A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON

ADVANCED MAINTENANCE OF RAIL TRACTION

USING MAGNETIC LEAKAGDE FLUX
TECHNIQUE
By
Kiran D. Chavanke
Under the guidance of
Prof. Shraddha Vinchurkar
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Department of Electrical Engineering

SANDIP FOUNDATIONS
SANDIP INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT
Trimbak Road, Post Mahiravani,, Nashik, Maharashtra 422213

2014-15
1

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar entitled ADVANCED MAINTENANCE OF RAIL
TRACTION USING MAGNETIC LEAKAGE FLUX is a bonafide record of
the seminar done by Miss. KIRAN D. CHAVANKE under my supervision and guidance, in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Electrical Engineering from Sandip Institute of Engineering & Management, Nashik for the
year 2014.

Prof. Shraddha Vinchurkar

(Guide)
Asst. Professor
Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Engineering

PROF. H. R KULKARNI
Professor & Head
Dept. of Electrical Engineering

Internal Examiner
Asst. Professor
Dept. of Electrical

Department seal

Place: Nashik

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all those who gave
me support and helped me in understanding the subject and finally to
complete my seminar successfully.
A special thanks to my seminar guide, Prof.Shraddha Vinchurkar, who
have given his/her full effort in guiding me in understanding my seminar as
well as his encouragement to maintain our progress and also for helping,
stimulating suggestions and encouraging, to coordinate my seminar and
successfully concluding it as this report.
I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of
the head of department, Prof. H.R Kulkarni, who gave the permission to
use all required facilities available in the department.

Kiran D. Chavanke

Date:

ABSTRACT

Asynchronous induction motors are actually the

most used in rail vehicle traction chains. Although
more reliable and robust than dc motors, they are
vulnerable to insulation failures, particularly in dirty
environments.
The dirt accumulated inside motors is one the
main
causes
of
insulation
failure.
Excessive
accumulation of dirt blocks in ventilation vents and
motor air gap may lead to overheating and, in severe
cases, abrasion of the insulation. Taking advantage of
the peculiarities of environmental rail dirt (dirt with a
high concentration of ferromagnetic particles), a new
predictive technique has been developed which is
able to detect the presence of excessive motor dirt in
operating conditions.
This new technique to determine the degree of
contamination in the motor air gap is based on the
measurement of magnetic leakage flux and its
subsequent analysis in the frequency domain. The
results of the technique make it possible to detect
dirt accumulations early, before breakdown occurs
and without the need to stop the machine.
Index TermsAC motors, insulation, magnetic field
measurement,
predictive control, rail transportation reliability

CONTENTS

Chapter No

TITLE

Page no

INTRODUCTION
1.1 AC motor
1.2 Magnetic field measurement

Study of contamination
2.1 Behavior in external field
2.2 measuring the PQ index
2.3 Disturbances to the magnetic field

11

Magnetic flux frequency spectrum

3.1 frequencies generated by
stator current
3.2 frequencies generated by
rotor current
3.3 flux spectra
3.4 frequencies to be studied in
empirical models

16

Experimental statically correlations

4.1 study of all the motor type
using fundamental harmonic
4.2 statically study
4.3 study of frequencies

20

Test result

26

Conclusion

28

CHAPTER NO. 1
INTRODUCTION
THE RAILWAY traction motor is a fundamental part of the cars
of a railway system, and it is considered to be critical equipment in the
latter. The insulation system in any electric railway traction motors is the one
that is most prone to aging or damage. Various studies carried out [1], [2] have
demonstrated that 35% of failures occurring are due to problems arising in the stator
insulation system which degenerate into short circuits. It can be seen therefore that
winding failures, particularly stator windings, have a considerable influence on the life of
the traction motor.

Fig. 1. Accumulated dirt in the stator

In the special case of underground railway operations, the
surrounding environment has certain peculiarities with respect to other
types of railway operations. One of the characteristics of metropolitan
rail distinguishing it from long-distance rail is the fact that most of the
travel is into tunnels. The drawback of tunnels is the gradual
accumulation of dirt which eventually gets into critical parts of
vehicles. Detecting dirt in the motors, mainly in the air gap, is of vital
importance when it comes to optimizing maintenance and increasing
the useful life of motors.

