
Grapsidae
Crustacea
Collembola
Microsporidae
Carabidae
Haliplidae
Hygrobiidae
Noteridae
Dytiscidae
Gyrinidae
Hydrophilidae
Hydraenidae
Staphylinidae
Scirtidae
Elmidae
Limnichidae
Heteroceridae
Psephenidae
Ptilodactylidae
Chrysomelidae
Brentidae
Curculionidae
Coleoptera
Tipulidae
Tanyderidae
Blephariceridae
Chaoboridae
Dixidae
Culicidae
Ceratopogonidae
Simuliidae
Thaumaleidae
Psychodidae
Athericidae
Tabanidae
Osmylidae
Neurorthidae
Sisyridae
Coenagrionidae
Isostictidae
National
taxon code
OP099999
OR129999
OR139999
OR189999
OR259999
OT019999
OT029999
OV019999
OX519999
OX619999
OZ999999
QA999999
QC039999
QC059999
QC069999
QC079999
QC089999
QC099999
QC109999
QC119999
QC139999
QC189999
QC209999
QC349999
QC359999
QC369999
QC379999
QC399999
QCAH9999
QCAM9999
QCAN9999
QCZZ9999
QD019999
QD039999
QD049999
QD059999
QD069999
QD079999
QD099999
QD109999
QD119999
QD129999
QD229999
QD239999
QN039999
QN049999
QN059999
QO029999
QO039999
Order
Family
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Diptera
Ephemeroptera
Ephemeroptera
Ephemeroptera
Ephemeroptera
Ephemeroptera
Ephemeroptera
Ephemeroptera
Hymenoptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Mecoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Megaloptera
Megaloptera
Ephydridae
Muscidae
s-f Aphroteniinae
s-f Diamesinae
s-f Telmatogetoninae
s-f Podonominae
s-f Tanypodinae
s-f Orthocladiinae
s-f Chironominae
Chironomidae (unid.)
Diptera
Baetidae
Ameletopsidae
Leptophlebiidae
Ephemerellidae
Caenidae
Prosopistomatidae
Ephemeroptera
Hymenoptera
Mesoveliidae
Hebridae
Hydrometridae
Veliidae
Gerridae
Saldidae
Nepidae
Belostomatidae
Ochteridae
Gelastocoridae
Corixidae
Naucoridae
Notonectidae
Pleidae
Hemiptera
Nannochoristidae
Pyralidae
Lepidoptera
Corydalidae
Sialidae
National
taxon code
QD789999
QD899999
QDAA9999
QDAB9999
QDAC9999
QDAD9999
QDAE9999
QDAF9999
QDAJ9999
QDAZ9999
QDZZ9999
QE029999
QE049999
QE069999
QE079999
QE089999
QE099999
QE999999
QG999999
QH529999
QH539999
QH549999
QH569999
QH579999
QH609999
QH619999
QH629999
QH639999
QH649999
QH659999
QH669999
QH679999
QH689999
QHZZ9999
QK019999
QL019999
QL999999
QM019999
QM029999
Page 175
Order
Family
Zygoptera
Zygoptera
Zygoptera
Zygoptera
Zygoptera
Zygoptera
Anisoptera
Anisoptera
Anisoptera
Anisoptera
Anisoptera
Zygoptera
Anisoptera
Plecoptera
Plecoptera
Plecoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Trichoptera
Unidentified
Protoneuridae
Lestidae
Hypolestidae
Megapodagrionidae
Synlestidae
Diphlebidae
Aeshnidae
Gomphidae
Petaluridae
Corduliidae
Libellulidae
Zygoptera
Anisoptera
Eustheniidae
Gripopterygidae
Plecoptera
Hydrobiosidae
Glossosomatidae
Hydroptilidae
Philopotamidae
Hydropsychidae
Polycentropodidae
Ecnomidae
Psychomyiidae
Tasimiidae
Conoesucidae
Antipodoeciidae
Helicopsychidae
Calocidae/Helicophidae
Philorheithridae
Odontoceridae
Atriplectidae
Calamoceratidae
Leptoceridae
Dipseudopsidae
Trichoptera
Unidentified
National
taxon code
QO049999
QO059999
QO069999
QO079999
QO089999
QO099999
QO129999
QO139999
QO159999
QO169999
QO179999
QO999997
QO999998
QP019999
QP039999
QP999999
QT019999
QT029999
QT039999
QT049999
QT069999
QT079999
QT089999
QT099999
QT139999
QT159999
QT169999
QT179999
QT189999
QT219999
QT229999
QT239999
QT249999
QT259999
QT269999
QT999999
XX999999
Glossary
Abiotic
Absorption
In chemistry: penetration of one substance into the body of another. In biology: the act of
absorbing (i.e. to take in as fluids or gases through a cell membrane). To take a
substance (e.g. water, nutrients) into the body through the skin or mucous membranes
or, in plants, through root hairs. See also Adsorption.