1.1 AC MOTOR
Diagrams - Basic Stator and Rotor Operation

An AC Motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy. An AC Motor

uses alternating current - in other words, the direction of current flow changes
periodically. In the case of common AC that is used throughout most of the United States,
the current flow changes direction 120 times every second. This current is referred to as
"60 cycle AC" or "60 Hertz AC" in honor of Mr. Hertz who first conceived the AC
current concept. Another characteristic of current flow is that it can vary in quantity. For
example, the flow can occur in 5 amp, 10 amp or 100 amp. It would be rather difficult for
the current to be flowing at say 100 amps in a positive direction one moment and then
flow at an equal intensity in the negative direction. Instead, as the current is getting ready
to change directions, it tapers off until it reaches zero flow and then gradually builds up in
the other direction. The maximum current flow (the peaks of the line) in each direction is
more than the specified value (100 amps in this case). Therefore, the specified value is
given as an average. What is important to remember is that the strength of the magnetic

field, produced by an AC electro-magnetic coil, increases and decreases with the increase
and decrease of this alternating current flow.
1.1.1

Basic AC Motor Operation.

An AC motor has two basic electrical parts: a "stator" and a "rotor" as shown in Figure 8.
The stator is in the stationary electrical component. It consists of a group of individual
electro-magnets arranged in such a way that they form a hollow cylinder, with one pole
of each magnet facing toward the center of the group. The term, "stator" is derived from
the word stationary. The stator then is the stationary part of the AC motor. The rotor is the
rotating electrical component. It also consists of a group of electro-magnets arranged
around a cylinder, with the poles facing toward the stator poles. The rotor is located
inside the stator and is mounted on the AC motor's shaft. The term "rotor" is derived from
the word rotating. The rotor then is the rotating part of the AC motor. The objective of
these motor components is to make the rotor rotate which in turn will rotate the motor
shaft. This rotation will occur because of the previously discussed magnetic phenomenon
that unlike magnetic poles attract each other and like poles repel. If you progressively
change the polarity of the stator poles in such a way that their combined magnetic field
rotates, then the rotor will follow and rotate with the magnetic field of the stator.

As shown in Figure 9, the stator has six magnetic poles and the rotor has two poles. At
time 1, stator poles A-1 and C-2 are north poles and the opposite poles, A-2 and C-1, are
south poles. The S-pole of the rotor is attracted by the two N-poles of the stator and the
two south poles of the stator attract the N-pole of the rotor. At time 2, the polarity of the
stator poles is changed so that now C-2 and B-1 and N-poles and C-1 and B-2 are Spoles. The rotor then is forced to rotate 60 degrees to line up with the stator poles as
shown. At time 3, B-1 and A-2 are N. At time 4, A-2 and C-1 are N. As each change is
made, the opposite poles on the stator attract the poles of the rotor. Thus, as the magnetic
field of the stator rotates, the rotor is forced to rotate with it.

1.2 MAGNETIC FEIELD MEASURMENT

Magnetic field strength is measured using a variety of different
technologies. Each technique has unique properties that make it more suitable for
particular applications. These applications can range from simply sensing the presence or
change in the field to the precise measurements of a magnetic fields scalar and vector
properties. A very good and exhaustive fundamental description of both mechanical and
electrical means for sensing magnetic fields can be found in Lion [1]. Less detailed but
more up-to-date surveys of magnetic sensor technologies can be found in [2, 3]. It is not
possible to adequately describe all of these technologies in the space available in a
Handbook. This chapter concentrates on sensors that are commonly used in magnetic
field measuring instruments. As shown in Figure 1.2.1, magnetic field sensors can be
divided into vector component and scalar magnitude types. The vector types can be
further divided into sensors that are used to measure low fields (<1 mT) and high fields
(>1 mT). Instruments that measure low fields are commonly called magnetometers. Highfield instruments are usually called gauss meters.

FIGURE 1.2.1 Magnetic field sensors are divided into two categories based on their
field Lengths and measurement range: magnetometers measure low fields and gauss
meters measure high fields.
The induction coil and fluxgate magnetometers are the most widely used vector
measuring instruments. They are rugged, reliable, and relatively less expensive than the
other low-field vector measuring instruments. The fiber optic magnetometer is the most
recently developed low-field instrument. Although it currently has about the same
sensitivity as a fluxgate magnetometer, its potential for better performance is large. The
optical fiber magnetometer has not yet left the laboratory, but work on making it more
rugged and field worthy is under way. The superconducting quantum interference device
(SQUID) magnetometers are the most sensitive of all magnetic field measuring
instruments. These sensors operate at temperatures near absolute zero and require special
thermal control systems. This makes the SQUID based magnetometer more expensive,
less rugged, and less reliable. The Hall effect device is the oldest and most common highfield vector sensor used in gauss meters. It is especially useful for measuring extremely
high fields (>1 T). The magneto resistive sensors cover the middle ground between the
low- and high-field sensors. Anisotropic magneto resistors (AMR) are currently being
used in many applications, including magnetometers. The recent discovery of the giant
magneto resistive (GMR) effect, with its tenfold improvement in sensitivity, promises to
be a good competitor for the traditional fluxgate magnetometer in medium-sensitivity
applications.

10

The proton (nuclear) precession magnetometer is the most popular instrument

for measuring the scalar magnetic field strength. Its major applications are in geological
exploration and aerial mapping of the geomagnetic field. Since its operating principle is
based on fundamental atomic constants, it is also used as the primary standard for
calibrating magnetometers. The proton precession magnetometer has a very low sampling
rate, on the order of 1 to 3 samples per second, so it cannot measure fast changes in the
magnetic field. The optically pumped magnetometer operates at a higher sampling rate
and is capable of higher sensitivities than the proton precession magnetometer, but it is
more expensive and not as rugged and reliable. Table 1.2.1 lists various magnetic field
strength instruments and their characteristics.

CHAPTER NO. 2
STUDY OF THE CONTAMINATION
The feasibility of detecting contaminated motors by the
measurement of leakage flux is highly dependent on the magnetic
properties of the materials accumulated in the motor air gap. If this
accumulation of contaminants had a diamagnetic behavior, the
presence or absence of contaminants in the motor air gap will be of
negligible influence and very possibly undetectable with available
measuring instruments. Thus, before proceeding to the inevitable

11

experimental phase, it is essential to question the technical feasibility

of the method that it is sought to apply.
Many contaminated motors of the same type were
observed by some of the authors (a set of more than 90 motors of 445
V and 150 kW, which work in a large metropolitan underground
transportation network) studying the visual and physical properties of
the contamination present. The dirt usually takes the form of a
compact layer with a thickness of several millimeters, at the bottom of
the stator. This solid layer is not easy to remove from the windings and
is formed by dry grease, part of which comes from the motors own ball
bearings
(see Fig. 1).
Although there was no exhaustive analysis of the chemical
composition of the contaminants, such a level of detail is not needed.
In fact, all that was intended in this phase of the research work was to
determine whether there are physical reasons suggesting that the
presence of contamination will disturb the magnetic flux sufficiently to
be detected. Therefore, in principle, a qualitative and macroscopic
study of the possible
source of the contamination is sufficient, as well as an estimation of its
magnetic properties.
Study of the environmental conditions of a railway running
into a tunnel, along with its operating conditions and the actual physics
of wheelrail contact, revealed some initial plausible hypotheses
concerning the constituent parts of the contaminant
aggregate. These hypotheses are summarized in the following points.
1) Ventilation. Even where there are forced ventilation systems to
renew the air in the tunnels, the absence of high speed air currents
leads to heavy concentrations of dust in the tunnel.
2) Associated mechanism. Rail systems require vehicles with a high
starting torque, so the electric traction motor is coupled to a gearbox
which compensates the limitations on the starting torque of
asynchronous induction motors. The gearbox has its own lubricating
oil, and sometimes, because of hermetic failures in the coupling seals,
small amounts of lubricating oil can flow from the gearbox to the
motor.
3) Rail effect. The wheelrail system is formed by two metallic
elements in permanent contact, so a minimal lubrication is a condition
needed for avoiding serious problems of overheating, planes, fissures,
seizure, etc.
12

The lubricant used is grease of characteristics adequate to

the operating conditions. This grease is supplied through greasers
which can be installed on the vehicle itself, on the track, or both.
Excess of grease is accumulated on the track and projected from the
wheels onto other elements under the rail vehicle frame. In the specific
case of traction motors, surplus grease is projected onto the motor
housing and accumulates close to the motor cooling air input vents.
The area of the motor housing is hot so that the grease viscosity is
reduced, and this reduced viscosity allows the grease to flow into the
motor, aided by the suction caused by the motor ventilation.
Thus, the accumulated contamination can be described as a
homogeneous mass of grease and dust which is dried and solidified by
the temperature to form the compact layers seen when the motors are
opened during their periodic inspections.
To date, however, no link has been established between the
composition of the contamination and its magnetic properties. The key
to discovering this relation is in the source of the grease accumulated
inside the motor. As explained in the third hypothesis, this grease
comes from wheelrail contact when it is thrown onto the motor
housing. In other words, it is used grease and so shall contain micro
particles from wheelrail wear. Both of these elements are steel, so
these particles must be of ferromagnetic nature, meaning that the
used grease willbe more sensitive to magnetism than new grease. To
check.