Acidic
Acid-soluble metal
The concentration of a metal that passes through a 0.45 micron (m) membrane filter
after the sample is acidified to pH 1.52.0 with nitric acid.
Sulfides in sediment that liberate hydrogen sulphide on reaction with cold dilute acid
(mainly FeS or MnS in sediments).
Acute toxicity
Rapid adverse effect (e.g. death) caused by a substance in a living organism. Can be
used to define either the exposure or the response to an exposure (effect).
Adsorption
Aerobic
Algae
Alkalinity
The quantitative capacity of aqueous media to react with hydroxyl ions. The equivalent
sum of the bases that are titratable with strong acid. Alkalinity is a capacity factor that
represents the acid neutralising capacity of an aqueous system.
Ambient waters
Anaerobic
Conditions where oxygen is lacking (anoxic); organisms not requiring oxygen for
respiration.
Analyst
Analytes
Antagonism
A phenomenon in which the effect or toxicity of a mixture of chemicals is less than that
which would be expected from a simple summation of the effects or toxicities of the
individual chemicals present in the mixture.
Anthropogenic
Aquatic ecosystem
Any watery environment from small to large, from pond to ocean, in which plants and
animals interact with the chemical and physical features of the environment.
Aquifer
An underground layer of permeable rock, sand or gravel that absorbs water and allows it
free passage through pore spaces.
Assimilation
Assimilative capacity
The maximum loading rate of a particular pollutant that can be tolerated or processed by
the receiving environment without causing significant degradation to the quality of the
ecosystem and hence the environmental values it supports.
Baseline data
Benthic
Benthos
The sum total of organisms living in, or on, the sediments of aquatic habitats.
Bioaccumulation
Bioassay
A test that exposes living organisms to several levels of a substance that is under
investigation, and evaluates the organisms responses.
Bioavailable
The fraction of the total of a chemical in the surrounding environment that can be taken
up by organisms. The environment may include water, sediment, soil, suspended
particles, and food items.
Page 177
The decrease in oxygen content in mg/L of a sample of water in the dark at a certain
temperature over a certain of period which is brought about by the bacterial breakdown of
organic matter. Usually the decomposition has proceeded so far after 20 days that no
further change occurs. The oxygen demand is measured after five days (BOD5), at which
time 70% of the final value has usually been reached.
A unitless value describing the multiple by which a chemical can be concentrated in the
tissues of an organism in the aquatic environment. At apparent equilibrium during the
uptake phase of a bioconcentration test, the BCF is the concentration of a chemical in
one or more tissues of the aquatic organisms divided by the average exposure
concentration in the test.
The variety of life forms, including the plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes
they contain and the ecosystems and ecological processes of which they are a part.
Biofilm
Biological assessment
Use and measurement of the biota to monitor and assess the ecological health of an
ecosystem.
Biological community
Biomagnification
Biomass
The living weight of a plant or animal population, usually expressed on a unit area basis.
Biosolids
Biota
Bioturbation
Bivalve
Bloom
An unusually large number of organisms per unit of water, usually algae, made up of one
or a few species.
Buffer
A solution containing a weak acid and its conjugate weak base, the pH of which changes
only slightly on the addition of acid or alkali.
Buffering capacity
Degrees Celsius.
Carcinogen
Catchment
The total area draining into a river, reservoir, or other body of water.
The amount of oxygen required to oxidise all organic matter that is susceptible to
oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant.
Chlorination
Chronic
Chronic value
The geometric mean of the lower and upper limits obtained from an acceptable chronic
test or by analysing chronic data using a regression analysis. A lower chronic limit is the
highest tested concentration that did not cause an unacceptable amount of adverse effect
on any of the specified biological measurements, and below which no tested
concentration caused unacceptable effect. An upper chronic limit is the lowest tested
concentration that did cause an unacceptable amount of adverse effect on one or more
biological measurements and above which all tested concentrations also caused such an
effect.
Colloid
Material in solution typically 1 nm100 nm in diameter. Colloidal particles do not settle out
of solution through the force of gravity. Organic colloidal matter is considered especially
important in the transport of inorganic substances such as P through the soil profile.
Community
Community composition
Community metabolism
Community structure
All the types of taxa present in a community and their relative abundances.
Compliance
Concentration
Scientific data evaluated to derive the recommended quality of water for different uses.
Cyanobacteria
Cytotoxic
Decision criteria
Criteria by which decisions will be made as a result of monitoring for potential impacts.
Depuration
Process whereby the re is elimination of contaminant from the tissues when an organism
is surrounded by uncontaminated water or sediment; also used to describe the use of a
controlled aquatic environment to reduce the level of pathogenic organisms that may be
present in live shellfish prior to marketing.
Detection limit
Detritus
Unconsolidated sediments composed of both inorganic and dead and decaying organic
material.
Dinoflagellates
Major class of marine algae that move by flagella. They are often red in colour, and can
produce strong toxins that can kill many fish and other marine organisms.
A laboratory procedure for quantifying the potential toxicity of a sample of effluent through
exposing a range of test specimens to that effluent. It assesses the toxicity of mixtures of
bioavailable chemicals rather than individual chemicals. Also known as Whole Effluent
Toxicity (WET) testing.
Diurnal
Daily.
Dose
EC50
Effect size
The size of impact that would cause concern (or constitute an early warning). Often
defined as a level of (ecological) change that is acceptable in comparison to a defined
reference.
Effluent
A complex waste material (e.g. liquid industrial discharge or sewage) discharged into the
environment.
Electrical conductivity
End-points
Endemic, endemism
Enterococci
Any streptococcal bacteria normally found in the human intestinal tract; usually nonpathogenic.
Environmental authority or
development approval
Environmental values
Particular values or uses of the environment that are important for a healthy ecosystem
or for public benefit, welfare, safety or health and that require protection from the effects
of pollution, waste discharges and deposits. Several environmental values may be
designated for a specific water body.
Ephemeral stream
A stream that carries water only during or immediately after periods of rainfall.
Epilimnion
Epilithon
Epiphyte
A plant that grows on the outside of another plant, using it for support only and not
obtaining food from it.
Eukaryotes
Page 179
Euphotic
Of surface waters to a depth of approximately 80100 m; the lit region that extends
virtually from the water surface to the level at which photosynthesis fails to occur because
of reduced light penetration.
Euryhaline
Describes organisms that are capable of osmoregulating over a wide range of salinities.
Eutrophic
Abundant in nutrients and having high rates of productivity frequently resulting in oxygen
depletion below the surface layer of a water body.
Eutrophication
Fate
Flocculation
The process by which suspended colloidal or very fine particles coalesce and
agglomerate into well-defined hydrated floccules of sufficient size to settle rapidly.
The stirring of water after coagulant chemicals have been added to promote the
formation of particles that will settle.
Flow-through system
An exposure system for aquatic toxicity tests in which the test material solutions and
control water flow into and out of test chambers on a once-through basis either
intermittently or continuously.
Fouling
Gastropod
A mollusc of the class Gastropoda, with a locomotive organ placed ventrally (e.g. snail
and limpet).
Groundwater
Water stored underground in rock crevices and in the pores of geologic materials that
make up the earth's crust; water that supplies springs and wells. See also Aquifer.
These are the concentrations (or loads) of the key performance indicators measured for
the ecosystem, below which there exists a low risk that adverse biological (ecological)
effects will occur. They indicate a risk of impact if exceeded and should trigger some
action, either further ecosystem specific investigations or implementation of
management/remedial actions.
Habitat
The place where a population (e.g. human, animal, plant, microorganism) lives and its
surroundings, both living and non-living.
Half-life
Time required to reduce by one-half the concentration of a material in a medium (e.g. soil
or water) or organism (e.g. fish tissue) by transport, degradation, transformation or
depuration.
Hardness
The concentration of all metallic cations, except those of the alkali metals (e.g. sodium
and potassium), present in water. In general, hardness is a measure of the concentration
of calcium and magnesium ions in water and is frequently expressed as mg/L calcium
carbonate equivalent.
Hazard
Trigger values that have a higher degree of confidence because they are derived from an
adequate set of chronic toxicity data and hence require less extrapolation from the data
to protect ecosystems.
Humic substances
Organic substances only partially broken down that occur in water mainly in a colloidal
state. Humic acids are large-molecule organic acids that dissolve in water.