13

Fig. 2.1. Movement of contaminant particles in the presence of

magnetic fields
the sensitivity of the contamination to the magnetic fields and validate
the hypotheses raised, the two following tests were performed.
2.1 Behavior in External Fields
This experiment is designed to confirm the presence of
ferromagnetic particles in contamination residues found and to observe
its behavior in weak magnetic fields created by a small permanent
magnet.
This was done by collecting various samples of contamination
from different motors. Where necessary, they were subjected to a
drying process so that the residue obtained was dry. This process was
necessary because some samples were greasy in appearance. When
dried, the oily base of the grease is liquefied and leaves a residue. If
this is not done, the effects of the viscosity and adherence of the
grease make it impossible to perceive displacements in weak magnetic
fields.
They were placed on a horizontal surface, and a small
permanent magnet was passed over the samples, crumbled into small
lumps 2 or 3 mm in diameter. The lumps were seen to move, following
the movements of the magnet (see Fig. 2.1).

14

This simple experiment confirmed the presence of magnetic

particles in the contamination samples; however, was the presence of
these particles sufficient to alter the flux appreciably? The need for a
quantitative experiment was clear.
2.2 Measuring the PQ Index
Unlike concentration (usually measured in parts per million or
ppm), the Particle Quantifier index is a non dimensional value which
indicates the amount of magnetic particles in a sample [3]. In general
terms, this value is calculated according to the relative magnetic
permeability of the sample. The PQ index is not sensitive to particles of
less than 5 m or more than 500 m.
However, its non dimensional nature gives it the advantage
that it provides values, which are easily comparable. The PQ index is
part of a technique which is very generalized in predictive
maintenance based on lubricant analysis because it is sensitive to the
size of the particles which occur in the wear processes in machinery,
such as internal combustion alternating motors, gear sets, bearings,
etc. High PQ values point to
excessive lubricant contamination caused by ferrous particles, the
main cause of which is the premature wear of elements in contact in
these machines (normally made of steel).
Given that the contamination samples to be analyzed are
magnetic as a consequence of the wear particles from wheelrail
contact, it can be expected that the samples PQ index will be high.
Thus, samples were prepared for analysis; equal quantities of
contaminants were dissolved in 30 ml of neutral soapy solution. This
has to be done to break down the lumps of grease and try to
homogenize the samples as much as
possible, to avoid false PQ meter readings.
As already pointed out, one of the main benefits of the PQ
index is because it is non dimensional and it is easy to compare. To
correctly evaluate the degree of magnetic particle contamination, the
values given in Table I were obtained from the contaminant samples
with typical PQ index values for lubricant oils from one-stage
gearboxes of a 150-kW power motor in various states; compare those
values with the PQ typical value found for dirt in the air gap of an
underground traction motor. Because the quantity of ferromagnetic
particles present in the contamination samples taken from the motor
air gap is sufficiently high, there are reasonable indications to think
that disturbances in the magnetic flux can be measured, analyzed, and
detected using the technique that measures the radial leakage flux.
15

This technique involves situating a field explorer coil on the motor

housing on a line parallel to the motor rotation axis. The following is a
discussion on how to perform this analysis and detection.
2.3 Disturbances
Contamination

to

the

Magnetic

Field

Caused

by

Fig. 3. Magnetic leakage flux spectrum.

The presence of dirt in the motor air gap provides a medium
whose magnetic permeability differs significantly from that of the
vacuum (air). While full resolution of the Maxwell equations for variable
fields in time using numeric methods would solve the problem of
defining the magnetic flux that would pass through the explorer coil,
the problem is extremely complex for a number of reasons.
First of all, the problem cannot be simplified by applying
some form of symmetry because the contamination fundamentally
gets into the area of the coil head (axial symmetry is lost) and is
spread along a variable azimuth (transversal) angle that is unknown
and not homogeneous. In other words, the thickness of the layer of dirt
is not constant nor in an axial direction or in an azimuth direction. This
would make it necessary to simulate a 3-D problem on a computer in

16

unknown outline conditions, which may make interpretation of the

results extremely difficult. Another unknown factor is the magnetic
permeability of the contamination. This value may vary greatly, as it
depends on the ferric particle content of the dirt. The difficulty arising
from this uncertainty is in the interpretation of results. If, during a test,
an intense variation of the magnetic flux occurs and it is interpreted as
contamination, it would not be possible to decide whether the variation
is due to excessive dirt with a moderate composition of ferric particles
or to a small amount of contamination but with a high concentration of
magnetic
particles.
A possible solution must be explored to offer an approximate
solution to the problem of detecting the contamination in the motor air
gap. This new solution has been obtained through a large number of
tests in the frequency domain which have been
run on a large number of motors.

fig. measuring PQ index

CHAPTER NO. 3

17

MAGNETIC FLUX FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

Flux spectra are highly complex (see Fig. 3), and the
fundamental problem is to identify the frequencies most sensitive to
the presence of contaminants. To do this, the significant differences will
be examined between the spectra for clean and for dirty motors.
However, are variations in flux caused by the presence of
contaminants sufficiently large to be detected? It is well known that the
magnetic induction field _B has its origin in electric currents. When
these currents are sinusoidal, of frequency , the magnetic induction
field generated will also be of the same frequency.
The value of the previous integral is a scalar, a numerical
quantity, demonstrating that, if the magnetic induction field is
sinusoidal of a given frequency , then the magnetic flux will also be
sinusoidal for that same frequency. It can therefore be concluded that
each peak seen in the flux spectrum has its origin in an electric current
of the same frequency.
According to the above, the next step is to determine which
currents may be present in the induction machine in the conditions in
which the test was conducted, and the knowledge of the frequencies of
these currents will give the key to determining
the relevant frequencies.
The basic operational principle of a three-phase asynchronous
induction (squirrel cage) motor is to create a rotary sinusoidal
magnetic field using windings fitted in a given form, into which a rotor
is immersed formed by a set of interconnected conductor rods [5].
Because they are immersed in a variable magnetic field, a difference of
potential is generated between the ends of the rods (FaradayLenzs
law). Being interconnected, current is able to flow, with the result that
there is a current in a magnetic field. A transversal force appears
immediately on the rods carrying the current, which gives rise
to motor torque.
Therefore, in the case of an induction motor, two sources can
be distinguished for the currents responsible for the formation of
magnetic flux: the currents from the stator generating the rotating
magnetic field and the currents induced in the rotor, which are
responsible for the creation of the motor torque.
3.1 Frequencies Generated by Stator Currents

18

The current in the stator windings is fundamentally the current

of the supply mains. The three-phase industrial electrical network (in
Europe, 400 V50 Hz) has minimum harmonic content, so a Fourier
development of it would give a single predominant peak (precisely 50
Hz).
However, the tests were not done with this power supply but with an
electronic frequency variator at a fundamental frequency of 80 Hz. This
frequency was used as supply because the measurements were done
simultaneously with other tests performed during the repairing of the
trains. In the real situation, the frequency variator used supplies a
large quantity of harmonics which could not be discarded, meaning
that these
harmonics circulate in the stator coils and so generate magnetic flux
precisely at those frequencies. In other words, using a frequency
variator makes the study more difficult because of the introduction of
numerous harmonics of the supply frequency in the flux spectra. Thus,
in the test conditions, the stator is a source of magnetic flux, at the
multiples of the supply frequency: fL, 2 fL, 3 fL, . . .
3.2 Frequencies Generated by Rotor Currents
Two types of currents generated in the rotor conductors can be
distinguished: 1) those induced directly by FaradayLenzs law, already
discussed (these currents must necessarily be of the same frequency
as those of the stator inducing them), and 2) the
other currents that are circulating, associated with the rotation speeds
of the mechanical elements connected.
The set of rotor bars and the two short-circuit rings can be
considered to be a succession of closed coils arranged successively. It
is known that, when current flows through one coil within a magnetic
field, a magnetic moment _M is created depending on the spiral
geometry and the current flowing through it only.
The mechanical torque _M0 appearing on this coil when it is
submerged inside a magnetic field is given by the expression _
M0 = _M _B . (4)

19

Fig. 3.2.1. Layout of the traction motor in the rail bogie

studied.
In summary, the mechanical torque arising depends on the coil
geometry, the current flowing through it, and the magnetic induction
field in which it is immersed. the test is under way, the motor is
running a complete shaft of wheels through a gearbox submitted to a
pneumatic braking (see Fig. 3.2.1). The systems mechanical
imbalances generate oscillations in the mechanical torque precisely at
the rotation frequencies of the elements which are rotating. Because
there is a gearbox in the center of the kinematic chain, there are two
different speeds: the rotation speed of the gearbox input shaft
(approximately 1600 r/min or 26.6 Hz) and the rotation speed of the
output shaft (232 r/min or approximately 3.8 Hz).
In other words, the motor is driving elements which create
oscillating resistive torque at frequencies of 26 and 3.8 Hz
approximately. To overcome this resistive torque, currents must be
induced in the rotor at the same frequencies at which the resistive
torque drives; otherwise, the magnetic moment necessary to
counteract the resistive torque would not be generated. In fact, taking
modules in the vectors in (4) would give
M0 = M B sen (5)
where is the angle formed by vectors _M and _B . Replacing Mby (3),
finally, it is obtained