Hydrolysis
Hydrophilic
Hydrophobic
Having little or no affinity for water, repels or does not absorb water.
Hypolimnion
The region of a water body that extends from below the thermocline to the bottom of the
lake; it is thus removed from much of the surface influence.
The formation of an acid and a base from a salt by the ionic dissociation of water.
The decomposition of organic compounds by interaction with water.
Hypothesis
Supposition made from known facts as a starting point for further investigation.
Hypoxia
Indicator
A parameter that can be used to provide a measure of the quality of water or the
condition of an ecosystem.
Inorganic carbon
Generally, simple ions and molecules that contain carbon bonded only to inorganic
atoms. Carbonates are the most common group, although the cyanide ion is also
considered to be inorganic.
Intermittent stream
A stream that carries water a considerable portion of the time, but that ceases to flow
occasionally or seasonally because bed seepage and evapotranspiration exceed the
available water supply.
Interstitial
Occurring in interstices or spaces; applied to water and to flora and fauna living between
sand grains and soil particles.
Invertebrates
In vitro
Ion
LC100
LC50
(or median lethal concentration) The concentration of material in water that is estimated
to be lethal to 50% of the test organisms. The LC50 is usually expressed as a timedependent exposure value, e.g. 24-hour or 96-hour LC50, the concentration estimated to
be lethal to 50% of the test organisms after 24 or 96 hours of exposure.
LD50
(or median lethal dose) The dose of material that is estimated to be lethal to 50% of the
test organisms. Appropriate for use with test animals such as rats, mice and dogs, it is
rarely applicable to aquatic organisms because it indicates the quantity of a material
introduced directly into the body by injection or ingestion rather than the concentration of
the material in water in which aquatic organisms are exposed during toxicity tests.
Leachate
Water that has passed through a soil and that contains soluble material removed from
that soil.
Lethal
Causing death by direct action. Death of aquatic organisms is the cessation of all visible
signs of biological activity.
Level of protection
A level of quality desired by stakeholders and implied by the selected management goals
and water quality objectives for the water resource.
Life-cycle study
A chronic (or full chronic) study in which all the significant life stages of an organism are
exposed to a test material. Generally, a life-cycle test involves an entire reproductive
cycle of the organism.
Live weight
LOEC
(or lowest observed effect concentration) The lowest concentration of a material used in a
toxicity test that has a statistically significant adverse effect on the exposed population of
test organisms as compared with the controls.
LOEL
(or lowest observed effect level) The lowest concentration that produces an observable
effect in a test species. Below this concentration there are no observed effects in the test
species.
Trigger values that have a low degree of confidence because they are derived from an
incomplete data set. They are derived using either assessment factors or from modelled
data using the statistical method. They should only be used as interim indicative working
levels.
Macrophyte
A member of the macroscopic plant life of an area, especially of a body of water; large
aquatic plant.
Median
Mesotrophic
Water bodies or organisms which are intermediate between nutrient-rich and nutrientpoor.
Metabolite
Mixing zones
An explicitly defined area around an effluent discharge where effluent concentrations may
exceed guideline values and therefore result in certain environmental values not being
protected. The size of the mixing zone is site-specific.
Page 181
Trigger values that have a moderate degree of confidence because they are derived from
an adequate set of acute toxicity data and hence require more extrapolation than high
reliability trigger values, including an acute-to-chronic conversion.
Neurotoxin
NOEC
The ratio of a chemical's solubilities in n-octanol and water at equilibrium. Kow is used as
an indication of a chemical's propensity for bioconcentration by aquatic organisms where
n-octanol is a surrogate for typical animal lipid. The symbol Pow is sometimes used in
place of Kow but they are alternative names for the same equilibrium solubility ratio.
Oligotrophic
Organic carbon
Generally carbon which is chemically bonded to other carbon atoms, although methane
(one carbon atom only) and its derivatives are considered organic.
Organism
Osmoregulation
The biological process of maintaining the proper salt concentration in body tissues to
support life.
Osmosis
Oxidation
The combination of oxygen with a substance, or the removal of hydrogen from it or, more
generally, any reaction in which an atom loses electrons.
Oxygenation
PAH
Parameter
Partition coefficient
A ratio of the equilibrium concentration of the chemical between media, for example,
between a non-polar and polar solvent, or between air and water, or water and sediment.
Pathogen
Pelagic
Term applied to organisms which inhabit the open seas and oceans.
Percentile
Periphyton
Pesticide
pH
Value that represents the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution. It is defined as the
negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution.
Photodegradation
Photolysis
The decomposition of a compound into simpler units as a result of the absorption of one
or more quanta of radiation.
Photosynthesis
Physico-chemical
Refers to the physical (e.g. temperature, electrical conductivity) and chemical (e.g.
concentrations of nitrate, mercury) characteristics of water.
Phytoplankton
Phytotoxicity
Plankton
Pollution
The introduction of unwanted components into waters, air or soil, usually as a result of
human activity, e.g. hot water in rivers, sewage in the sea, oil on land.
Highly toxic and persistent compounds derived from the replacement of numerous H
radicals by Cl radicals on biphenyl, which consists of two benzene rings joined by a
covalent bond, with the elimination of two H radicals (C12H10).
Potable water
Water suitable, on the basis of both health and aesthetic considerations, for drinking or
culinary purposes.
The best level achievable among laboratories within specified limits during routine
laboratory operations. The PQL represents a practical and routinely achievable detection
level with a relatively good certainty that any reported value is reliable. The PQL is often
around five times the method detection limit.
Precipitation
The formation of solid particles in a solution; generally, the settling out of small
particles.
The settling-out of water from cloud, in the form of rain, hail, snow, etc.
Primary production
Producers
Organisms that are able to build up their body substance from inorganic materials.
Prokaryotes
Protocol
A formally agreed method and procedure for measuring an indicator; it defines the
sampling, sample handling and sample analysis procedures.
Protozoans
The implementation of checks on the success of quality control (e.g. replicate samples,
analysis of samples of known concentration).
Redox potential
Reference condition
Release of water
Water freed from a site for specified purposes such as disposal. May occur by means of
infrastructure such as a constructed channel or pipe, or by a natural flow pathway such
as an overland gully or drainline.
Residence time
The period of time that a volume of liquid (and any associated contaminants) remains in a
waterway, catchment system, creek bed, or a part thereof.
Salinity
Sediment
Unconsolidated mineral and organic particulate material that settles to the bottom of
aquatic environment.
Water that occupies the space between particles in a sediment, as distinct from overlying
water which is the water above the sediment layer.
Sewage fungus
A thick filamentous bacterial growth that develops in water contaminated with sewage.
The filamentous material is composed predominately of the bacterium Sphaerotilus
natans.
The maximum concentration of contaminant in irrigation water which can be tolerated for
a shorter period of time (20 years) assuming the same maximum annual irrigation loading
to soil as for the long-term trigger value.
Sodicity
The presence of a high proportion of sodium ions relative to other cations in a soil.
Sorption
Process whereby contaminants in soils adhere to the inorganic and organic soil particles.
Speciation
The distribution of an element among defined chemical forms, for example, valency or
organic and inorganic forms.
Species
A group of organisms that resemble each other to a greater degree than members of
other groups and that form a reproductively isolated group that will not produce viable
offspring if bred with members of another group.
Species richness
This is insoluble material which resides in the water column, or is dispersed in a sample
upon agitation.
Sub-lethal
Supersaturation
Refers to a solution containing more solute than equilibrium conditions will allow.
Page 183
Synergism
A phenomenon in which the effect or toxicity of a mixture of chemicals is greater than that
to be expected from a simple summation of the effects or toxicities of the individual
chemicals summation of the effects or toxicities of the individual chemicals present in the
mixture.
Teratogen
Thermotolerant coliforms
Threshold concentration
A concentration above which some effect (or response) will be produced and below
which it will not.
Total metal
The concentration of a metal in an unfiltered sample that is digested in strong nitric acid.
Toxicant
Toxicity
Toxicity test
The means by which the toxicity of a chemical or other test material is determined. A
toxicity test is used to measure the degree of response produced by exposure to a
specific level of stimulus (or concentration of chemical).
Trigger values
These are the concentrations (or loads) of the key performance indicators measured for
the ecosystem, below which there exists a low risk that adverse biological (ecological)
effects will occur. They indicate a risk of impact if exceeded and should trigger some
action, either further ecosystem-specific investigations or implementation of
management/remedial actions.
Volatile
Scientific data evaluated to derive the recommended quality of water for various uses.
Wastewater
Water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence such as use
in a washing, flushing, or manufacturing process.
Watertable
The level of groundwater; the upper surface of the zone of saturation for underground
water.
Xenobiotic
A foreign chemical or material not produced in nature and not normally considered a
constituent of a specified biological system. This term is usually applied to manufactured
chemicals.
Zooplankton
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