20

M0 = I |_S| B sen. (6)

If a condition is established that M0 shall pulse at given frequencies,
there is no alternative other than to induce a current I at that same
frequency because _B only has components of the supply current
harmonics. Then, independently of the currents induced by the stator
currents, there are other currents induced by the resistive torque of the
mechanical elements coupled to the motor. The frequencies of these
currents are 26.6 and
3.8 Hz. The magnitude of these currents is relatively high because they
shall overcome the forces at which the motor is subjected during the
test that runs at 50% of the nominal load. These sufficiently high flux
values are associated with these frequencies to be able to detect
anomalies between dirty and clean motors.
3.3 Flux Spectra: Appearance of Modulations
When Fast Fourier Transform is applied to obtain the flux
spectrum in the frequency domain based on the temporary waveform,
very often, the low frequencies do not appear isolated but as
modulations on higher frequencies. This is referred to as sideband
appearance.
For example, consider a signal formed by the superposition of a wave
of 100 Hz and another of 2 Hz. If moved to the frequency domain, it is
possible to see them as two independent peaks and, also, as the
appearance of 2-Hz-wide sidebands around a main peak of 100 Hz. In
other words, a main peak occurs at 100 Hz, and other smaller ones
occur at 102, 104, 106, . . . and at 98, 96, 94, . . ..
This happens when electrical high frequencies are
superimposed on mechanical frequencies, which are usually low
frequencies.
3.4 Frequencies to Be Studied in Empirical Models
Throughout the previous considerations, the frequencies which
are expected in the magnetic flux spectrum have been determined
during the motor operating condition tests
in which flux was measured. These frequencies were as follows:
1) supply frequency and harmonics: fL, 2 fL, 3 fL, . . .;
2) frequency associated with motor rotation speed: fms = (2/p) fL,
where p is the number of motor poles;
3) frequency associated with wheel shaft rotation speed: fws = (2/p)
fL (Z1/Z2), where Z1/Z2 is the transmission ratio in the gearbox;
21

4) modulations of motor rotation speed on the supply frequency: fL n

fms, where n = 1, 2, . . .;
5) modulations of wheel shaft rotation speed on the supply frequency:
fL n fws, where n = 1, 2, . . ..
If the accumulated contamination affects the flux, these effects shall
be felt first on all those frequencies, which are the ones which
contribute to the greatest degree to the total
flux.
It must be taken into account that these same frequencies
could also appear even if the motor is perfectly clean. These harmonics
are always expected in the magnetic flux spectrum in dirty and clean
motors since they are due to phenomena such as the motors own
stator eccentricity, nonuniform air gap, rotor eccentricity, rotor
unbalance, residual unbalances in the mechanical coupled to the
motor, etc. However, the presence of contamination in the motor
generates a change in the amplitude of the magnetic flux spectrum of
these frequencies, and the presence of these variations in amplitude is
compared to the clean state which is to be detected. Therefore, the
variable used for the diagnosis of the state of contamination in the
motor is the difference in the amplitude, measured in decibels,
between each of the harmonic analyzed and the supply frequency
(fL).
The methodology used for this detection is based on the
application
of statistical techniques on measurements performed over a
representative number of motors, and confidence intervals for the
relative difference in the amplitude of the characteristic harmonics of
the motor between clean and dirty motors
have been established.

CHAPTER NO. 4
EXPERIMENTAL STATISTICAL CORRELATIONS
4.1 Study of all the Motor Types Using Fundamental Harmonics
The starting point for this study was the definition of the
cleanness index, defined as a value between 1 and 5, with value 1 for
very dirty motors and value 5 for clean motors. The specific
peculiarities of each train circulation line mean that, following a

22

complete maintenance cycle of 600 000 km, there are cases of clean
and dirty motors. Fig. 5 shows examples of motors with different
cleanness indices.
A study is to be made with all the motors, from type 1 (the
dirtiest) to type 5 (the cleanest), with the aim of obtaining a statistical
model for each of the magnitudes of the flux harmonics to be studied.
The best way of detecting the behavior of each flux harmonic in clean
or dirty motors is to analyze the statistical distribution of each
harmonic. This statistical distribution is obtained from 90
measurements of motor flux.
In theoretical terms, greater accumulation of contamination will
modify more the magnetic permeability in the motor air gap and will
facilitate the path of the magnetic flux out of the machine. It is to be
expected that higher contamination levels will be associated with
higher flux leakage values in the most representative harmonics.
Because absolute flux values may vary widely depending on test
conditions, the differences of
magnitudes were studied between the fundamental harmonic, in
general the largest, and each of the harmonics considered relevant.
The best way of finding out whether a value is high or not is to
compare it with its own statistical distribution, using percentiles [6],
[7].
The study has taken account only the harmonics most
representative of the motors studied, in the interval 01000 Hz, in
order to observe only the low-frequency phenomena and to limit the
model of the induction machine in the frequency domain to
resistances, inductances, currents, and tension sources [5]. It make no
sense to study noise, as has been seen in numerous studies of this
kind where it is not considered significant [8].
The harmonics considered relevant and which most varied
between clean and dirty motors were determined experimentally and
are as follows:
1) frequency of the first modulation ffm, defined as ffm = (2/p) [1
(Z1/Z2)] fL;
2) 2 fL + ffm;
3) 3 fL ffm;
4) 3 fL;
5) 5 fL ffm;
6) 5 fL. Differencess

23

Fig. 5. Visual classification of motors according to cleanness index:

From (top left) a very dirty one (type 1) to (bottom right) a clean one
(type 5).
Differences rather than absolute magnitudes were used
because this makes it possible to measure the evolution of the
harmonics independently of the load and the motor being studied.
It can be emphasized that it was observed experimentally that,
although working with the same motor, the level of the spectrum,
defined as the high or low level of the noise band in terms of
magnitude, varies greatly from one motor to another, irrespective of
the amount of dirt. Calculation of the statistical distributions of the
harmonics of interest requires prior transformation of the data, and
these transformations, along with
the form of distribution An attempt was made subsequently to seek a
relation between
these parameters and the clean or dirty state of the motor, based on
experimental and theoretical methods, for which the
following six parameters were defined:
24

1) 1, the percentile associated with the value measured for the

harmonic ffm, within its statistical distribution;
2) 2, percentile associated with the value measured for the harmonic
2 fL + ffm, within its statistical distribution;
3) 3, percentile associated with the value measured for the harmonic
3 fL ffm, within its statistical distribution;
4) 4, percentile associated with the value measured for the harmonic
3 fL, within its statistical distribution;
5) 5, percentile associated with the value measured for the harmonic
5 fL ffm, within its statistical distribution;
6) 6, percentile associated with the value measured for the harmonic
5 fL, within its statistical distribution. The experimental correlation
obtained among these parameters,
maximizing the probability of the correctness of the
mathematical model, is as follows:
K =2 1+2+2 (13)+4+(15)+2 (16).
A motor is considered as dirty ifK >4.4.

25

Fig. 6. Flowchart of criterion A.

The flowchart in Fig. 6 shows the process of diagnosis. The best
relation obtained was adequate for the 68% of dirty motors and for the
72% of clean motors. Because these results did not seem sufficiently
satisfactory, it was decided to seek other methods to enhance the
reliability of the diagnosis.
4.2 Statistical Study of All Types of Motors Using Frequencies
Related to Wheel Shaft Speeds
This study selected the frequencies related with the speeds at
which the wheel shafts rotated. Choice of these frequencies is not
arbitrary; rather, in these, significant peaks do appear.
This is because the resistive torque during the test is caused by
the braking of this shaft. The frequencies of interest are those
26

produced by the sidebands around the supply frequency, caused by

modulations of the wheel shaft. These sidebands have a separation
from the line frequency equal to the rotation speed of the output shaft.
As the motor is
coupled to a gearbox, the rotation speed (or wheel shaft rotation speed
fws) is
fws =
2
p
Z1
Z2
fL = fsb fL (8)
where p is the number of motor poles, Z1/Z2 is the transmission ratio
in the gearbox, fL is the line frequency, and fsb is the sideband
frequency.
The harmonics of use in constructing the diagnostic model are
the two bands on the left of the line frequency and the two sidebands
to the right. Table III shows the diagnosis criteria for dirty motors. The
necessary conditions to implement the process of these critical values
are explained in the flowchart in Fig. 7.
The criterion was able to be adequate for the 68% of clean motors and
for the 70% for dirty motors.

27

Fig. 7. Flowchart of criterion B.

4.3 Study of Frequencies Due to Shaft Speeds (Motor and
Between a Clean Model and Remaining Motors
Modulations were selected for the study on the line frequency
caused by themotor rotation speed (two bands on each side) and those
created by the wheel shaft rotation speed (also two bands on each
side). A clean motor model is established in this section, comprising
the values of the differences from the fundamental and each of the
eight peaks associated with the frequencies referred to formed by the
mean of all the type 5 motors.

28

The eight harmonics selected for this study are as follows:

1) two sidebands related to the rotation speed of the motorfm = (1
(2/p)) fL (1 s) (
2) six sidebands related to the wheel shaft rotation speed fw =(1 n
(Z1/Z2) (2/p)) fL (1s) where n=1, 2, 3.
For each harmonic, the difference between the amplitude of the
harmonic and the line frequency fL for each measurement made to
clean motors has been calculated. The value of xi is defined as the
median of the sample of measures xi = med (|fi fL|) . (11)
In this way, the vector X = [x1, x2, . . . , x8] representative of a pattern
of behavior for clean motors is obtained.
With this model and all the motors, the correlation coefficient is
established, thus giving a value of so much per one, meaning that,
when there is a significant linear relation between motors, the value is
closer to one [6], [7].
Let X = [x1, x2, . . . , x8] be the values of the harmonics of the
model for clean motors and Y = [y1, y2, . . . , y8] be the values of the
flux harmonics of the motor that it wished to analyze. Then, the
correlation coefficient [9], [10] is calculated
using the known expression.
xy = Cov(X,Y )
x y
where Cov(X, Y ) is the covariance between X and Y and x and y are
the typical deviations of X and Y . With the characteristic statistical
measurements, differences are observed between dirty and clean
motors so that, as in the preceding studies, a criterion is established
which indicates whether the motor is dirty or clean. The criterion is as
follows.
1) If the correlation coefficient between the model and the
measurements of the motor under analysis is less than 0.632, then the
motor is dirty.
2) If the correlation coefficient between the model and the
measurements of the motor under analysis is equal to or more than
0.632, then the motor is clean. The steps necessary to implement the
process are explained in the flowchart in Fig. 8.
With this condition, the degree of correctness is something over 51%
for dirty motors and 73% for those which are clean. While these
percentages are low, the strength of the method is in the combination
of the three methods described.

29

CHAPTER NO. 5
TEST RESULTS
Each of the three aforementioned studies classifies the motors
as dirty or clean. Table IV shows the summary of the diagnosis criteria.
Because none of the studies guarantees 100%, it may turn out that
one method defines the motor as clean while another classify it as
dirty, and this is in fact relatively common. To overcome this problem,
it is understood that if two or more studies find that a motor is dirty or
clean, it will be taken as such. In these conditions, the percentages are
better than with separate studies. The success rate is 82% for clean
motors and
73% for dirty motors.

30

Fig. 8. Flowchart of criterion C.

While not being perfect, these results open the way for a new
methodology for detecting dirt in railway traction motors using
predictive techniques in maintenance of these motors. The aim of just
intervening in those motors with a major level of dirt is achieved with
the doubt remaining that, if the degree of dirtiness was not high, it
would have been possible to have continued for more time without
requiring any intervention. We have obtained [11] that the application
of this methodology to the maintenance of these types of motors has
led to financial savings of approximately 10% and a reduction in the
so-called catastrophic failures by nearly 60%.

31

\CHAPTER NO 6
CONCLUSION
Traction motors of railway vehicles gradually accumulate dirt and
contamination in the air gap. Given the special characteristics of this
dirt, which contains iron particles from the wheelrail contact, the
deposit of this dirt of high magnetic permeability modifies the
magnetic flux in the motor, and therefore, the leakage flux will be
affected.
32

The method has been enabled over 90 motors to verify the existence
of the relationship between the state of the motor (clean/dirty) and the
magnetic leakage flux. The study analyzes the components on
frequency of the leakage flux, provides the harmonics that are the
most sensitive to the accumulation of contamination, and describes
diagnosis criteria based on the amplitudes of these harmonics. These
harmonics are related to the supply frequency of the motor, the
number of poles, and the transmission ratio in the gearbox, as well as
modulations between them.
Application of the developed diagnosis method has reached good
results in terms of the success rate: 73% for dirty motors and 82% for
clean motors. The advantage of this method with respect to other tests
to determine the state of dirtiness lies in the fact that the motor can
work in normal conditions when data are being collected.
This clearly leads to improved motor availability. By using radial
leakage flux to determine the amount of dirt in a motor, it is possible to
improve costs relating to maintenance and improve the ratios of
availability and reliability, those due to periodic checks on the one
hand (only dirty ones are opened up) and, on the other hand, those
due to catastrophic failures and the possibility of avoiding them. These
measurements on
the assembled train may serve as the basis for future online
maintenance, extracting information about the unit in service and in
commercial operations that will subsequently be passed on to a
maintenance server.
The limitation of this method for its application beyond the rail
industry is that it cannot be used for nonmagnetic contaminants.
However, the fact that it can be applied without having to stop the
machines and without modifying the operating conditions converts this
method into a tool of the greatest interest in avoiding catastrophic
breakdowns.

33